KINEMATICS

Mechanics — the study of relationships among force, matter, and motion

Kinematics — the part of mechanics that describes motion

1 1-D Kinematics
VELOCITY

• Average x−velocity, vav−x — displacement along the x−axis ∆x divided by the time
interval ∆t of the displacement. It is taken to be within some given spatial and temporal
interval.
∆x x2 − x1
vav−x = = (1)
∆t t2 − t1
• Instantaneous x−velocity, vx — the velocity at a specific instant of time or specific point
along the path. It is taken to be a non-zero value (limit) of the average acceleration as the
time interval gets smaller and smaller, approaching to but not equal to zero.
∆x dx
vx = lim =⇒ vx = (2)
∆t→0 ∆t dt

Table 1: Sign conventions for vav−x and vx

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ACCELERATION

• Average x−acceleration, aav−x — change in velocity along the x−axis ∆vx divided by the
time interval ∆t. It is taken to be within some given spatial and temporal interval.
∆vx vx − vx1
aav−x = = 2 (3)
∆t t2 − t1

• Instantaneous x−acceleration, ax — the acceleration at a specific instant of time or

specific velocity along a path. It is taken to be the non-zero value (limit) of the average
acceleration as the time interval gets smaller and smaller, approaching to but not equal to
zero.
∆vx dvx d2 x
ax = lim =⇒ ax = =⇒ ax = 2 (4)
∆t→0 ∆t dt dt

Table 2: Sign conventions for aav−x and ax

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Example:

There is a robbery in a prestigious bank 70 m to your right. Luckily, a police car is stationed near
the bank, exactly 30 m from you to the right. At time t = 0 s, the thief got out of the bank and
the police officers start the pursuit. The police car’s position varies with time given by x(t) = 30 m
+(7.0 m/s2 )t2 . (a) Find the police car’s displacement during the interval 1.0 s to 4.0 s. (b) Find its
average velocity during this interval. (c) Find the car’s instantaneous velocity at t = 1.0 s by taking
the time interval to be approacing zero, that is, taking ∆t = 0.10 s, ∆t = 0.010 s, ∆t = 0.0010 s,
and so on.

Differentiating the position, we arrive at vx (t) = (14 m/s2 )t. (d) Find the average acceleration of the
car during the interval 1.0 s to 4.0 s. (e) Find the car’s instantaneous acceleration at t = 2.0 s by tak-
ing the time interval to be approacing zero, that is, taking ∆t = 0.10 s, ∆t = 0.010 s, ∆t = 0.0010 s,

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and so on.

Solution:

(a) Use ∆x = x2 − x1 to solve for the displacement. Given that,

x(t) = 30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )t2

then, at t1 = 1.0 s,

x(t = 1.0) = x1 = 30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(1.0 s)2

x1 = 37 m

and at t2 = 4.0 s,

x(t = 4.0) = x2 = 30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(4.0 s)2

x2 = 142 m

Using x1 and x2 ,

∆x = x2 − x1
∆x = 142 m − 37 m =⇒ ∆x = 105 m

(b) Use equation (1) to find the average velocity of the car:

∆x x2 − x1 [30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(4.0 s)2 ] − [30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(1.0 s)2 ]
vav−x = = = =⇒ vav−x = 35 m/s
∆t t2 − t1 4.0 s − 1.0 s
(c) Use equation (2) to find the instantaneous velocity as the time interval approaches zero. At the
interval ∆t = 0.10 s, we know that t1 = 1.0 s and t2 = 1.1 s. Taking the average velocity within this
interval, we have,

∆x [30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(1.1 s)2 ] − [30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(1.0 s)2 ]
vav−x = = =⇒ vav−x = 14.7 m/s
∆t 0.10 s
Next, taking the time interval to be smaller, that is ∆t = 0.010 s, we know that t1 = 1.0 s and
t2 = 1.01 s. Taking the average velocity within this interval,

∆x [30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(1.01 s)2 ] − [30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(1.0 s)2 ]
vav−x = = =⇒ vav−x = 14.07 m/s
∆t 0.010 s
Similarly, taking the time interval to be smaller, that is ∆t = 0.0010 s, we have t1 = 1.0 s and
t2 = 1.001 s. Taking the average velocity within this interval,

∆x [30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(1.001 s)2 ] − [30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(1.0 s)2 ]
vav−x = = =⇒ vav−x = 14.007 m/s
∆t 0.010 s
From the previous results, a pattern is obvious. If we take ∆t to be smaller and smaller, vav−x just
approaches the value of 14 m/s. Then we can say that the instantaneous velocity at t = 1.0 s is,
∆x
vx = lim = 14 m/s
∆t→0 ∆t

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(d) Using equation (3), we have,

∆vx vx − vx1 [(14 m/s2 )(4.0 s)] − [(14 m/s2 )(1.0 s)]
aav−x = = 2 = =⇒ aav−x = 14 m/s2
∆t t2 − t1 4.0 s − 1.0 s
(e) Using equation (4) and similar to what we did in (c), to find the instantaneous acceleration at
t = 2.0 s, we take ∆t → 0. That is, at the interval ∆t = 0.10 s, we have t1 = 2.0 s and t2 = 2.1 s.
Taking aav−x at this interval,

∆vx [(14 m/s2 )(2.1 s)] − [(14 m/s2 )(2.0 s)]

aav−x = = =⇒ aav−x = 14 m/s2
∆t 0.10 s
Next, at ∆t = 0.010 s, we have t1 = 2.0 s and t2 = 2.01 s. Then, taking aav−x at this interval,

∆vx [(14 m/s2 )(2.01 s)] − [(14 m/s2 )(2.0 s)]

aav−x = = =⇒ aav−x = 14 m/s2
∆t 0.010 s
Even without evaluating aav−x at ∆t = 0.0010 s, its obvious that the police car has constant
acceleration and that at t = 2.0 s, the police car’s acceleration is still,
∆vx
ax = lim = 14 m/s2
∆t→0 ∆t

Activity: (This is not recorded but I encourage you to try answering the following problems.)

1. The figure below is an x − t graph of the motion of a particle. (a) Rank the values of the
particle’s x−velocity vx at the points P, Q, R, and S from most negative to most positive. (b)
At which points is vx positive? (c) At which points is vx negative? (d) At which points is
vx zero? (e) Rank the values of the particle’s speed at points P, Q, R, and S from slowest to
fastest.

2. Draw the vx − t and ax − t graph of the x − t graph given below:

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MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

The simplest form of motion is a straight-line motion with constant acceleration. Such problems
posing this kind of motion can be solved using the following equations:

vx = v0x + ax t (5)
1
x = x0 + v0x t + ax t2 (6)
2
2 2
vx = v0x + 2ax (∆x) (7)
(v0x + vx )t
∆x = (8)
2
where vx and v0x = final and initial x−velocities, respectively, x and x0 = final and initial po-
sitions, respectively, ∆x = x − x0 , ax = x− acceleration, and t = time.

Example:

A motorist traveling at a constant 15 m/s passes a school crossing where the speed limit is 10
m/s. Just as the motorist passes the school-crossing sign, a police officer on a motorcycle stopped
there starts in pursuit with constant acceleration 3.0 m/s2 . (a) How much time elapses before the
officer passes the motorist? At that time, (b) what is the officer’s speed and (c) how far has each
vehicle traveled?

Solution:

The set-up looks like this:

Figure 1: Both the police and the motorist are travelling towards the +x−direction

(a) The elapsed time before the police officer completely passes the motorist is actually the time
when the positions of the police officer xp and the motorist xM are the same xp = xM . Find the

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time t from this equality.

1 ax t2
xp = x0p + v0xp t + axp t2 =⇒ xp = p
2 2
1
xM = x0M + v0xM t + axM t2 =⇒ xM = v0xM t
2
2
axp t
xp = xM =⇒ = v0xM t
2
2v0xM 2(15 m/s)
t= = =⇒ t = 10 s
axp 3.0 m/s2

(b) Use equation (5) to find the speed of the police officer at t = 10 s:

vxp = v0xp + axp t = 0 m/s + 3.0 m/s2 (10 s) =⇒ vxp = 30 m/s

(c) Use the equations in (a) to find how far has the police officer and the motorist travelled in
t = 10 s:
ax p t 2 (3.0 m/s2 )(10 s)2
xp = = =⇒ xp = 150 m
2 2
xM = v0xM t = (15 m/s)(10 s) =⇒ xM = 150 m

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FREELY FALLING BODIES

Free fall — motion of a body due to gravity

acceleration due to gravity: g = 9.8 m/s2

Since free fall is a motion due to a constant value of acceleration (g = 9.8 m/s2 ), we can use
equations (5), (6), (7), and (8) to solve problems involving this kind of motion.

Examples:

You throw a ball vertically upward from the roof of a tall building. The ball leaves your hand
at a point even with the roof railing with an upward speed of 15.0 m/s; the ball is then in free fall.
On its way back down, it just misses the railing. Find (a) the ball’s position and velocity 1.00 s and
4.00 s after leaving your hand; (b) the ball’s velocity when it is 5.00 m above the railing; (c) the
maximum height reached; (d) the ball’s acceleration when it is at its maximum height. (e) At what
time after being released has the ball in the previous example fallen 5.00 m below the roof railing?

Solution:

We will take the +y−direction to be the upward direction.

(a) Use equations (5) and (6) to find the ball’s velocity and position at t = 1.00 s and t = 4.00 s:

at t = 1.00 s,

1 (−9.80 m/s2 ) (1.00 s)2

y = y0 + v0y t + ay t2 = 0 + (15.0 m/s)(1.00 s) + =⇒ y = 5.20 m
2 2
vy = v0y + ay t = 15.0 m/s + −9.80 m/s2 (1.00 s) =⇒ vy = 10.1 m/s

at t = 4.00 s,

1 (−9.80 m/s2 ) (4.00 s)2

y = y0 + v0y t + ay t2 = 0 + (15.0 m/s)(4.00 s) + =⇒ y = −18.4 m
2 2
vy = v0y + ay t = 15.0 m/s + −9.80 m/s2 (4.00 s) =⇒ vy = −24.2 m/s

(b) Since the given quantity is y, the velocity will not be dependent of t. Use equation (7) to find
vy at y = 5.00 m.

vy 2 = v0y 2 + 2ay (∆y)

= (15.0 m/s)2 + 2 −9.80 m/s2 (5.00 m − 0)


q
vy = (15.0 m/s)2 − 2 9.80 m/s2 (5.00 m) =⇒ vy = 11.3 m/s

(c) Once again use (7) because the given quantity is vy = 0 at the max. height and the unknown

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quantity is the max. height ymax .

vy 2 = v0y 2 + 2ay (ymax )

vy 2 − v0y 2
ymax =
2ay
0 − (15.0 m/s)2
= =⇒ ymax = 11.5 m
−2 (9.80 m/s2 )
(d) A freely-falling object will always have an acceleration of ay = −9.8 m/s2 (if the +y−direction
is upward).

(e) Use equation (6) to find t when the ball is at y = −5.00 m.

1
y0 + v0y t + ay t2 = y
2
1 2
− ay t − v0y t + y = 0
2
Use the quadratic formula to solve t from the quadratic equation:
√
− B ± B 2 − 4AC
t=
v 2A !
u
u a y
v0y ± tv0y 2 − 4 − (y)
2
=
−ay
v !!
2
u
u 2 − 9.80 m/s
15.0 m/s ± t(15.0 m/s) − 4 − (−5.00 m)
2
=
− (−9.80 m/s2 )

t = 3.36 s , t = −0.303 s (will be discarded because of the inexistence of negative time)

2-D/3-D KINEMATICS
PROJECTILE MOTION
• Projectile — any body that is given an initial velocity and then follows a path determined
entirely by the effects of gravitational acceleration and air resistance
• Trajectory — the path followed by a projectile
Under projectile motion,

v0x = v0 cos α0 v0y = v0 sin α0 (9)

1
x = (v0 cos α0 )t y = (v0 sin α0 )t − gt2 (10)
2

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 vx = v0 cos α0 vy = v0 sin α0 − gt (11)

Example:

A batter hits a baseball so that it leaves the bat at speed v0 = 37.0 m/s at an angle a0 = 53.1◦ .
(a) Find the position of the ball and its velocity (magnitude and direction) at t = 2.00 s. (b) Find
the time when the ball reaches the highest point of its flight, and its height h at this time. (c) Find
the horizontal range R—that is, the horizontal distance from the starting point to where the ball
hits the ground—and the ball’s velocity just before it hits.

Solution:

(a) Use equation 25 to find the position r and velocity ~

v of the ball at t = 2.00 s:

x = (v0 cos α0 )t = (37.0 m/s) (cos 53.1◦ ) (2.00 s) =⇒ x = 44.4 m

1 2 ◦
(9.80 m/s2 ) (2.00 s)2
y = (v0 sin α0 )t − gt = (37.0 m/s) (sin 53.1 ) (2.00 s) − =⇒ y = 39.6 m
q 2 2
r= (44.4 m)2 + (39.6 m)2 =⇒ r = 59.5 m

v0x = v0 cos α0 = (37.0 m/s) (cos 53.1◦ ) =⇒ v0x = 22.2 m/s

v0y = v0 sin α0 = (37.0 m/s) (sin 53.1◦ ) =⇒ v0y = 29.6 m/s
vx = v0x =⇒ vx = 22.2 m/s, vy = v0y − gt = 29.6 − 9.80 m/s2 (2.00 s) =⇒ vy = 10.0


 
10.0
q
2 2
v = (22.2) + (10.0) =⇒ v = 24.4 , α = arctan =⇒ α = 24.2◦
22.2

(b) Use equation (26) for vy to find the time when the projectile is at its maximum height (vy = 0)
and then use the resulting time to compute for that maximum height using equation (25) for y:

v0y − vy 29.6
t= = =⇒ t = 3.02 s
g 9.80 m/s2

1
ymax = v0y t − gtymax 2
2
(9.80 m/s2 ) (3.02 s)2
= (29.6) (3.02 s) − =⇒ ymax = 44.7 m
2

(c) Use the fact that y = 0 at the origin (t = 0) and at x = R to solve for R.
 
1 2 1
v0y t − gt = 0 =⇒ t v0y − gt = 0
2 2

2v0y (2) (29.6)

t = 0, t= = =⇒ t = 6.04 s (These t values are when y = 0)
g 9.80 m/s2
x = R = v0x t = (22.2) (6.04 s) =⇒ R = 134 m

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Use the computed time to find the velocity of the projectile just before it hits the ground:

vy = v0y − gt = 29.6 − 9.80 m/s2 (6.04 s) =⇒ vy = −29.6

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