KINEMATICS

Prerequisites: vectors, differential calculus, integral calculus

Mechanics — the study of relationships among force, matter, and motion

Kinematics — the part of mechanics that describes motion

1 1-D Kinematics
VELOCITY

• Average x−velocity, vav−x — displacement along the x−axis ∆x divided by the time interval
∆t of the displacement. It is taken to be within some given spatial and temporal interval.
∆x x2 − x1
vav−x = = (1)
∆t t2 − t1

• Instantaneous x−velocity, vx — the velocity at a specific instant of time or specific point

along the path. It is taken to be a non-zero value (limit) of the average acceleration as the time
interval gets smaller and smaller, approaching to but not equal to zero.
∆x dx
vx = lim =⇒ vx = (2)
∆t→0 ∆t dt

Table 1: Sign conventions for vav−x and vx

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ACCELERATION

• Average x−acceleration, aav−x — change in velocity along the x−axis ∆vx divided by the
time interval ∆t. It is taken to be within some given spatial and temporal interval.
∆vx vx − vx1
aav−x = = 2 (3)
∆t t2 − t1

• Instantaneous x−acceleration, ax — the acceleration at a specific instant of time or specific

velocity along a path. It is taken to be the non-zero value (limit) of the average acceleration
as the time interval gets smaller and smaller, approaching to but not equal to zero.

∆vx dvx d2 x
ax = lim =⇒ ax = =⇒ ax = 2 (4)
∆t→0 ∆t dt dt

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 Table 2: Sign conventions for aav−x and ax

Example:

There is a robbery in a prestigious bank 70 m to your right. Luckily, a police car is stationed
near the bank, exactly 30 m from you to the right. At time t = 0 s, the thief got out of the bank
and the police officers start the pursuit. The police car’s position varies with time given by x(t) = 30
m + (7.0 m/s2 )t2 . (a) Find its average velocity during the interval 1.0 s to 4.0 s. (b) Derive an
expression for the police car’s instantaneous velocity as a function of time and use it to find vx at
t = 2.0 s and t = 10 s. (c) In an alternate universe, the known quantity in this problem is the
x−velocity of the police car varying with time given by vx (t) = α + βt2 + γt5 where α = 5.3 m/s,
β = 7.8 m/s3 , and γ = 9.0 m/s6 . Derive an equation for the car’s position as a function of time.
(d) Find the average acceleration of the car during the interval 1.0 s to 4.0 s. (e) Derive an expres-
sion for the car’s instantaneous acceleration and use the expression to find ax at t = 2.0 s and t = 10 s.

Solution:

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(a) Use equation (1) to find the average velocity of the car:

∆x x2 − x1 [30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(4.0 s)2 ] − [30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )(1.0 s)2 ]
vav−x = = = =⇒ vav−x = 35 m/s
∆t t2 − t1 4.0 s − 1.0 s

(b) Use the differential form of equation (2) to derive an expression for vx :

dx d
30 m + (7.0 m/s2 )t2 =⇒ vx = (14 m/s2 )t

vx = =
dt dt
it follows that, vx = (14 m/s2 )t at t = 2.0 s and t = 10 s will yield,

vx = 28 m/s
vx = 140 m/s ,

respectively.

dx
(c) Since the unknown quantity is x(t) and the given is vx (t) = dt
, evaluating the anti-derivative of
vx will yield xt :

dx
= α + βt2 + γt5
dt
dx = α + βt2 + γt5 dt


Z x(t) Z t Z t Z t
2
dx = α dt + β t dt + γ t5 dt
0 0 0 0
βt3 γt6
x(t) = αt + +
3 6
(7.8 m/s3 )t3 (9.0 m/s6 )t6
x(t) = (5.3 m/s)t + +
3 6

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 x(t) = (5.3 m/s)t + (2.6 m/s3 )t3 + (1.5 m/s6 )t6

(d) Use the results in (b) and equation (3) to find aavx :

∆vx v2x − v1x (14 m/s2 )(4.0 s) − (14 m/s2 )(1.0 s)

aavx = = = =⇒ aav−x = 14 m/s2
∆t t2 − t1 4.0 s − 1.0 s

(e) Use the result in (b) and equation (4) to derive an expression for ax :

dvx d 
14 m/s2 t =⇒ ax = 14 m/s2


ax = =
dt dt
It follows that the car is moving with a constant acceleration and that at t = 2.0 s and t = 10 s, the
x−acceleration is still ax = 14 m/s2 .

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Activity: (This is not recorded but I encourage you to try answering the following problems.)

1. The figure below is an x − t graph of the motion of a particle. (a) Rank the values of the
particle’s x−velocity vx at the points P, Q, R, and S from most negative to most positive. (b)
At which points is vx positive? (c) At which points is vx negative? (d) At which points is
vx zero? (e) Rank the values of the particle’s speed at points P, Q, R, and S from slowest to
fastest.

2. Draw the vx − t and ax − t graph of the x − t graph given below:

MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

The simplest form of motion is a straight-line motion with constant acceleration. Such problems
posing this kind of motion can be solved using the following equations:

vx = v0x + ax t (5)
1
x = x0 + v0x t + ax t2 (6)
2
2 2
vx = v0x + 2ax (∆x) (7)
(v0x + vx )t
∆x = (8)
2
where vx and v0x = final and initial x−velocities, respectively, x and x0 = final and initial posi-
tions, respectively, ∆x = x − x0 , ax = x− acceleration, and t = time.

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Example:

A motorist traveling at a constant 15 m/s passes a school crossing where the speed limit is 10
m/s. Just as the motorist passes the school-crossing sign, a police officer on a motorcycle stopped
there starts in pursuit with constant acceleration 3.0 m/s2 . (a) How much time elapses before the
officer passes the motorist? At that time, (b) what is the officer’s speed and (c) how far has each
vehicle traveled?

Solution:
The set-up looks like this:

Figure 1: Both the police and the motorist are travelling towards the +x−direction

(a) The elapsed time before the police officer completely passes the motorist is actually the time
when the positions of the police officer xp and the motorist xM are the same xp = xM . Find the time
t from this equality.

1 ax t2
xp = x0p + v0xp t + axp t2 =⇒ xp = p
2 2
1
xM = x0M + v0xM t + axM t2 =⇒ xM = v0xM t
2
2
axp t
xp = xM =⇒ = v0xM t
2
2v0xM 2(15 m/s)
t= = =⇒ t = 10 s
axp 3.0 m/s2

(b) Use equation (5) to find the speed of the police officer at t = 10 s:

vxp = v0xp + axp t = 0 m/s + 3.0 m/s2 (10 s) =⇒ vxp = 30 m/s

(c) Use the equations in (a) to find how far has the police officer and the motorist travelled in t = 10 s:

axp t2 (3.0 m/s)(10 s)2

xp = = =⇒ xp = 150 m
2 2
xM = v0xM t = (15 m/s)(10 s) =⇒ xM = 150 m

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FREELY FALLING BODIES

Free fall — motion of a body due to gravity

acceleration due to gravity: g = 9.8 m/s2

Since free fall is a motion due to a constant value of acceleration (g = 9.8 m/s2 ), we can use
equations (5), (6), (7), and (8) to solve problems involving this kind of motion.

Examples:

You throw a ball vertically upward from the roof of a tall building. The ball leaves your hand
at a point even with the roof railing with an upward speed of 15.0 m/s; the ball is then in free fall.
On its way back down, it just misses the railing. Find (a) the ball’s position and velocity 1.00 s and
4.00 s after leaving your hand; (b) the ball’s velocity when it is 5.00 m above the railing; (c) the
maximum height reached; (d) the ball’s acceleration when it is at its maximum height. (e) At what
time after being released has the ball in the previous example fallen 5.00 m below the roof railing?

Solution:

We will take the +y−direction to be the upward direction.

(a) Use equations (5) and (6) to find the ball’s velocity and position at t = 1.00 s and t = 4.00 s:

at t = 1.00 s,

1 (−9.80 m/s2 ) (1.00 s)2

y = y0 + v0y t + ay t2 = 0 + (15.0 m/s)(1.00 s) + =⇒ y = 5.20 m
2 2
vy = v0y + ay t = 15.0 m/s + −9.80 m/s2 (1.00 s) =⇒ vy = 10.1 m/s

at t = 4.00 s,

1 2 (−9.80 m/s2 ) (4.00 s)2

y = y0 + v0y t + ay t = 0 + (15.0 m/s)(4.00 s) + =⇒ y = −18.4 m
2 2
vy = v0y + ay t = 15.0 m/s + −9.80 m/s2 (4.00 s) =⇒ vy = −24.2 m/s

(b) Since the given quantity is y, the velocity will not be dependent of t. Use equation (7) to find vy
at y = 5.00 m.

vy 2 = v0y 2 + 2ay (∆y)

= (15.0 m/s)2 + 2 −9.80 m/s2 (5.00 m − 0)


q
vy = (15.0 m/s)2 − 2 (9.80 m/s2 ) (5.00 m) =⇒ vy = 11.3 m/s

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(c) Once again use (7) because the given quantity is vy = 0 at the max. height and the unknown
quantity is the max. height ymax .

vy 2 = v0y 2 + 2ay (ymax )

vy 2 − v0y 2
ymax =
2ay
0 − (15.0 m/s)2
= =⇒ ymax = 11.5 m
−2 (9.80 m/s2 )

(d) A freely-falling object will always have an acceleration of ay = −9.8 m/s2 (if the +y−direction is
upward).

(e) Use equation (6) to find t when the ball is at y = −5.00 m.

1
y0 + v0y t + ay t2 = y
2
1 2
− ay t − v0y t + y = 0
2
Use the quadratic formula to solve t from the quadratic equation:
√
− B ± B 2 − 4AC
t=
v 2A !
u
u a y
v0y ± tv0y 2 − 4 − (y)
2
=
−ay
v !!
2
u
u 2 − 9.80 m/s
15.0 m/s ± t(15.0 m/s) − 4 − (−5.00 m)
2
=
− (−9.80 m/s2 )

t = 3.36 s , t = −0.303 s (will be discarded because of the inexistence of negative time)

2-D/3-D KINEMATICS
POSITION, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION

Position vector, ~
r
~
r = xı̂ + y̂ + z k̂ (9)
p
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 (10)
x y  z 
θx = cos−1 θy = cos−1 θz = cos−1 (11)
r r r

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Average velocity vector, ~
vav
∆~
r r2 − ~
~ r1
~
vav = = (12)
∆t t2 − t1
Instantaneous velocity vector, ~
v

∆~
r d~
r
~
v = lim = (13)
∆t→0 ∆t dt

v = vx ı̂ + vy ̂ + vz k̂
~ (14)
p
v = vx 2 + vy 2 + vz 2 (15)
v  v  v 
x y z
αx = cos−1 αy = cos−1 αz = cos−1 (16)
v v v
for a velocity vector along the xy−plane only,
p
v= vx 2 + vy 2 (17)
vy
α= (18)
vx

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Average acceleration vector, ~
aav
∆~
v v2 − ~
~ v1
~
aav = = (19)
∆t t2 − t1
Acceleration vector, ~
a
∆~v d~v
~
a = lim = (20)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
~
a = ax ı̂ + ay ̂ + az k̂ (21)
p
a = ax 2 + ay 2 + az 2 (22)
a  a  a 
−1 x −1 y −1 z
βx = cos βy = cos βz = cos (23)
a a a

Example:

An alien from the Andromeda galaxy crash landed on Earth. It explored the planet using a
special boots with advanced technology. The wrecked spacecraft is the origin of coordinates, and
the surrounding surface lies in the xy−plane. The alien, which we represent as a point, has x−
and y−coordinates that vary with time given by x = 2.0 m − (0.25 m/s2 )t2 and y =(1.0 m/s)t +
(0.025 m/s3 )t3 . (a) Find the alien’s coordinates and distance from the lander at t = 2.0 s. (b) Find
the alien’s displacement and average velocity vectors for the interval t = 0.0 s to t = 2.0 s. (c)
Find a general expression for the alien’s instantaneous velocity vector ~ v . Express ~
v at t = 2.0 s in
component form and in terms of magnitude and direction. (d) Find the components of the average
acceleration for the interval t = 0.0 s to t = 2.0 s. (e) Find the instantaneous acceleration at t = 2.0 s.

Solution:

(a) Use the given x and y and the given t to find the coordinates and distance of the alien from its
origin:
x = 2.0 m − 0.25 m/s2 (2.0 s)2 =⇒ x = 1.0 m

y = (1.0 m/s) (2.0 s) + 0.025 m/s3 (2.0 s)3 =⇒ y = 2.2 m

p q
r = x2 + y 2 = (1.0 m)2 + (2.2 m)2 =⇒ r = 2.4 m

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(b) Use equation (12) to find ∆~
r and ~
vav with the use of the results in (a):

at t1 = 0,

x1 = 2.0 m, y1 = 0 m

at t2 = 2.0 s,

x2 = 1.0 m, y2 = 2.2 m

then,

∆~ r2 − ~
r=~ r1 = (1.0ı̂ + 2.2̂) − (2.0ı̂) m =⇒ ∆~
r = (−1.0ı̂ + 2.2̂) m
∆~
r (−1.0ı̂ + 2.2̂) m
~
vav = = =⇒ ~
vav = (−0.50ı̂ + 1.1̂) m/s
∆t 2.0 s

(c) Use equation (14) to find an expression for ~

v and use the expression to find ~
v at t = 2.0 s (in
component form and magnitude and direction):

dx dy
~
v = vx ı̂ + vy ̂ = ı̂ + ̂
dt dt
d  d 
2.0 m − 0.25 m/s2 t2 ı̂ + (1.0 m/s) t + 0.025 m/s3 t3 ̂



=
dt dt

v = − 0.50 m/s2 t ı̂ + 1.0 m/s + 0.075 m/s3 t2 ̂


 

~

at t = 2.0 s,

v = − 0.50 m/s2 (2.0 s) ı̂ + 1.0 m/s + 0.075 m/s3 (2.0 s)2 ̂


 

~
= (−1.0 m/s)ı̂ + (1.0 m/s) ̂ + (0.30 m/s) ̂ =⇒ ~
v = (−1.0 m/s)ı̂ + (1.3 m/s) ̂

q
vx 2 + vy 2 = (−1.0 m/s)2 + (1.3 m/s)2
p
v=
v = 1.6 m/s
!
1.3 m/s
α = arctan
−1.0 m/s
α = −52◦ =⇒ α = 128◦

v = 1.6 m/s, 128◦

~

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(d) Use equation (19) and the results in (c) to find the components of the average acceleration:

~
v at t = 2.0 s is given by ~
v2 = (−1.0 m/s)ı̂ + (1.3 m/s) ̂, then at at t1 = 0,

v1 = − 0.50 m/s2 (0) ı̂ + 1.0 m/s + 0.075 m/s3 (0) ̂


 

~
~
v1 = (1.0 m/s) ̂

It follows that,

(−1.0 m/s)ı̂ + (1.3 m/s) ̂ − (1.0 m/s) ̂

aav = −0.50 m/s2 ı̂ + 0.15 m/s2 ̂



~
aav = =⇒ ~
2.0 s
aav−x = −0.50 m/s2 , aav−y = 0.15 m/s2

(e) Use equation (21) and the result in (c) to find ~

a at t = 2.0 s:

dvx dvy
~
a = ax ı̂ + ay ̂ =⇒ ~
a= ı̂ + ̂
dt dt
d  d 
− 0.50 m/s2 t ı̂ + 1.0 m/s + 0.075 m/s3 t2 ̂



=
dt dt

a = −0.50 m/s2 ı̂ + 0.15 m/s3 t ̂


~
a = −0.50 m/s2 ı̂ + 0.15 m/s3 (2.0 s) ̂ =⇒ ~ a = −0.50 m/s2 ı̂ + 0.30 m/s2 ̂





~

PROJECTILE MOTION

• Projectile — any body that is given an initial velocity and then follows a path determined
entirely by the effects of gravitational acceleration and air resistance

• Trajectory — the path followed by a projectile

Under projectile motion,

v0x = v0 cos α0 v0y = v0 sin α0 (24)

1
x = (v0 cos α0 )t y = (v0 sin α0 )t − gt2 (25)
2

vx = v0 cos α0 vy = v0 sin α0 − gt (26)

Example:

A batter hits a baseball so that it leaves the bat at speed v0 = 37.0 m/s at an angle a0 = 53.1◦ .
(a) Find the position of the ball and its velocity (magnitude and direction) at t = 2.00 s. (b) Find
the time when the ball reaches the highest point of its flight, and its height h at this time. (c) Find
the horizontal range R—that is, the horizontal distance from the starting point to where the ball

13
hits the ground—and the ball’s velocity just before it hits.

Solution:

(a) Use equation 25 to find the position r and velocity ~

v of the ball at t = 2.00 s:

x = (v0 cos α0 )t = (37.0 m/s) (cos 53.1◦ ) (2.00 s) =⇒ x = 44.4 m

1 2 ◦
(9.80 m/s2 ) (2.00 s)2
y = (v0 sin α0 )t − gt = (37.0 m/s) (sin 53.1 ) (2.00 s) − =⇒ y = 39.6 m
q 2 2
r= (44.4 m)2 + (39.6 m)2 =⇒ r = 59.5 m

v0x = v0 cos α0 = (37.0 m/s) (cos 53.1◦ ) =⇒ v0x = 22.2 m/s

v0y = v0 sin α0 = (37.0 m/s) (sin 53.1◦ ) =⇒ v0y = 29.6 m/s
vx = v0x =⇒ vx = 22.2 m/s, vy = v0y − gt = 29.6 m/s − 9.80 m/s2 (2.00 s) =⇒ vy = 10.0 m/s


 
10.0 m/s
q
2 2
v = (22.2 m/s) + (10.0 m/s) =⇒ v = 24.4 m/s , α = arctan =⇒ α = 24.2◦
22.2 m/s

(b) Use equation (26) for vy to find the time when the projectile is at its maximum height (vy = 0)
and then use the resulting time to compute for that maximum height using equation (25) for y:

v0y − vy 29.6 m/s

t= = =⇒ t = 3.02 s
g 9.80 m/s2

1
ymax = v0y t − gtymax 2
2
(9.80 m/s2 ) (3.02 s)2
= (29.6 m/s) (3.02 s) − =⇒ ymax = 44.7 m
2

(c) Use the fact that y = 0 at the origin (t = 0) and at x = R to solve for R.
 
1 2 1
v0y t − gt = 0 =⇒ t v0y − gt = 0
2 2

2v0y (2) (29.6 m/s)

t = 0, t= = =⇒ t = 6.04 s (These t values are when y = 0)
g 9.80 m/s2
x = R = v0x t = (22.2 m/s) (6.04 s) =⇒ R = 134 m

Use the computed time to find the velocity of the projectile just before it hits the ground:

vy = v0y − gt = 29.6 m/s − 9.80 m/s2 (6.04 s) =⇒ vy = −29.6 m/s

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UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

There is a uniform circular motion when a particle moves in a circle at constant speed (but
changing direction so there must be an acceleration change all throughout the motion).

v2 4π 2 R
arad = = (27)
R T2
Example:

An Aston Martin V8 Vantage sports car has a “lateral acceleration” of 0.96g = (0.96)(9.8 m/s2 )
= 9.4 m/s2 . This is the maximum centripetal acceleration the car can sustain without skidding out
of a curved path. If the car is traveling at a constant 40 m/s (about 89 mi/h, or 144 km/h) on level
ground, what is the radius R of the tightest unbanked curve it can negotiate?

I’m pretty sure you can solve this without my assistance.

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