ICMESSI2020 Conference Proceeding

Conference Proceeding
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
MANAGEMENT, EDUCATION, SOCIAL
SCIENCES AND INNOVATION
(ICMESSI 2020)
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

11 July 2020
Asian Scholar Network (002903215-H)

eISBN: 978-967-17837-9-5
International Conference on Management, Education, Social Sciences and Innovation (ICMESSI 2020)
eISBN: 978-967-17837-9-5
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MANAGEMENT,

EDUCATION, SOCIAL SCIENCES AND INNOVATION
(ICMESSI 2020)
Copyright © 2020
Asian Scholars Network
All rights reserved. No part of this proceeding may be reproduced in any form, except for the
inclusion of brief quotations in review, without permission in writing from the author/
publisher.
eISBN: 978-967-17837-9-5
Published By:
Asian Scholars Network (002903215-H)
Selangor, Malaysia
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. A Brief Survey Of Meiji Slogan (Fukoku Kyohei) And Its Influence On The
Modernization Of Japan In The 19th Century ................................................................. 1
2. A Study On Students Perception Towards Online Classes And Effectiveness In
Enhancing Active Participation And Communication Skills ......................................... 13
3. Analysis Implementation Of Flood Control Strategy In Semarang City (Flood Control
Case Study In Semarang City) .......................................................................................... 21
4. Analysis Of Management Aspects Of E-Government Implementation In Salatiga City
.............................................................................................................................................. 27
5. Assessing The Relationships Between Information Seeking, Motives Of Using Social
Media, And Information Sharing On Haze And Air Pollution Among IIUM Students
.............................................................................................................................................. 33
6. Characterization Of Spherical Waste Crt Glass As Aggregates In Concrete .............. 51
7. Communication Of The Policy Implementation On Curriculum In At State Senior
High School 2 Rambang Kuang In Ogan Ilir District, South Sumatera Province ...... 62
8. Community Participation In Poor Population Data Collection ..................................... 68
9. Comparison Between Islamic And Non-Islamic Banks Ratios To Predict Amman
Stock Exchange Banking Index ........................................................................................ 75
10. Customer’s Satisfaction And Service Quality: A Study Of Simunjan District Office In
Sarawak ............................................................................................................................... 88
11. Ethical Decision-Making Of Malaysian Entrepreneur In Service Sector................... 100
12. Monetary Policy Transmission Mechanism: Evidence From Economic Community Of
West African States .......................................................................................................... 113
13. Policy Availability Resources In The Ordinances Distribution And Determination Of
Gampong Fund Details In Syamtalira Bayu District Of North Aceh Sub District .... 128
14. Role Of The Government In Shifting Economies Towards The Fourth Industrial
Revolution ......................................................................................................................... 134
15. Sick-Leave Due To Burnout Among Lecturers In Government-Linked Universities In
Malaysia ............................................................................................................................ 140
16. The Application Of Meta-Analytic SEM On Exploring Factors That Influence
Physicians’ Usage Of Electronic Medical Records ....................................................... 146
17. The Contributions Of Takaful Industry Towards Economic Growth, Savings And
Investment In Malaysia ................................................................................................... 155
18. The Effect Of Entrepreneurship Orientation On Entrepreneurial Intention Among
Undergraduate Students In Malaysia ............................................................................ 162
19. The Efforts To Maintain The Prosperous Justice Party Known As PKS Constituents
In 2019 Elections And PKS Party Future ...................................................................... 175
20. The Role Of Organizational And Individual Factors On Employee Pro-Environmental
Behaviour .......................................................................................................................... 183
21. The Use of Digital Mind Map to Stimulate Creativity and Critical Thinking in
Students’ Writing Course ................................................................................................ 197
22. Understanding The Implications Of Online Learning For EFL Students With
Different Learning Styles................................................................................................. 210
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23. Ironi Di Sebalik Perkhidmatan Pendermaan Ovum .................................................... 218

24. Kesan Rantaian Bekalan Sepanjang Perintah Kawal Pergerakan- Satu Ulasan ...... 225
25. Penerimaan Sistem Pembayaran Tanpa Tunai (RFID) Dalam Pembelian Dan
Pembayaran Di Pusat Beli Belah .................................................................................... 228
26. Resilien Dalam Kalangan Pelajar Sekolah Menengah Harian Luar Bandar Daerah
Segamat ............................................................................................................................. 238
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A Brief Survey Of Meiji Slogan (Fukoku Kyohei) And Its Influence

On The Modernization Of Japan In The 19th Century
Mohamad Firdaus1*
1
Department of History and Civilization, KIRKHS, International Islamic University Malaysia, Gombak, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: firdausmansor@iium.edu.my

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: This article analyses the acceptance of Fukoku Kyohei slogan (which means a
strong and prosperous nation) amongst the Japanese statesmen in the early and late Meiji
periods. This ideology connotes a sort of agenda in transforming the Japanese state into a
prosperous nation, strong army. This was evidently felt at least during the last years of
Shogunate administration as well in the early foundation of Meiji government since 1868
onwards. Retrospectively, the Japanese leaders found this ideology timely as they were aware
of increasing Western presence in the East Asian region. The study demonstrates that some of
Japanese leaders (Ito Hirobumi, Saigo Takamori and Kido Takayoshi to name a few) whom
later had paved the way for Meiji Restoration in 1868, realized the necessity for Japan to
transform itself into a modernized nation in order to contain the ever increasing Western
encroachment into their country that would safeguard the sovereignty of Japan. This was
realized undeniably by putting an end to the Bakufu administration in the hands of Meiji
reform-minded leadership key which paved the way for the creation of modern administrative,
political and economic changes in Japan as early as 1870s. Finally, it also analyses the
attitude of the some Meiji key figures towards the issue of modernization in Japan who were
found to be divided in their views and approaches towards achieving and realizing this
modernization agenda in Japan. In doing so, this study adopts the method of content analysis
by scrutinizing the scholarly works written by the Japanese scholars and Western writers alike
on the topic under study.
Keywords: Fukoku Kyohei, Meiji Restoration, Meiji figures

____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
The late 19th century witnessed steady Western presence in the East Asian region which
alarmed the Japanese leaders that the position of Japan as an independent and sovereign state
would be soon exposed to the Western expansionism in the region. It is safe to note that, in
context of this worrying situation, some far-sighted Japanese leaders had engineered the Meiji
Restoration in 1868 that replaced then the obsolete Bakufu administration with reform-minded
leadership under the tutelage of Meiji Emperor. For many, the Meiji Restoration has been
considered as a turning point in the Japanese history that provided a springboard for much
awaiting reforms in Japan. It seemed to the Japanese leaders that they should emulate the West
in whichever way possible while the other notable Japanese leaders who were essentially pro-
Bakufu faction looked this with scepticism. Nonetheless, the plan for modernization in Japan
was underway with the creation of a new leadership in Japan in the hands of prominent
Japanese figures like Ito Hirobumi, Saigo Takamori and Kido Takayoshi and few other able
Japanese leaders. In this regard, arguably, the drive towards modernization found its impetus in
a widely circulated ideology, known as Fukoku Kyohei. This ideology found its adherents
amongst the key leaders of the Meiji leadership as mentioned above.
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This ideology, arguably, becomes a rallying point for the Japanese leaders to implement a
number of substantial reforms in the Japanese society, which if one were to look this closely,
find that this Restoration was largely a natural response towards the rapid Western imperialist
activities in the East Asian region. In simple words, it seems there is no other viable remedy
left before the Japanese leaders except to modernize and strengthen their country economically
and militarily. This is precisely rooted, according to the researcher, in the very essence of
Fukoku Kyohei. Therefore, it is safe to argue here that this ideology was publicised in order to
create right ‘moods’ and ‘circumstances’ for the Japanese society so that any modernization
agenda put forward by the Meiji government could be realized and actualized despite a series
of considerable protests and uprisings in the country. This on-going discussion on the Fukoku
Kyohei shall be discussed in a great length in the subsequent attempts.
2. Method
This article is an on-going discussion on the underlying reason that spurred the Japanese
leaders to launch a series of modernization plans in Japan. Sources for this analysis will be
taken from studies on a wide range of scholarly works which are written by the Western and
Japanese scholars. This article uses method of content analysis which can be defined as “a
research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful
matter) to the contexts of their use”. That said, the researcher uses analytical constructs or
inferences, making sense of texts found into contexts where the current study is conducted. In
this respect, two domains, the texts and the contexts, are logically independent, and the
researcher makes conclusions by looking at these two domains (White & Marsh, 2006).
Moreover, this content analysis uses one particular technique which is coding system which
simply means labelling. According to Boejie (2010), as what normally used in the grounded
research approach, coding is normally performed at three levels: open coding, axial coding and
selective coding. For the first level (open coding) it is done by taking out texts and rearranging
them into its own different themes and concepts found in the data. Afterwards, this set of
different information is then reorganized based on their content into a number of categories
which is termed as axial coding. Moreover, the third level, known as selective coding was
carried out by making rational links between the core categories so as to make sense of
understanding what has been really happening in the observed practices and or events (Dina
Wahyuni, 2012). This research method allows the researcher “to understand social reality in a
subjective yet in scientific manner; explore the meanings underlying physical messages; and is
inductive, grounding the examination of topics and themes, as well as inferences drawn from
them, in data” ( Kaid, 1989; Patton, 2002; Zhang & Wildenmuth, 2009)
3. Discussion
As discussed previously, the researcher of the view that this Fukoku Kyohei provides a much
needed stimulus for the reform-minded Japanese leaders to prepare the minds and hearts of the
Japanese community at large on the necessity to modernize their country in every realms
possible though they had to deal with a number of disapprovals in their pursuit of
modernization. While others approved of what Meiji leaders were planning, some found this
with pessimistic and hostile views. This was true for pro-Bakufu leaders who were still trying
to hinder any drastic changes (either through direct oppositions or even uprisings directed
towards the central leadership or by refusing to accept any positions in the government) within
the Japanese state and society at large. As time passed, their voice was ‘subdued’ with the
overwhelming support given by the Meiji emperor towards the modernization plans which was
essentially masterminded by several number of prominent Meiji key leaders.
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Moreover, there seems also a need to briefly discuss the Meiji Restoration that attracts much
attention from the Japanese and Western scholars alike. To begin with, it was commonly
known as Meiji Ishin in the Japanese official history. It was carried out mainly, according to
scholars, by lower ranking samurai from the four powerful hans (domains), namely Satsuma,
Choshu, Tosa and Saga besides few other more interested parties against the Bakufu
administration. This came about due to many reasons such the signing of unequal treaties with
the Western Powers (i.e. United States and Britain to name a few) which led to opening of
Japanese ports to foreign ships for supplies and maintenances. The opening of Japanese ports in
1859 to the foreign powers, had given a birth to a steady wave of anti-foreign sentiments across
the nation. This feeling was manifested in one certain slogan called Sonno-Joi (Revered the
Emperor, Expel the Barbarians). In addition, there were also clashes took place between the
feudal lords and Westerners and in some occasions some of the Westerners were killed by
some dissatisfied samurai. In reaction to this, as expected, the Western powers demanded that
the Shogun to punish any rebellious feudal lords (daimyos) who were involved in this conflicts
(Jean-Pierre Lehmann, 1982). On the other hand, some far-sighted Japanese individuals
realized that, especially in the 1860s, to confront the Western powers face to face was almost
impossible. In this regard, this assumption proved to be true following the bombardment of
Kagoshima in 1863 and Shimonoseki in 1864 respectively. The samurai of these two areas,
without doubt, could only watch these military demonstrations with hard feelings.
To make things worse, the Bakufu administration found to have its hands tied in the middle; at
one side, the shogun needed to cool down this anti-foreign sentiment while on the other side, he
needed to assure the Western powers that the order and security in the state under control while
the Japanese administration remained committed to the treaties signed previously (Kitajima
Masamoto & G. Cameron Hurst, 2020). Moreover, there was also a tendency among the
Western powers, for instance in the case of British Minister, named Sir Harry Parkes who
decided to deal directly with the Emperor in Kyoto rather than to stick to a traditional way of
consulting the Shogun. Samurai in several other domains also revealed their dissatisfaction
with the bakufu’s management of national affairs. The classic example would be Choshu
domain which had demanded a serious commitment from the Shogun to deal with this sort of
national affairs. As mentioned previously, this had triggered angers both from the Western
powers and the Shogun.
Choshu domain in particular was hostile towards the Bakufu administration and the former’s
samurai believed not to put their trusts anymore in the Shogun. They wanted to restore the
government’s power and authority in the hands of Emperor. Sooner Choshu became the centre
for disgruntled samurai from other domains who were found to be impatient with their leaders’
caution (Kitajima Masamoto & G. Cameron Hurst, 2020). In 1866 Choshu allied itself with its
neighbouring domain, Satsuma, as an attempt to resist any Shogun-led military expeditions
(which really took place in 1866) against them with the help of Frenchmen. However, Choshu
forces had able to defeat the shogun’s forces which further embarrassed the latter. Moreover, in
1866, also saw the death of the shogun Iemochi which then paved the way for the succession of
the last shogun, Yoshinobu. The newly appointed Shogun had realized the irresistible need for
national unity. In 1867 he decided to tender his resignation with the belief that he could avoid a
full-scale military confrontation from the two powerful domains, namely Satsuma and Choshu.
He had also believed that while anticipating there is a change of national administration in near
future, he would be able to retain any significant role in that administration. Yet he proved to
have wrongly judged this critical situation in the country. Yoshinobu decided to march forward
his forces against forces which to be known as Restoration movement, but to no avail.
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In January 1868 a substantial number of daimyo were summoned to Kyoto to be informed of

the establishment of an Emperor-led government. The Emperor later moved to Edo and
renamed the city as Tokyo. As the new Japanese government in place, the effort towards
modernization of Japan was began (Kitajima Masamoto & G. Cameron Hurst, 2020). In this
respect, as what embedded in the Fukoku Kyohei, it informs the Japanese of the need to
transform Japan into a strong nation, militarily and economically. In doing so, some far-sighted
Japanese leaders decided to implement a number of reform initiatives (such as administrative
and political reforms as well as economic reform programmes) which eventually prepared
Japan in embracing itself with ever-changing world politics. This is, arguably, would safeguard
the sovereignly of a tiny nation like Japan. That said, it is imperative at this juncture to examine
the origins and development of this ideology as to familiarize ourselves with its essence and its
position within the minds of the Japanese leaders. Historically speaking, it first appeared in the
writings of Shang Yan, a political leader and philosopher of the Qin Dynasty (338 BCE). The
phrase comes from four Chinese characters: rich (fu) nation (koku) strong (kyo) and army
(hei). This was considered by many as Japan’s national slogan during the Meiji Era which
directed the course of the nation for decades to come. It is also related to two other national
ideas that emerged after the opening of Japan, namely Sonno Joi, which means “Revere the
Emperor, Expel the Barbarian”, and the idea of Bunmei Kaika or “Civilization and
Enlightenment” (Joanna Luisa Osbipo, 2017).
Let us briefly discuss these two related slogans as mentioned above; for Bunmei Kaika, the
leading advocate was Yoshida Shoin who wanted to revive Japanese history and keep their
traditional values alive within the State. He recognized the very fact that Japan could not
become a strong and powerful state like the Western powers or even imagining to defeat the
West without becoming like them, which means to adopt their Western technology. Japanese
leaders who were attracted to this Bunmei Kaika, like Yamagata Aritomo, the founding father
of the Japanese army, held the same belief that while keeping their traditional values remained
intact, change was deemed very necessary for Japan so that it could turn Japan into a strong and
modernized country through the acquisition of Western knowledge and technology. This
inclination, arguably, embedded into what Fukoku Kyohei has been aspired for all this while
(Murthy, 1973; Beasley, 1995; McClain, 2002). It seemed little doubt that the Iwakura Mission
to Europe and West portrayed such an inspiration to turn Japan into a strong and powerful state
economically and militarily. Other prominent Japanese figures such as Okubo Toshimichi and
Ito Hirobumi convinced their fellow Meiji leaders of the need for a strong and modern Japan in
order to preserve its independence and on top of that to remain relevant at the international
politics. These efforts towards modernization of Japanese State signified a total breakaway
from the old policy of seclusion that undermined the capability of Japan as a new rising Asian
power.
With the restoration of power and authority in the hands of Emperor in the year 1868, Japan at
that point of time was still economically and militarily weak, while at the same time faced
ever-increasing pressures from the Western powers through the signing of unequal treaties
since 1860s. It is safe to note that the only possible option left for the new Japanese
government was to transform Japan into a modernized state so that she could stand on par with
other Western powers and eventually Japan could even negotiate and demand more equitable
treaties with their Western counterparts. The efforts towards modernization of Japan therefore
began with introduction of Western concepts and ideas in the fields of administration, socio-
economic set-up, and military changes. Such transformations include creation of Japanese
Constitution based on Prussian/German model; reorganization of Japanese navy and army
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based on British and German models respectively; adoption of enterprise capitalism in

Japanese firms; and last but not least the borrowing of foreign experts into Japan’s important
sectors. In addition, Japanese students were also sent abroad to learn the arts and tools of
Western civilization so that they could bring them into Japan upon their completion of studies
later.
Retrospectively, in this respect, the new Japanese leadership under Emperor Meiji had
responded to the Western pressures by embarking on the efforts of modernization through the
support of the Imperial Institution which thus determined towards realization of Fukoku
Kyohei. This modernization agenda was extremely important for the survivability of a small
state like Japan so that the Western powers would be impressed with the former’s capability to
modernize itself and thus paved the way for equal treatment and respect between the parties in
all aspects concerned. Nevertheless, it is equal important to note here that though Japanese
leaders found their models in the West, it does mean that the former carried out imitation
process entirely based on the Western models rather it involved process of selection, filtration,
refinement and implementation. For example, Michio Nagai termed this emulation of Western
models (for instance in the case of education sector) based on Japanese values and worldviews
as Japanization. To elaborate, there had been a number of changes carried out by the Japanese
leaders in various fields of public life which targeted at Japanese’s socio-economic changes as
well as to reorganize Japanese navy and army as briefly mentioned above. These changes
include development of Japanese military-strategic industry (ship-building, munition factories)
which also led towards development of small scale industries like textile and manufacturing
domestic products. This economic strategy led to birth of Japanese big conglomerates known as
Zaibatsu which controlled much of Japan's modern industrial sector such as Mitsui, the
Mitsubishi and the Sumitomo.
From that point onwards, the later Meiji period witnessed a steady development of Meiji
economies which went hand in hand with the continuous borrowing of the Western technology
and expertise into the State. This modernization plan had successfully transformed Japan into
one of major industrialized nations after the First World War, partly contributed by war
requirements and economic strategies of the Japanese government. Moreover, in Japan’s efforts
to modernize and restructure its military as to meet the modern requirements and
circumstances, a new national law on military conscription was passed in the early 1870s,
where mostly recruited from peasants. According to this law, “Japanese males over 27 years
were required to serve a 7-year service in the regular army, with four more years in the
reserve”. The western models were introduced into the military which for example witnessed
the prevalent of Prussian military style in the Japanese modern army. The army later became
the defender of militarist ideology within the State’s structure. Along with the army’s
reorganization, Japanese navy also underwent changes as well. In 1872, a special ministry for
navy was created, better known as Navy Ministry. In respect to restructuring of Japanese navy,
the Japanese leadership found their model in the British Navy where a substantial number of
the latter’s technology, style and command structure found their ways in the Japanese navy.
By the late 19th century, Japan had already modernized its navy where at her disposal, the
navy had a number of modern warships and sophisticated weaponries of the time. (Levin,
Moline, & Redhead, 2007). This acquisition had further strengthened the Japanese state where
the militarism had steadily gained its foothold in the state. A substantial number of Japanese
leadership who were heavily under the impression of militarist influence, sought to prove to the
rest of the world of her ability to acquire any territories by her own and thus create his own
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sphere of influence to any of her intended colonies. Retrospectively, this signalled that Japan
could stand on par with other western colonial powers. In that direction, Japan had engaged
with a series of war with China whereby Japan had defeated China in 1895 and Russia in 1905
respectively. In addition, Korea had become a Japanese protectorate in early 1900s. Moreover,
during the First World War (Japan had sided with the Allied Powers against Germany), Japan
had acquired a number of territories in the Chinese mainland through the Versailles and
Washington Disarmament Treaties. This indeed indicates efforts towards realization of Fukoku
Kyohei.
Japan had further pursued her aggressive military campaign throughout Asia, and in 1941,
Japanese military central command decided to bomb Pearl Harbor which culminated into the
Pacific War between Japan and United States and its allies. Indeed, the results of Japan’s rapid
modernization had paved the way for Japan to become a world economic and military power
(Obispo, Joanna Luisa. (2017). All these efforts featured the means through which the very
essence of Fukoku Kyohei could be realized and actualized. It had successfully attracted a
considerable number of notable Japanese leaders who later used this platform to, first,
overthrow their pro-Bakufu leadership and secondly to replace the so-called the obsolete
system and its apparatus within the Japanese state to more modern and sophisticated
administrative structure as previously discussed above. It is interesting to note that although the
plans for modernization were consistently tried, improvised and implemented since the Meiji
Restoration took place, there had been a number of occasions where even some of the early
proponents of Meiji Restoration disagreed with the these plans, resulted in a series of uprisings
or rebellions against the Meiji government (the classic case would be Saigo Takamori).
Furthermore, it is also deems necessary at this juncture to briefly discuss several number of
reform-minded Japanese leaders who upheld this ideology to actualize the birth of a strong and
modern Japan in all aspects concerned.
4. Meiji key figures

Kido Takayoshi
Kido Takayoshi, also called Kido Kōin, whose original name known as Katsura Kogoro. He
was born in August 11, 1833, Choshu, Nagato province. He died May 26, 1877 in Tokyo. He
was considered as one of the heroes of the Meiji Restoration who responsible for the change of
the 264-year rule of the Japanese government by the Tokugawa family and thus brought the
return of central leadership in the hands of the Japanese emperor. Following the change of
government in 1868, Kido became one of the important key figures in the efforts of a new
Japanese leadership to remedy the existing situations befell into the Japanese State. He had
called for a number of necessary modifications into the state as well as public affairs.
To start with, Kido was born into an influential warrior family where he later chose to actively
engage in the politics of his han (Choshu). Later, he had a chance to study under Yoshida Soin,
thus this connection brought him into close contact with a group of Choshu young leaders who
later took up a mission of overthrowing the Tokugawa rule in 1868. He later rose up to
prominence within his own han (domain) in 1862. Tokugawa rule which based in Kyoto
worried of radical developments within Choshu decided to send a military expedition to
Choshu in order to curb that radicalism from spreading over to other hans. As a result, Kido
was removed from his position, instead the Tokugawa had created a conservative government
in Choshu. Nevertheless, Kido and his inner circles did not give up their ways; they had already
created their small scale military forces in order to resist the Tokugawa’s incoming expeditions
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which they successfully did so in the second military expedition launched by Tokugawa
authority. From this time onwards, Kido, as the head of Choshu han , had already started to
negotiate with radical samurai from his neigbouring han, Satsuma. Kido, as he shared similar
ideals and objectives with the other two important leaders from Satsuma, namely Okubo
Toshimichi and Saigo Takamori, this had brought them together to launch one decisive coup
d’état that eventually toppled the shogun and restored the emperor to power.
With a new reform-minded government in place, Kido was soon to become one of the most
influential Japanese figures who provided the reform agenda to be adopted by the newly
founded Meiji government. He was said to have played a greater role in persuading the masters
of the large domains to renounce possession of their domains and thus returned them to the
Emperor. Kido had helped to prepare a plan for converting the domains into a number of
prefectures within the country. He had joined a mission to Europe and West along with his
countrymen to learn from the West so that changes could be actualized in the country thus
opened the way for the modernization of Japanese State since 1870s onwards. Focused much
on internal transformation of Japanese state, he had opposed two proposals of disciplining
Korea and Taiwan respectively. He seemed to be very critical of providing Japanese State with
a National Constitution which modelled from the West. Nevertheless, due to his poor health
condition, this had forced him to assume a minor role in the government.
A prominent Japanese scholar of the Meiji Era, Takii Kazuhiro, observed that, by looking at
Kido’s diary revealed his utmost dedication towards providing Japan a working national
Constitution that would safeguard and protect both nation and its people. The professor further
said, in his January 2, 1873 entry Kido wrote:
At the busiest time among the events of the Restoration [1868], following my proposal,
daimyo, nobility, and government officials swore the Oath of Five Articles, thereby final
setting the direction of the nation. Today, it is incumbent on us to firmly establish a
fundamental legal code. In hopes of deliberating the laws, government systems, and so forth
that form the foundations of the countries we are visiting, I have notified Ga of what we should
do (Takii Kazuhiro, 2014).
Ito Hirobumi
He was born on October 16, 1841 in the village of Tsukari (Suo Province). His father’s name
was Hayashi Jozo and his mother’s name was Kotoko. They were a farming family and in
order to support the family, his father worked for a man named Ito who lived Hagi. Risuke was
a named Hirobumi used to be called Risuke during his childhood days. His family was later
adopted into Ito family, thus, the name was changed to Ito Hirobumi. This adoption brought
Hirobumi’s family into the samurai class though of a lower rank. Naemon, as the head of the
adoptive Ito’s family, was also a low ranking retainer of the Choshu domain (Takii Kazuhiro,
2014).
His fortune seemed to start first when in 1856 this young Ito Hirobumi was dispatched by his
Choshu domain to Sagami province on guard duty at Edo Bay. Coincidentally, in the second
month of 1857, Kuruhara Ryozo (1829-62) was to head the guard at Sagami where Ito
Hirobumi was stationed. This Kuruhara Ryozo later developed a special interest on Ito
Hirobumi. As a matter of fact, Kuruhara Ryozo was a younger brother-in-law of Kido
Takayoshi whom later emerged as one of the leading figures in the Meiji Ishin. After nine
months of duty, Ito Hirobumi was released from his official duty and therefore he returned to
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Hagi (Choshu domain) which he carried with him a letter which was written by Kuruhara to be
given to Yoshida Torajiro, also known as Yoshida Shoin (1830-59). This man, Yoshida
Torajiro was a famous scholar, political-reformer of the time. Ito Hirobumi later visited
Yoshida Shoin with a request so that he could be accepted into Yoshida’s private school which
famously known as Shoka Sonjoku. Yoshida, without much hesitation, accepted Ito Hirobumi
into his private school.
Unfortunately, if one could say so, Yoshida Shoin was later punished to death due to one
certain accusation of promoting Sonno Joi ideology, which thus indirectly called for the
resignation of Tokugawa rule in favour of Emperor rule. In 1860s, Choshu domain’s leadership
realized the usefulness of Western civilization and its tool in Japan, thus, Ito Hirobumi along
with his four friends were sent by Choshu to Britain to study Western naval science. After four
months of travel, Ito and his friend, Inoue Kaoru reached London on November 4, 1863. He
was supposed to spend his study sojourn in London for about three years, yet, due to unstable
conditions in Choshu domain, had compelled Ito Hirobumi and Inoue Kaoru to return home.
This decision was made in order to persuade the Choshu leaders not to proceed with their plans
of expelling the foreigners from Japan (Takii Kazuhiro, 2014).
As situations went against the Tokugawa rule, the forces which favoured a radical change of
government leadership had come into a consensus which they then decided to topple the
existing Tokugawa rule with that of Emperor Rule. This had birthed to a reform-minded Meiji
government which Ito Hirobumi found his shining careers since late 1860s. Soon after this
Meiji Restoration in 1868, Ito Hirobumi was to assume a number of important positions within
the Meiji government. For example, in February 1868 he was to be in charge of Japan’s foreign
affairs while concurrently the Governor of Hyogo Prefecture. He was later to dominate the
efforts towards institutional changes within Japanese state. Among such changes included He
helped draft the Meiji constitution (1889) and brought about the establishment of a bicameral
national Diet (1890). Commenting on the need for Japanese state to adopt western models in
the former’s effort to stand on equal footing like the Western countries, Ito Hirobumi remarked
that:
If Japan hopes to have a civilized government like those of the Western countries and wishes
all its people to receive the blessings of the emperor, then there is no other way than to
integrate all the governing entities throughout the country into one’ (Takii Kazuhiro, 2014).
To elaborate, his rose to prominence in the Japanese politics took place specifically when
Okubo, one of trio who engineered the Meiji Restoration, was assassinated in 1878, thus Ito
was entrusted the Ministry of Home Affairs into his hands. At the same, he had come into
conflict with another powerful Japanese statesman, Okuma Shigenobu especially on the nature
of right constitution which Japan should have and adopt. In years to come, he had managed to
side-line Okuma and his supporters from the inner circle of government. By 1889, the Japanese
emperor had officially proclaimed a national Constitution for Japan and in 1890 the National
Diet come into existence. Ito Hirobumi, in his efforts of creating a constitution government of
Japan, had spent one year and a half in Germany to study the arts of constitutional government
as practiced in Europe. This later gave birth to the Japanese Constitution, which according to
Takii, marked Ito’s utmost contribution to a modern Japan. Yet, there had been a series of
criticisms had been harboured towards Ito for approving such Constitution for Japan. One
aspect of these criticisms were directed towards curtailment of civil rights and Diet’s powers.
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Ito had risen to a top helm of government leadership when he was appointed as the first
Japanese Prime Minister in 1885-1888 (he held the position for three times). In his tenure as
prime minister, as mentioned in the previous discussion, he had created a cabinet system
replaced the old system of Daijokan (Council of State). In the year 1888, he resigned his post
as prime minister, yet he took a helm of another important post, which was the President of
Privy Council. In February 1889, he had masterminded the promulgation of Meiji Constitution
as he envisioned the close-knit relations between Japanese emperor and his Japanese subjects.
He later come back to his former position for the second term from August 8, 1892 until
August 31, 1896. During his second tenure, he had supported the First Sino Japanese War
which eventually witnessed the supremacy of Japanese forces in this war against Chinese
forces. In 1894, he had able to put side some of unequal clauses between Japan and Britain
through the signing of Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (Beasley, )
Moreover, during his third term as prime minister (January-June 1898), Ito Hirobumi now
faced a new problem which was the idea of party politics. He faced adamant criticisms from
Jiyuto (Liberal Party) and Shimpoto (Progressive Party) which resulted from Ito’s calling for
new land taxes. Due to this opposition, Ito then decided to dissolve the Diet and therefore
paved a way for new national elections. Ito seemed miscalculated of the situation because the
above two parties then merged into Kenseito. This new merger won a majority of seats in the
Parliament (Diet) which as a consequence, compelled Ito to resign from his post. This situation
prompted Ito to organize a political party which friendly to the government and this gave
birthed to the Rikken Seiyukai (Constitutional Association of Political Friendship) in 1900
(Takii Kazuhiro, 2014).
It was noted that Seiyukai became the leading party to have secured an absolute command in
the House of Representatives during a Diet session. He thus felt satisfied with what had been
set in order to ensure the smooth running of government agenda and plans. The House of Peers,
however, were unhappy with what Ito’s had established at this moment. In 1903, Ito decided to
resign from his post as president of Rikken Seiyukai. This led to rise of one of powerful
Japanese Prime Ministers, Yamagata Aritomo who later assumed leading voice among the
powerful genro (genro means principal elder statesmen who used to advise the Emperor). He
was known as the founder of Japanese modern army (Takii Kazuhiro, 2014).
Saigo Takamori
Another great Japanese leaders who led the Meiji Restoration was Saigo Takamori. His original
name was Kichibe or Kichinosuke. He was born in January 23, 1828 in Kagoshima (Kyushu).
He later died in September 24, 1877 in Kagoshima. He was very supportive of creation of a
new leadership that would replace the Shogun-led government, meant a new government under
the dictates of Japanese Emperor. This paved the way for the Meiji Restoration and the return
of power to the Japanese Emperor. In later years, however, he decided to turn away from the
Meiji government due to his dissatisfaction over several issues with the reigning government.
In term of his physical stature, as reported, he seemed to appear frightening at first meeting,
with his large, piercing eyes and bushy eyebrows, nevertheless, he was said to have possess a
friendly manner. Moreover, he was said to have a little patience over details, inclined to make
decision quickly than to wait and last but not least he was man of actions, not words. He
received training in Zen Buddhism and the Neo Confucianism (David Magarey Earl, 2020).
In his early age, he had become a commander of the Satsuma forces based in Kyoto. In
addition, he was also one of the main committees of his domain when it comes to any decision
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making. In terms of his influence, he had able to attract a substantial number of imperial
supporters throughout Japan which later made it easy for pro-Meiji restoration to overthrow
Bakufu administration. He proved to be a man of caliber because he had been dealing with
several important arrangements before Meiji Restoration could be actualized and executed. For
example he was the one who had negotiated a secret alliance between Choshu and Satsuma in
1866 and he was also said to secretly plan among his circles to have shogun resigned from his
post. In the critical hours before the proclamation of Meiji Restoration, a group of troops under
the command of Saigo seized the control of palace gates before dawn on Jan. 3, 1868. There
was a brief war took place between pro-Shogunate forces and Saigo’s forces where the latter
was in winning side. Edo capital was surrendered to Meiji forces. Now, the Japanese Emperor
was in total command of the country through the help of his loyalist leaders. Surprisingly, at
the early years of Meiji rule, Saigo decided not take active role in the new administration.
Saigo, nevertheless, at last decided to join the newly founded Meiji government in 1871 where
he was entrusted to head the newly created Imperial Guard, amounted roughly 10,000 troops.
The new government then proceeded with the abolition of domains and to be replaced with
prefectures since they were confident to do so given the fact that they had sufficient forces at
hand to repel should there was any uprisings or resistance. To add more to his prestige, he was
admitted into the Council of state (Dajokan) which responsible to push through reform
programme along with Kido Takayoshi as briefly discussed above (David Magarey Earl, 2020).
He found himself in dilemma with regard to the introduction of universal army conscription
though he had reluctantly approved the law, probably afraid of Japan might lose its samurai
identity. In the year 1873, there was a heated debate regarding the problem of Korea. The
Kingdom of Korea had refused to acknowledge the Meiji government and what made it worse
was that the former refused to accept three successive missions from Japanese government. In
this particular problem, Saigo felt that this treatment from Korean Government was utterly
unacceptable. He was of the view that a military expedition against Korea would not only
maintain the status of Japan as a rising Asian power but at the same time would be able to
divert some of dissatisfaction among the Samurai against some of modernization plans which
were currently in place such as conscription law. He offered himself as a Japan’s special envoy
to Korea in order to settle disputes with Korea. After many arguments, Emperor decided to
approve his proposal. At the same time, Japanese Mission to Europe and West just about to
come back to Japan. Upon its arrival in Japan, the leaders of this mission protested against
Saigo’s proposal on the basis that internal changes were of much important overseas
expedition. Thus, Saigo’s plan would have to be cancelled. Saigo was furious of this situation
where he then resigned as a State Councilor as well as commander of the Imperial Guard. He
returned to his domain (Kagoshima). Several of his close circles also handover their
resignations as protest against this reversal of decision on the part of Meiji government.
Operating from his own domain, Saigo decided to open his own private school. In this school,
he paid special attention to military science and physical training. It was said the opening of
this school attracted a large number of dissatisfied former samurai, whom coming from
different parts of Japan to study under him. It was estimated that there were about 20,000
students by 1877. For Saigo, this school meant to train the future bureaucrats of Japan which
not shared by the central government. The latter felt that Kagoshima might become a center of
insurrections against the government due to the fact that majority of higher ranking officials
were students of Saigo who dissatisfied with the transformation plans of the central
government. The central leadership believed they need to rectify the situation by using
repressive measures imposed on Saigo and his disciples. This indeed had backfired the central
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government when on January 27, 1877, a group of Saigo’s students attacked arsenal and navy
yard in Kagoshima (David Magarey Earl, 2020).
Okubo Toshimichi
Other no less important figure who had contributed towards the creation of Meiji Government
was Okubo Toshimichi. He was born in September 26, 1830 in Kagoshima. He died on May
14, 1878 in Tokyo. Before the Meiji Restoration, he was one of leading figures in the
government of Satsuma. He was convinced that Japan needed to transform itself into a modern
and progressive nation economically and militarily. Thus, the only possible way to that end was
by replacing the Bakufu administration with that of reform-minded leadership of a new Japan.
This was to be done with a strategic collaboration with another powerful domain, Choshu that
give birth to the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Upon the creation of newly founded Meiji
government, he was given important positions (Finance Minister in 1871 and Home Minister in
1877) in the new imperial government (Adam Augustyn et. all, 2020).
He went abroad and this further enhanced his conviction that in order for Japan to be at par
with other Western countries, she had to adjust and modify itself with the needs and
circumstances of the time, which was progress and modernization. Okubo viewed, of many of
needed changes in the Japanese state, he favoured the creation of more technical schools, and a
financial assistance should also need to be given to private enterprises as well as the foundation
of government-linked enterprises in order to meet the national’s needs and requirements.
Moreover, with regard to Korean issue, he disapproved of Saigo’s proposal and he in fact
shared similar views with Kido that internal changes should be the main concerns of the
government at that point of time. He had introduced land tax reform and the proclamation of
Haitōrei Edict which banned the use of swords by all segments of Japanese society (except
former daimyos) in 1876. Last but not least, his life was short as he was assassinated by
discontented samurai on May 14, 1878 due to his direct involvement in suppressing the
Satsuma Rebellion in 1877 led by his former friend, Saigo Takamori (Adam Augustyn et. all,
2020).
5. Conclusion
It is safe therefore to conclude that this Fukoku Kyohei served as a rallying point for the Meiji
leaders to carry out reform programmes in Japan. These reforms programmes, according to
Meiji leadership, were of vital importance for the sovereignty and viability of Japan at the
expense of increasing Western encroachments in the East Asian region. That said, Meiji leaders
introduced a series of reforms encompassing socio-economic and political-military
transformation plans in Japan through their capacities as ministers in various portfolios.
Though so, other Japanese saw these plans as breaking away from the traditional outlook of
Japanese society, thus, resisted these plans through a series of uprisings and rebellions against
the Meiji central government in Tokyo. Nonetheless, the reform-minded Meiji leadership had
able to introduce and implement such intended changes within the Japanese society albeit
constant conflicts and clashes taken place since the creation of Meiji Government in 1868.
Thus, it is not an exaggeration to note here that this Fukoku Kyohei was a timely indoctrination
tool through which the modernization of Japan would take its spirit and shape within the
Japanese society in the 19th and 20th centuries. For few years to come this modernization bore
its fruit as the Japanese’s economy and military capacities were accelerated steadily and thus
the vision of Japanese statesmen of creating a modern and strong Japan would be realized very
soon. This was true in the beginning of 20th century where Japan had able to acquire a few
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territories in the East Asian region thus Japan had formally joined the Imperialist Club as the
Western Powers like Britain, United States and France to name a few. This marked the position
of Japan as rising Colonial Power not only in the East Asian context but beyond that
geographical confines.
References
White, Marilyn Domas & Marsh, Emily E. (2006). Content analysis: A flexible methodology.
http://hdl.handle.net/2142/3670
Dina Wahyuni. (2012). The research design maze: Understanding paradigms, cases, methods
and methodologies. Journal of Applied Management Accounting Research, 10, (1),
69-78.
Lehmann, Jean-Pierre. (1982). The roots of modern Japan. Palgrave Macmillan. Sumikawa,
Shunsuke. Meiji restoration: roots of modern Japan.
https://www.lehigh.edu/~rfw1/courses/1999/spring/ir163/Papers/pdf/shs3.pdf
Masamoto, Kitajima & Hurst, G. Cameron. (2020). Japan from 1850 to 1945: The Meiji
restoration. https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/The-opening-of-Japan
Obispo, Joanna Luisa. (2017). Japan’s Fukoku Kyohei: A Continuous Pursuit of Economic and
Military Powers. Ugong( 9), 56-80.
Kazuhiro, Takii. (2014). Itō Hirobumi Japan s first Prime minister and father of the Meiji
constitution (Takechi Manabu, Trans.). New York: Routledge.
Akita, George. (2020). Ito Hirobumi: Prime minister of Japan.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ito-Hirobumi
Earl, David Magarey. (2020). Saigo Takamori: Japanese samurai.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saigo-Takamori
Augustyn, Adam, Bauer, Patricia, Duignan, Brian, Eldridge, Alison, Gregersen, Erik,
McKenna, Amy, Petruzzello, Melissa…Zelazko, Alicja. (2020). Okubo Toshimichi:
Japanese statesman. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Okubo-Toshimichi
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A Study On Students Perception Towards Online Classes And

Effectiveness In Enhancing Active Participation And
Communication Skills
Asha Nair Ganeser1*

1
Faculty of Communication, Arts and Media, International University of Malaya Wales (IUMW), Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: asha@iumw.edu.my

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Online classes are now in demand, which enhances to fit the needs of today's 21st-
century skills. The integration of technology in teaching and learning implemented as such is
lead from face to face classroom learning to online learning. Various tools are embedded to
facilitate the teaching and learning process and to venture students towards the world of
virtual learning. This study aimed to investigate students' perceptions of the English for
Professional Communication online classes and how it enhances the participation and
communication skills of students. This study was conducted in a private higher education
institution based in Kuala Lumpur, and the participants were 50 students. Quantitative analysis
was done as participants were given a particular questionnaire to be answered. The result
shows that students show active participation and agreed that online learning does enhance
communication skills. Some suggestion has been made through its findings.
Keywords: perception, online classes, active participation, communication skills

____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
The world of education has changed gradually over the years, from traditional to digitalized
education. Face to face education has now been replaced with online education which from
chalk and marker pen to e-books and printed materials. These changes made the information
and communication technology (ICT) an essential aspect of the education sector and
transformed the teaching and learning process in many ways (Alhom & Courtney,2018). On
top of that, using e-learning increases HOTS skills, problem-solving, as well as the
effectiveness of teaching and learning (Abdelmalak, 2015). The integration of e-learning in
teaching the English Language encourages students to increase their learning abilities in the
aspect of 4 skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. As mentioned by Yang and Chen
(2007), e-learning allows students to have diverse communication ability in English by
collaborating with other students in the virtual world.
Moreover, as cited by Balaji and Digant (2010) from Danesh, Bailey, and Whisenand (2015),
using a computer-based lesson that we called as online learning can improve communication
skills and creates a positive learning environment. The digitalized online classes are involved
with strategic and innovative processes. By incorporating various tools such as podcasts,
learning management systems, and blogs, it can leverage students learning and assist lecturers
in producing excellent and creative content in a structured way (Chiaha et al. 2013). The
current study examines students’ perceptions of online classes and the effectiveness in
enhancing active participation and communication skills.
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The objectives as follows:

i. To identify the perception of English for professional communication class students
towards online classes
ii. To discover the effectiveness of using online classes in enhancing student’s active
participation and communication skills
Research questions
i. What is the perception of English for professional communication class students
towards online classes?
ii. What is effectiveness of online classes in enhancing student’s active participation and
communication skills?
Significant of study
Various tools and strategies have been embedded in online classes worldwide to cater to good
and quality education. As mentioned by Rhode, Richter, Gowen, Miller, and Wills (2017),
using a learning management system gives students more independence for students to learn at
any time and location without barriers. The usage of online classes is widely introduced to most
schools and universities in Malaysia, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic situation.
Online classes allow lecturers to interact online synchronously by using updated features such
as video conferencing, online quizzes, mind mapping, collaborative learning, and more (Yadav,
2016). As Rodrigues (2002) said, active learning happens when students interactively engaged
in the task given. There are many studies on the implementation of online learning; thus, it is
essential to highlight the perception of students' in taking up English for Professional
communication subject through online classes and its contribution towards students'
participation and communication.
2. Literature Review
Many researchers have done various studies related to online classes and the importance of
teaching and learning. Researchers from different parts of the world and the field of expertise
had shared their findings and reflect on the effectiveness of online teaching and learning. The
outcome of engaging students through an online environment varies according to the scope of
the study.
Concept of e-learning
The idea of e-learning comes from the combination of using information technology in
integrating with the education system through using hardware comprises of tablets, desktop or
laptop, and software, which are operating systems, MS Office, and other learning applications.
These tools are embedded either in a face to face or online classes. The result is to maximize
the lecturer and student interaction. A study by Abbad et al. (2009) defined that E-learning
relates any learning that is enabled electronically. However, later on, the concept of e-learning
has been elaborated to further by Sangra et al., (2012) as learning which utilizes innovation and
other educational model based on electronic media and tools for enhancing the interaction and
training that helps in establishing knowledge.
Advantage and disadvantage of online classes in education

There are advantages and disadvantages to online classes in education. Some studies have
shown the strength of online classes as the ability to fulfill the student’s needs. As said by
Smedley (2009), using online classes gives flexibility in terms of time and place according to
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the learning information. On top of that, Wagner et al. (2008) mentioned that online classes
give extra space for interaction between students and lecturers during content delivery. Besides,
online classes allowed students to watch all activities that are offered through online classes
and listen to the lecturer’s instruction as often as needed (Zhang et al.,2006). However, some
disadvantages occur during the implementation. Yadav (2016) said there is a massive change in
the educational models when it comes to implementing online classes where the adaptation
process is longer. Students might face difficulties in handling it in the first place. Moreover,
when it comes to adult students, there are some challenges as they need modeling and
scaffolding to succeed in online classes (Jiang, Parent & Eastmond, 2006)
Student’s perception towards online classes

In one of the research studies conducted by Leasure, Davis and, Thievon (2000), said that
choosing online classes is better as it provides efficiency and flexibility since students faces
problem in a course schedule that does not allow them to take face to face classes. However,
An and Frick (2006) mentioned that students still prefer communication in face to face classes
compare to online classes as it is faster, easier, and more approachable. On top of that, Hase
and Kenyon (2000) explain that several students disagree with online classes because it has an
impact on their eye fatigue, which can cause problems in the visual aspect. In terms of
incorporating tools such as YouTube, Skype, blogs, and many more in the online classroom,
Revere and Kovach (2011) stated it enhances students' interest in learning.
Effects towards student’s communication and participation

Many research studies have been conducted regarding the student's effects on communication
and participation in different perspectives. Salbego and Tumolo (2015) report the review is on
investigating the student's experiences on skype language classes and shows that there is an
increase in the development of student's language skills. Conrad and Donaldson (2004)
mentioned that students demonstrated a high level of engagement in critical and analytical
thinking through online classes compared to a traditional one. Nevertheless, online classes have
greater control over the timing of completing the coursework, which creates a new solution for
students to manage their time effectively (Schwartzman, 2007). There are also positive student
attitudes towards online courses where students actively participated in online classes for
Accounting compared to face-to-face learning (Spiceland & Hawkins, 2002). In addition to
that, Ice et al. (2007) mentioned that audio feedback through online class is more effective as
the communication is clear. Students seem to feel the sense of care given by the lecturer and
make them more engaging in the online lesson. There are many findings collected to measure
students' perceptions and the effectiveness of online classes in different fields. Yet, less focus
has been given to how much they perceived their learning, participation as well as the level of
communication skills, specifically in English for Professional Communication subject.
Advantage and disadvantage of e-learning in education

There are advantages and disadvantages of e-learning in education. Some studies have shown
the benefit of e-learning as the ability to fulfill the student’s needs. As said by Smedley (2009),
using e-learning gives flexibility in terms of time and place according to the learning
information. On top of that, Wagner et al. (2008) mentioned that e-learning gives extra space
for interaction between students and lecturers during content delivery. Moreover, e-learning
provided students to watch all activities that are offered through online classes and listen to the
lecturer’s instruction as many times as needed (Zhang et al.,2006). However, there are also
disadvantages which, as said by Yadav (2016), there is a massive change in the educational
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models when it comes to the implementation of online classes where the adaptation process is
longer. Students might face difficulties in handling it in the first place.
3. Methodology
The method which is used is quantitative. Online survey questionnaires were constructed based
on previous participated as respondents for this research, and all of them were students from a
private university who took English for Professional Communication online classes. The
respondents wherein the age range between 18 to 27 years. The questionnaire is distributed
through a Learning Management System called Open Learning. Respondents answered the
questionnaire through the said platform. There are a few pages that the respondent should
answer. The first page consists of the consent form to make sure he or she agrees to the
description written under consent section followed by demographic questions. The third section
is to measure student perception on online learning, followed by the final part to evaluate the
effects of enhancing active participation and communication. The collected data were analyzed
by using SPSS version 25. The descriptive analysis, which included mean and the standard
deviation, is presented in this study. literature to answer the research question, which is listed
above. In total, 50 students
4. Results and Findings

The questionnaires are created to identify the perception of students on online classes, and
tables of findings are listed below according to the questions. Data were analyzed using
descriptive statistics and listed in the form of table to explain further the means score and
standard deviation of the perception and the effectiveness of active participation and
communication.
Table 1: Student’s perception towards online classes
Question Mean Std. Deviation

Online class is an innovative concept and must be encouraged by
3.02 0.820
every university
Online classes helped students to learn at their own pace and it’s
2.68 0.653
flexible.
Online classes make the learning process easier to students 2.88 0.872
Students access lecture notes anywhere, anytime without being 3.38
0.725
present in class.
It is easy to submit the assignments through online classes
3.24 0.797
compare to face to face classes
Students received timely feedback on their work easily. 2.88 0.872
Statistical evaluation page in the LMS used for online class
provides students to measure the detailed information on their 2.92 0.900
strength and weaknesses of each topic.
3.30 0.863
Online classes are more systematic than face to face classes.
Online classes provide better opportunity to use technology and
2.88 0.940
related resources.
Student feels that activities integrated in the online platform
2.54 0.930
increases their understanding of the course material.
Students learn how to be organised through online classes and it
3.16 0.842
promotes creativity
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Table 1 shows the mean and standard deviation for student’s perception of online classes. It is
shown that the highest mean value is 3.38 (SD= 0.725), indicating that students feel they can
assess to lecture notes anywhere, anytime without being present in class. In contrast, the least
mean value derived from the findings was 2.54 (SD=0.930), mentioning that students feel that
activities integrated into the online platform increase their understanding of the course material.
On top of that, easy-to-submit assignments through online classes compared to face-to-face
classes and online classes helped students learn at their own pace, and it is flexible presents the
second and third highest means, which are 3.24( SD=0.797) and 2.68 ( SD=0.653) respectively.
An online class is an innovative concept and must be encouraged by every university shows a
proper reading of 3.02 (SD=0.820). Online classes make the learning process easier for
students; online classes provide a better opportunity to use technology and related resources,
and students who receive timely feedback on their work portray the same mean of 2.88
(SD=0.872). Besides that, the mean score for the statement of online classes are more
systematic than face to face classes is 3.30 (SD-=0.863). The findings of students learn how to
be organized through online classes, and it promotes creativity gives the mean of 3.16 (SD=
0.842). Finally, the statement of the Statistical evaluation page in the LMS used for an online
class provides students to measure the detailed information on their strengths and weaknesses
of each topic, indicating that the mean is 2.92 (SD= 0.900).
Table 2: Effects in enhancing active participation and communication skills

Question Mean Std. Deviation
Students can find information actively in the eLearning platform created by
2.94 0.740
the lecturer.
Students could be express their opinions in an online class. 2.76 0.822
Online classes give the opportunity students to read, download/play videos
2.64 0.875
(educational content) and review the content for several times
Online learning gives opportunity for every student to share their opinion and
feedback through the tools which is used by the lecturer and increases the 2.86 0.700
opportunity to receive the feedback from the lecturer.
Online classes enable student to attend more frequently than face to face
2.64 0.875
method.
Online classes enhance participation where even for those students who are
3.02 0.820
shy to speak up in face to face class.
Students would have gained more interpersonal skills and the ability to work
2.86 0.700
in a team.
It is easier for students to have communication with the lecturer. 2.76 0.981
Students receive better explanation of the course content compared with
2.50 0.909
meeting face-to-face with the lecturer.
Online class enhances students speaking and listening skills by using blogs,
3.10 0.866
chats and discussion room
Based on table 2, the highest mean score shows that online class enhances students speaking
and listening skills by using blogs, chats, and discussion rooms at 3.10 (SD= 0.866). Online
classes increase participation where even for those students who are shy to speak up in face to
face class indicated as the second-highest mean of 3.02 (SD=0.820), followed by the statement
of students can find information actively in the E-Learning platform created by the lecturer
which carries the reading of 2.94 (SD=0.740). Besides, two statements give the same mean
value of 2.76 (SD=0.822), which are students could be express their opinions in an online class,
and it is easier for students to have communication with the lecturer. However, online classes
allow students to read, download/play videos (educational content), and review the material
several times; online classes enable students to attend more frequently than face to face method
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gives the same mean value of 2.64 (SD=0.875). Moreover, online learning provides
opportunities for every student to share their opinion and feedback through the tools which are
used by the lecturer and increase the opportunity to receive the feedback from the lecturer gives
a higher weightage of 2.86 (SD=0.700). In addition to it, the statement of students would gain
more interpersonal skills, and the ability to work as a team illustrates the mean score of 2.86
(SD= 0.700). Finally, the least mean value stated in this analysis for the effect category is 2.50
(SD=0.909). Students receive a better explanation of the course content than meeting face-to-
face with the lecturer.
3. Discussion and Conclusion

In this study, two research questions need to be answered: to measure the perception of
students towards online class, and the other is to evaluate the effects on participation and
communication. The findings portray that accessibility of materials that students can access at
their convenience gives a positive perception towards students. This statement is in line with
the previous study by Al-Dosari (2011), which mentioned that online courses users who
enrolled considered accessibility an advantage for students e-learning. Moreover, students find
online classes enhance creativity and make them be organized. As said by Badali, Dana
Mazrae, Farokhi Tirandaz, and Herfedoost (2013), researchers have mentioned that conducting
e-learning and having an assessment through that develops student creativity to be more
fluency and originality. Furthermore, students feel that online class is an innovative concept
that will be good if it is being implemented in every university gives a positive reflection as
said that it is a good practice.
Additionally, when it comes to the effectiveness of active participants and communication,

students agreed that online classes enhance speaking and listening skills. Similar studies found
that participants gain an advantage in speaking and listening skills in Skype-based classes
(Sallbego &Tumolo,2015). Furthermore, students agreed that through online classes, it
enhances participation and as well as communication. This shows that students are active in
participating when it comes to the online class, as even those who are shy to speak up increase
communication skills in the said instruction. This finding can be related to the previous study
by Al-rahmi et al. (2015). In his research, it was found that online classes improve student’s
interaction with peers and lecturers and enhance communication skills.
Besides, Cakiroglu (2014) also explains that there is a highly satisfactory percentage in terms
of assessing communication between teachers and students in online classes. The study Janice
Orrella (2006) mentioned that students did not receive timely feedback from teachers, which
contradicts the findings generated from this study. This study gives an excellent opportunity for
students to share their opinion and feedback with the lecturer; at the end enhances both
communication skills and active participation. The result also shows that online classes
improve interpersonal skills and the ability to collaborate in a team that gives the same findings
as a study done by Powell, Piccoli, and Ives (2004) on students' perception of the virtual class
teamwork. It shows that students were positive towards enhancing the collaboration of
teamwork.
To conclude, online classes can be an efficient tool in enhancing student's collaboration and
active participation, especially for English for Professional Communication class. The usage of
e-learning tools in teaching and learning; for example, online classes can give students to
increase their participation as well as communication skills. Nevertheless, this study's finding
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reveals that the majority of students have positive feelings towards their perception and
experience with online classes in terms of communication skills. It shows that student has a
positive attitude and reduces anxiety, particularly in terms of communicating or providing an
opinion. This is also related to the study by (Tsai, 2009). Flexibility, as well as accessibility,
can increase students' active participation, which is somehow related to the finding in this
study. Based on the results, it is recommended that higher educational institutions encourage
and expose the online class method to promote and strengthen the technology skills and
collaboration during the teaching and learning journey. Exposure towards more creative tools
in online classes could give more benefits to students, which can be related to the previous
study done by Chan et al. (2007), which could provide exciting learning styles. To some extent,
this finding develops the use of online classes for English for Professional Communication
subjects to facilitate active participation and increase communication skills.
References
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Al-Dosari H 2011 Faculty members and students perceptions of e-learning in the
English department: A project evaluation Journal of Social Sciences 7 291
Al-Dosari, H. (2011). Faculty Members and Students Perceptions of E-Learning in the English
Department: A Project Evaluation. Journal of Social Sciences, 7(3), 391-407.
doi:10.3844/jssp.2011.391.407
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primary to university education in Australia. Information Technology and Computer
Science, 2, 1–9. doi:10.5815/ijitcs.2018.02.01
Al-Rahmi, W. M., Othman, M. S., & Yusuf, L. M. (2015). Social Media for Collaborative
Learning and Engagement: Adoption Framework in Higher Education Institutions in
Malaysia. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. doi:10.5901/mjss.
2015.v6n3s1p246
An, Y., & Frick, T. (2006). Student Perceptions of Asynchronous Computer-Mediated
Communication in Face-to-Face Courses. Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 11(2), 485-499. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00023.x
Badali, M., Dana-Mazra’e, A., Farokhi-Tirandaz, S. & Herfeh-Doost, M. (2013). The Impacts
of Using Electronic Portfolio in Students’ Creativity. Innovation and Creativity in
Humanities, 3(12), 45-68.
Cakiroglu, U. (2014). Evaluating students’ perspectives about virtual classrooms with regard to
Seven Principles of Good Practice. South African Journal of Education, 34(2), 1-19.
doi:10.15700/201412071201
Chiaha, G., Eze, J. U., & Ezeudu, F. O. (2013). Education students’ access to E-learning
facilities in universities south-east of Nigeria. Information and Knowledge
Management, 3(10), 32–41.
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Analysis Implementation Of Flood Control Strategy In Semarang

City (Flood Control Case Study In Semarang City)
Diana Sukorina1, Sri Suwitri2, Y. Warella3, Hartuti Purnaweni4

1,3,4
Public Administration Departments, Faculties of Social And Political Sciences, Diponegoro University,
Semarang, Indonesia
2
Faculty Of Social And Political Science, Tidar University, Magelang, Indonesia
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Semarang City as part of the working area of Huge River Area (BBWS) of Pamali
Juwana is a City that often experiences flooding. Flood control requires the integration of all
aspects, civil, technical and institutional. This article aims to examine the coordination aspects
of civil institutions in this area of the river community in the control of flood conducted with
Regional Device Work Unit (SKPD) in Semarang City. It is done through a review of the
linkage between the flood controls strategies listed in the document of Regional Medium Term
Development Plan (RPJMD) of Semarang City during the period 2015-2020 with the
implementation of each SKPD in Semarang. The methods used in this study are comparative
methods and analysis of the proxy. The study shows that there was no synchronization in the
planning aspects of the flood control program in RPJMD 2016-2021 with the implementation
of activities undertaken by the SKPD. The Increased socialization capacity on stakeholders by
flood control institutions and the enhancement of coordination mechanisms between
institutions through the formation of external stakeholders of the institution or the flood
control. The Working Group is an effort offered so that aspects of civil stakeholders with the
institutional flood control in Semarang City can be more instrumental in the planning and
implementation of flood control program.
Keywords: Flood Control; Semarang City; Regional Medium Term Development Plan
(RPJMD); Regional Device Work Unit (SKPD); and Huge River Area
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Huge River Area Hall (BBWS) of Pamali Juwana is one of the critical of BBWS, which is a
priority to be addressed immediately with the main problems of flooding, erosion and
sedimentation. BBWS Pamali Juwana is BBWS Cross District/City, which includes Semarang
City and the upstream of Demak Regency, as well as Semarang City, and Semarang Regency
in the area. As part of the downstream of BBWS Pamali Juwana, Semarang City is also not
separated from the problem in BBWS Pamali Juwana. Physiographical, the location of
Semarang City is in the flood plains and alluvial plains of the Flood River East and West
Canals, as well as some of the coastal alluvial plains and become an outlet of BBWS Pamali
Juwana. The existences of several rivers flowing are potentially as potential water. Rivers
flowing in Semarang City are Kali Garang River, Kali Pengkol, Kali Kreo, Kali Banjir Kanal
Timur, Kali Babon, Kali Sringin, Kali Kripik, Kali Dungadem, and so forth. West Banjir Kanal
River and East Banjir Kanal River that are splitting Semarang City makes this city becoming
one of the cities that often experience floods every rainy season. The Data obtained mentions
that the puddles as high as 30-70 cm usually occur at more than 40 points in more than 16 sub-
districts (Regional Medium Term Development Plan (RPJMD) of Semarang City, 2016-2021).
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Flooding is not only caused by problems in the technical aspects (infrastructure), but also
related to environmental issues, social, economic, behavioral/cultural, and institutional
communities so that flood control is the responsibility of all parties and should be done
comprehensively. The government of Semarang City has prioritized handling flood problems,
as stated in the document of the Regional Medium Term Development Plan (RPJMD) of
Semarang City during the period 2016-2021 (pemerintah kota semarang, 2011). It stated about
Plan spatial planning of Semarang city in 2011-2031 (Regional Development Planning Board
(Bappeda) of Semarang City, 2015). It is directed to overcome these problems by emphasizing
the impetus of community development Flood control efforts have been a priority of the
Government of Semarang, but annually flood events are still occurring in the city of Semarang.
Along with the incident, evaluation needs to be done to see how the flood controls efforts from
the planning and implementation side. One is to see the involvement of civil society with
Regional Device Work Unit (SKPD) in Semarang City in the implementation of flood control
strategy that has been poured out in RPJMD as planning documents.
2. Research Method
This article aims to examine the linkage between the flood controls strategies listed in Regional
Medium Term Development Plan (RPJMD) document of the strategy implementation of
Semarang City during the period 2016-2021 with implementation by each Regional Device
Work Unit (SKPD) in Semarang City. The Data of research obtained among others from the
results of interviews to stakeholders (stakeholders) related to flood and flood control in
Semarang City. The key informant of all the SKPD of the Government of Semarang City and
Semarang Regency, as well as analysis of flood control planning documents contained in
(pemerintah kota semarang, 2010). The methods used in this study are comparative methods
and analysis of the proxy (Rihoux & Ragin, 2012). The results of this study are expected to be
input for the improvement planning of flood control strategy conducted in Semarang City as
part of BBWS Pamali Juwana so that Semarang City can be freed from flooding.
Semarang City has an area of 373.70 kilometer, based on a division of 39.56 kilometer
(10.59% of rice fields and 334.14 (89.41%) and it is Not the rice fields area. According to its
use, the land areas of the largest rice fields are raindrops (53.12%) Only about 19.97% are
planted 2 times. Dry land is mostly used for land yard/land for building and yard around, which
is 42.17% of total land instead of rice fields. Based on the extensive data of land subsidence is
in Semarang City, there are two areas that are in the data that is prone to 8 cm/year high, North
Semarang covering an area of 396.83 ha and the class is vulnerable in the area in Genuk Sub-
District of 544.07 ha. Areas with vulnerable classes are scattered in almost all sub-districts in
Semarang City. The area had a physical geomorphology consisting of the form of plain land,
alluvial plains, beaches, swamps, and belt meander; Types of land Anisole and Inception; And
the use of residential land, dry land farming, paddy fields, grassland, water body, and ponds
(Nurjanah & Rachmani, 2014).
The area that belongs to the class is very prone only be in two sub-districts namely North
Semarang and Genuk. These areas have a physical geomorphology consisting of the landform
and the alluvial plains, Ultimo and Inception soil types, as well as the use of marshes, paddy
fields, water bodies, and ponds. Based on the inventory results, the height of the puddle varies
between 15-150 cm with a long puddle of 2-10 hours, depending on the large and rainy
intensity that occurs. Semarang city has usually flooded during the rainy season. According to
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information head of Data and meteorological are sources from Geophysical Agency
Information (BMG) (Wismarini & Ningsih, 2010).
Area I Semarang, rainfall with a thickness of 100 mm or more can be sure to cause a puddle in
various places in Semarang City, in addition to the effect of backwater during the tide of water
tide. Flood incidence is not separated from the concentration of surface flow that cannot
penetrate into the soil due to change of land cover. The results of surface flow analysis in
Semarang City indicate that the surface flow is 0-53 mm. The largest surface flow is largely
concentrated in the central area where the areas are in general high-rise land, both residential,
retail and office. The flood that occurred in Semarang City is also influenced by the location of
Semarang which is only at an altitude of about 0-6 m DPL so that it is easily flooded by water
tide activities, especially when the tide reaches the highest point. According to the Research
from (Handoyo, Suryoputro, & Subardjo, 2016), tidal type in Semarang City is a mixture that is
leaning to a single daily (mixed tide prevailing diurnal), namely in one day there is one time
high water and one time low water irregular with high water difference and low water average
when the full is 140 cm. The slope of a small slope causes the rising tide rapidly to overshadow
parts of Semarang City, which results in flooding in Semarang City. It has a disaster prone area
consisting of a vulnerable area, flood prone areas, prone to landslides and prone to land
movements.
Climate change directly affects Semarang City as the coastal city, Semarang City is vulnerable
to rob and flood. The increase in seawater advance and land subsidence make Semarang City
often hit by Rob and flood in certain period. Flood prone areas are places that routinely rainy
season experience more than six hours in the rain when it rains in the normal rainy season.
Flood prone area is a temporary protected area, up to the extent of flood problems thoroughly
and permanently in the region. In the area of Semarang City, the potentially vulnerable areas of
flood include a part of Tugu District, West Semarang, Central Semarang, North Semarang and
Genuk.
Flood control strategy in Semarang City has been prepared and poured in the document
RPJMD of Semarang City during the period 2016-2021. Based on the analysis of the document
is obtained that there are five strategies for flood control that will be conducted, namely spatial
control, the arrangement of flood discharge, regional arrangement of flood prone, increased
community role, and the management of Water Catchment Area (DTA). The implementation of
the flood control strategy is technically and non-technical. Technically, the flood control
strategy in which the strategy implementation review is carried out is the flood discharge
arrangement; in this case, it is done by the manufacture and maintenance of drainage channels,
normalization of drainage channels, reservoirs, and pumping canals. Non-technical flood
control strategy conducted is spatial control, regional arrangement prone to flooding, increasing
the role of community, and management of DTA. In general, implementation of flood control
strategy in Semarang City is done in areas that are points of vulnerable to the puddle and has
involved sub-districts in various flood control activities. The details of implementing the flood
control strategy can be seen in the table below.
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Table 1: Implementation of flood control strategy in Semarang City

No Flood Control Strategies Flood Control Activities Locations
Manufacture and maintenance West and East Semarang
of drainage channels; Major drainage drains Western canals
1 Flood discharge
Normalization of drainage lines and floods of eastern canals of
arrangement
Jatibarang Reservoir; Jatibarang Manyaran
Channel Pumping Tawang polder Canal
Control
2 Land use arrangements Protected area in Semarang City
Spatial planning
Regional settings prone to
3 Garbage Managements 16 Districts in Semarang City
flooding
Upstream of the river basin flooding the
eastern Canal, the roads of the protocols
Water Catchment Area
4 Basin Area (DAS) Management in the 16 districts of Semarang, fishing
management
villages along the coast of Semarang
City
Flood hazard warning
Community role
5 Public Information and 16 Districts in Semarang City
Enhancement
counseling
Source: Data Analysis (2017)
4. Result And Discussion

In the document Regional Medium Term Development Plan (RPJMD) of Semarang City 2016-
2021 has been listed five strategies for flood control in Semarang City (Kurniawan, 2003),
namely spatial control, the arrangement of flood discharge, regional arrangement of flood-
prone and rob, increasing the role of community, and management of Basin Spatial. These
programs are divided evenly into SKPD-SKPD, which is in government of Semarang City as
an executive according to basic tasks and functions (authority) respectively. The results of
authority analysis shows that there are at least seven SKPD related to the flood control
activities in Semarang City, either directly or indirectly, namely Bappeda, the marine service
and food prisoners, the Fire and Disaster Management Service, the Office of Environment and
Beauty management, public Works Office, social service, and the Office of Spatial and
building.
In accordance with the main task of each SKPD, each institution will arrange various programs
and activities that will be implemented annually which are expected to be useful to help flood
control program in the city of Semarang in an integrated. Each program that will be conducted
by the SKPD-SKPD is bound by a general policy set by the Government of Semarang in order
to reach the vision of Semarang City. Based on the analysis was conducted on the document
RPJMD Semarang City 2005-2010 and the results of interviews with the leadership of Bappeda
of Semarang City, flood control program in Semarang City related to the policy of area
development, spatial and environment divided into four main programs and 24 programs
conducted by five institutions.
SKPD is widely involved in flood control and technical is Bappeda, Office of Spatial and
Building, and Public Works office. The institutions involved in non-technical flood control are
the office of Environment and Beauty Management (PLH&K) and Sub-District. The results of
the analysis can also be known that there are several agencies that according to the task is
related to flood control and Rob but it is not listed as the implementation of flood control which
has been formulated, among them marine service and food security, fire department and
Disaster Management, and social service (Buchori et al., 2018).
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However, based on information from these agencies, they also have some activities that
indirectly support the implementation of the program as conducted by the Fire and Disaster
management department, which became one of the facilitators in the formation of disaster
control posts at the Sub-District level. Although the post that was formed was not specifically
aimed at the flood disaster and rob the city of Semarang (Dewi, 2007). The decision of an
SKPD to be instrumental in flood control programs is often not a capacity for SKPD to propose
or accept programs but has become a Decision taken by policy makers at higher levels. One of
the reasons presented by the key informant of several SKPD regarding the division and
implementation of flood control program, among others, due to the limited funds of activities
allocatde from local government and central government. In addition to the lack of
coordination and understanding of the SKPD's fuction related to flood control also resulted in
programs and activities of flood control and Rob not being one of the priorities for the related
SKPD.
5. Conclusion
Flood control requires an integrative approach from various fields. From the institutional and
civil society are sides of the stakeholders around the river. The coordinated between flood
control program and Rob as contained in the document of Regional medium Term
Development Plan (RPJMD) of Semarang City in 2016-2021. This implementation of control
activities review of the flood strategy implementation caused flood control carried out at
Regional Device Work Unit (SKPD) level in the city of Semarang becomes less optimal and
has not given significant results. Flood control and Rob in the city of Semarang requires
synchronization efforts between related institutions in flood control activities and Rob. The
understanding of the task of Regional Device Work Unit (SKPD) is the first step to develop
various flood control activities and Rob at Regional Device Work Unit (SKPD) level. The
capacity improvement of the apparatus in the understanding of the project is one of the
programs that can be implemented in each Regional Device Work Unit (SKPD).
In addition, there is also necessary coordination mechanisms between institutions related to

flood control activities so that the implementation does not overlap and each of the institutions
involved can properly run the cast. The establishment of an institution or working Group for
flood control is one way that can be pursued to bridge the issue of coordination and involve
civil society greatly affects the success of flood control. One of the efforts has been done by the
formation of the Flood River Forum West and East Banjir Kanal River, which its members
consist of various agencies and stakeholders, related to the flood canal of the west and East
Canals. However, this institution has not been able to participate formally in particular
concerning the planning of flood control in Semarang City but will be beneficial in raising
public awareness to be together and active role for the success of each government program
including flood control programs in Semarang City.
References
Buchori, I., Pramitasari, A., Sugiri, A., Maryono, M., Basuki, Y., & Sejati, A. W. (2018).
Adaptation to coastal flooding and inundation: Mitigations and migration pattern in
Semarang City, Indonesia. Ocean and Coastal Management.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.07.017
Dewi, A. (2007). Community-Based Analysis of Coping with Urban Flooding: a Case Study in
Semarang, Indonesia. International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth
Observation Enschede, the Netherlands.
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Handoyo, G., Suryoputro, A. A. D., & Subardjo, P. (2016). Genangan Banjir Rob Di
Kecamatan Semarang Utara. Jurnal Kelautan Tropis.
https://doi.org/10.14710/jkt.v19i1.601
Kurniawan, L. (2003). Kajian Banjir Rob Di Kota Semarang (Kasus Dadapsari). Alami: Jurnal
Teknologi Reduksi Risiko Bencana.
Nurjanah, N., & Rachmani, E. (2014). Demography and Social Determinants of Health
Literacy in Semarang City Indonesia. In International Conference on Health Literacy
and Health Promotion.
pemerintah kota semarang. PERATURAN DAERAH KOTA SEMARANG NOMOR 6
TAHUN 2010 TENTANG RENCANA PEMBANGUNAN JANGKA PANJANG
DAERAH (RPJPD) KOTA SEMARANG TAHUN 2005 – 2025 (2010). Indonesia.
Retrieved from http://ditjenpp.kemenkumham.go.id/files/ld/2010/kotasemarang-6-
2010.pdf
pemerintah kota semarang. peraturan daerah kota semarang NOMOR 14 TAHUN 2011 (2011).
Indonesia. Retrieved from http://bappeda.semarangkota.go.id/v2/wp-
content/uploads/2012/12/Perda-Kota-Semarang-Nomor-14-Tahun-2011.pdf
Rihoux, B., & Ragin, C. (2012). Configurational Comparative Methods: Qualitative
Comparative Analysis (QCA) and Related Techniques. Configurational Comparative
Methods: Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) and Related Techniques.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452226569
Wismarini, T., & Ningsih, D. (2010). Analisis Sistem Drainase Kota Semarang Berbasis Sistem
Informasi Geografi dalam Membantu Pengambilan Keputusan Bagi Penanganan
Banjir. None.
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Analysis Of Management Aspects Of E-Government

Implementation In Salatiga City
Bayu Joko Mulyono1, Sri Suwitri2, Endang Larasati3, Kismartini4

1,3,4
Faculties of Social and Political Sciences, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia
2 Faculty of Social and Political Science, Tidar University, Magelang, Indonesia
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: E-Government is a city government effort to moderate the order of local
governments, especially in Salatiga City. Through this system, community can access all
information and procedures of public service easily. The System can be accessed in every
public place and only requires an Internet connection. In addition, people can also organize
their aspirations regarding the procedures of implementing Government as well as the work
patterns of government organizations. Based on existing empirical data and the research
results show that high analytical ability of e-government mission vision. Almost every e-
government project inevitably involves an external government environment consisting of
various parties that partner with the government. The implementing network of e-government
projects must consist of various parties that are not only working together to build existing
applications, but furthermore must complement each other so that the implementation can
continue to be sustainable. Management dimension is the determining factor for empowering
the dimension of resource capacity of a local device.
Keywords: E-Government; Salatiga City; Organization; Various Parties; Resources

____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Communities have the right to obtain the best public service through the system and good
government work processes. The application of information technology will support the
government's performance in the ability to process, manage, transmit and distribute information
and public services. The electronic-based government system is expected to eliminate the
bureaucratic partition, as well as establish a network of management systems and work
processes that allow government agencies to work in an integrated form.
Kurniawan (2011) stated that one of the disadvantages of e-Government implementation in

Indonesia is that the service provided by the government site has not been supported by the
management system and effective work process because of the readiness of regulations,
procedures and HR limitations greatly limiting computerized penetration into the government
system. Kurniawan's opinion is similar to the opinion of Rokhman Ali (2008) who said that one
of the barriers to development of e-government if reviewed from the perspective of
bureaucracy as a public service provider through electronics is the aspect of Organoware. The
results of the research of Kurniawan (2011) and Rokhman Ali (2008) above indicate there is
still weakness in the institutional capacity of the local government in the implementation of E-
Government.
(Sosiawan, 2008) stated that one of the disadvantages of E-Government implementation in

Indonesia is that the service provided by the government site has not been supported by the
management system and effective work process because of the readiness of regulations,
procedures and Human Resource limitations greatly limiting computerized penetration into the
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government system. Kurniawan's opinion was similar to the opinion from (Rokhman, 2011)
stated that one of the barriers to development of e-government if reviewed from the perspective
of bureaucracy as a public service provider through electronics is the aspect of Organ ware.
The research results from (Rokhman, 2011; Sosiawan, 2008) above indicated that there is still
weakness in the institutional capacity of the local government in the implementation of E-
Government.
Some empirical conditions indicating the weakness in the management dimension of e-

government in Salatiga City so it is feasible to become research locus such as follows:
a. There is still a weakness of the governance of Electronic-Based Governance System
known, as SPBE is not yet the internal policies of each regional device for example:
There are no rules governing the internal policy of each regional device.
b. There is still a weakness aspects of planning
Empirical conditions that demonstrate the weaknesses of the planning aspects are related to
Electronic-Based Governance System (SPBE) Master plan and the management of
Communication and Information Technology budget only set up partially in other words each
unit runs by a different standard.
The expected Novelty of this study is the study of the dimension management in the
implementation of e-government in a local government. Based on the background of the
problem above, the problem that will be examined in this research is: how does the
management capacity of E-Government in regional device organization in Salatiga City? The
phenomena studied in this study are as follows: Strategic leadership and network/relationship
with the organization and other groups.
(Reddick & Anthopoulos, 2015) mentioned that one of the main areas of public administration
in the context of developed countries is public management. (Shan, Wang, Li, & Chen, 2012)
described four management subsystems, which are the dimensions of the Government's
institutional capacity, namely finance, human resources, capital and information technology
systems.
(Horton et al., 2003) mentioned that the management weakness in public policy management
was part of the institutional capacity study. One of the causes of weakness in the system and
the government work process is still weak public management, which is the dimension of
institutional capacity of public organizations. The improvement of public management as part
of the development of government institutional capacity should support the establishment of a
better working process to answer increasingly complex and dynamic changes in society. The
development of institutional capacity is part of the important and decisive bureaucracy that
leads to the effort to realize governance that fulfills the criterion of good governance (Gill,
Flynn, & Reissing, 2005).
(Horton et al., 2003) explained that this theory observed institutional capacity through a
capacity element that is resource and management. Later on, each component is broken down
into certain parts as supporting components. The management component consists of three
parts, namely leadership, programs and processes, as well as a network of cooperation.
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Development of the institutional capacity of e-government implementation through the

improvement of the dimension of public management can help build the system and work
process faster to facilitate various forms of complex interactions with the community, business
world, other institutions, and even the international community.
The responsibility of the manager of an E-Government project starts from planning to the
accountability aspect. A Structural official must be able to articulate the vision and mission of
its organization to be able to provide insight to those directly involved or other stakeholders
who are outside the structure of the project. (Indrajit, 2009) mentioned that Strategic leadership
is necessary to assess and interpret these necessities and opportunities outside the organization,
to establish direction, to influence and align others to common goals, to motivate them and to
commit to action, and to make them accountable for their performance. The Quality of
organizational leadership has a strong influence over its direction, staff motivation, and overall
performance (Horton et al., 2003).
Furthermore on (Grindle, 2011) identified the dimensions of factors affecting the

Organization's ability to achieve certain objectives, one of them: Task network dimension;
Refers to a group of organizations involved in the completion of any given assignment.
Performance is influenced by the extent to which the network is capable of encouraging
communication and coordination and to the extent that individuals in organizations on the
network can carry out their responsibilities effectively.
The opinion of (Kjær, 2011; Suwitri, 2014) stated that the power of policy networks or the
policy network depends on the level of integration, the membership establishment. In addition,
the resources and the good relationship between the policies network with the public, indicating
the internal strength of good organizations to be the key to maintaining relationships with the
external forces of the organization.
3. Research Method
The research results of research phenomena are as follows: strategic leadership in the agency as
the task of supporting function is well underway, this is evidenced by the function of
coordination between the regional Finance Agency, Regional Development Planning Board
and BKDIKLATDA in supporting the activities of the Department of Communication and
Informatics in the field of e-government.
Strategic leadership in the course of planning, conducting budget lobbies, detecting project
barriers to the regional Finance Agency, Regional Development Planning Board and
BKDIKLATDA are already running well. The strategic leadership of the three agencies can run
optimally because the intermediate managers of Head Agency has technical capability in
business process mastery over the procedures of task execution, so as to provide facilitation in
an e-government project planning and in improving Human Resource capability in e-
government.
Based on existing empirical data, and the research results show that the high analytical ability
of the E-government mission vision and the ability to develop e-government project planning
has not been held by some of the leaders on the technical level (Agency). Field and section of
the regional office is a lower-level implementers that functioned to ensure the process of
changing inputs into output can be done well, so that organizational units at the level have a
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very strategic role in the process of implementing work into an e-government project planning
that is mature and comprehensive. A manager at the level is required to be able to translate the
technical policy of e-government projects:
This classification includes: (a) Understanding the human resource existing and resource
conditions, (b) articulating the vision of the Mission, (c) Understanding its task, (d) planning,
(e) conducting coordination with various stakeholders, (f) analyzing the problem, and (g)
Mastering the information technology. These lightweight loads require excellent educational
qualifications and technical capabilities, especially the ability and knowledge in the field of
information technology. Bases on the existing data, senior managers have a standard
qualification to implement this, resulting in a less development of E-Government
implementation in the technical service.

Networks And Relationships With Organizations And Other Groups
Almost every E-Government project inevitably involves an external government environment
consisting of various parties that partner with the government. The implementing network of e-
government projects should consist of various parties that are not only working together to
build existing applications, but furthermore must complement each other so that the
implementation can continue to be sustainable for long term (Indrajit, 2009).
(Daerah, 2018) about E-Government has not arranged specifically about the need for synergy
between local governments with related components, however in the Master plan has been
discussed about the importance of involvement of all stakeholders and private parties in the
development of E-Government. (Pemerintah RI.SPBE, 2018) about the government of
electronic based system has been more explicit about the need for synergy between various
parties related to the development of E-Government. (Pemerintah RI.SPBE, 2018) mandated
the need to build a SPBE collaboration forum between Governments with non-government.
Collaborative Forum is expected to be an informal container in order to exchange information
and increase the implementation capacity of SPBE for local governments, colleges, research
institutes, business actors, and communities.
Aspects of cooperation between the governments of Salatiga City with external parties are well
established, especially with the regional People's representative Council, private parties and the
public. Collaboration is not in the form of a particular forum but in cooperation in supporting
the ongoing project planned by the city government. The House of Representatives of Salatiga
City strongly encouraged the efforts of the Government of Salatiga City to increase the quality
of E-Government implementation. Proof of support from the PARLIAMENT of Salatiga City
is the estimated budget IDR. 14,540,019,000.00 In fiscal year 2019 for the development of E-
Government in Salatiga City. The chairperson of Regional Representative and vice chairperson
of Regional Representative are very understanding about the importance of E-Government in
improving public services. The understanding of the legislature arises because of various
initiatives from the legislative to learn from other regions and active communication from the
head of the Department of Communication and Informatics in explaining the work programs
and targets that should be fulfill in order to accelerate the process of the application of e-
government in Salatiga City.
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Private parties have a huge role for the advancement of E-Government in Salatiga City. The
creation of the master plan and part of the application is implemented by involving the private
sector as a service provider because of the limited capabilities of the resources owned by
regional devices. The positive side of collaboration with private parties is an increase in the
ability Civil Servants resources through best practice when collaborating on the creation of e-
government projects. It is possible because (Daerah, 2018) about E-Government has set up the
requirements that must be met in the application creation. The private parties who are invited to
cooperate in E-Government project by the government of Salatiga City have a good ability; this
is seen from the never happening in the E-Government project.
The benchmark of the on line service is the level of Public Satisfaction. Public satisfaction
Index of the services provided by the PMPTSP (Investment and Integrated One Door Service)
in Salatiga City is high; this is because the service personnel at the front office can carry out
their duties well.
The Government of Salatiga City has not established a collaborative forum involving all
external stakeholders related to e-government development such as community, college, private
sector and legislative circles. The establishment of a forum mandated by (Pemerintah RI.SPBE,
2018) about the Government of electronic based system is expected to increase efforts to solve
various barriers in the development of E-Government.
5. Conclusion
Management dimension is the determining factor for empowering the dimension of resource
capacity of a local device. The dimension of management in this study encompasses strategic
and network leadership aspects and relationships with other organizations. Based on empirical
data of research results, it can be concluded as follows:
Leadership Strategy
The role of structural officials in ensuring the implementation of e-government projects is vital,
because strategic leadership is very influential in the process of planning, implementing, and
evaluating and reports budgets. The lack of human resources quality leads to strategic
leadership in the implementation of e-government not maximums. The lack strategic leadership
is because senior officers have faced difficulty to follow the development of information
technology knowledge, so that it becomes a barrier in the development of e-government. The
basic ability of a manager in the implementation of e-government such as follows: (a)
understanding the human resource condition and resources, (b) articulating the vision of the
Mission. (c) understanding its task, (d) making plans, (e) Performing coordination with various
stakeholders, (f) analyzing the problem, and (g) Mastering the information technology has not
been properly owned by the structural officials on the local device.
Network and Relationship with Other Organization

Aspects of network relations with other organizations include relations with legislative, private
and community parties. The House of Representatives of Salatiga City strongly encouraged the
efforts of the Government of Salatiga City to increase the quality of e-government
implementation. Private parties have a huge role for the advancement of e-government in
Salatiga City. The positive side of collaboration with private parties is an increase in the ability
of civil servants resources through best practice when collaborating on the creation of e-
government projects. The private parties who are invited to cooperate in the E-Government
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project by the government of Salatiga City have a good ability; this is seen from the never
happening in E-Government project. The public satisfaction index of the services provided by
the PMPTSP (Investment and Integrated One Door Service) of Salatiga City is high.
The Government of Salatiga City has not established a collaborative forum involving all
external stakeholders related to e-government development such as community, college, private
sector and legislative circles. The collaboration Forum is the mandate from (Pemerintah
RI.SPBE, 2018) on the electronic-based government system, but it has not been regulated in
(Daerah, 2018) on E-Government.
References
Daerah, P. (2018). Peraturan Daerah Nomor 11 Tahun 2018 Penyelenggaraan E-Government.
salatiga. Retrieved from https://jdih.salatiga.go.id/Perda.php?i=1335&
Gill, M., Flynn, R. J., & Reissing, E. (2005). The governance self-assessment checklist: An
instrument for assessing board effectiveness. Nonprofit Management and
Leadership. https://doi.org/10.1002/nml.69
Grindle, M. S. (2011). Good Enough Governance. Development Policy Review.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2007.00385.x
Horton, D., Alexaki, A., Bennett-Lartey, S., Brice, K. N., Campilan, D., Carden, F., … Duong,
L. T. (2003). Evaluating Capacity Development Experiences from Research and
Development Organizations around the World. Journal of Sport Management.
Indrajit, R. E. (2009). Tata kelola teknologi informasi - (. CommIT.
Kjær, A. M. (2011). Rhodes’ contribution to governance theory Praise, criticism and the future
governance debate. Public Administration. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
9299.2011.01903.x
Pemerintah RI.SPBE. (2018). Peraturan Presiden Nomor 95 Tahun 2018 tentang Sistem
Pemerintahan Berbasis Elektronik. Media Hukum.
Reddick, C. G., & Anthopoulos, L. (2015). Information and communication technologies in
public administration: Innovations from developed countries. Information and
Communication Technologies in Public Administration: Innovations from
Developed Countries. https://doi.org/10.1201/b18321
Rokhman, A. (2011). E-Government Adoption in Developing Countries; the Case of Indonesia.
Journal of Emerging Trends in Computing and Information Sciences.
Shan, S., Wang, L., Li, L., & Chen, Y. (2012). An emergency response decision support system
framework for application in e-government. Information Technology and
Management. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10799-012-0130-0
Sosiawan, E. A. (2008). Tantangan Dan Hambatan Dalam Implementasi E-Government Di
Indonesia. Seminar Nasional Informatika.
Suwitri, S. (2014). Konsep Dasar Kebijakan Publik. In Analisis Kebijakan Publik.
https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.12.054
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Assessing The Relationships Between Information Seeking,

Motives Of Using Social Media, And Information Sharing On Haze
And Air Pollution Among IIUM Students
Faiswal Kasirye1, Hassan Radwan Jamal2, Saodah Wok3, Md Saydul Haque4
Department of Communication, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) Jalan Gombak

53100 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: kasirye.faiswa@gmail.com

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Haze and air pollution have become a major problem among the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries. Haze occurs almost every year, mainly due to
activities done by farmers and factories within this region. Little research has been conducted
to find out how this issue is addressed by institutions of higher learning such as the
International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM), especially by linking information seeking
and information sharing using social platforms. Therefore, this study was set out to examine
the information seeking and information sharing on haze and air pollution among IIUM
students. Specifically, this study aimed to determine the relationship between information
seeking, information sharing, and the motives for using social media among IIUM students
during the occurrence of haze and air pollution. The study utilized the agenda setting theory to
explain the relationship between the variables. A total of 389 respondents participated in the
study. Based on the quantitative research design and the survey method with questionnaire as a
data collection tool, the study found that students normally look for information on haze and
air pollution from the Internet. Findings also revealed the existence of a strong significant
relationship between all the variables in the study. The results translate that the more the
respondents desire to seek information on haze and air pollution, the more they will want to
share it on social media platforms. Overall, the agenda setting theory is supported in this
study.
Keywords: agenda setting theory, environmental degradation, haze and air pollution,
information seeking, information sharing, motives
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Background of the Study
As indicated by the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 7 million deaths or 1 in 8 of
the number of deaths worldwide can be ascribed to indoor and open-air pollution, resulting in
haze being viewed as one of the most perilous natural causes of cancer-related deaths.
The environment is a crucial part of the lives of human beings in society. Air pollution
nowadays has become a serious cause for concern in Malaysia. It is getting harder to control
day by day, becoming an immense threat for current and future generations. Haze causes
serious air pollution; which Malaysia has been facing for the past 30 years. Haze is traditionally
an atmospheric phenomenon in which dust, smoke, and other dry particles obscure the clarity
of the sky. In recent years, people have become more interested in knowing the seriousness of
haze through social media rather than mainstream media (Wu & Li, 2017). As noted by some
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researchers such as Bastide, Moatti, and Fagnani (1989), mainstream media has frequently
been used as a primary source of information about haze.
This paper examines the information seeking and information sharing on haze among
International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) students. Specifically, this study focuses on
the relationships of both information seeking and IIUM students’ motives for using social
media with information sharing.
Statement of the Problem

The haze phenomenon is not a new issue in Malaysia and the surrounding Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries. Hence, it is not surprising that the issue has been
of interest to many researchers in recent years. Haze is mostly caused by environmental
degradation activities and industrial wastes from factories.
The signing of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution on 10 June 2002
among ASEAN countries has resulted in increased efforts being exerted on stabilizing these
countries and studying how they can further address the issue of haze and air pollution. These
efforts include sharing updates of the periodic air pollution index (API) and finding possible
permanent solutions to the issue. However, some sectors have not received adequate attention
in resolving the issue, such as higher learning institutions. In IIUM, for example, the only
solution for haze and air pollution thus far is by closing the university for a specific time
period, but students are not provided with adequate information about how haze and air
pollution can be prevented. This study views that students should seek information on various
platforms about the causes of haze and air pollution, followed by sharing the information that
they acquired with others.
Additionally, little research has been done to link information seeking and information sharing
to institutions of higher learning, particularly IIUM. Therefore, this paper examines the levels
of information seeking and information sharing among IIUM students regarding the haze issue
as well as the relationships among information seeking, motives for using the social media, and
information sharing on the same issue.
Research Objectives
This study aims to determine the information seeking and information sharing on haze and air
pollution among IIUM students. Specifically, this study aims to:
1. find out the level of information seeking about haze and air pollution among IIUM
undergraduate students;
2. examine IIUM undergraduate students’ motives for using social media during the
occurrence of haze and air pollution;
3. ascertain the level of information sharing about haze and air pollution among IIUM
undergraduate students; and
4. investigate the relationships of information seeking and the motives for using social
media with information sharing during a haze and air pollution crisis.
Significance of the Study

This study contributes to the existing body of knowledge on information seeking and
information sharing through the underlying framework of agenda setting theory. Limited
research has focused on institutions of higher learning even though these institutions are always
closed whenever haze and air pollution occurs. Hence, this paper attempts to fill the research
gaps on information seeking and information sharing on haze among IIUM students. This study
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may also broaden the knowledge on the levels of information seeking and information sharing
among IIUM students and other institutions of higher learning at large.
The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution has been instrumental in keeping all
the signatory countries alert of the common haze problem affecting those countries. Those
countries share information and regular updates of the API statuses in their respective countries
to enable them to track the occurrence of the problem. Therefore, this research hopes to help
the ASEAN countries close the gaps in information sharing about haze amongst them.
The growing importance of the media as a source of information during times of uncertainty,
the increasing popularity of social media, and the decline in global levels of media credibility
(Edelman Trust Barometer, 2018) further stress the importance and need for research on the
information seeking and information sharing among IIUM students regarding the haze issue.
Concerning practical implications, this study hopes to provide insight to media institutions,
government agencies, and higher learning institutions into how information seeking and
information sharing on different credible media can help address the haze and air pollution
issue among students in higher learning institutions and the public at large. In achieving this
aim, this study paves the way for further research by exploring the relationship between
information seeking, the motives for using social media, information sharing during a haze and
air pollution crisis.
Information Seeking on Haze
While information seeking has been studied extensively since the 1950s, the early studies
mostly focused on information seeking among researchers and scientists. For the past 20 years,
information seeking studies tended to focus on the general population, particularly student
groups and communities. In 1983, James Krikelas created the principal model for the study of
information seeking among the general population and student groups. This model proposed
that the steps of information seeking are (1) seeing a need, (2) the search itself, (3) looking for
or searching for the information, and (4) utilizing the information, which results in either
satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Krikelas (cited in Weiler, 2005) expressed that “information-
seeking starts when somebody sees that the present condition of learning is not ideal as it
should be to solve certain issues. The procedure finishes when the perception no longer exists.”
The field of information seeking behavior in Information Science can be defined as that which
determines users’ information needs and looks at behavior and the consequent utilization of
information (Julien, 1996). It often seeks to understand how people look for and utilize
information, the channels used to obtain information, and the factors that prevent or support the
use of information, including consumer behavior, organizational decision-making, health
communication, innovation research, and requirements in information design (Wilson, 1997).
In this way, there exists a solid acknowledgment among information scientists of the
interconnectivity of disciplines engaged with inquiring on all parts of information (Ikoja-
Odongo & Mostert, 2005).
However, a growing importance that has been less explored is the circumstances in which
situational attributes may present unique conditions for the information seeking behavior.
Savolainen (1993) expresses situations as “the time-¬space context in which sense is
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constructed” (p. 17). In the system of sense making, this implies circumstances are not
objective attributes; however, they reflect people’s reaction to a given circumstance.
Vakkari (1997), in expressing the significance of studying the impact of society, called for
more consideration be paid to “activities, tasks and situations” that have fundamental powers in
forming information behavior. Since the interpretation of a circumstance relies upon individual
sense making, it infers that the study of situational components can be vague, since it can lie in
a range from passive or reflexive monitoring of a circumstance to seeking answers for a
particular issue (Waldron & Dervin, 1988). There are several information-seeking behavior
models, for example, Dervi’s sense-production approach that recognizes the importance and
significance of context and time in the information-seeking behavior. Savolainen (2006) tried
to conceptualize time by recognizing three parts of temporality: time connected with social
factors to deliver informational behavior, time as a requirement for reducing and creating
individual informational behavior, and time as a certain connection for linear activities-related
informational behavior.
Allen (2011) provides experimental representations on what time-constrained information

behavior can resemble. Such experimental work is crucial and more still needs to be done, and
time is nevertheless one aspect of context.
Information Sharing on Haze

Digital media forums such as social networking sites, blogs, and other tools are becoming part
of the present day communication platforms for sharing important information with people’s
loved ones in a timely manner. This is so because of the wide user coverage and base that they
hold in spreading information at a fast speed and in a viral manner. Organizations including
governments have also become increasingly part of those that use social media platforms to
interact with their people (Asuni & Farris, 2011; Mungiu-Pippidi, 2009) and audiences at large.
For example, today, some organizations conduct surveys on social media platforms to obtain
feedback from their clients and supporters, to gather opinions about a certain matter or subject
of discussion, and to find solutions about how they can improve on a particular product or
service (Pingitore, Li, Gigliotti, & Eckert, 2012; Wilkinson & Thelwall, 2012).
Aisha, Wok, Manaf, and Ismail (2015) in their study found that the victims of the 2014 floods
in Malaysia were heavily reliant on WhatsApp and Facebook in seeking and sharing relevant
information regarding the floods. This scenario further confirms that social platforms are the
quickest forms of media that can transfer any kind of information in the shortest period of time
during a calamity like haze. This is done through following the different platforms or
celebrities that are massively followed for such information. Frequent use of these platforms
during a calamity like haze consequently result in the development of sharing behavior of the
same information being relayed on the different platforms (Aisha et al., 2015). Hence, social
media platforms and advanced new technological communication gadgets play a crucial role
during natural disasters like haze and air pollution.
Many users of social media that engage target audiences and share information have reported
constructive results (Lewis, 2010; Mergel, 2010). However, they have also mentioned several
reservations. The most important reservation associated with the use of social media is the
credibility of both the information shared and its sources. Hence, some organizations and
people continue to rely on contemporary means of acquiring information and sharing it. Some
governments may prefer fast means of sending out effective communication, which may
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include using a digital platform. Nevertheless, these governments have the obligation to cater
to their citizens that are still relying on other means of communication such as the newspapers,
television and radio station to receive such information. A few people regard these old means
as the only trusted sources for sharing and obtaining important information. In a study
conducted by Santana and Wood (2009), the issue of the credibility of information sources was
raised as a non-trivial factor that may be responsible for the effective utilization of the
information shared on media platforms. Information credibility can be defined as the ability to
verify the information shared on selected media platforms.
Epistemologically, there are three main sources of information, namely, primary, secondary,
and tertiary information. This categorization is based on the viewpoint of the information
provider. Primary information includes original materials that are created first without going
through interpretation such as posting about an event, diary entries, telephone conversations,
and text messages. Secondary information refers to the information recorded in published
books, journal articles, commentaries, and biographies. This embodies the interpretation and
evaluation of primary information. Lastly, tertiary information refers to the collection and or a
combination of primary and secondary information such as encyclopedias, calendars, and fact
books. Therefore, information shared on social platforms can be regarded as primary,
secondary, or tertiary based on the importance and dynamism attached to the information
shared.
In recent years, social media and other digital platforms have been increasingly used for
responding to emergencies and creating situational awareness such as the occurrence of haze
and air pollution (Qu, Huang, Zhang & Zhang, 2011; Starbird & Palen, 2012). Digital media
platforms such as WhatsApp, Facebook, and Twitter have been actively solicited in such
emergency situations to enable fast information reach to the intended audiences. These media
platforms are often used in emergency situations including disaster occurrences like hazards,
haze, and flood. The platforms are also engaged to solicit support and aid for the affected
victims. Additionally, sometimes they are used to publicize the pictures, names, and addresses
of missing persons so that relatives, friends, or anyone else can find them easily and help with
reuniting them with their loved ones.
Other platforms like email, billboards, television, and radio also play the same role, although
the rate of their dissemination is slow compared to that of the social media platforms. The
sharing of information always depends on people’s behavior and attitude towards the subject
they want to share (Wang et al., 2018). The importance of information means that information
sharing among people is not only a social and enjoyable activity but also a serious activity, in
which the actual sharing of information is emphasized along with the quality of the information
people share. Members of a certain group may be categorized according to their perceived
usefulness and helpfulness of the information they share and select for further interactions in a
given society. In addition, information sharing may extend beyond social, familiarity, or
genealogical circles to the broader community and other areas of human lives.
Yang and Maxwell (2011) in their study offered a framework for information sharing by
identifying a “highly social and pleasant” information behavior in which people store and recall
the information needs of others and share the acquired information with others as well.
Additionally, the researchers acknowledged that cognitive, affective, motivational, and
procedural needs of people lead them to acquiring and sharing information. This is also
applicable to the issue of sharing information on haze and air pollution. Some people simply do
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not know what to do in disasters, including during the occurrence of haze and air pollution.
However, the sharing of information triggers their memory of the responsibility they hold over
their lives. When a person acquires information about haze and air pollution, they may feel
encouraged to share it with others through other recognizable platforms they have access to that
are convenient for them.
Taija and Hansen (2006) reported that people share information with their peers and the general
public mainly to maintain a form of connection and sustain social relationships. Awareness
about haze and air pollution has risen in recent years, especially after the signing of the
transboundary haze agreement between ASEAN countries in 2002. The countries had
acknowledged the haze issue for more than two decades and started to formally address the
problem in 1995 with the establishment of the Haze Technical Task Force under the ASEAN
Senior Officials on the Environment, which also doubles as the ASEAN committee designated
to help tackle this regional issue. Solutions that have been implemented include formulating a
Regional Haze Action Plan and organizational frameworks to deter, track, and minimize fires
and haze, in particular, the possible adverse transboundary effects on neighboring countries and
cities.
The ASEAN countries have established a specialized Meteorological Centre, based in

Singapore, which supports the tracking of hotspots and haze movements as well as providing
periodic forecasts of weather conditions to the member countries across the region. The
member countries then embark on the journey of sharing that information with their respective
departments, which later distribute it to various media platforms for public consumption.
The governments of the different ASEAN countries have devised the means for alerting the
public as and when haze is likely to occur for the avoidance of airborne diseases (Zhang &
Xiong, 2017). They introduced more efficient and timely sharing of information by identifying
specific locations of land clearance, hotspots, and actual burning areas as well as haze
movement among ASEAN member states in order to promote early prevention systems and
enhance quick responses, thus contributing to tackling the problems immediately rather than
allowing them to go out of control. The major focus here is the sharing of this vital information
with the public in a timely manner for better responses to the problem. Additionally, people
will share relevant information according to the value they attach to it. If the information is not
trustworthy or the bearer of the message does not attach value to it, chances are that they are
not going to find time to share the said information.
Motives for Using Social Media

People join a virtual community primarily to seek information, social support, friendship, and
recreation (Ridings & Gefen, 2004). Similarly, people may use social networks to gain
information, social or emotional support, a sense of belonging, encouragement, and
companionship not only from existing social relationships but also from newly developed
relationships based on similar interests, tastes, and goals (Wellman & Gulia, 1999).
Urista, Dong, and Day (2011) indicated that social networks are highly popular among the
people due to their openness and transparency. Transparency allows people to obtain
information on others quickly. They acquire access to personal information about other people
through social networks without the other party’s knowledge.
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Apart from visiting websites for entertainment purposes, people visit these networks primarily
for news and information. Norris (1996) noted that watching news and information on
television programs was viewed as keeping in touch with the world at large. As such, the
consumption of news and information appears to be positively related to increased civic
participation and interpersonal trust (Norris, 1996; Shah, McLeod, & Yoon, 2001).
Social media has been characterized as an accumulation or gathering of Web-based stages that
enable people to make, expend, and offer content. Through the social media, clients can
connect with the creation and transference of data, alongside the plausibility of interfacing with
others. Presently, there are various social media stages for social systems administration
destinations (e.g., Facebook), microblogging (e.g., Twitter), video sharing (e.g., YouTube), and
others.
For McQuail (1987), obtaining information includes finding out about relevant events and
conditions in immediate surroundings, society, and the world. The process includes asking for
advice on practical issues or on the option of opinion and judgment, which encourages
curiosity and personal interest. In addition, reading and self-learning allow people to gain a
sense of security; these are the reasons for using social networks to seek information (McQuail,
1987).
Until recently, some studies on social networks concentrate on specific phenomena with regard
to usage (Choi, 2006; Ellison, Steinfield & Lampe, 2007; Lampe, Ellison & Steinfield, 2007)
or on a single social network site (Govani & Pashley, 2005; Gross & Acquisti, 2005; Holme,
Edling & Liljeros, 2004; Schaefer, 2008). Little research has been conducted on the motives for
using social media (Schaefer, 2008). Nonetheless, the factors motivating the patronage of a
specific site have remained unclear. This paper thus explores users’ motives for using social
media. Drawing on this study’s findings and existing research, it is hoped that this study could
link the motives to the seeking and sharing of information about haze on the different sites that
the users patronize. However, during the occurrence of haze in Malaysia, most of the
educational institutions are closed to protect students from the adverse effects of haze.
Agenda Setting Theory

Agenda setting theory was introduced in 1972 by two college professors, Maxwell McCombs
and Donald Shaw. In their survey of North Carolina voters during the 1968 U.S. presidential
election, they found that what people thought were the most important issues were what the
mass media reported as the most critical.
Thus, agenda setting theory was born, built on the notion that the mass media sets the agenda
for what people should care about. The theory states that news plays an important part in the
shaping of issues in the media. The amount of time spent on an issue and the information
relayed in a news story, along with the story’s position, determine how much a reader learns
and the extent of importance of the issue. Additionally, the theory elaborates that when the
media reflects on the views of a candidate during a campaign, they are also shaping and
determining the issues of importance. This can ultimately set the agenda for a political
campaign.
Technological advances have provided a number of avenues for influencing the masses. At the
beginning of the agenda setting theory, communication was conducted primarily via radio,
print, film, and television. Today, with the advances in technology, communication sources are
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nearly unlimited, thereby enabling greater public engagement and setting the trend for
increased attention on agenda setting.
As recognized by Matsaganis and Payne (2005), agenda setting theory has been widely used
after McCombs and Shaw’s discoveries in 1972. During their observations, McCombs and
Shaw (1972) in the Chapel Hill study noted that the central ideas of theoretical analogy are a
media and public agenda, as well as the transfer of salience on the media agenda to the public
agenda. Salience alludes to the unmistakable quality and significance of items in the news. It
means that agenda setting impacts are an accidental consequence of people’s utilization of the
news media.
Agenda setting is chosen for this study because social media platforms relay messages on a
large extent and in a very fast manner. Therefore, these platforms can reach millions of people
in a matter of seconds and sometimes, turning an issue viral, depending on its substance.
Therefore, the information relayed and shared on social media platforms in most cases set the
agenda for the public attention and commentary, which makes this theory fit for the current
study.
Conceptual framework
Information
seeking on
haze H1
H3
Information
sharing on haze
Motivation for H2
using social
media
Figure 1: Conceptual framework for information seeking, information sharing, and motivation for using
social media on haze
Hypotheses
Based on the literature review and the conceptual framework, the following hypotheses were
formulated.
H1: There is a positive relationship between information seeking and information sharing on
haze and air pollution.
H2: There is a positive relationship between the motives for using social media and information
sharing during the occurrence of haze and air pollution.
3. Research Methodology
Research Design
The study employed the quantitative research design using the survey method, which is suitable
for collecting large sets of data in a short time. Data were gathered using a self-administered
questionnaire from November 20 until December 4, 2019.
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Population and Sampling Procedure

Responses were gathered from undergraduate students of IIUM in all Kulliyyahs to understand
how they were affected by haze and air pollution. Undergraduate students were chosen under
the assumption that they use social media on a daily basis for different purposes and that they
may be exposed to the problems caused by haze and air pollution.
A sample size of 389 students was acquired through the stratified random sampling method.
The population was divided into subgroups according to their Kulliyyah or faculty, and the
respondents were randomly selected from each group.
Instrumentation and Measurement

The instrument used in this study is a survey questionnaire. To enhance the number of
responses from the respondents, this study used two self-administered methods for data
collection, namely, (1) face-to-face self-administered questionnaire and (2) online survey using
a Google form, after which the data were computed for analysis.
Data from both the face-to-face questionnaire and the online Google form were collected at the
IIUM main campus in Gombak during a two-week period. A self-administered questionnaire
ensures that respondents are free from pressure of impressing the researcher. In addition, a
questionnaire helps to save the researcher’s time and cost. Moreover, a questionnaire is
adaptable and has the ability to minimize bias (Powell, 1999).
The questionnaire used for data collection in this study was structured into four sections.
Section One focused on the general demographic data of the respondents, Section Two asked
questions on information seeking on haze and air pollution, Section Three assessed the
respondents’ motives for using social media during the occurrence of haze and air pollution,
and lastly, Section Four featured the sharing of information on haze and air pollution. Sections
Two and Three represented the independent variables of the study, whereas Section Four
focused on the dependent variable.
Multiple questions in Sections 2, 3, and 4 of the questionnaire employed a 5-point Likert-like

scale to measure the extent of frequency of the items. The Likert-like scale is in the range of 1–
5, where 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, and 5 = always for all sections.
Additionally, the overall variable was computed to form a mean score with a minimum of 1
and a maximum of 5. To calculate the overall percentage of an item, the mean for each item
was multiplied by 20, and based on the 5-point scale, this is equivalent to 100%. Therefore, an
overall percentage is acquired by multiplying the mean score by 100 and dividing by 5 (Wok &
Hashim, 2014).
Three variables were considered in this survey, namely, information seeking about haze and air
pollution, motives for using the social media, and information sharing about haze and air
pollution. Information seeking has 10 items, such as “I seek information about haze and air
pollution from the media” and “I frequently look for news on haze and air pollution on
WhatsApp.” Motives for using social media also have 10 items, such as “I use social media to
know the right preventive actions towards haze”, “I use social media to help people who are
affected by the haze through haze information”, and “I use social media to get everyone around
me know the severity haze pollution.” Both information seeking and motives are the
independent variables, whereas the dependent variable is information sharing about haze and
air pollution. Information sharing has 10 items, such as “I frequently share information about
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haze and air pollution with my peers and family through Facebook”, “I discuss haze and air
pollution prevention with my friends”, and “I share information about haze and air pollution on
Instagram.”
Validity and Reliability

A pilot study (N = 30) was conducted before the actual study to measure the flow and content
of the questions, as well as any problems faced by the respondents. The questionnaire was also
reviewed and approved by an expert in the field. Internal reliability test was conducted using
Cronbach’s alpha. The data collected from the pilot study indicated that all the items for the
three variables were significant and exceeded the minimum Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.70,
thus indicating the reliability of the variables. Table 1 shows that the results of the pilot study
confirm internal cohesiveness and consistency of the variables with the Cronbach’s alpha
values of α = .898 for the motives for using social media, α = .737 for information seeking on
haze and air pollution, and lastly, α = .735 for information sharing on haze and air pollution.
For the actual study, the motives for using social media obtained α = .916, information sharing
on haze and air pollution recorded α = .897, and information seeking on haze and air pollution
achieved α = .851. Based on these results, the variables are reliable enough to be used in the
actual study.
Table 1: Mean, standard deviation, and reliability values of variables in the study
Number
No. Variables (N = 30) M* SD Reliability (Cronbach’s α)
of items
Pilot Actual study
study No. of items (N = 389)
(N = 30)
1 Seeking information on haze 3.164 0.683 10 .737 10 .851
Motives for using social media
2 3.553 0.731 10 .898 10 .916
during haze
3 Sharing information on haze 2.860 0.805 10 .735 10 .897
*On a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, and 5 = always
Data Analysis
Data from the study were compiled and analyzed using SPSS Version 23. Then descriptive and
inferential statistical analyses were carried out. The descriptive analysis includes frequencies,
percentages, means and standard deviations, whereas the inferential analysis includes one-
sample t-tests and zero-order correlation. Specifically, for research objectives 1, 2, and 3, the
data were analyzed using one sample t-test with a test value of 3, while question 4 was tested
using correlation. Additional analysis was done using Hierarchical Regression Analysis.
4. Findings
Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents
The study analyzed a sample of 389 respondents from the target population. Table 2 shows that
the proportion of male (45.5%) to female (54.5%) respondents is about the same. About three-
quarters of the respondents were within the age group of 21–25 years old (74.8%), followed by
19.3% who were less than 20 years old, and the least number of respondents were in the 26–30
years old age group (5.9%). In terms of their highest level of education, approximately a third
of the respondents had a foundation education (31.1%), followed by college/diploma (24.7%),
and degree (24.4%), while the least number of respondents were those with STPM/A-Level
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(19.8%). Malaysian students (73.3%) formed almost three-quarters of the respondents and the
rest (26.7%) were international students. The levels of study are well represented: first year
(22.1%), second year (27.8%), third year (26.0%), and fourth year (24.2%).
Table 2: Demographic characteristics of the respondents

Demographic characteristic Category Frequency Percentage
Gender Male 177 45.5
Female 212 54.5
Total 389 100
Age Less than 20 75 19.3
21–25 291 74.8
26–30 23 5.9
Total 389 100
Highest education Foundation 121 31.1
STPM/A-Level 77 19.8
College/Diploma 96 24.7
Degree 95 24.4
Total 389 100
Nationality Malaysian 285 73.3
International 104 26.7
Total 389 100
Year of study First 86 22.1
Second 108 27.8
Third 101 26.0
Fourth 94 24.2
Total 389 100
Information Seeking on Haze and Air Pollution

Table 3 shows that overall, most of the respondents sought information on haze and air
pollution (63.2%), with the mean value of 3.164 (SD = 0.683) and t = 4.752 (p = .000). They
sought information on haze and air pollution from various platforms, namely, from the Internet
(74.9%), the media (73.5%), government media platforms (67.9%), WhatsApp (64.0%),
government websites (63.5%), television (63.3%), and Instagram (63.1%). However, the
respondents hardly spent much of their free time looking for information about haze and air
pollution reduction (51.5%) and asking medical practitioners (e.g., doctors, pharmacists) on
how to keep healthy during the haze occurrence (51.3%).
The findings imply that most of the respondents had high levels of information seeking on haze
and air pollution and they sought information regarding haze and air pollution on various
platforms. Therefore, research objective 1 is answered.
Table 3: One sample t-test for information seeking on haze and air pollution
No. Information Seeking (N = 389) M* SD % t** df p
I normally look for information on haze and air
1 3.745 0.991 74.9 14.822 388 .000
pollution from the Internet.
I seek information about haze and air pollution from
2 3.676 0.988 73.5 13.489 388 .000
the media.
I search for information about haze on the
3 3.398 1.104 67.9 7.116 388 .000
government media platforms.
I frequently look for news on haze and air pollution
4 3.200 1.077 64.0 3.671 388 .000
on WhatsApp.
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I look for haze updates on government websites to be

5 3.179 1.076 63.5 3.298 388 .001
informed.
I seek important information about haze and air
6 3.169 1.092 63.3 3.064 388 .002
pollution on television.
I search for reliable source of information about haze
7 3.159 1.084 63.1 2.899 388 .004
and air pollution on Instagram.
I look into the newspapers about the haze and air
8 2.974 1.049 59.4 -0.483 388 .629
pollution.
I spend much of my free time looking for information
9 2.575 1.172 51.5 -7.138 388 .000
about haze and air pollution reduction.
I ask medical practitioners (e.g., doctors,
10 2.568 1.285 51.3 -6.625 388 .000
pharmacists) on how to keep healthy during haze
Overall Mean for Information Seeking 3.164 0.683 63.2 4.752 388 .000
*On a 5-point Likert-like scale, where 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, and 5 = always. ** test
value = 3
Information Sharing on Haze and Air Pollution

The one sample t-test results for students’ level of information sharing about the occurrence of
haze and air pollution are presented in Table 4. The results show that, on the whole, the
respondents hardly shared information on haze and air pollution (t = −3.407, p = .001). They
shared information on only certain attributes such as to discuss with their house/dorm mates
about haze and air pollution (67.9%), to alert family members about haze and air pollution
through their WhatsApp daily chats (66.7%), to discuss haze and air pollution prevention with
their friends (64.2%), and to discuss haze and air pollution in their daily conversations with
friends (63.1%). Other than that, they did not share information about haze and air pollution in
their classroom or on Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, and e-mail. These findings
revealed that the respondents did not share information on haze and air pollution that much.
When they did, they used only selected medium and they preferred to share information on
haze and air pollution on a face-to-face basis and through WhatsApp. Therefore, research
objective 2 is answered, albeit in a negative manner.
Table 4: One sample t-test for sharing information on haze and air pollution
No. Information Sharing (N = 389) M* SD % t** df p
I discuss with my house/dorm mate about haze and
1 3.395 1.140 67.9 6.844 388 .000
air pollution.
I alert my family members about haze and air
2 3.339 1.092 66.7 6.125 388 .000
pollution through our WhatsApp daily chats.
I discuss haze and air pollution prevention with my
3 3.210 1.016 64.2 4.091 388 .000
friends.
I discuss haze and air pollution in my daily
4 3.159 1.033 63.1 3.043 388 .003
conversations with friends.
I share information about haze and air pollution in
5 2.868 1.175 57.3 -2.199 388 .028
my classroom.
I share information about haze and air pollution on
6 2.812 1.192 56.2 -3.105 388 .002
Instagram.
I frequently share information about haze and air
7 pollution with my peers and family through 2.622 1.134 52.4 -6.569 388 .000
Facebook.
I convey information about haze and air pollution
8 2.622 1.249 52.4 -5.966 388 .000
through Twitter.
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I actively post information about haze and air

9 2.341 1.309 46.8 -9.911 388 .000
pollution on Snapchat.
I post information about haze from government’s
10 2.236 1.262 44.7 -11.929 388 .000
daily updates through e-mail.
Overall Mean for Information Sharing 2.860 0.852 57.2 -3.407 388 .001
*On a 5-point Likert-like scale, where 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, and 5 = always.
** test value = 3
Motives for Using Social Media

The motives for using social media during the occurrence of haze and air pollution are
presented in Table 5. The respondents’ motives are significantly positive with the mean values
ranging from 3.321 to 3.786. The overall mean value is 3.553 (SD = 0.731) with t = 14.914 (p
= .000). The motive with the highest mean is “to use social media to get the official
information on air pollution index (API) that is published from the Malaysian department of
environment” whereas the lowest is “to use social media to help people who are affected by the
haze through haze information”. Hence, it can be said that they used the social media for
various purposes of seeking and sharing information on haze and air pollution. The results
show that the respondents had positive motives regarding the seeking and sharing of
information on haze and air pollution, thus answering research objective 3.
Table 5: One sample t-test for motives for using social media during haze and air pollution
No. Motives for Using Social Media (N = 389) M* SD % t** df p
I use social media to get official information on Air
Pollution Index (API) published from Malaysian
1 3.786 0.929 75.7 16.690 388 .000
Department of Environment before doing my daily
routines.
I use social media to know the right preventive
2 3.640 0.954 72.8 13.224 388 .000
actions towards haze.
I use social media to spread relevant and right
3 3.599 0.981 71.9 12.042 388 .000
information about the haze from official source.
I use social media to get the help of friends and care
4 3.591 0.987 71.8 11.815 388 .000
through haze information.
I use social media to get right information on
5 3.588 1.055 71.7 11.001 388 .000
medical treatment if my health got affected by haze.
I use social media to get everyone around me know
6 3.545 0.995 70.8 10.798 388 .000
the severity of haze pollution.
I use social media to know and improve air quality
7 3.542 0.947 70.8 11.287 388 .000
by doing Go-Green and ride eco-friendly transport.
I use social media to make sure I wear the right
8 3.537 1.038 70.7 10.201 388 .000
mask provided by government during haze.
I use social media to exchange ideas with friends in
9 3.380 1.032 67.6 7.267 388 .000
relation of haze issues.
I use social media to help people who are affected
10 3.321 1.087 66.4 5.828 388 .000
by the haze through haze information.
Overall Mean for Motives 3.553 0.731 71.0 14.914 388 .000
*On a 5-point Likert-like scale, where 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, and 5 = always.
** test value = 3
The Relationship between Motives for Using Social Media, Information Seeking, and
Information Sharing on Haze and Air Pollution
Bivariate correlation was obtained to measure the relationship between the variables (Table 6).
Results indicate that all the tested variables emerged significant. There was a significant strong
positive relationship between information seeking and information sharing regarding haze and
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air pollution (r = .640, p = .000). Meanwhile, the relationships between information seeking
and the motives for using social media (r = .486, p = .000) as well as between the motives for
using social media and information sharing (r = .519, p = .000) were both moderate and
statistically significant. Therefore, all the hypotheses are supported by the study. Specifically, it
can be generalized that with an increase in information seeking and with good motives, there
will be an increase in information sharing. In other words, the more the respondents desire to
seek information regarding haze and air pollution, the more they will want to share it on the
social media platforms.
Table 6: Bivariate correlation between information seeking, information sharing, and motives for using
social media
Information Motives for Using Information
Variable Mean SD
Seeking Social Media Sharing
Information
3.164 0.683 1
seeking
r = .486
Motives 3.553 0.731 1
p = .000
Information r = .640, r = .519,
2.860 0.805 1
sharing p = .000 p = .000
The subsequent analysis is to test the relationship between the independent variables
(information seeking and motives) and the dependent variable (information sharing) of the
study. The results yielded moderate and strong relationships. However, the hierarchical
regression analysis (Table 7) revealed the presence of a significant moderate relationship
between information seeking and information sharing where F = 168.367 (p = .000) and β =
.598; t = 11.931 (p = .000), as well as a weak but statistically significant relationship between
information sharing and motives for using social media, where β = .299; t = 6.392 (p = .000).
These findings translate that information sharing is a crucial factor between the two variables
and that the more the respondents tend to seek information, the more they desire to share it with
others using social media as their preferred platform. The regression results answer research
objective number 4 and support all the hypotheses of the study because all the relationships are
significant.
Table 7: Hierarchal regression for information sharing with information seeking and motives for using
social media
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients
Model Variable Coefficients t p
B Std. Error β
(Constant) .477 .149 3.203 .001
1
Seeking .753 .046 .640 16.378 .000
F (389) = 268.249, df =1, 387, p=.000, R=.640, R2=.409, Adj R2. = .408; F change =268.249, df1=1, df2=387, p
= 0.000
(Constant) -.095 .168 -.564 .537
2 Seeking .598 .050 .508 11.931 .000
Motives .299 .047 .272 6.392 .000
F(389) = 168.367, df =2, 386, p=.000, R= .683, R2=.463, Adj R2. = .463; F change=40.858, df1=1, df2=386, p =
0.000
5. Conclusion
The study’s respondents consisted of a total of 389 IIUM students, who were mainly Malaysian
adolescents and almost equally representing the male and female gender. They came from
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various levels of study with different levels of educational achievement. The results of the
study show that the students tended to have positive motives for seeking and sharing of
information regarding haze and air pollution. They tended to seek rather than share
information. However, they did not seek information on haze reduction and they did not ask
questions to medical practitioners. They hardly shared information but when they did, they
mainly used WhatsApp to share with their family members while preferring to discuss face-to-
face with friends. They did not use Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, and email to share
information.
The general relationships between information seeking, information sharing, and motives for
using social media during haze and air pollution were significant, between moderate and
strong. These findings support the study by Erickson (2011), which claimed that people tend to
share information with their friends to maintain a form of connection and to sustain social
relationships. The level of using social media during haze and air pollution was high and most
of them used it for information seeking rather than for sharing such information.
The main objective of this paper is to assess information seeking and information sharing
among IIUM students using the framework of agenda setting theory. The findings reflect that
during the occurrence of haze and air pollution, students always use social media platforms to
look for information on how to avoid being affected by haze. Additionally, the results also
imply that some students tend to share the information acquired on haze with their friends,
colleagues, and family members through the different media platforms accessible to them.
However, they were not fully aware of the causes of haze and how to avoid it whenever it
occurs. Therefore, the objective of the study was achieved.
The study also confirms the suitability of using the agenda setting theory, which suggests that
the media sets the agenda for the public to follow especially in critical times like the occurrence
of haze and air pollution. Thus, the study has proven that social media is instrumental in
shaping the debate on haze and air pollution whenever it occurs.
Limitations and Suggestions

This study focused on undergraduate students from all Kulliyyahs at the IIUM Gombak main
campus. For future research, it is suggested to widen the population for a better representation,
perhaps to the national level to cover various learning institutions because they are all affected
by haze and air pollution whenever it occurs and remain closed to avert the effects on students.
Another limitation is related to the study’s measurement of social media usage alone during the
haze and air pollution occurrence. However, there are other mediums that people use to quickly
disseminate and/or acquire information on haze and air pollution.
This study only considered IIUM students as its population. Future studies should consider
incorporating other learning centers to have a more detailed and clear picture on how students
are affected by the occurrence of haze and air pollution and the framework of seeking and
sharing information about it.
Lastly, the study was guided by the agenda setting theory, which states that the media sets the
agenda for the public to follow especially in critical times like the occurrence of haze and air
pollution. Further research should explore other theories and see whether media functions such
as setting the public agenda should be ignored and people just look for the right information
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from credible sources, especially in this era of widespread fake news circulating all over the
web.
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Characterization Of Spherical Waste Crt Glass As Aggregates In

Concrete
Nurul Noraziemah Mohd Pauzi1*, Azri Zainal Abidin2, Muhammad Fauzi Mohd Zain3
1
Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University Sarawak, Sarawak, Malaysia
2
Nippon Electric Glass (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd, Selangor, Malaysia
3
Centre for Innovative Architecture and Built Environment (SErAMBI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Selangor, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: nurul.noraziemah@curtin.edu.my

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Hazardous cathode ray tube (CRT) glass waste has been used to partially or totally
replace natural aggregates in concrete. It is an effective and environmentally friendly method
of recycling the increasing number of discarded CRT in the electronic industry. However, little
research has been performed on other recycling methods, in particular, melting and annealing
operations. The usual way is by crushing the CRT funnel glass and grading it to size less than
4.75 mm. The crushing operations have caused the formation of micro-cracks in the glass, led
to high concentration of lead leaching. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the properties
of spherical CRT glass (GS) as coarse aggregate in concrete, which was formed using the
techniques melting and annealing. The results demonstrated that the GS is a stronger coarse
aggregate than crushed CRT glass (GC) and natural aggregate. The annealing technique has
managed to reduce the internal pressure of the glass and strengthens the glass product i.e. GS.
Other than that, GS shows the lowest value of specific gravity, unit weight, and percentage
absorption. In addition, the use of different morphological features of CRT glass as aggregates
are found to be beneficial to concrete strength. The combination of 60% GS and 40% GC has
made the coarse aggregates consisting of different shapes and sizes produce a more compacted
concrete structure, which significantly lower the percentage reduction of compressive strength
between the CRT concrete and the conventional concrete, at only 8.9% loss. The properties of
GS are seen as an important step towards hazardous waste CRT glass recycling as a
sustainable construction material.
Keywords: Waste glass, Cathode ray tube, Coarse Aggregate, Concrete

____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Over the last few years, the amount of electronic waste (e-waste), especially cathode ray tube
(CRT), has been on the rise and it has become an emerging concern in many developing
countries. Through a global perspective review, the increasing amount of e-waste in the
incoming years is due to the rapid advances in information technology and the increase of
market demand for electronic equipment (Singh, Wang, & Li, 2016) (Yoshida et al., 2016).
Besides that, the growth of population and economy globally are also the reasons of this
increasing amounts. In the year 2012, the world produced about 49 million per tons of e-waste
and expected to increase up to 65.4 million per tons in 2017 (United Nations University
(UNU), 2013). On a more specific scope, such as in the Southeast Asia in the year 2012, the e-
waste generation in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, and Vietnam was estimated
around 289 thousand tons, 379 thousand tons, 708 thousand tons, 243 thousand tons, and 187
thousand tons, respectively (Yoshida et al., 2016). Meanwhile, in the European Union, 7.5
million per tons of e-waste was generated by 2016 in which 80% of the total e-waste is CRT
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technology that comes from the old TV sets and computer monitors (Singh, Wang, et al.,
2016). In the United States, the similar situation is observed, as the CRTs take the largest part
of e-waste stream, about 43% in 2013 and was expected to increase up to 85% for the next 10
years. This is because of around 6.9 million tons of CRTs are still remained to be collected
from homes and offices (Shaw Environmental, 2013).
Generally, CRT technology can be found in the old television sets, computer monitors, video
cameras, video game machines, automated teller machines, radar displays, and oscilloscopes.
But, the advances in the electronic technology led to the continuous replacement of CRT by the
new technologies, that is Plasma Display Panels (PDPs) and Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)
(Rashad, 2015). The replacement of CRT technology has caused an increase of CRTs wastes.
In China year 2012, an estimated around 74 million old TV sets and 190 million computer
monitors have been outdated, as it is using CRT technology and the amounts are most likely to
increase in the coming years. The increment of CRTs wastes can also be seen in Thailand, as in
2004, 750 thousand tons of discarded CRTs was recorded, whilst in 2010, the amount increases
about 1.05 million (Singh, Wang, et al., 2016). Other than that, Rocchetti and Beolchini (2014)
estimated that in Europe, about 50 thousand to 150 thousand tons of CRT wastes were
collected and then treated every year and expected to increase in the year ahead. Zhao, Poon,
and Ling (2013) expecting the drastically increase of the amount of CRT disposed of in the
year 2050, as it is expected to be 6 times higher than the year 2013. The increasing amount of
CRT’s waste has become a world concern as the mismanagement of this waste can create a
serious impact on the environment. It is because of CRT glass consist of heavy metals
especially the high concentration of lead (Pb) metals, up to 39%. The Pb metals contained in
the CRT glass is used for protecting the audiences from the radioactivity of the electron gun, as
the Pb metals help in eliminate the X-ray radiation (T.-C. Ling, Poon, Lam, Chan, & Fung,
2012). The high concentration of Pb in CRT glass has resulted in high Pb leaching rate, which
exceeds the allowable limit. Hence, it should not be disposed in the landfill sites without proper
treatment as it has a potential to cause damage in the aspects of acidification, abiotic depletion,
and global warming. Besides, it can also bring harm to human body. For that reason, the
recycling of CRT waste glass is necessary since it helps preserve the natural resources, lessen
the use of landfill space, prevent environmental pollution and harm to human body (Yao, Xie,
& Tang, 2016) (Rashad, 2015).
2. Recycling of waste CRT glass review

Generally, there are various recycling techniques which most of it aiming for removing the Pb
elements from the CRT glass. It is due to the presence of Pb metals at the inner glass of CRT
that hinder the recycling of this waste. The Pb metals that had been extracted from the CRT
glass either through lead smelting, mechanical activation, chloride volatilization process, or etc.
can be used as the raw material for crystal products and fluorescent tube, which offers an
improvement in properties of the product and save a lot of Pb resources. Meanwhile, the CRT
glass that frees from Pb metals can be used to make a high-grade product such as glass foams,
beads, containers and glass windows. However, these recycling approach increase the treatment
cost and may cause secondary pollution (Yu & Liu, 2016) (Singh, Li, & Zeng, 2016).
On the other hand, there are also some researchers that proposed to use the CRT glass, both
treated (lead-free) and untreated as a fine aggregate in the production of mortar and concrete
(Sua-Iam & Makul, 2012). The presence Pb in untreated CRT glass is very effective in an act
as shielding materials for X- and gamma rays. Ling et al. (2012) have crushed the CRT funnel
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glass (treated and untreated) to a size less than 2.36 mm for use as fine aggregate in mortar, aim
for shielding the surroundings from X-ray radiation. The results show the ability of hardened
mortar with CRT glass aggregate as radiation-shielding since it can withstand the high-level of
X-ray energy. Besides, several studies have proven that CRT waste glass that was crushed to a
specific size are an effective replacement material of natural sand in either mortar or concrete
production (Sua-Iam & Makul, 2012) (Zhao et al., 2013) (Rashad, 2015). However, the use of
crushing techniques to recycle the CRT glass as aggregates has resulted in high Pb leaching
rate due to the formation of micro-cracks in the glass. Ling and Poon (2012) reported the
increase of Pb leaching values from 14.65 mg/L to 32.72 mg/L as the increase of replacement
level of crushed CRT glass as fine aggregates from 50% to 100%. Therefore, this study aimed
to investigate other techniques to recycle the waste CRT glass as aggregate, which are melting
and annealing techniques. By using these techniques, a new CRT glass product, namely
spherical CRT glass (GS) was produced. The characteristics of GS as a coarse aggregate were
studied and its effect to the concrete compressive strength was analyzed.
3. Materials and Methods

Production of spherical and crushed CRT glass
The GS and GC were obtained from Nippon Electric Glass Malaysia (NEGM), Selangor,
Malaysia. The production process of GS and GC was summarized in Figure 1.
Mix design
The concrete specimens were designed based on the absolute volume as specified in the ACI
211.4R-08. Ordinary Portland Cement was used in this study, which was obtained from Tasek
Corporation Berhad, Malaysia. The GS and GC supplied by NEGM will be used as coarse
aggregates, where its performance will be compared with the natural coarse aggregates
(granite). Meanwhile, river sand was used as fine aggregates. Table 1 shows the mix design of
concrete mixtures. The control mixture is referred to as NC, while mixtures GS1.0, GC1.0, and
GS0.6GC0.4 are for the GS and GC types and percentage replacement as coarse aggregates.
Testing procedure
Experiments are performed to assess the properties of GS and GC as coarse aggregates, i.e.
sieve analysis test, specific gravity, bulk density and absorption, aggregate crushing value
(ACV) and aggregate impact value (AIV) test. In addition, the chemical composition and
leaching of Pb of GS and GC were determined using x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and toxicity
characteristics leaching procedure (TCLP). The strength of concrete mixes containing GS and
GC as coarse aggregates was also investigated based on compressive strength at 7, 28, and 56
days.
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Figure 1: Production process of GS and GC
Cement w/c Coarse aggregates (kg/m³) Sand Water

Mix notations
(kg/m³) ratio Granite GS GC (kg/m³) (kg/m³)
NC 376.0 0.45 1049.5 0 0 814.4 169.2

GS1.0 376.0 0.45 0 913.2 0 854.0 169.2
GC1.0 376.0 0.45 0 0 1086.2 801.6 169.2
GS0.6/GC0.4 376.0 0.45 0 547.9 434.5 844.3 169.2
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4. Results and Discussion

Properties of GS and GC
In normal strength concrete, the aggregates generally occupy 60% to 75% of the concrete
volume. Thus, the recycling of CRT waste glass in the form of GS and GC as a substitution of
natural coarse aggregates will definitely affect the concrete performances. Table 2 shows the
physical and mechanical properties of GS, GC, and granite. GS that was produced using marble
forming machines has made it in the form of spherical shape, while GC is in irregular shape
because it was made using crusher machine.
Table 2: Physical and mechanical properties of GS, GC, and granite

Properties Unit GS GC Granite
3d shape — Sphere Irregular (angular)
Surface texture — Smooth Smooth Rough
Size mm 19 4.75 to 19 4.75 to 19
Flakiness index % — 46.40 36.91
Elongation index % — 27.43 15.20
Specific gravity — 2.43 2.70 2.64
Absorption % 0.03 0.06 0.23
Unit weight kg/m³ 1409.25 1676.30 1619.65
Void % 41.89 37.79 38.53
Aggregate crushing value
% 14.83 26.08 22.75
(ACV)
Aggregate impact value (AIV) % — 21.90 17.03
Figure 2 shows the various shapes of GC. It can be seen that each GC particle is angular with
minimum 8 corners. Besides that, the granite used as a control coarse aggregate in this study
has similar shapes with the GC. Table 2 also indicated that the flakiness index of GC is higher
than granite, which is 46% and 37%, respectively, meaning that GC has higher flat surfaces
than granite. The lower flakiness index of granite also shows that the shape of granite is close
to cube shape (ACI E1-99, 1999) (Miskovsky, Duarte, Kou, & Lindqvist, 2004). The low
crushing level of GC that due to the intention of using it as a coarse aggregate (size > 4.75 mm)
has resulted in the high flakiness index. In addition, the frequency of micro-cracks in GC is
lower than granite. Past studies (Miskovsky et al., 2004) (Afeni & Ayiti, 2018) discovered that
based on Spearman Correlation analysis, the flakiness index of aggregates is positively
influenced by the frequency of micro-cracks. They claimed that the higher the flakiness index,
the lower the frequency of micro-cracks. However, the use of GC as a coarse aggregate could
adversely affect the concrete quality. This is because of high content of flaky aggregate that is
GC are more likely to segregate the concrete mixes, decreased the compaction factors and
concrete strength. The test results also show that the elongation index of GC is higher than
granite, 27% and 15%, respectively, indicated that the length of GC particles is greater than 1.8
of its width. Castro and Brito (2013) prove that the glass sizes greater than 4 mm are
considered as an elongated aggregate. Therefore, GS is expected to be more durable coarse
aggregate than GC because of the flaky and elongated aggregate, i.e. GC has a higher tendency
to cracks and crushed than aggregates in cubic and spherical form. Other than that, GS and GC
have a smooth surface texture, whereas granite surface is rougher.
Table 2 shows that GS has the lowest value of specific gravity, unit weight, and percentage
absorption. The melting and annealing processes in the production of GS have decreased its
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density. The GS specific gravity of 2.43 is approximately similar to other glass products that
were produced using the same manner, e.g. glass marble (2.40), glass paperweight (2.44), etc
(Afolabi, Johnson, & Abdulkareem, 2012) (Hawley, 2005) (Kepler International, 2010).
Meanwhile, the specific gravity of GC at 2.70 are much lower compared to the CRT aggregates
that was crushed to size less than 4.75 mm, as it generally between 2.99 to 3.10 (Lee, Yoo,
Park, Cho, & Seo, 2015) (Zhao & Poon, 2017) (Zhao et al., 2013).
Figure 2: Shapes of GC
Besides that, the nature of glass as an impermeable material has explained the lowest
percentage absorption by GS and GC, nearly 0%. GC has the highest unit weight at 1676.30
kg/m³, followed by granite and GS, at 1619.65 kg/m³ and 1409.25 kg/m³. These unit weights
are within the ranges of coarse aggregate unit weight, 1280 kg/m³ to 1920 kg/m³ (ACI E1-99,
1999). In addition, Table 2 also shows that the percentage of voids for GS is the highest at
41.89%, followed by granite and GC, at 38.53% and 37.79%, respectively. Figure 3 illustrates
the compactness of GS and GC particles in a 250 mL beaker. The size and shape of GS that is
fixed to 19 mm and in sphere shape has resulted in poor compactness and less contact points
(Moncrieff, 1953). Because of that, the use of GS as coarse aggregates led to the highest void
percentage. Whereas, the irregular shape and sized of GC from 4.75 mm to 19 mm has made
the GC particles fill in the space effectively compared to GS and granite, which explained the
lowest percentage of voids of GC.
Figure 3: Compactness of GS and GC particles in beaker
Other than that, the mechanical properties of GS and GC as coarse aggregates has been
identified through the ACV and AIV tests. Table 2 indicated that the ACV of GS was the
lowest, followed by granite and GC, where at 14.83%, 22.75%, and 26.08%, respectively. It
means that the total mass of GS after being crushed by the compression load and passing 2.36
mm size is the lowest, which it indicated GS is a stronger coarse aggregate compared to granite
and GC. The annealing technique in producing GS has strengthened the glass product (Veer,
Louter, & Bos, 2009) (Berenjian & Whittleston, 2017). On the other hand, granite has lower
AIV value of 17.03%, while GC at 21.90%. The amount of GC that was crushed due to the
impact loads and at size less than 2.36 mm is higher than the granite. Test results indicated that
GC is a weaker coarse aggregate than granite, in terms of the resistance to compression and
impact loads. This is because of the shape of GC that is flaky and elongated has decreased the
resistance level of GC to compression and impact loads (Molugaram, Shanker, & Ramesh,
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2014) (Benediktsson & Wigum, 2015). Besides that, based on the mechanical strength, it
shows that GS and GC are able to resist the rollers and traffic loads as its crushing values are
less than 35%, thus it is expected compatible to use as road construction materials (IS 383,
1997) (Puthussery, Kumar, & Garg, 2016).
Figure 4 shows the percentage finer versus sieve size graph of GC and granite as coarse
aggregates. It can be seen that the size distribution of GC and granite are within the upper and
lower limits of coarse aggregates as specified in ASTM C33. In addition, it is observed that the
distribution of GC particles at size 4.75 mm and 14.00 mm are close to the lower limit of
coarse aggregate grading. Meanwhile, at size 20 mm, the GC particle distribution is found
approaching the upper limit grading. Nevertheless, the granite and GC are found to have a
smooth grading curve, where it can significantly reduce the concrete voids (ACI E1-99, 1999)
(Pawar, Sharma, & Titiksh, 2016). The reduction of concrete voids is expected could decrease
significantly the cost of concrete production. It is because if the aggregates cannot fill the gaps
between the particles adequately, thus that gaps will be filled with the cement paste. The higher
cost of cement than the aggregates causes the increase of cement paste volume, which will
increase significantly the cost of concrete production. Therefore, a good grading of coarse
aggregates that comply to the ASTM C33 is important in minimizing the concrete production
cost (Braga, Silvestre, & de Brito, 2017). The sieve analysis test was not conducted on GS
particles because it’s sized fixed to 19 mm.
Figure 4: Grading curve of GC and NCA
Table 3 shows the chemical compositions of GS and GC. The table shows that the major
chemical oxide present in GS and GC was silicon dioxide (SiO₂), PbO, sodium oxide (NaO),
and potassium oxide (K₂O). Both GS and GC show the same types of chemical oxide
composition and differ only in its percentage content. This is because, GS and GC are produced
from the same material, that is funnel component of CRT glass. However, it should be noted
that Pb is a hazardous chemical, and both GS and GC have shown higher concentration of PbO.
Besides, PbO was the second highest percentage of chemical oxide present in the GS and GC.
Thus, it should be noted that there might be a risk of Pb leaching from GS and GC, which will
have harmful effects on the environment.
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Table 3: Chemical compositions of GS and GC

Oxide compositions (wt. %)
Material
SiO₂ PbO K₂O Na₂O CaO Al₂O₃ BaO SrO MgO Fe₂O₃
GS 43.64 22.47 7.44 6.05 3.21 3.41 2.44 2.14 1.34 0.22
GC 41.51 27.55 7.85 6.86 3.87 4.06 1.73 0.58 1.63 0.22
Compressive strength of concrete

The results of the 7-day, 28-day and 56-day compressive strength of control and CRT concrete
mixes with different coarse aggregates contents are shown in Figure 5. It can be observed that
for a given type of coarse aggregates, the compressive strength of CRT concrete mixes (GS1.0,
GC1.0, GS0.6/GC0.4) were lower than that of control mix (NC). The 56-day compressive
strength of NC mixes was at 39.6 MPa, while CRT concrete mixes were varied from 31.0 MPa
to 36.2 MPa. The use of GS and/or GC as coarse aggregates has decreased the compressive
strength, which due to the weak bonding between the glass aggregates and the cement paste.
The smooth surface of the glass led to a weaker interface and reduced the strength of the
concrete mixes. Besides that, it can be observed in Figure 5 that the use of GS and GC as
coarse aggregates has delayed the strength development. The strength of CRT concrete
specimens was drastically increased after 28-days curing, while only a slight increase of
strength for NC specimens. Observing the influence of types of CRT glass product, the
compressive strength became the lowest with the use of 100% GS as coarse aggregates, at 31
MPa. Whereas, test results indicated that the combination of GS and GC as coarse aggregates,
at ratio 0.6GS:0.4GC, has resulted in the highest CRT concrete strength of 36.2 MPa. The
combination of GS and GC at ratio 0.6:0.4 has made the coarse aggregates consisting of
different shapes and sizes produce a more compacted concrete structure, which significantly
lower the percentage reduction of compressive strength between the CRT concrete and the
control specimens, as the strength loss only 8.9% (Li, Guo, Qiang, & Poon, 2017) (Wang, Guo,
Dai, Si, & Ma, 2019).
Figure 5: Compressive strength of control and CRT concrete
4. Conclusions
The paper compares the properties of two types of CRT glass products, namely spherical CRT
glass (GS) and crushed CRT glass (GC), with the normal coarse aggregates (granite). Both of
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the glass was produced using a different techniques of CRT recycling. The melting and
annealing techniques have decreased the GS density and increase its resistance to crushing.
Meanwhile, the crushing techniques in the production of the GC have produced a flaky and
elongated aggregates. In addition, this study uses GS and GC as an alternative replacement of
natural coarse aggregate in production of concrete. The introduction of CRT concrete will not
only convert a hazardous waste glass into a valuable product, but also could preserve the
natural resources. However, replacing natural coarse aggregate with GS or/and GC has reduced
the compressive strength of concrete. But this study also discovers that the use of different
morphological features of CRT glass as aggregates are found to be beneficial to concrete
strength. The combination of GS and GC at ratio 0.6:0.4 has made the coarse aggregates
consisting of different shapes and sizes produce a more compacted concrete structure, which
significantly lower the percentage reduction of compressive strength between the CRT concrete
and the control specimens.
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Communication Of The Policy Implementation On Curriculum In

At State Senior High School 2 Rambang Kuang In Ogan Ilir
District, South Sumatera Province
Mayang Pratiwi1, Endang Larasati2, Sri Suwitri3, Ida Hayu Dwimawanti4

1,2,4
3
Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Tidar University, Magelang, Indonesia
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: The curriculum of high school conducted in Ogan Ilir District, is 2013 curriculum
that was revision of 2017. This research aims to find out how 2013 curriculum policy revised to
2017 is implemented in an area in the aspects of communication and its socialization. The
method used is a qualitative descriptive method. The data collection techniques are done with
interviews, observations and documentation. Data analysis is used with three stages namely
data condensation, data presentation and conclusions withdrawal. The results of this study
show that as follows. 1) Curriculum Policy 2013 revision from 2017 is already implemented in
State Senior High School 2 Rambang Kuang but not optimal because four important things that
must be integrated in the learning process, only two things implemented are literacy and
HOTS. 2) Communication in the implementation of high school curriculum policy for two
indicators namely transmission and clarity has not been carried out optimally because the
socialization and training has not been done evenly to the entire teacher.
Keywords: Curriculum Policy; Curriculum 2013; Curriculum Revision of 2017; State Senior
High School 2; and Communication
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Education is one of the factors that influence the progress of the nation to improve the quality
of human resources. Accordingly, the efforts made by the Government to improve the
education quality are the completion of curriculum. (Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, 2003) on the
National education system defined the curriculum as "a set of plans and arrangements of
objectives, content and materials and the way used as a guideline for organizing learning
activities to achieve certain educational objectives". Therefore, the Government through the
Ministry of Education and Culture need to revise the education curriculum that has been in
accordance with the development and needs of the 21st century.
The curriculum that is applied to the upper secondary education was 2013 revised 2017
curriculum. The curriculum needs to be implemented by the teachers as the opinion from
(Sumini, 2015) stated that the implementation of the curriculum depends on the creativity,
sincerity and diligence of the teacher. From that statement, it can be understood that in the
curriculum implementation, it is necessary to understand the understanding of teachers to
achieve performance as stipulated standards.
Teachers must understand the foundation of a curriculum development in Indonesia. Certainly,

it is not necessarily only to continuously change the existing system but because of the
demands development of the Times and technology. Teacher performance must be improved,
along with curriculum changes. Performance enhancement teachers are expected to spearhead
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the implementation of the education process in creating intelligent, comprehensive and highly
competitive human beings.
In addition to the above factors, several factors support the implementation of curriculum
policy 2013 revision 2017, one of which is the communication in implementing the curriculum
policy. If there is no communication, delivery, and good socialization then a policy cannot be
carried out properly as well. From the description, researchers intend to explain how
communication and socialization of curriculum policy 2013 revision 2017 is implemented in an
area.
i. Policy Implementation
In principle, implementation of policies is a way for a policy to achieve its objectives. There
are several variables or factors affecting the success of the public policy implementation
expressed by (Lawler III, 2003), as the following figure:
Source: (Lawler III, 2003)
Based on the figure above, it can be understood that there are four variables or factors affecting
the implementation of public policy i.e. communication, resources, disposition and bureaucratic
structure. This research focuses on the first aspect of communication.
According to (Agustino, 2008), "Communication was one of the important variables affecting
the implementation of public policy". Effective implementation will be done, if the decision
makers know and understand what should be done. Information known to decision makers can
only be obtained through good communication. According to (Lawler III, 2003), there were
three indicators used in measuring the success of communication variables (Agustino, 2008)
namely: Transmission: A good distribution of communication will be able to configure a good
implementation as well. In communication distribution is often a problem namely the existence
of misunderstandings caused by the many levels of bureaucracy that must be passed in the
communication process so that what is expected to be taken in the middle of the step. 2)
Clearance: Communication received by the policy executor must be clear and unambiguous or
confusing. 3) Consistency: The orders given in the implementation of a communication must
be consistent and clear to be established and executed. If the order given is often changed, it
can lead to confusing act for implementers in the field.
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ii. Curriculum Policy of Senior High School

At this time, the curriculum policy of Senior High School implemented from curriculum 2013
(K13) revised to 2017. Regulations related to the K13 policy revision to 2017 in the learning
process classify into as follows. First, (Permendikbud, 2016) about the standard of basic and
secondary education process where the most urgent revision is the syllabus and the Learning
Implementation Plan (RPP) of Senior High School which is equipped with integration of four
important matters according to the Directorate Guidance of Senior High School (2017). It is
namely strengthening character education, literacy, 21st century Learning (Communication,
Collaboration, Critical Thinking and Creativity), and HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills).
Second, the decision letter that is issued by Director General of primary and secondary
education number: 253/KEP. D/KR/2017 was on Appendix III of the establishment 2013-2017
on Curriculum implementation unit. In the decision, one of the schools set up was State Senior
High School 2 Rambang Kuang.
3. Research Method
This research uses a qualitative descriptive approach i.e. research that generates data in the
form of written or spoken words as well as observed behaviour from informant-related
informant policy 2013 revised to 2017 then described and outlined with existing theories. This
research was conducted in curriculum implementing schools 2013 revised to 2017, especially
in Ogan Ilir District, South Sumatera Province namely State Senior High School 2 Rambang
Kuang which is addressed in Kuang village in East Rambang Kuang Regency, Ogan Ilir
District, South Sumatera Province.
The data collection techniques used is interviews, observations and documentation. The
informant in this study consists of the supervisory coordinator of the Provincial Education
Department of South Sumatera, especially Ogan Ilir District, the party of Education Quality
Assurance Board of South Sumatera province related to training and mentoring of K13, the
headmaster of State Senior High School 2 Rambang Kuang. The teachers who are directly
involved in the implementation of curriculum policy 2013 revised to 2017. The data analysis
technique used is the data analysis model from (Ridder, Miles, Michael Huberman, & Saldaña,
2014) consist of three threads condensation, data presentation and conclusions withdrawal.
First, the condensation of data summarizes, selects the subject, focuses on what is important
and selects the data according to the category of the question, choosing the data that is
considered important to be taken in essence. Second, the presentation of data is a brief
description, photographs and more. Third, drawing conclusions from the data that had been
collected by understanding deeply and taking the essence of the research results (Sugiyono,
2017).

The results of the research present are the results of analysis and validation of the data and
information that has been obtained from the informant that becomes the research object. The
results discussed through interviews, observations and documentation are as follows:
i. Curriculum Policy 2013 revised to 2017 at Senior High School

Curriculum 2013 revision to 2017 is a form of development from the previous curriculum of
2013 revised edition curriculum 2016. The curriculum development aims to prepare Indonesian
people who are productive, creative, innovative, and affective as well as contribute to the life of
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the nation, state and society. Therefore, all policy stakeholders must accommodate the
productivity, creativity and innovation of all Millennia’s students.
Foundation of Curriculum Policy Implementation 2013 revised to 2017 in Junior High School
study based on the regulation of (Permendikbud, 2016) and completed with Decree Director
general of Primary and secondary education number: 253/KEP. D/KR/2017 was on Appendix
III of the establishment 2013-2017 Curriculum implementation unit. The result of the research
in State Senior High School 2 Rambang Kuang shows that the curriculum policy 2013 revision
to 2017 is already running but not optimal. This is because the planning of learning is First, the
syllabus that is made according to the rules but not maximally in the implementation, which
means to follow and implement the administration of learning alone but not yet to understand
the essence of the curriculum revision. Second, the plan of learning is made in writing already
in accordance with the rules such as integration of character education, literacy, 21st century
skills and HOTS (Higher Order Thinking skills) but the implementation in the field is only two
things that do the Integers literacy and learning HOTS only.
ii. Communication in an implementation of curriculum 2013 revised to 2017 at State

Senior High School 2 Rambang Kuang, Ogan Ilir District, South Sumatra Province
In its implementation, the success of policy implementations will be determined by many
variables or factors and each variable is interconnected with each other. In enriching our
understanding of the various variables that are involved in the implementation there is a
limitation in the study that the researcher chose the approach from by (Edward III, 1984). This
policy implementation model was influenced by four variables i.e. communication, resources,
disposition and bureaucratic structure.
In this discussion, researchers discussed only the communication in its policy implementation.
Communication became the most influence in the policy implementation because
communication strongly determines the success of achieving its objectives of public policy
implementation. Effective implementation will be done, if the policy executor knows and
understands what they will do. Information that the policy executor knows about it can only be
obtained through good communication.
The results of the research at State Senior High School 2 Rambang Kuang shows that
communication in the policy implementation of Curriculum 2013 revision 2017 is already
running but still not effective such explanation as follows:
a. Socialization and Training

At the socialization stage, South Sumatera Provincial Education Office, which was represented
by the school supervisor, has given the socialization of the curriculum 2013 revision to 2017 at
State Senior High School 2 Rambang Kuang but not detailed or in other words in its outline
only. It is supported by the reality that socialization is done in the form of meetings.
Furthermore, other parties who have a role in curriculum training 2013 in 2017 with the form
of technical guidance activities held by Education Quality Assurance Board (LPMP) of South
Sumatera province is still uneven. It is supported by the reality that there are still many teachers
who have not received an invitation to follow this activity.
b. Clearance
This result shows that some teachers did not understand the policy content and the curriculum
objectives 2013 revised to 2017. It is supported by the reality that some teachers have not
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received an invitation from LPMP and participated in the training or technical guidance of
curriculum 2013 in 2017.
c. Continuity and Consistency

Socialization cannot only be done once but there must be sustainability mentoring should be
done also. The research results of the intensity communication done by the Education Office
are not optimal. It is supported by a reality that shows that socialization is only one meeting in
the meeting, indeed who has the duty to carry out curriculum training 2013 revision to 2017 for
Teachers, and it does not authority of Education Office. Furthermore, other parties who have a
role in the training or implementation of technical guidance Curriculum 2013 in 2017 are
LPMP. Where these results of documentation shows that the technical guidance has been
performed for the target teacher with an intensity of six days from May 19, 2017 to May 24,
2017 at the implementation of activities selected by LPMP, which is at State Senior High
School 3 Tanjung Raja, Ogan Ilir District. Technical guidance, there is a continuation of
activities preparation on curriculum implementation 2013 in 2017 in the form of meeting on
August 21, 2017 in State Senior High School 2 Rambang Kuang then the mentoring
implementation of curriculum 2013 in August 28, 2017 as the following documentation:
Event Preparation Meeting Provision materials by the informant

Figure 2: Curriculum implementation Assistance 2013 year 2017 at State Senior High School 2 Rambang
Kuang
Source: State Senior High School 2 Rambang Kuang( Photos taken from Researcher in August 7, 2019)
What has been stated above illustrates that training and mentoring the implementation of
curriculum 2013 revision 2017 has been running effectively. The description has been
presented in line with a theory that there are three ideal indicators and can be used in measuring
communication aspects successful based on (Edward III, 1984) theory that was transmitting or
channeling communication, information clarity and consistency of information submitted by
the Government to policy executor.
The results shows that three indicators that measure the success aspects of the communication
policy implementation are two indicators (transmission and clarity information) has not been
carried out optimally. Transmission and socialization regarding the implementation of
curriculum policy 2013 revision to 2017 conducted by Education Office to the target school is
done in the form of school meetings and it is not optimal. It is because there is no authority to
provide information in detail on the change of curriculum but this authority is the duty of
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LPMP that organizes training or technical guidance of Senior High School teachers that is
target for curriculum 2013 in 2017. These activities, there are still teachers who have not yet
received an invitation for technical guidance training curriculum 2013. Furthermore, clarity
indicators regarding the policy content and objectives curriculum 2013 revision to 2017, still
make this implementation look confusing because some teachers have not participated. The last
indicator of the consistency of information delivered by LPMP has sustainability mentoring
and it shows that the activity is quite effective.
5. Conclusion
This study suggest that communication in the implementation of curriculum policy 2013
revision to 2017 has been implemented but has not been effective. This is because of various
reasons. These are as follows 1) Curriculum Policy 2013 revision to 2017 is already
implemented at State Senior High School 2 Rambang Kuang but not optimal because four
important things that must be integrated in the learning process, only two things implemented
namely literacy and HOTS. 2) Communication in the implementation of high school
curriculum policy for two indicators namely transmission and clarity has not been carried out
optimally because socialization has not been done evenly to the entire teacher.
References
Agustino, L. (2008). Dasar-dasar Kebijakan Publik. Bandung: Alfabeta.
Edward III, G. C. (1984). Public Policy Implementing. Literary and Linguistic Computing.
https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/15.2.157
Lawler III, E. E. (2003). Reward practices and performance management system effectiveness.
Organizational Dynamics.
Permendikbud. (2016). Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia
Nomor 22 Tahun 2016 tentang Standar Proses Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah.
Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Ridder, H. G., Miles, M. B., Michael Huberman, A., & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data
analysis. A methods sourcebook. Zeitschrift Fur Personalforschung.
Sistem Pendidikan Nasional. (2003). Undang-Undang No.20 Tahun 2003. Departemen
Pendidikan Nasional.
Sugiyono. (2017). MetodePenelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif dan R&D. Bandung: PT Alfabet.
Sugiyono. (2017). MetodePenelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif Dan R&D. Bandung: PT
Alfabet. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Sumini. (2015). Penelitian Tindakan Kelas dan Pengembangan Profesi Guru. Jurnal
Pendidikan.
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Community Participation In Poor Population Data Collection
Umi Arifah1, Sri Suwitri2, Endang Larasati3, Yuwanto4

1,3,4
2
Faculty of Social and Political Science, Tidar University, Magelang, Indonesia
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: This study is to examine community participation in data collection on the poor
carried out by TKP2KDes (Village Poverty Reduction Coordination Team) and the level of
community participation in the process of collecting data on the poor. Identification related to
community participation and levels of participation based on a public administration
framework. This research uses descriptive qualitative research methods. Participant
observation and in-depth interviews were conducted throughout the study, design triangulation
was carried out for research data collection. Data analysis was performed using the Miles,
Huberman, and Saldana models with data condensation stages, data presentation, and
concluding. The research findings show that the implementation of data collection on the poor
population carried out by TKP2KDes is not going well and there are still some weaknesses.
The level of community participation in the data collection of the TKP2KDes poor population
in Kebumen District at the level of consultation and community involvement in implementation
is quasi-participatory.
Keywords: Data collection; Poor People, Participation, Level of Participation; and Kebumen
District
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Poverty is one of the gaps in realizing justice and prosperity that causes the fulfillment of
human rights with dignity. Efforts to accelerate poverty reduction are mandated in (Pemerintah
Pusat, 2010) concerning the Acceleration of Poverty Reduction and its amendment regulations.
Government efforts in accelerating poverty reduction in Indonesia were formed by TNP2K
(National Team for the Acceleration of Poverty Reduction) at the national level. At the
Provincial, level a Provincial TKPKD (Provincial Poverty Reduction Coordination Team) was
formed and at the district/city levels a TKP2KD (District Poverty Reduction Coordinating
Team). Kebumen District is one of the districts in Central Java Indonesia that has formed the
District Poverty Reduction Coordinating Team (TKP2KD) as stipulated in District Regulation
Number 20 of 2012 in Kebumen District on the Acceleration of Poverty Reduction.
TKP2KD and TKP2KDes carry out coordination of the acceleration of poverty reduction
(Village Poverty Reduction Coordination Team). TKP2KDes is tasked with coordinating the
planning, organizing, implementing, and controlling poverty alleviation programs at the village
level. The village government is responsible for the implementation of data collection on the
poor at the village level based on Kebumen District Regulation No. 31 in 2014 concerning
Criteria and Procedures for Data collection on the Poor community. The data collection of the
poor population in Kebumen District is carried out in a participatory manner, which is a
provision in the regulation. Participation is significantly associated with more active and more
effective policies (Jaramillo & Wright, 2015). The implementation of data collection on the
poor population that has been carried out by TKP2KDes still raises several problems. Village
and district governments in the preparation of poverty reduction policies can use the results of
the data collection of the poor population. Five factors influence the successful implementation
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of viability, theoretical integrity, scope, capacity, unintended consequences (Visagie &

Schneider, 2014).
The focus of this research is on the implementation of community participation in data

collection on poor people. Participatory forums should make it easier to gather information
about government performance, and are used to socialize government programs (Jaramillo &
Wright, 2015). Based on the implementation of the data collection on the poor, we will analyze
the level of participation carried out by TKP2KDes.
The theoretical framework used in this study is as follows: First, examining the implementation
of community participation in data collection on the poor refers to (Ife & Tesoriero, 2008)
framework of indicators that could be used to measure the participation process. Second,
examine the use of participatory poverty data in poverty reduction that refers to research from
(Konnoth, 2018) on poverty data can be used for important interventions, both in technical
matters relating to individual welfare and structural solutions. The research from (Ataöv, 2007;
Konnoth, 2018) on planning efforts participatory and civil society movements could foster
more active citizen participation and with a participatory approach make society more
advanced.
Participation is a tool in advancing ideology or normative development goals such as social

justice, equality, and democracy (Mikkelsen, 2005). Public participation in the policymaking
process, citizens can help increase the guarantee that the aspirations and interests of both
individuals and groups in society can be heard and responded to by the government (Denhardt
& Denhardt, 2015). Public participation will provide many benefits in every public policy, such
as the resulting policies will be of higher quality, the existence of public satisfaction, and
increase public accountability. The participatory approach according to (Cole-Lewis et al.,
2016) classified into as follows. a) Strengthening the awareness of actors are at the local level;
b) improving the quality and quantity of local condition information; c) identifying local
development; d) maximizing community resources and potential for development purposes. e)
Encouraging the community to identify obstacles and determine priorities and actions; f)
increasing the confidence and ability of community organizations; g) developing conflict
management mechanisms to achieve sustainable development (Blechman, Davidson, & Kelly,
2017; Lilin Budiati, 2014). The indicators used in measuring the participation process
according to (Ife & Tesoriero, 2008) were as follows: a) community capacity; b) support and
networking; c) knowledge; d) involvement in policymaking; e) the ability to participate; f)
range of participation; g) emerging leaders from the community; h) partnership; and i) the
community can influence policy.
Based on Kebumen District Regulation No. 31 in 2014, the data collection of the poor
population aims to as follows: a) compile poverty data in the village, which is a single data in
the village; b) obtain data on aggregate poor population at the district, sub-district and village
levels. c) Obtaining data on the poor population implemented by regional and cluster
conditions; d) encouraging responsiveness of village and district governments in poverty
reduction; e) increase participation and coordination of poverty reduction programs. f)
Encouraging the openness of public information in villages relating to poverty data and
programs, and g) become the basis for the preparation of programs to accelerate poverty
reduction at the district and village levels. Based on the objectives of the regulation,
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TKP2KDes poverty data should be a single data in the village and be used as poverty data in
developing poverty alleviation programs in the regions and villages. Data can be used to
monitor the impact of policies and shape future programs and resource use (Njuguna &
McSharry, 2017).
There are five levels of participation put forward by (Wilcox, 1994) as follows: a) information;
b) consultation; c) deciding together; d) acting together; e) supporting. (Wilcox, 1994) stated
that Participatory activities can be carried out by each community in the following forms. a)
becoming members of community groups; b) involve yourself in group discussion activities; c)
involve themselves in the activities of the organization to mobilize other community
participation; d) mobilizing community resources; e) take part in the decision making process;
and f) utilizing the results achieved from the activities of the community (Magraw & Baker,
2007).
3. Research Method
The study was conducted using a descriptive qualitative approach. Qualitative research
methods provide strategies to explore experiences, practices, and phenomena in the
sociocultural world (Moen & Middelthon, 2015). Researchers take informants by studying the
phenomena that implemented, conditions that occur, and the resulting consequences (Jasińska,
2019). Informants are selected by purposive sampling based on the mastery of information and
the ability to provide information. To examine the implementation of participation and the level
of community participation in data collection on the poor, participant observation and in-depth
interviews were conducted throughout the study (Caracelli & Greene, 1993). Design
triangulation was carried out to collect research data in confirming the results of research in the
field (Creswell, 2009, 2013). Qualitative data analysis was performed using models from
(Miles & Saldana, 2014) with data condensation stages, data presentation, and drawing
conclusions.
4. Discussion
The mechanism of data collection of TKP2KDes poor population in Kebumen District
Regulation No. 31 of 2014 concerning Criteria and Procedures for Data collection on the Poor
is implemented with the following description:
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Figure 1: TKP2KDes Poor Population Data Collection Mechanism
Source: data collection mechanism for poor population TKP2KDes
The data collection mechanism of the poor population has not been implemented optimally; the
phenomenon in the community is that only a few villages have implemented the TKP2KDes
poor population data collection mechanism by the provisions.
4.1. Community Participation in Poor Population Data Collection

Community participation as a data collection team is still limited, a phenomenon that occurs in
the data collection team consists of village officials and leaders in the village, this is intended
to facilitate coordination and minimize the budget. Consideration involves the community as a
data collection team because the community understands the economic, social, and cultural
conditions in the village. When the data collection team recognizes the community, it is
expected to minimize dishonesty in providing information at the time of data collection on the
poor population. The problem is that when the community that is the data collection team does
not understand the substance of the poverty indicators used; there is a risk of errors in filling
out information. The data collection team also did not have expertise in the field of statistics
and could not even convey the information to the community of the purpose of the data
collection of the poor population, thus influencing invalid data and the assumption that the
community would get help when after data collection by the data collection team.
Local governments provide support in the form of training for data collection on team
representatives and operators. Meanwhile, those who actively support data collection are local
NGOs that build partnerships with local governments in the form of providing data collection
applications and human resources as trainers. The village government provides support in the
form of a budget for data collection that is adjusted to the ability of the village budget. Data
collection training by the local government for the data collection team is carried out every
year. However, only representatives were trained, so that the impact on the lack of knowledge
and information reached the other data collection teams. Evaluations also continue to be carried
out, but the problem is because the competence is lacking and the salary is very little depending
on each village's budget.
Community involvement in policymaking began at the deliberation stage at the hamlet and
village levels. In this forum discussed the data collection mechanism that will be carried out
with two alternative data collection, namely: a) data collection for all residents in the village; b)
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data collection is only on the list of poor households while the results of data collection of
social protection programs, new proposals and old data. This forum also provides an
opportunity for the public to express ideas and complaints. After the agreement on the data
collection mechanism in the deliberations, the poor population carried out the data collection
process. Phenomenon in the community, some villages do not carry out door-to-door data
collection but the data collection is carried out formally even if village officials carry out the
data without obtaining information from the poor.
Determination of data on the poor population in the village should be carried out in the village
consultation forum by presenting the community. However, many villages hold deliberations
with low community participation. Community participation in decision-making needs to be
fostered in a forum that allows the community to participate directly in decision making in the
local area (Bratton, 2008). The role of the sub-district in the data collection of the poor
population is minimal, even though a budget has been provided from the APBD (Local
government budget). Sub-district stakeholders are very limited, human resources are lacking
and many staff does not yet know the job description.
Coordination between regional apparatus organizations and local stakeholders has not been
well established. Coordination at the TKP2KD level is only done twice a year, which causes
poverty reduction to proceed slowly. The evaluation was not carried out properly to improve
data related to the poor population. The criteria that can be used for participatory evaluation are
as follows: 1) Commitment from policymakers; 2) Independent and responsible facilitators in
the participation process; 3) Stakeholder involvement; 4) Representation; 5) Transparency; 6)
A combination of participation tools; 7) Accessibility of resources for participation; 8)
Competence to be involved; 9) Professionalism in facilitating; 10) Availability of resources for
facilitation; 11) Well-defined and clear goals; 12) Ideas, new and creative solutions (Kovács et
al., 2017). When the evaluation is not carried out properly, the impact on the program is not
optimal. Poverty alleviation should be done using a decentralized approach, community
participation, utilizing local knowledge, and collaboration between civil society, the state, and
the private sector (Mason & Beard, 2008).
4.2. Level of Participation in TKP2KDes data collection

The level of community participation in the poor population in Kebumen District is only at the
consultation level, namely offering an opinion, as a good listener to provide feedback, but not
involved in the implementation of these ideas and ideas (Wilcox, 1994). In the process of
participation, the degree of volunteerism is categorized as the level of participation. The
participation of the community that grows because it is induced by extrinsic motivation (in the
form of influence, persuasion, encouragement) from outside, even though the related ones still
have the freedom to participate (Irvin & Stansbury, 2004). But according to White that this
perception is only owned by people who do not understand the state of society, due to the
difficulty of growing and developing community participation and is caused too long
engineered to not think by the authorities. Society prefers to accept anything that is instructed
so that it does not need to bother thinking, planning, monitoring, and evaluating (Draper,
Hewitt, & Rifkin, 2010).
5. Conclusions
The data collected on the poor population carried out by TKP2KDes has not been going well.
There are still some weaknesses as follows. a) low human resource capacity; b) limited budget;
c) low commitment of policyholders; d) the role of the middle bureaucracy is not optimal; e)
low public awareness; f) stakeholder coordination at the district level has not been developed
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properly; g) the use of poverty data is not by regulations; h) unclear policy; i) monitoring and
evaluation are not yet running.
The level of community participation in data collection of poor TKP2KDes in Kebumen
District is still low or at the consultation level. Society as a good listener and limited are in
giving feedback. Community involvement in the implementation has not been carried out
according to regulations and is apparent participation.
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Comparison Between Islamic And Non-Islamic Banks Ratios To

Predict Amman Stock Exchange Banking Index
Ahmad Abdallah Ahmed Alswalmeh1, Nuradli Ridzwan Shah bin Mohd Dali2
1
Faculty of Economics and Muamalat, University Sains Islam Malaysia, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan
2
Associate Professor, University Sains Islam Malaysia, Faculty of Economics and Muamalat, Nilai, Negeri
Sembilan
*Corresponding Author: aalswalmeh89@gmail.com, nuradli@usim.edu.my

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to predict the banking sector index using financial
ratios, and compare the capability of financial ratios for Islamic banks and financial ratios for
non-Islamic Banks to predict the banking sector index in Amman Stock Exchange. The study
used yearly data of three Islamic banks and thirteen non-Islamic banks during the period
between 2005 and 2017. Ordinary least square method (OLS) has been utilized using seven
financial ratios to predict the banking sector index. The findings revealed that the financial
ratios can predict the banking sector index in Amman Stock Exchange. Mainly, the equity ratio
(ER), debt (DR), and stock turnover (STR) of Islamic banks can predict of the banking sector
index in Amman Stock Exchange. The quick ratio (QR), return on equity (ROE), return on
assets (ROA), and market book value (MBR) of Islamic banks does not predict the banking
sector index. In contrast, debt ratio (DR), stock turnover (STR), return on equity (ROE), return
on assets (ROA), and price to book value (MBR) of non-Islamic banks can predict of the
banking sector index. The equity ratio (ER) and a quick ratio (QR) of non-Islamic banks do not
predict the banking sector index. Nevertheless, the findings also revealed that stock turnover
ratio can predict of the banking sector index in Amman Stock Exchange for both Islamic and
non-Islamic banks.
Keywords: Islamic Finance, Banking, Financial ratios, Banking Sector Index, ASE
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
In Jordan, the banking sector is one of the most important sectors listed on the Amman Stock
Exchange. It's highly reliable, by investors, clients and government. The Jordanian banking
sector consists of Islamic and non-Islamic banks owned by the private sector. The banking
sector performance assessment is one of the key elements of the economy control system in
Jordan. It provides a feedback to help the government identify deficiencies in the economy in
various activities, and opportunities to improve future performance (Patrick, Tavershima, &
Eje, 2017; Subramanyam & Wild, 2009).
Since the last decade, the banking sector in Jordan has developed significantly and many
investment opportunities in banks have been created. Besides creating investment opportunities
in non-Islamic banks, there were significant investment opportunities in Islamic banks. In
recent years, increased need to distinguish investment opportunities. Investors tried to find a
method to identify investment opportunities that achieve higher efficiency for the banking
sector index in Amman Stock Exchange, mainly in Islamic banks from non-Islamic banks. The
lack of rules of Shariah compliance is a major obstacle to distinguishing Islamic investment
opportunities from non-Islamic in Jordan. Although there is a difference of operational activity
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in Islamic banks and non-Islamic banks, all banks represent the banking sector index in the
Amman Stock Exchange (Alswalmeh & Dali, 2019b; Mohd Dali, Mudasir, & AbdulHamid,
2008).
Nowadays, there is an urgent need for a good analysis of Islamic bank indicators that are
related to the banking sector index than other non-Islamic banks. This is especially true for the
banks that represent the banking sector index in Amman Stock Exchange, which are considered
the main sources of indicators focused by investors. It is the right of investors to know the
better desired investment opportunity from its undesirable based on Islamic and non-Islamic
opportunity. In addition, financial ratios of the banks provide a set of choices that encourages
investors to measure the most relevant indicators of Islamic banks in relation to the banking
sector index, as well as non-Islamic banks. The effective performance analysis must include the
ratios that measure the activity of the banks and determination of Islamic and non-Islamic
banks effects towards banking sector index (Alswalmeh & Dali, 2019a).
Therefore, there is an urgent need to know the relationship between financial ratios of Islamic
banks and measuring the ability to predict the banking sector index, as well as comparing with
non-Islamic banks. The possibility of predicting situations and judging the policies and
practices will be reflected later in the development of future financial plans and policies
consistent Islamic and non-Islamic models by investors.
1.1. Questions
This study tries to answer three key questions:
• What is the capability of financial ratios for Islamic banks to predict the banking sector
index in the Amman Stock Exchange?
• What is the capability of financial ratios for non-Islamic banks to predict the banking
sector index in the Amman Stock Exchange?
• To what extent is the capability of financial ratios for Islamic banks comparable with
financial ratios for non-Islamic Banks to predict the banking sector index in the Amman
Stock Exchange?
1.2. Objective
This study aims to:
• Identify the relationships between the financial ratios of Islamic Banks and their
capability to predict the banking sector index in the Amman Stock Exchange.
• Identify the relationships between the financial ratios of non-Islamic Banks and their
capability to predict the banking sector index in the Amman Stock Exchange.
• Compare the capability of financial ratios for Islamic banks with financial ratios for non-
Islamic Banks to predict the banking sector index of the Amman Stock Exchange.
Financial statement analysis is an important part of the broader field of company’s analysis.
Subramanyam & Wild (2009, p.4) defined it as “application of analytical instruments and
techniques to financial statements to derive estimates and inferences useful in business
analysis”. Financial statement analysis reduces the uncertainty of business activities, and
provides an effective systematic decision making tool for business.
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The financial statements contain a set of figures showing the financial and investment
performance of the company. The objective of each number is determined to meet the needs of
analysts, management and investors about financial information. Robinson, Greuning, Henry,
& Broihahn (2009) classified it into balance sheet, income, cash flows and shareholders’
equity.
The ratios are one of analysis starting point, it’s a tool for providing interpreting and identify
areas requiring further investigation. Ratio analysis can reveal important relations and
providing comparison which is difficult if considering individual component that make up the
ratio. Forevermore, there are many studies that used financial ratios for verifying the
relationship, impact and analysis of the companies and the sector index. Meriç, Kamisli, &
Temizel, (2017) found that the relationships between the variables changes in size and direction
from bank to bank. Arkan (2016) investigated the importance of financial ratios to predict stock
price trends using ratios. The results showed that a positive significant relationships to stock
price.
In addition, the study of Islamoglu, (2015) revealed that the financial ratios have predictive
power on the Turkish banking sector index. Erdoğan, Erdoğan, & Ömürbek (2015) summarized
that there are a significant relationship between liquidity ratio and the size of the company with
the financial performance.
Jiang & Lee (2012) verified that forecasting by analyzing financial ratios achieved better
returns using the share price, earnings per share, market value and book value ratios from 1926
to 2008 and the S&P 500 index. Using of 100 companies from 2003-2007, Alireza, Parviz, &
Mina (2012) showed that the financial ratios are very important for knowing the financial
situation. The study of Alexakis, Patra, & Poshakwale (2010) and Kumbirai & Webb (2010)
concluded that the financial ratios can predict market returns and the performance of the sector.
This study came complement to make it a real scientific contribution and a new reference
within the scientific practice framework. Many studies have tried to test the relationship
between financial ratios with many variables. Some researchers, studied the impact of these
variables on the Indices of various sectors. Others have measured the performance, prices of
stocks, and several measurement models using financial ratios. Current study measured the
predictability of the banking sector index in Amman Stock Exchange using financial ratios of
Islamic and non-Islamic banks. Comparing the prediction of the financial ratios for Islamic and
non-Islamic banks will contribute to create a new model identifying opportunities in Jordan
Islamic investment. In addition, helping to determine the common financial ratios in
forecasting banking sector index of all Jordanian banks.
3. Conceptual Framework
This study focused on determining the financial ratios affecting banking sector index on the
basis of the investigated variables in the recent literature on the ratios to proceed with this
research. The secondary data collected in this study include book, journals, and online
databases. The research study conceptualized out on the financial ratios as independent
variables, and banking sector index as dependent variables. Based on the statement, a
theoretical framework has been developed to represent the relationship between 7 financial
ratios with the banking index.
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4. Methodology
Financial ratios of all banks listed in Amman Stock Exchange are used to predict the Banking
Sector Index. Namely, 3 Islamic banks are shown in Table (1) and 13 non-Islamic banks are
shown in Table (2).
Table 1: Islamic Banks

# Bank Code
1 Jordan Islamic Bank JOIB
2 Safwa Islamic Bank SIBK
3 Islamic International Arab Bank IIAB
Table 2: Non- Islamic Banks

# Bank Code
1 Arab Bank ARBK
2 Jordan Kuwait Bank JOKB
3 Jordan Commercial Bank JCBK
4 Housing Bk. Trd. Fin THBK
5 Arab Jordan Investment Bank AJIB
6 Bank Al Etihad UBSI
7 Arab Banking Corporation ABCO
8 Invest Bank INVB
9 Capital Bank EXFB
10 Socgen Bk – Jordanie SGBJ
11 Cairo Amman Bank CABK
12 Bank Of Jordan BOJX
13 Jordan Ahli Bank AHLI
All these Islamic and non-Islamic banks represent the banking sector index in Amman Stock
Exchange and will be used in the current study. In this case, financial ratios for the year of
2005 to 2017 is to be chosen for each bank. The secondary data related to ratios are collected
from the annual reports of the banks. The ratios that were used as an independent variable are
shown below:
Table 3: Independent Variables

# Variables Measurement Reference
(Whitehurst, 2003, p.
1 Equity Ratio % Total Equity / Total Assets
102)
(Cash + A.R. + Marketable Securities) / (Sub. & Wild, 2009, p.
2 Quick Ratio (Times)
Current Liabilities 37)
(Robinson et al., 2009,
3 Debt Ratio % Total Liabilities / Shareholders Equity
p. 289)
No. of Shares Traded / No. of Subscribed
4 Stock Turnover % (Gibson, 2009, p. 221)
Shares
(Brealey et al., 2011, p.
5 Return On Equity % Net Income / Average Shareholders’ Equity
712)
(Net Income + Interest Expense * (1-Tax
6 Return On Assets % (Horobet, 2012)
Rate)) / Ave. Total Assets
(Sub. & Wild, 2009, p.
7 Price to Book Value (Times) Share Market Value / Share Book Value
37)
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The dependent variable is the Banking Sector Index of Amman Stock Exchange. The data are
collected from the website of Amman Stock Exchange based on the market value of the free
float shares of the companies. The following formula is used to calculate the Index:
∑ ( )
Where: t: time. Pti: the closing price of the company's share in t. Sti: the number of shares
listed for the company in t. Fti the company’s coefficient in t. Dt the divisor index in time t.
4.1. Data
The data were obtained from primary and secondary sources. Mainly, it obtained from
secondary sources such as: annual reports issued by all Islamic and non-Islamic banks that
represents the banking index of Amman Stock Exchange during the period 2005-2017. In
addition, the banking sector index data from Amman Stock Exchange website in the same
period.
4.2. Model Development

Many researchers have developed models to predict the banking sector index using financial
ratios. Islamoglu (2015) studied the ability of financial ratios to predict the banking sector
index in the Turkish banking market. The study revealed that the financial ratios have
predictive power on the Turkish banking sector index. Alswalmeh & Dali (2019b) predicted the
banking sector index using financial ratios. The findings revealed that the financial ratios can
predict the banking sector index in the Amman Stock Exchange. This study came to distinguish
the predicting of the financial ratios for Islamic banks, comparing with ratios of non-Islamic
banks. Specifically, aims to identify the relationships between the financial ratios of Islamic
and non-Islamic banks, and their capability to predict the banking sector index in Amman
Stock Exchange. For answering the main research questions, the following hypotheses are
developed.
H1 “Financial ratios of Islamic banks have a capability predicting banking sector index in the
Amman Stock Exchange”.
H2 “Financial ratios of non-Islamic banks have a capability predicting banking sector index in
the Amman Stock Exchange”.
H3 “There are differences between the capabilities of financial ratios for Islamic banks
comparable with financial ratios for non-Islamic banks to predict the banking sector index in
the Amman Stock Exchange”.
4.3. Method
The study employs a quantitative research approach and used STATA15 to conduct Multiple
Linear Regression using Ordinary Least Squares analysis. To fulfill the study objectives, all
observations relative to dependent and independent variables are set together and the regression
coefficient explains the impact of financial ratios towards Banking Sector Index. The
descriptive statistics, correlation, and the relationship between the variables will display. In
addition, test the ability of the financial ratios to predict the banking sector index in the Amman
Stock Exchange.
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5. Analysis and Discussion

In this section, the descriptive statistics and relationships between the variables are displayed.
In addition, test the ability of the financial ratios to predict the banking sector index in the
Amman Stock Exchange. The Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) were used to test the correlation
coefficient at a significant level (α = 0.05).
5.1. Islamic banks

5.1.1. The Descriptive Statistics
Table (4) shows the descriptive statistics of the Islamic banks variables for the period [2005-
2017]. Namely mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values of the observations.
Table 4: The Descriptive Statistics

Variables Obs Mean Std. Dev. Min Max
Banking Index (BSI) 39 4254.693 712.3008 3407.643 6171.341
Equity Ratio (ER) 39 16.7489 15.46637 5.17 82.61
Quick Ratio (QR) 39 8.362487 26.65687 0.000 120.195
Debt Ratio (DR) 39 83.2511 15.46637 17.39 94.83
Stock Turnover (STR) 39 33.89249 72.53493 0.000 322.788
Return On Equity (ROE) 39 10.90582 6.19558 -3.602 21.828
Return On Assets (ROA) 39 1.402077 1.554234 -1.476 8.102
Market Book Value (MBR) 39 0.9976667 0.863463 0.000 3.164
Table (4) shows that the mean of the banking sector index (BSI) was (4254.693), standard
deviation (712.3008), the minimum value (3407.643) and maximum value (6171.341). It shows
that there is a relatively large rise in the index value due to the variation in development and
stability of the banking sector, which is considered one of the most important sectors in the
Amman Stock Exchange and has a great role in maximizing the general index.
Table (4) shows the mean of the equity ratio (ER) was (16.7489), standard deviation
(15.46637), the minimum value (5.17), and maximum value (82.61). The mean of quick ratio
(QR) was (8.362487), standard deviation (26.65687), the minimum value (0), and maximum
value (120.195). The mean of debt ratio (DR) was (83.2511), standard deviation (15.46637),
the minimum value (17.39) and maximum value (94.83). The percentage of equity, quick, and
debt ratios in Jordanian Islamic banks varied due to the size of the bank, different fund of
investment, the small number of Islamic banks in Jordan, and offered a new shares in the past
period.
The mean of the stock turnover ratio (STR) was (33.89249), standard deviation (72.53493), the
minimum value (0) and maximum value (322.788). The mean of return on equity (ROE) was
(10.90582), standard deviation (6.19558), the minimum value (-3.602) and maximum value
(21.828). The stock turnover varied in Islamic banks, but demand appears to be often high and
the return on equity is high compared with non-Islamic banks, but the number of the Islamic
banks still limited and effects this ratio.
The mean of return on assets (ROA) was (1.42292), standard deviation (0.65487), the
minimum value (-0.166) and the maximum (4.965). There is a significant variation in the return
on total assets. There is a significant deviation in return on assets ratio of Islamic banks and
appears to be a high variation in this ratio over the study period.
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The mean of the market to book value ratio (MBR) was (1.402077), standard deviation
(1.554234), the minimum (-1.476) and maximum (8.102). There is a significant difference
between the maximum and minimum value of the market value to book value due to recent
investments in Islamic banks.
5.1.2. The Multicollinearity Test

Table (5) shows the results of the Multicollinearity test for Islamic banks variables. The mean
of Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) (2.74) is less than 10, also shows that Tolerance values
(1/VIF) are less than 1 for all independent variables which are indications of the absence of a
multiple correlation problem between Islamic banks independent variables (Gujarati, 2003).
Table 5: The Multicollinearity Test

Variables VIF 1/VIF
Equity Ratio (ER) 1.42 0.705490
Quick Ratio (QR) 1.70 0.587540
Debt Ratio (DR) 2.85 0.350793
Stock Turnover (STR) 2.52 0.397592
Return On Equity (ROE) 4.23 0.236546
Return On Assets (ROA) 4.66 0.214563
Market Book Value (MBR) 1.83 0.547086
Mean VIF 2.74
5.1.3. The Regression Analysis

The regression analysis for Islamic banks and used to test the hypothesis; H1 “Financial ratios
of Islamic banks have a capability predicting banking sector index in the Amman Stock
Exchange”. The results of regression model will be presented in the Table (6).
Table 6: Estimation of the Regression Model
Variables Reg. Banking Index Coefficients T-Test P> |T-Test|

Equity Ratio (ER) 31.17934 3.76 0.001*
Quick Ratio (QR) -6.710052 -1.37 0.180
Debt Ratio (DR) 41.18821 11.57
Stock Turnover (STR) 4.741593 2.17 0.000*
Return On Equity (ROE) -8.395622 -0.25 0.038*
Market Book Value (MBR) 75.1847 0.48 0.802
_Cons. 3117.934 3.76 0.277
F(7, 32) Prob > F Adj R2 R2
Model :
3.11 0.000 0.2495 0.3680
“ * ” means significant different from zero at the 5% level.
5.2.1. The Descriptive Statistics

Table (7) shows the mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values for the
observations of the non-Islamic banks variables at the period [2005-2017].
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Table 7: The Descriptive Statistics

Variables Obs Mean Std. Dev. Min Max
Banking Index (BSI) 169 4254.693 705.1989 3407.643 6171.341
Equity Ratio (ER) 169 15.1401 13.3799 1.201 182.39
Quick Ratio (QR) 169 0.36476 0.10981 0.162 635
Debt Ratio (DR) 169 85.8075 2.83392 78.036 93.504
Stock Turnover (STR) 169 14.9918 22.4509 0.030 182.39
Return On Equity (ROE) 169 10.1797 5.14313 -1.448 39.841
Return On Assets (ROA) 169 1.42292 0.65487 -0.166 4.965
Market Book Value (MBR) 169 1.45788 .874421 0.542 5.991
Table (7) shows the mean of the equity ratio (ER) was (15.1401), standard deviation
(13.37985), the minimum value (1.201), and maximum value (182.39). The equity ratio in non-
Islamic Jordanian banks varies due to the different nature of their dependence on owners' funds
and other reserves.
The mean of the quick ratio (QR) was (0.36476), standard deviation (0.10981), the minimum
value (1.201), and maximum value (182.39). Table (7) shows that liquidity ratios are less than
one and a difference in the quick ratio from one bank to another due to the fact that banks to
some extent suffer inability to meet short-term obligations.
The mean of the debt ratio (DR) was (85.8075), standard deviation (2.83392), the minimum
value (78.036) and maximum value (93.504). The difference in the debt ratio is normal because
banks rely almost entirely on customers deposit in financing their existing investments or any
new investments in Jordan.
The mean of the stock turnover ratio (STR) was (14.9918), standard deviation (22.4509), the
minimum value (0.030) and maximum value (182.39). There is a significant difference in the
stock turnover ratio due to the difference in trading volume and the number of shares
subscribed. Recently, noted during the data collection process that there is a significant
difference in trading volumes from one bank to another, and the banks that have a good
reputation had better volumes than banks with a relatively lesser reputation.
The mean of return on equity (ROE) was (10.1797), standard deviation (5.14313), the
minimum value (-1.448) and maximum value (39.841). There is a significant difference in the
ability of non-Islamic Jordanian banks to achieve net income, due to the difference in the size
of income, financing methods in Jordanian banks, and in interest margin from one bank to
another. In addition, to the difference between interests on loans compared to interest on
deposits.
The mean of return on assets (ROA) was (1.42292), standard deviation (0.65487), the
minimum value (-0.166) and the maximum (4.965). There is a significant variation in the return
on total assets. This is due to the difference in the returns of the banks, as well as the difference
in the size of the Jordanian banks listed on the Amman Stock Exchange.
The mean of the market to book value ratio (MBR) was (1.45788), standard deviation
(0.874421), the minimum (0.542) and maximum (5.991). There is a significant difference
between the maximum and minimum value of the market to book value, due to the difference
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in stock prices in the financial market and the varying demand for specific types of stocks,
including high liquidity with minimizing the potential risks.
5.2.2. The Multicollinearity Test

Table (8) shows the results of the Multicollinearity test for non-Islamic banks variables. The
mean of Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) (3.89) is less than 10, also shows that Tolerance
values (1/VIF) are less than 1 for all independent variables which are indications of the absence
of a multiple correlation problem between Islamic banks independent variables.
Table 8: The Multicollinearity Test

Variables VIF 1/VIF
Equity Ratio (ER) 1.67 0.600407
Quick Ratio (QR) 1.64 0.609934
Debt Ratio (DR) 2.42 0.413009
Stock Turnover (STR) 2.01 0.496601
Return On Equity (ROE) 8.85 0.113018
Market Book Value (MBR) 1.76 0.567211
Mean VIF 3.89
5.2.3. The Regression Analysis

The regression analysis for non-Islamic banks and used to test the hypothesis; H2 “Financial
ratios of non-Islamic banks have a capability predicting banking sector index in the Amman
Stock Exchange”. The results of regression model will be presented in the Table (9).
Table 9: Estimation of the Regression Model
Variables Reg. Banking Index Coefficients T-Test P> |T-Test|

Equity Ratio (ER) -1.85509 -0.52 0.600
Quick Ratio (QR) 480.2129 1.12 0.263
Debt Ratio (DR) 64.54148 3.21 0.002*
Stock Turnover (STR) 8.118872 3.51 0.001*
Return On Equity (ROE) -52.16573 -2.46 0.015*
Return On Assets (ROA) 536.2483 3.22 0.002*
Market Book Value (MBR) 381.2205 6.85 0.000*
_Cons. -2340.027 -1.34 0.183
F(7, 161) Prob > F Adj R2 R2
Model :
29.93 0.000 0.5466 0.5655
“ * ” means significant different from zero at the 5% level.
The result of the regression analysis found that there are a significant correlation between the
debt ratio (DR), stock turnover (STR), return on equity (ROE), return on assets (ROA), and
price to book value (MBR). Table (9) shows the correlation coefficient between the banking
sector index to return on assets (ROA) was (536.2483) at the 1% level of significance, which is
the best indicator of non-Islamic banks in the banking sector index. Similarly, the correlation
coefficients between the banking sector index with a debt ratio (DR), stock turnover ratio
(STR), and price to book value (MBR) was (64.54148, 8.118872, and 381.2205) respectively,
at the 1% level of significance.
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In addition, the correlation coefficient between the banking sector index and return on equity
(ROE) was (-52.16573) at the 1% level of significance, but it is a negative correlation. The
researchers attributed that to the low volume of shareholders' equity in non- Islamic Jordanian
banks, which gives an unusual correlation to the return on equity ratio with the banking sector
index.
Table (9) shows the correlation between the banking sector index with an equity ratio (ER) and
a quick ratio (QR), but not significant. In addition, Table (9) also shows the Adjusted R-
squared was (0.5466), which represent the capability predicting banking sector index using
financial ratios. In other words, 54.66% of the change in the banking sector index on the
Amman Stock Exchange are due to the changes in the financial ratios of non-Islamic banks that
have statistically significant relationship with the index. Therefore, the financial ratios of non-
Islamic banks have a capability predicting banking sector index in the Amman Stock
Exchange.
In contrast to Islamic banks, this analysis indicates that the debt ratio (DR), stock turnover
(STR), return on equity (ROE), return on assets (ROA), and price to book value (MBR) have a
significant relationship with the banking sector index, and can predict of the banking sector
index in ASE. The equity ratio (ER) and a quick ratio (QR) haven’t significant relationship
with the banking sector index. Therefore, can’t predict banking sector index in Amman Stock
Exchange. These findings are consistent with the study results of Jiang and Lee (2012),
Erdogan, Erdogan, & Omurbek (2015), and Arkan (2016). In contrast, it was inconsistent with
the study results of Islamoglu, (2015).
6. Comparison between Islamic and Non-Islamic Banks

The regression analysis of Islamic and non-Islamic banks used to fulfill the objective of
comparing the capability of financial ratios of Islamic banks with financial ratios of non-
Islamic Banks to predict the banking sector index in Amman Stock Exchange. In answering the
question, “To what extent is the capability of financial ratios for Islamic banks comparable
with financial ratios for non-Islamic Banks to predict the banking sector index in the Amman
Stock Exchange? The hypothesis H3 “There are differences between the capabilities of
financial ratios for Islamic banks comparable with financial ratios for non-Islamic banks to
predict the banking sector index in the Amman Stock Exchange” is developed.
Table 10. Shows that the predictable financial ratios of the banking sector index in Amman
Stock Exchange for Islamic and non-Islamic banks. It shows that there is a significant
difference in predicting the banking sector index between Islamic banks and non-Islamic
banks. The Islamic banks analysis indicates that the equity ratio (ER), debt ratio (DR), and
stock turnover (STR) have a significant relationship and can predict of the banking sector index
in Amman Stock Exchange. The quick ratio (QR), return on equity (ROE), return on assets
(ROA), and market book value (MBR) haven’t significant relationship with the banking sector
index. Therefore, can’t predict banking sector index in Amman Stock Exchange. In contrast,
the non-Islamic banks analysis indicates that the debt ratio (DR), stock turnover (STR), return
on equity (ROE), return on assets (ROA), and price to book value (MBR) have a significant
relationship with the banking sector index and can predict of the banking sector index in
Amman Stock Exchange. The equity ratio (ER) and a quick ratio (QR) haven’t significant
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relationship with the banking sector index. Therefore, can’t predict banking sector index in
Amman Stock Exchange.
Table 10: Predictable Ratios
Non-Islamic Islamic Islamic & Non-Islamic
Debt Ratio (DR) Equity Ratio (ER) Stock Turnover (STR)
Stock Turnover (STR) Debt Ratio (DR)
Return On Equity (ROE) Stock Turnover (STR)
Return On Assets (ROA)
Market Book Value (MBR)
Table 10. Shows that the banking sector index is predictable through the equity ratio (ER), debt
ratio (DR), and stock turnover ratio (STR) of Islamic banks. The results also showed that the
banking sector index is predictable through the ratios of non-Islamic banks by the debt ratio
(DR), stock turnover (STR), return on equity (ROE), return on assets (ROA), and price to book
value (MBR). Accordingly, accept the hypothesis H3 “There are differences between the
capabilities of financial ratios for Islamic banks comparable with financial ratios for non-
Islamic banks to predict the banking sector index in the Amman Stock Exchange”.
Table 10. Also shows that the stock turnover ratio (STR) is a common significant indicator to
predict the banking sector index using the financial ratios of Islamic and non-Islamic banks,
where we can predict the banking sector index using this ratio in both Islamic and non-Islamic
banks. Furthermore, the quick ratio (QR) not a significant indicator to predict the banking
sector index for Islamic and non-Islamic banks.
7. Conclusion
This study examined the ability of seven financial ratios to predict of the banking sector index
in Amman Stock Exchange. Mainly, compare the capability of financial ratios for Islamic
banks with financial ratios for non-Islamic Banks to predict the banking sector index of the
Amman Stock Exchange. The study used yearly data of Islamic and non-Islamic banks during
the period between 2005 and 2017. Ordinary least square (OLS) has been utilized using seven
financial ratios to predict the banking sector index. Considering the variables selected among
the financial ratios, the findings revealed that equity ratio (ER), debt ratio (DR), and stock
turnover (STR) of Islamic banks can predict of the banking sector index in Amman Stock
Exchange. The quick ratio (QR), return on equity (ROE), return on assets (ROA), and market
book value (MBR) of Islamic banks does not predict the banking sector index in Amman Stock
Exchange. In addition, debt ratio (DR), stock turnover (STR), return on equity (ROE), return
on assets (ROA), and price to book value (MBR) of non-Islamic banks can predict of the
banking sector index in Amman Stock Exchange. The equity ratio (ER) and a quick ratio (QR)
of non-Islamic banks do not predict the banking sector index in Amman Stock Exchange.
Finally, the study conclude that the stock turnover ratio (STR) can predict of the banking sector
index in Amman Stock Exchange for both Islamic and non-Islamic banks.
Recommendation
Based on the results, the researchers recommend expanding the studies by taking other
financial ratios and testing their relationship with the banking sector index, in order to have a
comprehensive understanding of the ability of all ratios to predict the index. The current study
conducted a comparison between Islamic and non-Islamic banks to predict the banking sector
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index. Such studies should be conducted for different sectors to predict the index of respective
sectors or the market index. In addition, the study recommends to conducting the comparisons
between different sectors determining the ratios involved in predicting the index, which reflects
the best indicators correlated with the financial market indices.
Limitations
One of the most important limitations faces this study is the number of Islamic banks in Jordan.
The banking sector in Jordan consists of sixteen banks listed on the Amman Stock Exchange.
There are only three Islamic banks include in Jordanian banking sector, which was a major
reason for reducing the number of observations of Islamic banks.
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Customer’s Satisfaction And Service Quality: A Study Of

Simunjan District Office In Sarawak
Mohd Rashidee Haji Alwi 1*, Gloria Panit 2, Noraini Sa’ait3, Ahmad Hadafi Kifli4
1,4
Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Samarahan Campus, Sarawak, Malaysia
2,3
Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Mukah Campus, Sarawak, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: gloriapanit@uitm.edu.my

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: This study focuses on customer service quality provided by District Office in
Simunjan. Simunjan District Office is one of the areas under the administration of the
Samarahan Division. Research has always been concentrated in measuring Customer
Satisfaction or SERVQUAL for customer services. Apart from that, this research is also
significant for the need of Simunjan District Office to improve their service to the customer.
For government sector, customer service has been put as one of the government priorities in
order to serve their customer or their customer more efficiently. The respondents of this study
are customers who come to seek for service at the Simunjan District Office. The study focused
on dimension such as quality of service, speed, facility, security, responsiveness,
communication and understanding the customer. The customer of Simunjan District office is
narrowed down to specifically from Simunjan area. The present study concentrates on
customer perceptions of the following SERVQUAL dimensions, price and product quality. The
findings showed that customer’s perception towards service quality level was consistently
lower than their expectation. This implies that more effort is needed to improve the service
quality level of the Simunjan District Office. Customers have higher expectations on the
promptness of service, accuracy of transactions, security issues and concerns; the customer’s
lowest expectations are cleanliness, ambience and others.
Keywords: SERVQUAL, Customer Satisfaction, Customer Expectation, Customer Perception

____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Parasuraman et al. (1985) defined service quality as “the global evaluation or attitude of overall
excellence of services”. So, service quality is the difference between customers’ expectation
and perceptions of services delivered by service firms. (D. A. Nitecki & P. Hernon) Defined
service quality in terms of “meeting or exceeding customer expectations, or as the difference
between customer perceptions and expectations of service”. As the research is focused on
examining major users of CJCU Library, the library service quality is defined as “the overall
excellence of library services that satisfy users’ expectation”.
Kotler (1996) defined customer satisfaction as “the level of a person’s felt state resulting from
comparing a product’s perceived performance or outcome in violation to his/her own
expectations”. So, customer satisfaction could be considered a comparative behaviour between
inputs beforehand and post obtainments. As the study focused on investigating user satisfaction
of libraries, customer satisfaction is defined as “the levels of service quality performances that
meets users’ expectations.
The level of service quality as assessed by the external customers and their experiences towards
services provided by the Malaysian public organizations is still unknown. The public sector has
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long been subjected to criticisms for, among others, inefficiency, red tape, lack of flexibility,
ineffective accountability and poor performance. Such criticisms have paved the way for
administrative reforms and reorganizations seeking to address various administrative ailments
and enhance the efficiency and performance of public bureaucracies (Siddiquee, 2006).
There are many government departments such as Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of
Defence, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Housing and Local Government. The public
sector refers to the part of the economy concerned with providing various government services.
The composition of the public sector varies by country, but in most countries the public sector
includes such services as the military, police, public transit and care of public roads, public
education, along with healthcare and those working for the government itself, such as elected
officials. Service quality is also known as a critical success factor in an organisation’s efforts to
be competitive. Researches have shown that good service quality attracts new customers as
well as retains existing ones. In addition, good service quality has led to reduced costs, an
enhanced corporate image, positive word-of-mouth recommendation and enhanced profitability
(A.Parasuraman, 2010).
This study focuses on customer service quality provided by District Office in Simunjan.
Simunjan District is one of the areas under the administration of the Samarahan Division.
Simunjan District is an area of approximately 2,077 square kilometres. It is located about 176
km from Kuching City by road and 103 km by road water (river). Sebuyau and Gedong are
under District Administration Simunjan. The population of the district is 37,561.00 consisting
of various tribes. Overall, the main jobs of the people are farmers and fishermen. Efforts to
develop the economy of Simunjan District is actively planned and executed so as not to be left
behind in the current development. Basic amenities are given special attention so that all
economic activities can be successfully aligned with the stimulus package. Simunjan District
Office is located at Pejabat Daerah Simunjan Jalan Gunung Ngeli 94800 Simunjan. It is
consisted of three departments (Finance, Development and Administration).
Problem Statement
This research is to study about service quality and customer satisfaction in Simunjan District
Office. Research has always been concentrated in measuring Customer Satisfaction or
SERVQUAL for customer services. Apart from that, this research is also significant for the
need of Simunjan District Office to improve their service to the customer. For government
sector, customer service has been put as one of the government priorities in order to serve their
customer or their customer more efficiently. Simunjan District Office is small compare to the
main office in Kuching, still they must promote the best service to their customer.
At the moment, there are quite a high number of complaints filed by the public due to delays in
taking actions and providing services to them by the Malaysian public organizations (A,
Arawati, S. Baker, & J. Kandampully, 2007). Consequently, service quality is not as expected
by the customers and therefore, it is quite low. This matter is a concern to the public since they
are the taxpayers and therefore, they expect good services are provided to them as the return.
Meeting with the needs and expectations of the customer means that we know what the
customer wants, we know what the customer expects, and we can deliver them on a consistent
basis.
Customer satisfaction is generally assumed to be a significant determinant of repeat sales,
positive word-of-mouth, and customer loyalty. Satisfied customers return and buy more, and
they tell other people about their experiences, both positive and negative. The literature in
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marketing, retailing and service management historically has not considered customer
experience as a separate construct. Instead researchers have focused on measuring customer
satisfaction and service quality (Peter C. Verhoef, Katherine N. Lemon, A. Parasuraman, Anne
Roggeveen, Michael Tsiros, & Leonard A. Schlesinger, 2009).
The challenges facing governments today have become more formidable than in the past.
Governments are pressured to seek solutions to modern social problems and cope with
demands for better services from the public who are more conscious of their rights and more
critical of service standards. However, there is still no clear picture of customer views on the
quality services provided by Simunjan District Office to their customer. After literature search,
there is no evidence of any study of this kind in Simunjan District Office. Therefore, this study
is conducted to clarify the service quality of Simunjan District Office to their customer. The
findings of this study will be useful for Simunjan District Office to plan and implement
strategies aimed at improving customer satisfaction.
Research Questions
1. What are the satisfaction levels of current customer in District Office in Simunjan?
2. What are the gaps between customer expectation and customer perception toward
District Office in Simunjan?
3. What are the most important factors of service quality influencing customer satisfaction
in Simunjan District Office?
Research Objectives
1. To measure the satisfaction level of current customers in District Office in Simunjan.
2. To identify gaps between customer expectation and customer perception toward District
Office in Simunjan.
3. To find the most important factors of service quality influencing customer satisfaction
in Simunjan District Office.
Customer Satisfaction
The connection between customer satisfaction and government organizations is less direct than
for many businesses. Dissatisfied customers in business mean decreasing sales and new
competition. Dissatisfied customers in government can express themselves through elections
but that is a slower and less direct process. In business, customer problems will affect the
bottom line in a few months, but in government the impact of dissatisfaction can take years.
Therefore, there is a need to develop more timely methods to assess satisfaction. Citizen
complaints, if unknown or ignored, can result in the failure of efforts and a depletion of support
and validity of all government. If citizens, for example, do not feel that the public schools teach
effectively, parents will seek to place children in private schools, lessen participation in school
board elections, and oppose bonds and taxes necessary to support schools. Or if citizens feel
that law enforcement is inadequate or not honest, cooperation will lessen, and violence and
crime may increase. Creating customer satisfaction is a defensive strategy and the behavioural
objective for defence is customer loyalty (Muhannad M.A Abdallat & Hesham El –Sayed El -
Emam, 2008).
The definition of customer satisfaction has been widely debated as organizations increasingly
attempt to measure it. Customer satisfaction can be experienced in a variety of situations and
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connected to both goods and services. It is a highly personal assessment that is greatly affected
by customer expectations. Satisfaction also is based on the customer’s experience of both
contact with the organization (the “moment of truth” as it is called in business literature) and
personal outcomes. Some researchers define a satisfied customer within the private sector as
“one who receives significant added value” to his/her bottom line a definition that may apply
just as well to public services. (Hanan, 2007).
Quality and service alone cannot produce recurrent satisfaction. Satisfaction is a distinct and
separate issue. It is the customer's entire experience with us that determines his or her
declaration of satisfaction. This experience is not objective at all but totally subjective. It is the
customer's call. A customer is satisfied only when they say they are satisfied. Satisfaction is
based upon the customer's perception of the experience. This perception is his/her
interpretation of the value received played back against expectations. This declaration does not
require any objective evidence. It can be a declaration made with no reason. Our interactions
with the customer, the promises made to the customer in these conversations, the customer's
expectations generated in these conversations, and the actions we take that are consistent with
those expectations combine to produce a declaration of satisfaction. Therefore it is essential we
manage these aspects of our business in a proactive manner to excel at Customer Satisfaction.
(Nowacki, 2012).
Satisfaction from service quality is usually evaluated in terms of technical quality and
functional quality (Gronroos 1984). Usually, customers do not have much information about
the technical aspects of a service; therefore, functional quality becomes the major factor from
which to form perceptions of service quality (Donabedian 1980, 1982). Service quality may be
defined as customer perception of how well a service meets or exceeds their expectations
(Czepiel 1990). Service quality can be measured in terms of customer perception, customer
expectation, customer satisfaction, and customer attitude (Sachdev and Verma 2004) Ekinci
(2003) indicates that the evaluation of service quality leads to customer satisfaction. Rust and
Oliver (1994) define satisfaction as the “customer fulfilment response,” which is an evaluation
as well as an emotion-based response to a service (Geetika & Shefali Nandan, 2010).
SERVQUAL
The most dominant instrument in measuring service quality is SERVQUAL. It was proposed
by Parasuraman, Berry and Zeithmal in 1985 which comprised of 10 dimensions with 97 items
and later reduced to 5 dimensions with 22 items. The dimensions are tangibility, reliability,
responsiveness, assurance and empathy. In the year of 1988, Parasuraman has come up with
five dimension of service quality: they are tangible, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and
empathy. Tangible will look at the physical quality of the subject matter like physical
appearances, dressing style for human quality and graphically organized for website quality.
Responsiveness is how quick the service react toward customer’s request; reliability is how far
the service can be trusted; assurance is until what extent the service provider able to ensure
customer’s privacy is well protected and lastly empathy is to see how far the service provider
understand the customer’s needs. The dimension developed by Parasuraman (1988) is called
SERVQUAL dimensions where it is widely used to be the scales to measure service quality.
The first version of the SERVQUAL instrument was composed of 97 scale items designed by
Parasuraman et al. (1985) to gather data that would address those 10 dimensions. In the next
phase of development, SERVQUAL was administered and data were collected for the 97 items.
The investigators performed a factor analysis and applied reliability testing. Using Cronbach ‘s
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alpha coefficient, with alpha values ranging from .72 to .83 across the 10 dimensions, the
instrument was refined to 54 items (Parasuraman et al. 1988, p.19). Factor analysis of the
resulting 54 items changed the factor loadings, suggesting reassignment of some items and
deletion of others. Each time the factors were changed, the fact or analysis was repeated and
this iterative process ultimately resulted in 22 items loading on five dimensions (MILLER,
2008).
Service Quality in Malaysian Public Service

Service quality is important in public sector due to the new public management policy which
needs public organizations to compete among themselves (Azmi, 2008). From 1999 to 2006,
the Public Complaints Bureau (PCB) (http://www.bpa.jpm.my/) registered a high number of
complaints filed by the public regarding delays in the actions taken and services provided by
the employees of public organisations. Notably, three ministries – the Ministry of Home
Affairs, the Ministry of Finance, and the Prime Minister's Department – and three states in
Malaysia – Selangor, Johor and Perak – received the most complaints (PCB, 1999–2006).
Newspaper headlines also highlighted complaints from the public regarding their
dissatisfaction with the services provided (New Straits Times & Berita Harian, 2005–2007),
suggesting that service quality is low and does not match customer expectations. This is a
matter of dire concern for the public, who as taxpayers expect good services to be provided
(Abdullah, 2004). Thus, it seems that Total Quality Management (TQM), client charters, and
MS ISO 9000 as practiced in the public sector are not enough to ensure the provision of high-
quality services to customers (Wan, 2004).
Now, there are limited studies published on service quality in Malaysian public sector that
applied SERVQUAL scale. It is widely accepted that the concept of service quality should be
approached from the customer’s perspective. It is the customer’s perception of service quality
and it is he or she who determines the level of satisfaction. Meeting with the needs and
expectations of the customer means that we know what the customer wants, we know what the
customer expects, and we can deliver them on a consistent basis. The customer is the judge of
the quality of service, not the service provider regardless of how well the service provider's
records seem to be.
Improvement in service quality in the public sector has not been particularly easy due to
unclear performance target, lack of experimentation, lack of evaluation in order to learn from
experience and slow to abandon less successful programmes. Problems in service quality
common to both the public and private sector are lack of vision, emphasis on short term gains
and the negative effects of performance evaluations. However, service quality improvements in
government establishments can contribute to economy, efficiency, effectiveness and in quality
(Hashim, Rasid, & Ismail, 2011).
Theoretical Framework
Independent Variables
Tangibility
Tangibles are the physical evidence of the service, for instance, the appearance of the physical
facilities, tools and equipment used to provide the service, the appearance of personnel and
communication materials and the presence of other customers in the service facility.
Reliability
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Reliability is the ability to perform the promised service in a dependable and accurate manner.
The service is performed correctly on the first occasion, the accounting is correct, records are
up to date and schedules are kept.
Responsiveness
Responsiveness is to the readiness and willingness of employees to help customers in providing
prompt timely services, for example, mailing a transaction slip immediately or setting up
appointments quickly.
Assurance
Assurance that refers to the knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to inspire
trust and confidence.
Empathy
Empathy that is the customer desire empathy, caring and individualised attention from the
service provider.
Dependent Variables
Dependent variable is the main variable tested against the independent variables. In this
research, Simunjan District Office service quality is the main variable to be tested against the
tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. Meaning to say, the better the
respondent’s satisfaction toward the five dimensions will make the better quality of the service
of Simunjan District office.
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
SERVQUAL
Tangibility
Reliability
Responsiveness
Assurance
Empathy
Figure 1: The Relationship between SERVQUAL Dimension and Simunjan Dictrict Office Service Quality
A survey was conducted to determine the perception and expectation of the customers in order
to determine whether there would be a gap for improvement to the service quality of the
Simunjan District office from the perspective of the customer. The SERVQUAL questionnaire
model was adopted. The questionnaires were distributed to the entire Simunjan District office
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customer to get the information about their view on the quality of service offered by Simunjan
District Office. The respondents are among the society in Simunjan only.
Before the final form of the survey or questionnaire is constructed, it is useful to conduct a pilot
study (or dress rehearsal) to determine if the items are yielding the kind of information that is
needed. The term pilot study is used in two different ways in social science research. After the
questions already constructed, it was distributed to ten (10) random selected persons to answer
the questionnaire. The objective of conducting pilot study is to make sure each question in the
questionnaires is understandable by the respondent. (Kothari & C.R, 1985)
Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting the right individual to represent the population. In this
research, 200 potential respondents will be identified by distributing the questionnaires
randomly in Simunjan District Office. This method of collecting data is known as simple
random sampling techniques. According to (Freedman, 2003) On the other hand, a good size
sample, e.g., 200-500, is needed for multiple regressions, analysis of covariance, or log- linear
analysis, which might be performed for more rigorous state impact evaluations. The sample
size should be appropriate for the analysis that is planned. Simple random sampling is often
practical for a population of business records, even when that population is large. When it
comes to people, especially when face-to-face interviews are to be conducted, simple random
sampling is seldom feasible. Another consideration with sample size is the number needed for
the data analysis. If descriptive statistics are to be used, e.g., mean, frequencies, then nearly any
sample size will suffice.
The main instrument in this research is questionnaire. The questionnaire is divided into four
sections where the first section includes the respondent’s demographic information. The
demographic information asked in section A is first and foremost, are they the Simunjan
District office customer? The second and the third question is just a complimentary question
asking for the age and gender.
Data Collection Method

In this research, most of the data were collected through primary sources. Primary data was
collected from questionnaires where the data was collected directly from the customers.
Besides, another important source of data is from secondary data is collected mostly from
Emerald journal and Simunjan District office website. Apart from that, some data also
collected from self-observation and experiences.
The first step in conducting a primary research is to gather relevant data related to the research
issue. This had been done through administering the questionnaires to customers who visit
Simunjan District Office. The respondents were asked to rank and rate their views pertaining to
the question necessitated the questionnaire. The researcher had used a five-point Likert scale
for rating the question which asks the respondent to rate their views ranging from extremely
dissatisfied to extremely satisfied. The questionnaires were handed over to respondents
personally in Simunjan District Office.
The standard deviation had been computed to verify the accuracy of the data collected. The
researcher had used statistical software like SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences).
The researcher had also calculated the mean (average value), median (which helps in
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determining the central value from the data) and mode (the most repetitive response from the
respondents in the sample).
Table: Operational Variables

Variable Dimension Indicator Author
 Availability of kids corners, parking spaces,
recreational facilities, food courts.
 Cleanliness, ambience, maintenance etc.
Section B Tangibility Sumadi Suryabrata
 Range of products, layout, shelves, aisles,
display signs, promotional islands, and
assortments.
 Speed of Service.
Reliability Sumadi Suryabrata
 Accuracy of Transactions
 Speed of Response to complaints
Responsiveness Sumadi Suryabrata
 Concern and Desire for Assisting
 Concern for Customers
Assurance  Staff attitude Sumadi Suryabrata
 Security for transactions, parking etc.
 Ease of Communication
Empathy Sumadi Suryabrata
 Attention and Patience of the sales staff
5. Findings
Objective 1
This research found that 48.5% of the customers who came to Simunjan district Office are
satisfied and 2.5% of the customers feel extremely satisfied with the service provided by
Simunjan District office. 28.5% of the customer feels neither satisfied nor dissatisfied toward
the service provide by Simunjan District Office. There are 11% of customers who are
extremely dissatisfied and 9.5% who are dissatisfied with the service provided.
The number of High School level who are satisfied with Simunjan District Office are higher
compare to University level. This is because the number of respondents that came to Simunjan
District Office a lot of them are high school education level which is 137 over 200. This
research found that the education level does not really affect the satisfaction level of the
customers in rural area.
Based on their occupation, the highest number of respondents are from others group which is
88 and followed by Government Sector which is 81. In Simunjan area, a lot of them are
working with Government Sector and Others (farmer, fisherman, etc). From this result, its
shows that a lot of customer who does not satisfied with the service offered by Simunjan
District Office are from Others group.
Objective 2
Table: Satisfaction Gap
Dimension Total Perception Total Expectation Gap
Tangibility 743 753 -10
Reliability 726 788 -62
Responsiveness 757 771 -14
Assurance 725 768 -43
Empathy 681 725 -44
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The gaps presented in table above are calculated according the SERVQUAL score calculation
from (Parasuraman et al 1988). SERVQUAL score = Perception – Expectation. The level of the
service quality depends on the score. The higher the positive score the better the Service
Quality level. The results from shows that all the 5 items have negative scores. This means that
none of the 5 items, reaches the customers‟ expectations level. Any differences between
customer expectations and the organization’s perception of customer expectations of quality
are important to identify and determine the level service quality provided.
Simunjan District Office needs to improve on Reliability part because it has the highest
negative score which is -62. Customers perceived a gap in this area measured at -60, the
biggest gap among all items. According to customer opinion, the second largest gap existed in
the Assurance and Empathy dimension, and even for employees this dimension has resulted in
negative gaps. This research also found that the customer doesn’t really care about Tangibility
dimension.
This gap existed because it is come from internal management itself that can’t meet the
expectation of the customer who seek for Simujan District Office services. The staff of the
Simunjan District Office have low communication with the customers and the service that they
offer to the customer cannot satisfy the customer.
Objective 3
Table: The most important factors of service quality

Dimension Sum Mean
Tangiblitiy 390 1.95
Reliability 830 4.15
Responsiveness 650 3.25
Assurance 530 2.65
Empathy 600 3.00
Dimension Rank
• 1 Reliability
• 2 Responsiveness
• 3 Empathy
• 4 Assurance
• 5 Tangibility
The researcher has performed a descriptive analysis to analyse the mean of the responses and to
also track the minimum and maximum responses of each perspective on an average. Table
above shows the result of questionnaires when they have been asked to rank which dimension
is the most important to them. When all the result from each dimension is collected, Reliability
have the highest mean which is 4.15. It shows that the most important dimension for the
customer is Reliability. The next important dimension for the customers is responsiveness
which is 3.25. Assurance Is rank on number 3 and follow by Empathy. From this research
customer feels that Tangibility dimension is not important to them. Tangibility dimension mean
is only 1.95 and it has lowest mean compare to other four dimensions. Customers have highest
expectations on the promptness of service, accuracy of transactions, security issues and
concerns; the customer’s lowest expectations are cleanliness, ambience, etc.
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In this research it’s found those customers who are from rural area perceive that Reliability
dimension is the most important for them. It is different compare to urban area where those
customers who are from urban area perceive that Empathy is the most important
dimension for them. Those research from overseas found that the customer from Europe
perceive that Tangibility is the most important dimension for them.
6. Conclusions and Recommendations

SERVQUAL is a concise multiple-item scale with good reliability and validity that retailers
can use to better understand the service expectations and perceptions of consumers and, as a
result, improve service. By this instigator, SERVQUAL has been designed as a generic
measure that could be applicable across a broad spectrum of services. In order to bridge the gap
between customers’ perceptions of service delivery in the public service in Simunjan District
Office, they need to provide more training to the employee to enhance their customer service
skills. The training should focus on employee ability to help customers resolve their queries
and problems quickly. In the process of resolving such problems, they should show a caring,
courteous attitude and a sincere interest in helping customers. Furthermore, their employee
should improve their knowledge and skills so that they can provide a fast and reliable service to
their customers. When they promise to do something for the customer within a certain time,
they must fulfil that promise. More importantly, service enhancement through customer
orientation will provide the public sector with an opportunity to gain confidence from the tax-
paying public.
Conclusions that can be done are:

• The descriptive result reveals that customer’s perception towards service quality level
was consistently lower than their expectation. This implies that more effort is needed to
improve the service quality level of the Simunjan District Office.
• Customers have higher expectations on the promptness of service, accuracy of
transactions, security issues and concerns; the customer’s lowest expectations are
cleanliness, ambience and others.
Using the SERVQUAL instrument, this study was able to help this public organization identify
important areas for improvement in its service delivery. The findings revealed that employees
and customers did not have significant differences in opinions in terms of the gaps between
their perceptions and expectations of that public organization. The findings are congruent with
the studies of Bitner et al. (1994) and Schneider and Bowen (1985) where both employees and
customers have common perceptions regarding the level of service quality delivered in an
organization. This study was therefore able to highlight how important it is for an organization,
be it a public sector organization, to conduct a survey and consider the opinions of its
customers and its employees in identifying areas for service quality improvements. It is
therefore very important for them to know how customers evaluate service quality and what
they can do to measure and improve service quality. Therefore, to exceed customer
expectations, it is necessary for even a public sector organization to continually improve the
quality of service provided to its customers.
Recommendations
Simunjan District Office should aim to motivate the staff to show respect towards their
customers and increase the level of staff offering guests an increased personal service. This, in
turn, will increase the readiness of staff to be available for their customers, who can contact
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them at any time. Additionally, employee appraisal systems can ensure that staff can
continuously improve their working ability and improve upon weaknesses identified in their
work
The results show that Simunjan District Office need to give more training to employee so that
they can improve the quality of the services they are required to provide to customers. This
shows that employees do not understand customers’ needs and are not able to respond to those
needs. All the gap scores were negative indicating shortfall in meeting customers’ expectations
across all dimensions.
Furthermore, their employee should improve their knowledge and skills so that they can
provide a fast and reliable service to their customers. When they promise to do something for
the customer within a certain time, they must fulfill that promise. More importantly, service
enhancement through customer orientation will provide the public sector with an opportunity to
gain confidence from the tax-paying public.
References
A, Arawati, S. Baker, & J. Kandampully. (2007). An exploratory study of service quality in the
Malaysian public service sector. International Journal of Quality and Reliability
Management, 177-190.
A.Parasuraman. (2010). A Conceptual Model of Service Quality and Its Implications for Future
Research. Journal of Marketing vol.49, 42.
Azmi, D. I. (2008). Service Quality in Malaysian Public Organizations. 45.
C.N. Krishna Naik, Swapna Bhargavi Gantasala, & Gantasala V. Prabhakar. (2010). Service
Quality (Servqual) and its Effect on Customer Satisfaction in Retailing. European
Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 16, Number 2, 234.
D. A. Nitecki, & P. Hernon. (n.d.). Measuring service quality at Yale university’s libraries.
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Edvardsson, B. (1998). Service Quality Improvement.Managing Service Quality. 142-149.
Freedman, D. A. (2003). Sampling. 2.
Geetika, & Shefali Nandan. (2010). Determinants of Customer Satisfaction on Service
Quality:A Study of Railway Platforms in India. Journal of Public Transportation,
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Gitomer, J. (2008). Customer satisfaction is worthless, customer loyalty is priceless:How to
make customers love you, keep them coming back, and tell everyone they know.
Austin, TX:Bard Press.
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Supports In Vulnerable Neighbourhoods. Centre for the Study of Social Policy, 6-7.
Hashim, H., Rasid, S. Z., & Ismail, W. K. (2011). Customer Service Quality in A Public
Agency in Malaysia: Towards A Customer-Focused Public Organization. Australian
Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 1777.
Ilhaamie, A. G. (2010). Service Quality in Malaysian Public Service: International Journal of
Trade, Economics and Finance, 40.
Kothari, & C.R. (1985). Research Methodology-Methods and Techniques. New Delhi, Wiley
Eastern Limited.
Kumar, & Ranjit. (2005). Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners,
(2nd.ed). Singapore, Pearson Education.
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Miller, K. F. (2008). Service Quality In Academic Libraries An Analysis Of LibQUAL+™

Scores And Institutional Characteristics.
Muhannad M.A Abdallat, & Hesham El –Sayed El - Emam. (2008). Customer satisfaction. pp.
2-3.
Nowacki, R. (2012). Five Step Customer Satisfaction Process. 4.
Peter C. Verhoef, Katherine N. Lemon, A. Parasuraman, Anne Roggeveen, Michael Tsiros, &
Leonard A. Schlesinger. (2009). Customer Experience Creation: Determinants,
Dynamics. Journal of Retailing, 32.
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Antecedents Of Customer’s Re-Patronage Intentions. Sunway Academic Journal 4,
61.
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Ethical Decision-Making Of Malaysian Entrepreneur In Service

Sector
Chiang Tit Yean1*, Chua Chong Tat2, Tan Kock Lim3

1
UOW Malaysia KDU Penang University College, Penang, Malaysia
2
Graduate School of Business, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: tityean.chiang@kdupg.edu.my, tydrew88@yahoo.com

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to study aims to examine the interrelationship between
personal spiritual belief, personal ethics, and ethical decision-making. The direct relationships
of i) personal spiritual belief and ethical decision-making, and ii) personal ethics and ethical
decision-making were examined. The Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling
(PLS-SEM) approach was then used in the data analysis. The findings of this study could serve
to facilitate greater understanding of ethical decision making among Malaysian Entrepreneur.
The findings also revealed that the direct relationships are significant. Cross sectional design
allows researchers to collect data at one point in time only and therefore it is not possible to
measure casual relationships among the variable included in the present study. The results of
this study could provide a greater insight of the Phenomenon of Ethical Decision-Making
among entrepreneurs in Malaysia. Besides that, the findings of this study could serve to
facilitate greater understanding among business owners of these voluntary, discretionary and
non-required contributions for the survey.
Keywords: Entrepreneur, Personal Spiritual Belief, Personal Ethics, Ethical Decision-making.

____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Decision-making can be described as the process of making choices among possible
alternatives. Dumler and Skinner (2008) identify that decision-making process from a slightly
different angle by stating that it involved making a selection from a set of potential alternatives
and achieving the chosen option. Later Gray, Esenduran, Rungtusanatham, and Skowronski
(2017) argued that decision-making often involved problem solving and decision-making skill
is important for business and life in general. For example, an entrepreneur or management team
needs to make ethical decisions that will ensure business growth and sustainability (Crane and
Matten 2016) .Thus, ethical decisions are crucial in business or any profit-making
organizations as these decisions affect the income, expenditure, and ultimately the survival of
the business organization in the long term.
The importance of decision-making is often affected by many factors that involve the
individual decision-maker such as personal spiritual belief (Davis, 2008; Walker, Smither, &
DeBode, 2012), and Personal Ethical Attitudes (Price and van der Walt 2013; Nejati, Amran,
and Shahbudin 2011; Kum-lung 2010).
In addition, the importance of decisions is also affected by the decision-making process such as
conscious and human process, involving both individual and social phenomena, based upon
factual and value premises. This includes a choice of one behavioral activity from among one
or more alternatives with the intention of moving toward some desired state of affairs (Feurer,
Schuhmacher, and Kuester 2018). Based on individual decision-making, people make decisions
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based on their own values and principles of right or wrong (Brown & Treviño, 2006).
Generally the values and principles came from the socialization process with family members,
social groups and religion, and in their formal educations. Therefore, personal good values
have been found to decrease unethical practices and to increase positive behavior (Ferrell and
Fraedrich 2012).
Obviously, the values of individuals can be taken from the moral philosophies in order to apply
into daily decisions. However, the values are subjective and vary a great deal across different
cultures (Hofstede, 2001). For example, one individual might place a greater importance on
keeping one’s promises and commitments than another would. The value could relate to the
negative rationalizations, such as “Everyone does it,” or “We have to do what it takes to get the
business” (Suar and Khuntia 2010). According to Elango, Paul, Kundu, and Paudel (2010)
social forces have overcome a person’s individual values when it comes to taking appropriate
action. On this occasion, an individual’s attitudes as well as social norms will help create a
behavioral intention that will shape his or her decision-making process. In brief, the factors of
an individual decision-making that affect ethical awareness are judgment, intent, and behavior
include gender, education, work experience, nationality, age, and locus of control (Loe, Ferrell,
& Mansfield, 2013).
Critical in any business organizations, good decision-making are made when ethics is
incorporated in the process of decision-making. People generally identify ethics as giving a
standpoint from which to decide what is right and what is wrong and what we ought to do or
ought not to do. According to Rowson (2006), ethics is not the only guidance to judge whether
the behavior is to be acceptable or unacceptable but also to consider from the perspective of
law, social convention, professional codes of conducts, religious belief, politics and practically.
Basically, ethics embrace the philosophy of human conduct, with the emphasis on the right and
wrong conduct (Davis, Frederick, & Blomstrom, 1984).
In the context of the business organization, ethical decision-making in the 21st century is a
transforming field of study, focusing on ethical issues in business activities in the perspective
of law, philosophy, theology, or social science, by seeking solutions for specific managerial
problems (Ferrell & Fraedrich, 2012). According to Ferrell and Fraedrich (2012), ethical
decision-making in sales particularly in organization has been explored using diversity of
approaches. In a review of personal selling and sales management literature disclose that
research has mainly focused on individual and organizational factors that influence the ethical
decision-making (McClaren 2000).
Alderson (1965) suggested that in making ethical decision the decision maker “is faced with
the responsibility for weighing values and reaching a judgment.” The emphasis here is placed
on the decision-maker’s values when the decision is being made. Further on, Pearson, Crosby,
and Shim (1997) believe that professional development requires not only technical growth, but
also the development of the individual’s (or decision-maker’s) ethical standards. In support of
this, ethical decisions should be a part of everyday life for those who work in organizations
(Ferrell and Fraedrich 2012; Kamil 2014).
There are a variety of dimensions that can impact the ethical decisions and actions of
entrepreneurs. Subsequently, ethical business decisions are easily overlooked because other
business concerns take priority such as business plans, strategies, operational issues, and
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financial matters. However, ethical decisions have a more powerful influence on the existence
of business operations than most people think (Scott, Erin Baca, and Troy 2000).
Moreover, issues of business ethics have received a prominent status in the study of business
ethics in recent years. Thus, there is a growing body of literature concerning the ethical issues
particularly in conflicts and dilemmas in the self and organization context as a well as their
impacts on managerial ethical decision-making (Ahmad, Ansari, & Aafaqi, 2005; Barnett,
Bass, & Brown, 1994; Anderson & Davies, 2000). Nevertheless, till to date the majority of
studies on business ethics have only been conducted in United States of America and Australia
business environment. Hence, this has raised concerns when generalizing the findings in terms
of Malaysian context (Ahmad 2009). Thus, this has gain a motivation in research on business
ethics in Malaysia (Abidin, Sadique, & Alias, 2011; Sarfraz, 2014). Similar findings were
reported by Khalid et al. (2012), it is important to include more variables other than age and
gender among servicing industry particular in ethical decision-making. Therefore, this shows
that unethical practices are based on individual business owners, managers and executives’
ethical decision-making hewed by them (Khalid, Agil, Omar, & Khalid, 2012; Khalid, Azmi,
Omar, Jani, & Anuar, 2015).
Authors Samat, Ishak, and Nasurdin (2016) reviewed that the ethical standards and integrity in
Malaysia are diminishing, this daunting information seems to indicate the need for government
and other relevant authorities to seriously address this issue of ethics and ethical decision-
making in Malaysia. In the previous studies indicated that although entrepreneur in Malaysia
SMEs are interested to observe a good business practices, due to the realities in life that may
forces the entrepreneurs to make compromises and felt constrained to make unethical
adjustment in business ethical decision-making (Yeoh & June, 2016).
In general, the past studies have not systematically investigated the determinants of ethical
decision-making of individual entrepreneurs to make ethical decision notably incorporating,
personal spiritual belief and personal ethics.
2. Personal Spiritual Belief

Personal spiritual belief or religiosity refers to the faith of that a person has in God and the
extent to which they are pursuing a path considered set by God (McDaniel and Burnett 1990).
Allport (1950) presents two distinct dimensions of religiosity namely: extrinsic religiosity and
intrinsic religiosity. Extrinsic religiosity refers to primarily utilitarian motivations that might
underlie religious behaviors. Extrinsic religiosity is indicative of having religious involvement
for somewhat selfish reasons. It represents the utilitarian approach to religion and reflects
selfish motivation for social approval or furthering one’s business (Vitell, Keith, and Mathur
2011). In contrast, intrinsic religiosity refers to motivations based upon the inherent goals of
religious tradition itself. Intrinsic religiosity is indicative of having religious commitment and
involvement for more inherent, spiritual objectives. It reflects the motivation for internal
commitment to religion and its principles, as a part of one’s daily life, to serve the common
good and to serve one’s religion (Vitell, Keith, and Mathur 2011).
According to Goldberg, Lewis , John, Herbert r, Robert, Michael, Cloninger, and Harrison
(2006) suggested that further research should be done by applying multiple constructs into the
personality inventories or known as the personal spiritual belief into ethical decision making.
Similar findings were reported by Ng, Vincent, Mengyang, Herbert,Tay, and Martin Seligman
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(2016), the value in action inventory of Peterson and Seligman (2004) was not well
established as a result of methodological challenges primarily due to a global positivity factor,
item cross-loading across character strengths, and questions concerning the uni-dimensionality
of the scales assessing character strengths. At the same time, Ng et al. (2016) further their
research by applying exploratory structural equation modeling and found that the correlation
and bipolar factor were dispositional positivity. Thus, the researcher decided to adapt and apply
the similar method of research done statistically in structural equation modeling.
The notion of personal spiritual belief derives from McGrath, Greenberg, and Hall-Simmonds
(2017). Spirituality measurement requires closer understanding of the virtues from both
psychological and social constructs aspects and the discovery was a willingness of an
individual to make the moral choices, particularly in decision-making (McGrath, Greenberg,
and Hall-Simmonds 2017). There in indeed growing body of evidence to suggest that
spirituality or religious are important in ethical decision-making among the spiritual believers
or followers (Chakraborty et al. 2017). At present, there is some limitation of the current
knowledge of spirituality and ethical decision-making. Thus, it is crucial for this research to
further investigate.
2.1 Personal Ethics

Ethics is very much related to the behavior of an individual. It covers how a person behaves
and responds to every aspect of his/ her life. In addition, ethical matters are subjective matters
and there is no mutually agreed standard to determine whether a person is ethical or not in
his/her dealings. The behavior of an individual is very much influenced by his/her culture and
norms, surroundings and family upbringings, and also their religion. Usually, the ethicality of
one’s behavior is measured based on societal standard (Sauser 2005). Business ethics is
believed to be the expected behavior of people in the business world in dealings with all
matters related to business activities. This includes the ethical conduct related to the employee
and employer relationship, self-responsibility, product safety, sales and distribution and also
corporate social responsibility.
Current social, ecological problems, growing attention, growing discussion on the moral
compulsion that businesses have to fulfill have intensified the need for ethical behavior
(Vrdoljak Raguž and Matić 2016). Meanwhile, author Tahat et al., (2014) have done their
findings in cross-culture and ethical decision and they found that both variables are positively
significance. In a meantime, researcher Nejati et al., (2011) found that there is significantly
different of personal ethics between countries. Fatoki and Marembo (2012) found a difference
in personal ethics in relation to the level of study of South African students. Choe and Lau
(2010) found a positive correlation between intrapersonal religiosity and attitudes toward
business ethics of business students and working adults in Malaysia. In addition, Phatshwane et
al., (2014) concluded that there are no clear evidence courses in personal ethics and ethical
decision making when the individual faced a dilemma in ethical decision making. Based on
past literature review, the researcher concluded that ethical decision could be possible adapted
into this study to predict the relationships between personal ethics and ethical decision-making.
3. Hypotheses Development
3.1 The relationship between personal spiritual belief and ethical decision-making
It can be concluded from the previous studies that personal spiritual belief has a strong
relationship, significantly positive relationship or impact on personal ethics. According Ford
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and Richardson (1994) and Loe et al. (2000) stated that there are three out of four studies did
not find significant results of spiritual belief, while the remaining study McNichols &
Zimmerer (1985) reported a positive effect of religiosity. O’Fallon and Butterfield (2005)
found the role of religion to be more prominent in the ethical decision-making process with
seven out of ten studies indicating a positive relationship between ethical decision-making and
religion. The only exception was Singhapakdi et al. (2013), which found a negative relationship
between ethical decision-making and religion. Craft (2013) discussed that role of
religion/spirituality was not consistently captured when exploring its impact on ethical
decision-making. Out of total 9 studies, two found religiosity is not an important factor
(Rawwas et al. 2006; Oumlil and Balloun 2009), while seven studies found a significant and
positive effect of religion (Vitell et al. 2009; McCullough and Faught 2005; Ho 2010; Fernando
and Chowdhury 2010) in ethical decision-making. Hence, the literature review confirmed that
the tentative relationship between personal spiritual belief and personal ethics could be
expressed as in the hypothesis (H1) below:
H1: There is a positive relationship between personal spiritual belief and ethical decision-
making.
3.2 The relationship between personal ethics and ethical decision-making

As confirmed through the literature review, most of the studies shown that personal ethics has a
strong relationship and significant positive relationship towards personal ethics (Fatoki and
Marembo, 2012). The tentative relationship between personal ethics and ethical decision-
making can be seen a stated in the hypothesis (H2) as below:
H2: There is a positive relationship between personal ethics and ethical decision-making.
4.1 Population and Samples Size
In this study the sample is confined to a group of individual entrepreneurs that meet selection
criteria. The selection criteria in this study was the “owner manager in servicing sector” SMEs
located in Malaysia. The owner managers in servicing sector were taken from the Department
of Statistics, Malaysia as in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Numbers of Establishments by Sector and Size

Sector Micro Small Medium Total Total Large Total
SMEs SMEs Firms Establishments
Number of Establishments % Share Number Number
Manufacturing 21,619 12,934 2,308 37,861 5.9 1,808 39,669
Services 462,420 106,061 12,504 580,985 90.0 10,898 591,883
Agriculture 3,775 1,941 992 6,708 1.0 2,121 8,829
Construction 8,587 6,725 3,971 19,283 3.0 2,857 22,140
Mining & 57 126 116 299 0.1 119 418
Quarrying
Total SMEs 496,458 128,787 19,891 645,136 100.0 17,803 662,939
Source: SME Annual Report 2017/2018 (reference year 2012), Department of Statistics, Malaysia.
In Malaysia, SMEs are grouped into three main categories: Micro, Small, and Medium. This
grouping is decided based on the number of people in a business employs or the total sales or
revenue generated by the business in a year.
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This study focuses on the medium sized service company simply because this company will
have higher sales turn over annually (RM1million - 5 million). The ethical decision-making in
this business for such amount of sales turn over will bring a bigger dilemma or tendency to
jeopardize the business by doing unethical decision if the owner manager makes any unethical
decision that against the business conduct (Said et al. 2017).
5. Findings
5.1 Response Rate
The researcher was able to distribute a total of 983 questionnaires to the respondent: - business
owners. The questionnaires were distributed and collected personally. However, only 273 of
responses were suitable (out of 302 respondents) to be matched and useful for further analysis,
giving a responses rate of (273/983) x 100 = 27.7%. 29 respondents were identified to be
incomplete and to be discarded. Among this respondent, 72% or 196 samples are identified to
be on line google survey and 28% or 77 samples are identified to be face to face respondents.
Table 5.1: Respondent profiles

Demographic Variable Category Frequency (N=273) Valid Percentage (%)
Gender Male 147 53.8
Female 126 46.2
Age Below 20 15 5.5
21-25 43 15.8
26-30 60 22.0
31- 35 48 17.6
36-40 40 14.7
41-45 27 9.9
46-50 6 2.2
51-55 13 4.8
56-60 16 5.9
Above 60 5 1.8
Education UPSR 0 0
SRP/PMR 0 0
SPM/SPVM 39 14.3
STPM 11 4.0
Diploma 60 22.0
Bachelor Degree 108 39.6
Master 36 13.2
PhD/DBA 10 3.7
Professional 9 3.3
Race Malay 93 34.1
Chinese 138 50.5
Indian 27 9.9
Others 15 5.5
Industry Business Industry 188 68.9
Financial Industry 43 15.7
Franchise Industry 15 5.5
Information and 27 9.9
communication
Industry
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In the context of this study, Partial Least square (PLS)- SmartPLS 3.0 software package path
modeling was employed (Hair et al., 2014), to test the study hypotheses. Partial Least Square
(PLS) path modeling also known as a variance-based structural equation modeling is
considered a more appropriate data analysis technique rather than regular covariance-based
structural equation modeling especially in marketing and other business disciplines (Hair et al.,
2014).
Table 5.2 Descriptive Statistics for the Variable in the Study

Standard
Constructs Variables Mid Point Mean Value
Deviation
Personal Spiritual Belief
3.40 3.49 0.68
(PSB)
Machiavellianism 2.50 2.53 0.82
Personal Ethics (PE)
Social Darwinism 2.75 2.62 0.67
Moral Equity 2.75 2.65 1.05
Ethical Decision-making
Relativism 3.00 2.86 1.06
(EDM)
Contractualism 3.00 2.80 1.14
5.2 Measurement Model Analysis

This section assessed the reliability and validity of measurement models, namely Personal
Spiritual Belief, Personal Ethics, and Ethical Decision-making.
5.2.1 Assessment of Construct Reliability

According to Hair et al., (2010) and Hair et al., (2014), a common measure used to assess
convergent validity is by using the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and Factor Loadings.
Table 4.3 illustrated the composite reliability of each construct. The composite reliability
values of 0.809 (Personal Spiritual Belief). The two dimensions of personal ethics (first order
construct) namely: personal ethics-machiavellianism (0.843) and personal ethics-social
darwinism (0.807) also illustrate high levels of internal consistency.
5.2.2 Assessment of Discriminant Validity

Table 4.4, the results indicate that there is discriminant validity between all the constructs
where all indicators loaded highly on their respective constructs. In other words, there is no
issue of high cross –loading among one another.
The method of assessing discriminant validity is by using the Henseler et al., (2014) as
mentioned from the previous paragraph. Heterotrait-Monotrait criterion. Henseler et al., (2014)
proposed that HTMTinference score ranging between -1 to 1 (-1 < HTMT < 1) is an
indication that two construct are distinct. Table 4.6 illustrates the HTMT scores for the
constructs of this study. The HTMT scores are within the range of -1 to 1 indicates that
discriminant validity has been established (Voorhees et al. 2015).
Table 5.3: Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) Criterion for Discriminant Validity

Personal Ethics - Personal Ethics - Social
Machiavellianism Darwinism Personal Spiritual Belief
Personal Ethics –
- - -
Machiavellianism
Personal Ethics - Social
0.539 - -
Darwinism
Personal Spiritual Belief 0.205 0.112 -
Criteria: HTMTInterence (-1<HTMT<1)
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5.3 Structure Model

5.3.1 Assess structural model for Collinearity issue
Prior to evaluating the structural model, it is important to ensure that there was no collinearity
issue in the structural model. Table 4.7 presents the outcome of the collinearity test. According
to Kock and Lynn (2012), the criteria of discriminant validity are met, lateral collinearity issue
may sometimes mislead the findings in a stealth way because it may mask the strong causal
effect in the model. This typically occurs when two variables, which hypothesized to be
causally, related measure the same construct (Kock and Lynn 2012). The VIF score for each
individual construct is lower than the offending value of 3.3 (Diamantopoulos and Siguaw
2006) suggested that there were no collinearity issues in this studies.
Table 5.4 Collinearity assessment Inner VIF values

Personal Spiritual Ethical Decision-
Personal Ethics
Belief Making
Personal Spiritual Belief - 1.019 1.075
Personal Ethics - 1.253
Ethical Decision-Making -
Note: Variance Inflator Factor VIF > 3.3, VIF
5.3.2 Assessment of Path Co-efficient

The assessment of path-coefficients is to evaluate the significance of a hypothesized
relationship among the constructs. There are four latent constructs in the overall structural
model, namely i) personal spiritual belief, ii) personal ethics and iii) ethical decision-making. A
total of two hypotheses were developed to examine the relationships between the constructs.
The two hypotheses were:
H1: There is a positive relationship between personal spiritual belief and ethical decision-
making.
H2: There is a positive relationship between personal ethics and ethical decision-making.
Table below depicts the result of path co-efficient assessment for each hypothesized
relationship. All hypothesized relationships were significant at 97.5% confidence interval (p
value < 0.05) with t-value ranging from 1.033 to 4.730.
Table 5.5: Path co-efficient assessment (N=273) (Bootstrapping)

Standard
Hypotheses T-Value Outcome
Beta
H1 There is a positive relationship between personal spiritual
0.066 1.033* Not Supported
belief and ethical decision-making.
H2 There is a positive relationship between personal ethics
0.305 4.730* Supported
and ethical decision-making
**P < 0.01, *P < 0.05
From the Table 5.6, we can conclude that only H2‘s outcome was supported and H1’s outcome
was not supported. H1 indicates a highly personal spiritual belief will not likely to made ethical
decision-making for a manager.
6. Discussions
It can be concluded from the previous studies that personal spiritual belief has a strong
relationship, significantly positive relationship or impact on personal ethics. The literature
review confirmed that the tentative relationship between personal spiritual belief and personal
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ethics could be expressed as in the research question; what is the relationship between personal
spiritual belief and ethical decision-making religiosity. O’Fallon and Butterfield (2005) found
the role of religion to be more prominent in the ethical decision-making process with seven out
of ten studies indicating a positive relationship between ethical decision-making and religion.
Craft’s (2013) review discussed that role of religion/spirituality was not consistently captured
when exploring its impact on ethical decision-making. In ethical decision-making the literature
review confirmed that the tentative relationship between personal spiritual belief and personal
ethics. Therefore, the findings of the current study are consistent with those of Singhapakdi,
Vitell, Lee, Nisius and Grace (2013) who found that personal spiritual belief to be significant
impact on ethical decision making. Thus, this study produced results, which corroborate the
findings of a great deal of the previous research.
Moreover, the relationship between personal ethics and ethical decision-making as confirmed
through the literature review shown that most of the studies shown that personal ethics has a
strong relationship and significant positive relationship towards personal ethics.
Prior studies that have noted the importance of personal ethics in relation toward ethical
decision making (Fatoki and Marembo 2012). Moreover, Choe and Lau (2010) found a positive
correlation between intrapersonal religiosity and attitudes toward business ethics of business
students and working adults in Malaysia. In addition, Phatshwane et al., (2014) concluded that
there are no clear evidence courses in ethics and ethical decision when the individual was faced
a dilemma. Based from the past literature, the researcher has adapted this study into predict the
relationships between personal ethics and ethical decision-making. In fact, this present findings
seems to be consistent with other research which found and turned out to be personal ethics
positively influence ethical decision-making.
7. Conclusion
This study provides insights on the interrelationship between personal spiritual belief, personal
ethics and ethical decision-making. The findings from this study reveal that spiritual belief and
personal ethics are associated with ethical decision-making, thus implying that personal
spiritual belief and personal ethics are predictors of ethical decision-making. It can be
concluded that when an owner or manager’s commitment to personal ethics is sufficient and
appropriate. An owner or a manager is likely to be able to made ethical decisions when there is
presence of personal ethicalness.
This study also investigated the function of engagement in explaining the a priori relationship
of i) personal spiritual belief and ethical decision-making. The results of this study show that
personal spiritual beliefs are associated with personal ethics. This indicates that personal
spiritual beliefs are predictors for personal ethics and not ethical decision-making.
Correspondingly, when a manager receives strong belief in the spiritual belief he/she will
demonstrate high in personal ethics. The outcome of high personal ethics is likely to have an
ethical decision-making.
Finally, this research highlights the importance of conceptual definitions and their appropriate
use as constructs. This study provides evidence on why personal spiritual belief is the better
definition (construct) to be used in predicting a manager’s personal ethics. This research
distinguished these construct conceptually so that the appropriate construct could be applied
and operationalized accordingly.
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The findings of this research have contributed both practically and theoretically to the field. In
doing so, it has opened opportunities for even more research.
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Monetary Policy Transmission Mechanism: Evidence From

Economic Community Of West African States
Abdullahi, Salihu1*, Badayi M. Sani2, Garba Ibrahim Sheka3

1
Department of Economics, Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria.
2,3
Department of Economics, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author: sabdullahi05@gmail.com

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Monetary policy is primarily concerned with the activities of the monetary
authorities to control some measures of the money supply and/or structure of interest rates in
the economy for the achievement of the macroeconomic objectives. Understanding the channels
through which the monetary policy affects the economy will provide useful information for
designing appropriate economic policies. The study therefore, seeks to evaluate the
effectiveness of monetary policy transmission mechanisms using panel structural VAR on the
data of 10 Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) for the periods 2005Q1 to
2017Q4. The data was collected from the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. The
results from the panel unit root tests indicate that money supply is stationary at level, whereas
real interest rate, exchange rate, bank credit and real GDP are non stationary at level but
became stationary at first difference. Pedroni cointegration test result revealed that there is no
long run cointegration relationship between the variables. Furthermore, the estimated results
of the impulse response functions and forecast error variance decompositions show that
interest rate and credit channels are the main transmission mechanism of monetary policy
among ECOWAS. The study, therefore, recommends that interest rate and bank credit channels
should be strengthened to improve the effectiveness of monetary policy.
Keywords: Monetary Policy Transmission Mechanism, Real Interest Rate Channel, Exchange
Rate Channel, Credit Channel, Real GDP and Panel Structural VAR.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
The study on the transmission mechanism of monetary policy of Economic Community of
West African States (ECOWAS) will be helpful in the union’s quest for establishing common
currency and monetary union in order to poster economic growth and development. Monetary
policy is a planned action undertaken by the monetary authorities to manipulate the quantity,
cost and availability of money/credit for the attainment of macroeconomic objectives of
internal and external balances (Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), 2011). Transmission
mechanism of monetary policy explains the channels through which changes in monetary
policy affects the economy especially output and prices. Basically, there are three channels
through which these effects occurs which includes: interest rates, bank lending and exchange
rate channels.
Researches on the monetary policy in the developed world has been substantial but very few
empirical studies have been conducted in the less developed countries, therefore, little is known
about potential effect of monetary policy on economic activity (Popkarn, 2019,Atesongu &
Emmerson, 2009; and Raul 2016). From the survey of the available studies we discovered that
most of the studies were country specific and with the increasing economic interdependence
among the member states, some problems (such as inflation, exchange rate instability etc.) can
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be better understood when studied as a group. Furthermore, Andrew and Rafael 2018 pointed
out that an extreme or unreliable transmission mechanism of monetary policy to the economy
might limit the scope for monetary policy to serve as a key policy tool for macroeconomic
stabilization. It is therefore, against these backdrops that the study aimed to examine the
transmission mechanism of monetary policy in ECOWAS.
2.1 Theoretical Review
The study is conducted within the theoretical framework of the Money demand theory
developed by Keynes. According to this theory, the effect of monetary policy on output is
indirect through the rate of interest rates. When the monetary authority expands money supply,
the first effect is on the rate of interest rate which tends to fall. A fall in the rate of interest rate
leads to the reduction in the cost of capital which in turns leads to the rise in output. Money
demand theory is used as a structural model approach to develop a better understanding of
channels through which monetary policy affects the economy. The theory is specific about the
channels through which the money supply affects economic activity (Mishkin, 2007). The
workings of monetary policy can be expressed diagrammatically as:
↑Money supply→ (↓interest rate→ ↑Investment→) → ↑Output
2.2 Empirical Review

A lot of studies have been conducted on the monetary policy transmission mechanism in both
developed and developing countries using different variables, data sets and methodologies.
Here, we present some of the studies conducted so far.
In some studies both interest rate and bank credit channels are found to be effective monetary
policy transmission mechanism. For instance, Ngan (2018) investigates the effectiveness of
monetary policy transmission channels in restraining inflation in case of Vietnam for 2001-
2015. The use of a vector error correction model provides evidence that credit growth is the
key determinant of high inflation. Additionally, the results suggest the interest rate channel has
a perverse effect on inflation in the long run, which means that the inflation rate increases with
the policy rate. There is also significant short-run causal relationship from credit growth to
inflation and from the policy rate to inflation. However, empirical results fail to confirm the
existence of relationship between the exchange rate channel and inflation in both short run and
long run. Arslan, Shahid and Romila (2017) examined the effects of monetary policy on firm’s
business fixed investment spending through the interest rate and broad credit channels of
monetary policy in Pakistan using generalized method of moment 2 step estimation technique
for the periods 1974-2010. The study found that both interest rate and broad credit channels are
effective transmission channels of monetary policy. Xiaojun, Rong, and Xing (2017)
investigates the implication of monetary policy for domestic investment through its effects on
banking lending to the private sector and interest rate in sub-Saharan Africa countries for the
period 1980 – 2012. Applying the econometrics methodology of generalised method of
moment, the study found that; contractionary monetary policy affects domestic investment
negatively both indirectly through the bank lending or quantity channel as well as directly
through interest rate or cost of capital channel. Therefore the study has identified the existence
of interest rate and credit channel. Zulkefly, Azman and Bakiri, (2017) examine the
effectiveness of monetary policy and its transmission channels in Pakistan using SVAR model
with block-exogeneity and non-recursive identification scheme. The results indicate that the
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interest rate and credit channels are effective in the short run but only credit channels is
effective in the long run. The study recommends the use of interest rate channels to control
inflation in the short run while credit channel is to be used to exchange output in the long run.
Giuliana and Roberto (2013) analyse Credit-Cost Channel (CCC) of monetary policy
transmission. In the study they applied the Cointegrated Vector Autoregression (CVAR)
econometric methodology to Italy and Germany in the ‘hard’ EMS period and in the European
Monetary Union (EMU) period. This channel combines bank credit supply and interest rates on
loans as a cost to firms. The thrust of the CCC is that it makes both aggregate demand and
aggregate supply dependent on monetary policy. As a consequence they established that: credit
market conditions (e.g. risk spreads) are important sources and indicators of macroeconomic
shocks and the real effects of monetary policy are larger and persistent. The short-run and long-
run effects of the CCC are detectable for both countries in both periods. Simulation of the
estimated model also confirms that inflation-targeting by way of inter-bank rate control
stabilizes inflation through structural shifts of the stochastic equilibrium paths of both inflation
and the output.
Interest rate channels of monetary policy is found to be effective as evidence in the studies of
Iddirisu, Harvey and Amidu (2017) studied the impact of monetary policy on the performance
of twelve African countries over the period 1979 to 2013 using panel VAR approach. The
study found that, the stock markets are positively affected contemporaneously by their
respective monetary policies through the interest rate channel. Moses and Moses (2016)
investigate the implications of financial innovations on Nigeria’s monetary policy using trend
analysis, error correction mechanism and generalized method of moments (GMM). The study
found that financial innovation improves the interest rate channel of monetary policy
transmission, and efficiency of the financial system.
The effectiveness of bank credit channels has been established in the studies of Habib, Rubi
and Chan (2016) who evaluated the role of bank competition for the transmission mechanism
of monetary policy through the bank lending channels over the period 1994 to 2014 using
system GMM panel estimator. The study found that the effects of monetary policy on bank’s
loan reduce as the level of competition decreases, however, using Boone indicator suggest that
a decrease in the level of competition strengthens the monetary policy transmission mechanism
through bank lending channel. Raul (2016) explores the importance of the credit channel of
monetary policy in Mexico for the period 2004–2013. In the study vector autoregressive (VAR)
model was estimated to analyse the effects of a monetary policy shock on real output, while
threshold VAR model was used to investigate asymmetric effects of contractionary and
expansionary policies. The empirical results suggest that a contractionary monetary policy
results in a fall in the supply of loans together with an increase in the spread between the
lending and deposit rate to the extent that some borrowers are dependent on bank loans for
credit. The reduced supply of loans amplifies the effects of monetary policy on output
associated with the traditional interest rate channel. Our results also suggest that the importance
of the credit channel is larger for contractionary shocks than for expansionary shocks. Ji,
Hosung and Leon (2016) examine the impact of foreign banks on the monetary policy
transmission mechanism in the Korean economy during the period from 2000 to 2012. Using
generalised method of moment methodology, the study found that foreign banks (especially US
bank branches) buffer the effectiveness of monetary policy transmission mechanism in Korean
from the bank lending channel perspective during the global financial crisis of 2008 – 2009.
Zulkefly, Azman and Bakri (2011) investigate the relevance of bank lending channel of
monetary policy in Malaysia. Using disaggregate bank level data and generalised method of
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moment procedure, the empirical evidence revealed that the banks loans supply is significantly
and negatively influenced by monetary policy shocks, and therefore, supported the existence of
bank lending channels in Malaysia.
Studies that examined the interest rates, bank credit and exchange rate channels of monetary
policy transmission mechanism are presented thus: Oros and Romocea-Tureu (2009) analysed
the monetary transmission mechanisms in Central and Eastern countries (Hungary, Czeck,
Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia) using SVAR modelling technique. The result indicates that
all countries share a weak domestic credit channel while they are highly heterogeneous with
regards to the relative effectiveness of the interest rates and exchange rate channels. It also
revealed that Hungary and Poland’s distinctive feature is the presence of a price puzzle effect
combined with a high influence of the exchange rate which acts both as mechanism of
monetary policy transmission and as a supply and demand shock absorber. On the contrary,
interest rate channel has major influence in the case of the Czeck Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia
and partially Romania. Bhuiyan (2008) studies the effects of monetary policy shock in Canada
for the period 1994 – 2007. Result from structural VAR method indicates that the transmission
mechanism of the monetary policy shock to real output operates through both the interest rate
and the exchange rate channel.
Effects of monetary policy on output has been found in the studies of Sajid and Lan (2018)
who investigated the channels of monetary policy transmission in Vietnam using quarterly data
from 1995 to 2010. Applying the SVAR methodology, the study found that monetary policy
shocks have strong effects on output. Vaniyagathasan (2013) analysed the impact of monetary
policy on the real economy in Sri Lanka for the periods between 1978 and 2011. The study
found that interest rate shocks had a significant impact on output and also positive money
shock yields significant but inconsistent results on output (which declines rather than increase).
Mugume (2011) investigated the monetary transmission mechanism in Uganda using quarterly
data between 1999Q1 and 2009Q1. Applying recursive VAR, the results showed that
contractionary monetary policy reduced economic growth lasting up to two quarters. It also
indicated that monetary policy innovation (with broad money as a measure of monetary policy)
had no statistically significant effect on output. Joao and Andrea (2006) using SVAR model
analysed the Global Monetary Policy shocks in the G5 economies (US, Europe, Japan, UK and
Canada). The results obtained revealed that after a monetary policy shock output declines
temporarily, with the downward effect reaching a peak within the second year. In addition, the
price level rises permanently in response to positive shock to the global liquidity aggregate.
3.0 Methodology
3.1 Sources and Method of Data Collection
The study used the panel data of 10 ECOWAS states namely: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape
Verde, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Nigeria, Niger, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo for the periods
between 2005Q1and 2017Q4. The variables included are: money supply, real GDP, bank
credit, real interest rate and exchange rate. The data was obtained from World Development
Indicators (WDI, 2019) of World Bank and International Financial Statistics (IFS, 2019) of
International Monetary Fund (IMF). Panel data has several advantages over cross-sectional and
time series data. Firstly, panel data takes into account the problem of heterogeneity by allowing
individual specific variables. Secondly, panel data is better suited to study dynamic changes
since it involves repeated cross-sectional observations. Thirdly, it better detects and measure
effects that simply cannot be observed in pure cross-section or pure time series data. Fourthly,
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by making data available for several units panel data can minimize the bias that mitigates result
it we aggregate individuals or firms into broad aggregates. Considering these advantages,
Baltagi concludes that, Panel data “provides more information data, more reliability, less
collinearity among variables, more degrees of freedom and more efficiency”.
3.2 Model Specification

The study is conducted within the framework of the money demand theory developed by
Keynes. The theory provides indirect link between the money demand, interest rate and output.
It supplies us with an explanation on how the monetary policy effects are transmitted into an
economy. The model specification follows Walter Enders econometric specification of money
demand theory though with some little modifications. The modifications made to the model
include substituting real income with real output and adding credit to the private sector, and
exchange rate in line with empirical studies of some scholars such as: Abdul Rahman et al
(2016), Fernando Berran (1996), among others. The modified model is given as:
Where,
MS_it=Broad Money Growth
RIR_it=Real interest rates
CPB_it=Bank credit
EXR_it=Exchange rate
RGDP_it=Real Gross Domestic Product
β_i=Parameters to be estimated
ε_it=stationary disturbance term
3.2.1 Panel Structural Vector Autoregressive Model (PSVAR)

The PSVAR model is the most frequently used techniques in the literature as can be seen in the
works of Oros and Romocea-Turcu (2009) Galadima and Aliyu, 2019, among others. Panel
SVAR is an important tool in empirical analysis that helps to understand interrelations and
contemporaneous interdependence among economic variables (Enders, 1995). It provides a
multivariate frame work where changes in particular variables are translated to changes in its
own lagged values and the lag of other variables. SVAR model address the problem of
endogeneity which is very common among other structural models. The panel SVAR model
can be specified as:
Equation 3.2 can be written in a compact form as:

( )
Where
y_it=vector of the regressand across cross sectional units
A_0=vector of the constant across cross sectional units
A_it=vector that reflects the parameters
L= lag operator that summarises lags
ε_it=∼(0,n) whichwhite noise
Equation 3.3 can be expressed in relation to our variables as:
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Where, MS stands for Money Supply, RGDP means real GDP, RIR means real interest rate,
EXR is the exchange rate, and CPB stands for bank credit and can be summarized as:
Yt = (MS, RGDP, RIR, EXR, CPB). The vector of the exogeneous variables (Xt) contains the
money supply (ɛ_it^ms), RGDP (ɛ_it^RGDP), real interest rate (ɛ_it^RIR), exchange rate
(ɛ_itÊXR) and Bank credit (ɛ_it^CPB).
The structural method (SVAR) consists in the definition of a sufficient number of restrictions
allowing to orthogonise the residuals of the equation 3.28 and to determine their structural
components. Thus, in the spirit of Amisano and Giannini (1997), the residuals of the VAR
model (ɛ_it ) can be related to the structural unobsevered shocks (µt) in t the following way:
In the study, five structural shocks which include: monetary policy shocks, real interest rate
shocks, exchange rate shocks, bank credit shocks and real GDP shocks are considered. The five
component structural VAR models in equations 3.5 to 3.8 can be written in matrix form as:
| |
| | | |
| | | |
| |
In the definition of the short term restriction between the endogeneous variables, we follow the
framework developed by Sims and Zha (1998) and Persman and Smets (2003) which supposes
the existence of simultaneous interactions between the variables. In order to identify the
structural shocks we set the following restrictions on the Matrices A and B. Since there are
twenty five elements in the matrix, the variance covariance matrix of E=(e_it e_it^') provides
ten equations (i.e. (n^2-n)/2= (5^2-5)/2=10). To solve for this unknown, at least 10 restrictions
are required to be imposed on the matrix and it is based on these restrictions that SVAR differs
from the traditional VAR model (Galadima & Aliyu 2019). Therefore we need about 10
restrictions for exact identification. Since we impose eleven restrictions, our model is over
identified and as such we need to test for over identification. The test of over identification can
be done using x2 statistics with the number of degrees of freedom equal to the number of over
identifying restrictions.
In panel SVAR estimations, ordering of variables and imposing restrictions in line with the
theoretical postulations is very important. This is because ordering of variables affects the
results especially if off diagonal elements of μ_t correlation matrix is high. In this study, we
order policy variable first following Sims and Blinder (1992). This implies that, monetary
policy affects all the variables contemporaneously while it does not react to simultaneous
shocks to other variables of the system. It therefore, implicitly assumes that monetary policy
decisions are made without considering simultaneous evolution of economic variables.
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Theoretical restrictions imposed on the matrix are based primarily on the explanations of
Keynesian money demand theory given by Mishkin (2007). According to him, expansionary
monetary policy leads to a fall in real interest rate, which in turn, affects the cost of capital,
causing a rise in investment spending, thereby leading to an increase in aggregate demand and
a rise in output. When domestic real interest rate falls, domestic dollar deposit become less
attractive relative to deposit dominated in foreign currency. As a result, the value of dollar
deposit relative to other currency deposit falls, and the dollar foreign currency depreciates. The
lower value of domestic currency makes domestic goods cheaper than foreign goods, thereby
causing a rise in net export and hence in aggregate output. Expansionary monetary policy also
increases bank reserves and bank deposit and as a result increases bank loan availability. This
will increase investment and consequently output.
From these explanations, we impose eleven restrictions on the matrix as follows:

Money Supply (MS) is considered to be a monetary policy variable. Therefore, shocks to other
in the system have no effect on the monetary policy and as such it becomes the most exogenous
variable in the system. This implies that:a_12=a_13=a_14=a_15=0. Real interest rate shock is
assumed to be influenced only by its own shock and the shock in money supply. This implies
that: a_33=a_34=a_35=0. Exchange rate shock is assumed to respond to the shock in itself,
monetary policy, and real interest rate only. This implies that: a_42=a_45=0. The shock to bank
credit is assumed to respond to its own shocks, the shocks in monetary policy, and the shocks
in the real interest rate only. This implies that: a_52=a_54=0. Real GDP shock is assumed to
respond to its own shock, monetary policy, real interest rate, exchange rate and bank credit
shocks.
To estimate the coefficients of the equations, the study follows Amisano and Giannini (1997;
2012) and imposes restrictions on both A and B matrices in the following forms:
| | | |
| | | |
If our estimated panel SVAR model passes the diagnostic tests, then impulse response
functions and forecast variance decomposition are employed to identify and trace out the
shocks through imposed restriction on the matrices A and B.
3.3 Estimation Procedure

The estimated results are obtained through the following stages: At step 1 we conducted the
panel unit root tests based on Levin, Lin and Chu (2002), Breitung (2000), Im, Pesaran and
Shin (2003), Fisher-type tests using ADF and PP tests (Maddala & Wu (1999) and Choi
(2001). At step two we examined the cointegration relationship based on pederoni
cointegration tests. At step 3, we estimated the PSVAR Model. At step 4, we tested the model
stability, heteroscedasticity, serially correlation, model selection criteria and normality. At the
last step, we estimated the impulse response functions and forecast error variance
decompositions.
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4. Presentation and Discussions of the Result

4.1 Panel Unit Root Test
Panel unit root tests are conducted to rule out the possibility of non random disposition among
the variables. Tables 4.1 and 4.2 present the results of LLC, Breitung, IPS, ADF Fisher chi-
square, PP Fisher chi-square panel unit root tests on monetary policy, real interest rate,
exchange rate, bank credit and real GDP. The results indicate that all variables except
monetary policy are non stationary at level but became stationary after taking their first
difference at 1 percent level of significance.
Table 4.1: Panel Unit Root Test, Series in Level

MS RIR EXR CPB RGDP
Intercept Trend Intercept Trend Intercept Trend Intercept Trend Intercept Trend
LLC 3.8662 -0.4319 -2.0903 -1.4478 1.7267 -2.7708
-0.4752 0.6669 -0.3204 0.7337
(0.9999) (0.3329) (0.0183) (0.0738) (0.9579) (0.0028)
Breitung -4.0284 -4.0727 1.1658 -0.2282 -0.7057
----------- ----------- ______ ______ _______
(0.0000) (0.0000) (0.8782) (0.4097) (0.2402)
IPS -3.6347 -2.6289 -2.9842 -1.8046 3.6603 1.3066 0.5779 1.2686 5.4330 -0.2335
(0.0001) (0.0043) (0.0014) (0.0356) (0.9999) (0.9043) (0.7183) (0.8977) (1.0000) (0.4077)
ADF
Fisher 47.9403 36.9572 39.0009 27.6727 4.5981 10.6905 17.9621 10.3178 4.5126 21.5663
chi- (0.0004) (0.0118) (0.0067) (0.1174) (0.9999) (0.9539) (0.5899) (0.9620) (0.9999) (0.3645)
square
PP
Fisher 45.2006 32.9424 39.4321 27.1537 4.7624 9.5977 27.0884 11.3306 5.9451 33.5372
chi- (0.0010) (0.0342) (0.0059) (0.1310) (0.9998) (0.9749) (0.1328) (0.9372) (0.9990) (0.0294)
square
Source Author’s computation using E-views 10 software (2019).
Note: numbers in parenthesis are probability values associate with statistic.
Table 4.2: Panel Unit Root Test, Series in First Difference

Technique ΔRIR ΔEXR ΔCPB ΔRGDP
Intercept Trend Intercept Trend Intercept Trend Intercept Trend
-5.3966 -3.3040 -14.0826 -14.3329 -14.0206 -14.0756 -19.1551 -19.0550
LLC
(0.0000) (0.0005) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000)
-14.0021 -13.2392 -14.0508 -13.0806
Breitung ----------- ------------ ------------- -----------
(0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000)
-11.6379 -10.0709 -12.3853 -12.1160 -13.7675 -13.5473 -19.8279 -20.1580
IPS
(0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000)
ADF Fisher 163.3710 125.9230 176.9720 158.0720 202.0340 180.7790 310.3330 293.9010
chi-square (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000)
PP Fisher 302.3160 257.5930 314.6530 300.1780 341.3700 339.9650 436.3330 407.1400
chi-square (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000)
Note: numbers in parenthesis are probability values associate with statistic.
4.2 Panel Cointegration Test

Table 4.3 shows the Pedroni cointegration tests results. It indicates that the entire seven statistic
are statistically insignificant and as such we cannot reject the null hypothesis of no
cointegration among variables. Since, the evidence of cointegration could not be established
then SVAR model can be applied.
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Table 4.3: Cointegration Test

Pedroni Panel Cointegration Test
Technique With intercept With intercept and trend
Statistics p-value Statistics p-value
Panel v-Statistic 0.5170 0.3026 -0.4368 0.6689
Panel rho-Statistic 1.0573 0.8548 1.5387 0.9381
Panel PP-Statistic 0.5418 0.7060 0.4911 0.6883
Panel ADF-Statistic 0.3476 0.6359 -0.5469 0.2922
Group rho-Statistic 2.7981 0.9974 3.1156 0.9991
Group PP-Statistic 1.5760 0.9425 1.8276 0.9662
Group ADF-Statistic 0.4381 0.6693 0.4237 0.6641
4.3 Lag Order Selection

Table 4.4 presents optimum order selection criteria. As shown in the table Lag one has the
lowest values of sequential modified LR statistic, final prediction error (FPE), Akaike
information criterion (AIC), Schwarz information criterion (SC) and Hannan-Quinn
information criterion. Therefore, our SVAR model is estimated at Lag 1.
Table 4.4: Lag Order Selection

Lag LogL LR FPE AIC SC HQ
0 -10442.24 NA 3.23e+12 42.9928 43.0358 43.0097
1 -10163.45 550.6938* 1.14e+12* 41.9484* 42.2068* 42.0499*
2 -10154.43 17.62838 1.21e+12 42.0141 42.4879 42.2002
Source Author’s computation using E-views 10 software (2019)
Note: * indicates lag order selected by the criterion.
LR: sequential modified LR test statistic (each at 5 % level)
FPE: Final prediction error
AIC: Akaike information criterion
SC: Schwarz information criterion
HQ: Hannan-Quinn information criterion
4.4 Panel SVAR Stability Test

VAR is said to be stable when all moduli are within a unit circle, i.e. all the eigen values are
less than one. As can be seen in table 4.5, all the eigen values are less than one, therefore, we
conclude that our PSVAR model is stable. Consequently, we can say that the impacts of our
shocks are finite and calculable.
Table 4.5: Panel SVAR Stability Results
Root Modulus
0.818505 0.818505
-0.121094 0.121094
0.002211 0.002211
-4.69e-18 4.69E-18
-1.78e-18 1.78E-18
Source: Author’s computation using E-views 10 software (2019)
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4.5 Serial Correlation Test

Table 4.6 indicates that both Language Multiplier (LRE) statistic and Rao F–statistic could not
provide sufficient evidence for the rejection of null hypothesis at 5% level of significance. On
the basis of that, we conclude that our residuals are serially uncorrelated.
Table 4.6: Serial Correlation Test

Lag Df LRE* stat Prob. Rao F-stat df Prob.
1 25 NA NA NA (25, NA) NA
2 25 19.52298 0.7714 0.780153 (25, 1788.3) 0.7714
3 25 8.926420 0.9987 0.355657 (25, 1788.3) 0.9987
4.6 Heteroscedasticity Test
Table 4.7 presents the heteroscedasticity result (including cross terms) based on the chi–square
statistics. It indicates that at 1% level of significance, we cannot reject the null hypothesis and
as a result we conclude that our residual is homoscedastic.
Table 4.7: Heteroscedasticity Test (includes cross terms)

Joint test:
Chi-sq Df Prob.
211.6634 300 1.0000
4.7. Impulse Response Functions

Impulse responses show the dynamic responses of each variable to a one time shock/innovation
to a series. In other words, impulse responses measure the path of each variable changes when
there is a shock to one series. The middle line in IRF displays the response of one variable to a
unit standard deviation shock to other variables. The border lines represent confidence interval.
The horizontal lines represents (zero line) in IRF shows the time period after the initial shocks.
4.7.1 Impulse Response of Real Interest Rate (RIR) to Money Supply

Figures 4.1-4.5 present the impulse responses of real interest rate to monetary policy, real
interest rate, exchange rate, bank credit and RGDP. Figure 4.1 indicates that the response of
real interest rate to one standard deviation innovation is negative and statistically significant.
This implies that expansionary monetary policy lowers the rate of interest which in turn raises
the level of investment and consequently raises output. This result is consistent with the
Keynesian money demand theory and is consistent with the findings of Arslan et al (2017),
Iddirisu et al (2017), Xionjun (2017), Abdulrahman et al (2016), Moses and Odu (2016), Raul
(2016) and Buiyan (2008).
Response to Structural VAR Innovations ± 2 S.E.
Figure 1 : Res pons e of RIR to MS Figure 2 :Res ponse of RIR to RIR Figure 3 :Res pons e of RIR to EXR Figure 4 :Res pons e of RIR to CPB Figure 5 :Res ponse of RIR to RGDP
4 4 4 4 4
0 0 0 0 0
-4 -4 -4 -4 -4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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4.7.2 Impulse Response of Exchange Rate (EXR) to Money Supply, Real Interest Rate,
Exchange Rate, Bank Credit and Real GDP
Figures 4.6-4.10 show the response of exchange rate to one standard deviation shock in money
supply, real interest rate, exchange rate, bank credit and RGDP. Figure 4.6 indicates that the
responses of exchange rate to structural one standard deviation innovations in monetary policy
and RGDP are very negligible while that of real interest rate and bank credit are significant.
This implies that the effect of monetary policy on exchange rate is indirect through the rate of
interest and bank credit. Therefore, the effectiveness of exchange rate is very weak among
ECOWAS States.
4.7.3 Response of Bank Credit (CPB) to Money Supply, RIR, EXR, CPB and RGDP
Furthermore, figures 4.11-4.15 indicate that the response of bank credit to the structural one
standard deviation shock in monetary policy, exchange rate, and RGDP is very low while that
of bank credit is strong. Bank credit responds negatively to structural one standard deviation
shock in real interest rate while the response to its own lag is positive. This implies that bank
credit channel is very effective monetary policy transmission mechanism and is consistent with
the findings of Xiaojun (2017), Arslan et al (2017), Abdulrahman et al (2016), Raul (2016),
Habib et al (2016), Zulkefly et al (2011), and Buiyan (2008).
4.7.4 Response of Real GDP (RGDP) to Money Supply, RIR, EXR, CPB and RGDP
More so, it can be seen in figure 4.16 that the response of RGDP to structural one standard
deviation shock in monetary policy is very low while the response to real interest rate is
positive and statistically significant. This implies that the effect of monetary policy on RGDP is
indirect through the rate of interest as proposed by Keynes.
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4.7.5 Analysis of the Forecast Error Variance Decomposition

Variance decomposition provides the proportion of forecast error variance of a variable that is
attributable to its own shock and the shocks in the other variables in the system. It enriches us
with the information about relative importance of each variable in the system. Tables 4.18 to
4.22 show the results of the variance decompositions of monetary policy (MS), real interest rate
(RIR), exchange rate (EXR), Bank credit (CPB) and real GDP (RGDP) over the 10 periods.
4.7.6 Analysis of Variance Decomposition of Money Supply

Results in table 4.8 indicate that 100 percent of the variation in monetary policy is explained by
its own shock in the first period but continued to decline reaching the lowest level (88.9 %) in
the 10th period. Real interest rate and bank credit explained greater variation in monetary
policy than exchange rate and RGDP. For instance, in the 10th period the contributions of real
interest rate and bank credits are 6.2 and 4.9 percent respectively while that of exchange rate
and RGDP is less than 1 percent.
Table 4.8: Variance Decomposition of Money Supply
Period MS Shock RIR Shock EXR Shock CPB Shock RGDP Shock
1 100.0000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
2 91.7408 4.603686 0.000781 3.608030 0.046719
3 90.38885 5.363879 0.000740 4.193358 0.053178
4 89.7151 5.741882 0.000738 4.485731 0.056547
5 89.3635 5.939239 0.000736 4.638270 0.058293
6 89.1582 6.054463 0.000735 4.727339 0.059313
7 89.03232 6.125079 0.000734 4.781924 0.059939
8 88.95271 6.169762 0.000733 4.816465 0.060334
9 88.90132 6.198600 0.000733 4.838756 0.060590
10 88.86773 6.217450 0.000733 4.853327 0.060757
4.7.7 Analysis of Variance Decomposition of Real Interest Rate

The results in table 4.9 show that 51.6 percent of the variation in real interest rate is explained
by its own shock while the remaining 48.4 percent is explained by the monetary policy shocks.
This implies that there is a strong link between monetary policy and real interest rate as
explained by Keynesian quantity theory of money. Keynes argued that the effect of monetary
policy on price is indirectly through the rate of interest. The relative contributions of exchange
rate, bank credit and RGDP to variations in real exchange rate are very low.
Table 4.9: Variance Decomposition of Real Interest Rate (RIR)

1 48.36336 51.63664 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
2 48.35957 51.63562 5.53E-09 0.004764 4.97E-05
3 48.36065 51.63395 3.30E-07 0.005332 5.80E-05
4 48.36161 51.63286 3.38E-07 0.005467 5.96E-05
5 48.36223 51.63213 3.51E-07 0.005576 6.09E-05
6 48.36265 51.63164 3.59E-07 0.005647 6.18E-05
7 48.36293 51.63131 3.64E-07 0.005695 6.24E-05
8 48.36312 51.63109 3.68E-07 0.005727 6.28E-05
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9 48.36324 51.63094 3.70E-07 0.005748 6.30E-05

10 48.36333 51.63084 3.72E-07 0.005763 6.32E-05
4.7.8 Analysis of Variance Decomposition of Exchange Rate

Table 4.10 presents the results of variance decomposition of exchange rate for the 10 periods. It
indicate that 99.3 percent of variations in exchange rate is explained by its own innovations in
the first period but continued to decline up to 90.5 percent in the 10th period. Real interest rate
explained about 0.7 percent variations, bank credit explained about 3.9 percent. The
contributions of money supply and real GDP to variations in exchange rate are very low. This
implies that exchange rate is highly exogenous and that the exchange rate channel of monetary
policy is very weak.
Table 4.10: Variance Decomposition of Exchange Rate (EXR)

1 0.000000 0.740584 99.25942 0.000000 0.000000
2 0.001445 5.274836 90.85710 3.794095 0.072525
3 0.065786 5.374717 90.60867 3.876869 0.073957
4 0.098467 5.373496 90.57812 3.875987 0.073934
5 0.121313 5.374567 90.55326 3.876916 0.073939
6 0.136516 5.375027 90.53719 3.877327 0.073940
7 0.146707 5.375359 90.52637 3.877623 0.073940
8 0.153532 5.375579 90.51913 3.877819 0.073941
9 0.158105 5.375726 90.51428 3.877951 0.073941
10 0.161168 5.375825 90.51103 3.878039 0.073941
4.7.9 Analysis of Variance Decomposition of Bank Credit

Table 4.11 shows that 52.2 percent of the variations in bank credit came from its own shock,
while the remaining 48.8 percent of the variations are attributable to the shocks in real interest
rate. The contributions of monetary policy, exchange rate and real GDP are low. This confirms
that the effect of monetary policy on bank credit is indirect through the rate of interest.
Therefore, the results confirm the existence of strong connection between bank credit and the
rate of interest. This means that when the monetary authority increases the money supply in an
economy, the level of bank reserves rises and consequently the level of interest rate thereby
increasing the level of bank loan.
Table 4.11: Variance Decomposition of Credit Provided by Banks (CPB)

1 0.000000 47.75733 0.000000 52.24267 0.000000
2 0.000289 47.77596 0.000364 52.22072 0.002671
3 0.000949 47.77604 0.000368 52.21992 0.002719
4 0.001204 47.77592 0.000369 52.21979 0.002719
5 0.001392 47.77583 0.000369 52.21969 0.002719
6 0.001516 47.77578 0.000369 52.21962 0.002719
7 0.001599 47.77574 0.000369 52.21958 0.002719
8 0.001654 47.77571 0.000369 52.21955 0.002719
9 0.001692 47.77569 0.000369 52.21953 0.002719
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10 0.001717 47.77568 0.000369 52.21951 0.002719

4.7.10 Analysis of Variance Decomposition of Real GDP

Table 4.12 reveals that 97.1 percent of the variation in real GDP is explained by its own shock
which continued to decline to its lowest value (72.6 percent) in the 10th period. Real interest
rate explained about 13.3 percent variations in real GDP shocks while bank credit explained
about 10.9 percent variations in the real GDP shocks. Exchange rate explained about 2.9
percent variations in the 1st period which later declined to 2.2 percent in the 10th period.
Monetary policy explained less than 1 percent variations in real GDP throughout the 10
periods. This implies that we could not establish a direct link between monetary policy and real
GDP. The relationship as explained by the economic theory is indirect as explained by Keynes
(1936). He believes that expansionary monetary policy lowers interest rate which leads to the
rise in the level of investment and consequently increases in output.
Table 4.12: Variance Decomposition of Real Gross Domestic Product

1 0.000000 0.021369 2.864110 0.023376 97.09114
2 0.075099 13.08015 2.195383 10.73104 73.91833
3 0.452399 13.32661 2.171928 10.92979 73.11927
4 0.661292 13.30468 2.167069 10.91126 72.95570
5 0.804617 13.29709 2.163347 10.90444 72.83050
6 0.899980 13.29116 2.160917 10.89920 72.74874
7 0.963787 13.28728 2.159286 10.89576 72.69389
8 1.006476 13.28467 2.158196 10.89346 72.65720
9 1.035053 13.28292 2.157466 10.89191 72.63264
10 1.054187 13.28176 2.156977 10.89088 72.61620
5. Conclusion
The discussion and conclusions section should answer your research questions and explain
what your results mean. In other words, the majority of the discussion and conclusions section
should be an interpretation of your results.
The study examined the monetary policy transmission mechanism of Economic Community of
West African States. Based on the results obtained the study concludes that interest rate and
bank credit channels are the most effective channels of monetary policy whereas exchange rate
channel is weak. Furthermore, the effect of monetary policy on output is weak confirming the
Keynes argument that the effects of changes in monetary policy is indirect via interest rate
References
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VAR Econometrics. Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Andrew Berge & Rafael Portillo (2018). Monetary Policy in Sub Saharan Africa (Vol.1).
United Kingdom, Oxford University Press.
Anwar, Sajid., & Nguyen, Lan Phi.(2018). Channels of monetary policy transmission in
Vietnam, Journal of Policy Modeling.
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Arslan Majeed, Shahid Mansoor Hashmi & Romila Qamar (2017). Monetary Policy
Transmission and Firms’ Investment Evidence from the Manufacturing Sector of
Pakistan. The Romanian Economic Journal, 2-34.
Atesoglu, H. S. & Emerson, J. (2009). Long run Monetary Neutrality. Applied Economics,
41(16), 2025 – 2036.
Central Bank of Nigeria. (2011). What is Monetary Policy? Understanding Monetary Policy
Series No 1.
Giuliana, P. & Roberto, T. (2013). Monetary Policy through the ‘Credit-cost Channel’ Italy
and Germany pre- and post-EMU. Applied Economics, 45(29), 4095-4113.
Habib Hussain Khan, Rubi Binti Ahmad, & Chan Sok Gee (2016). Bank competition and
monetary policy transmission through the bank lending channel: Evidence from
ASEAN. International Review of Economics and Finance 44 (2016) 19–39.
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Policy on Stock Market Performance: Evidence from twelve (12) African Countries.
Research in International Business and Finance.
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Transmission during the Global Financial Crisis of 2008–2009: Evidence from
Korean. Emerging Market Finance and Trade, 52(7), 1574 – 1586.
Mishkin, F. S. (2007). The Economics of Money, Banking and Financial Markets (7th ed.). The
Addison-Wesley series in economics.
Mugume, A. (2011). Monetary transmission mechanisms in Uganda. Bank of Uganda Working
paper.
Moses, K. T. & Moses, O. O. (2016). Financial Innovations and the Future of Monetary Policy
in Nigeria. Economics of Innovation and New Technology.
Ngan, T. (2018). The long-run Analysis of Monetary Policy Transmission Channels on
Inflation: a VECM Approach. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 23:1.
Philippe, B. & Fernando, B. (2000). The Impact of Monetary Policy and Banks' Balance
Sheets: Some International Evidence. Applied Financial Economics, 10(1), 15-26.
Popkarn Arwatchanakarn (2019). Monetary Policy Shocks and Macroeconomic Variables:
Evidence from Thailand. Springer Nature Switzerland, 203–219.
Raul, I. (2016). How Important is the Credit Channel in the Transmission of Monetary Policy
in Mexico? Applied Economics,1-23.
Vinayagathasan, T. (2013).Monetary Policy and the Real Economy: A Structural VAR
Approach for Sri Lanka. National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, 13(13).
Xianjun, S., Rong, M., & Xing, L. (2017). Price vs Quantity Based Monetary Policies and
Credit Substitution Asymmetric. Emerging Market Finance and Trade.
Zulkefly, A., Azman, W.N.W, & Bakri, (2011). Bank Lending Channel of Monetary Policy;
Dynamic Panel Data study of Malaysia. Journal of Asia Pacific Business, 12(3), 225
– 243.
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Policy Availability Resources In The Ordinances Distribution And

Determination Of Gampong Fund Details In Syamtalira Bayu
District Of North Aceh Sub District
M. Hasyem1, Endang Larasati2, Sri Suwitri3, Hardi Warsono4

1,2,4
Public Administration Departments, Faculties of Social and Political Sciences, Diponegoro University,
Semarang, Indonesia
3
Faculty Of Social And Political Science, Tidar University Magelang, Indonesia
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: (Pemerintah RI, 2014) about the village was implemented in 2015. It clarifies the
task, role and function of the village in managing villages, running village governance, and
providing services to the community. Policy to divide the fund for Syamtalira Bayu district
based on Regent Regulation Number 39 in 2017 on procedures of division and determination of
the fund details of Gampong in Syamtalira Bayu District, North Aceh Sub-District. This
research aims to policy of availability resources in the procedures of the Division and
determination of the details of Gampong fund in Syamtalira Bayu District, North Aceh Sub-
District. The research methods used are descriptive analysis is qualitative with data collection
techniques through interviews, observations, and documentation. The results show that the lack
of competence of human resources or the implementing policies of Gampong in Syamtalira
Bayu District. At present, the policy executor of Gampong in Syamtalira Bayu District average
education graduates from Senior or Junior High Schools. In addition to the capture power,
discipline in the implementation of the administration and accountability is still not optimal. It
is seen with the frequent delays in reporting the financial administration of Gampong Fund.
Other findings regarding the amount of village funds are still not enough to finance the
planned programs. Meanwhile, the facility supporting the implementation policy of Gampong
in Syamtalira Bayu District is adequate.
Keywords: Policy; Resources; Gampong Fund; Syamtalira Bayu District; and North Aceh
Sub-District
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
The policy availability resources in the procedures for the Division and determination of the
details of Gampong fund in Syamtalira Bayu District, North Aceh Sub-District have an
important role. "Constraints in achieving the village funding program because of the ability of
actors in the village are still weak. The disadvantages of the actors are caused by several
factors, such as 1) low awareness of actors to improve ability; 2) The condition of the actors
residing in the comfort zone, very weak desire to grow, 3) The low level of education, 4) the
low skills of leadership and incapable of controlling the desires of people (Ryan, 2011).
Availability resources whether it is human resources or apparatus and resource facilities as well
as infrastructure is a major factor in the implementation of the Division and determination of
the details fund of Gampong in Syamtalira Bayu District, North Aceh Sub-District.
Meanwhile, village government under (Pemerintah Pusat, 2005) about village, article 6
mentions that the village government is organizing government affairs by the village
government and the village consultative body in regulating and managing the interests of local
communities based on local origins and customs recognized and respected in the system of
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unitary State of Indonesia Republic. According to (Masrizal, 2016) stated that the village is a
group of people living together or a region, which has an organization that is resilient with a set
of self-defined rules, and is under the leadership of the selected and self-appointed village.
Procedures for the distribution and determination of the details fund Gampong in Syamtalira
Bayu District, North Aceh Sub-District based on Regent Regulation Number 39 in 2017.
Where in the regulation is arranged about the procedures for the Division and determination of
the details fund of Gampong. The policy executor responsible for implementing the
governance policy of the Division and determination of the details of Gampongs fund is a
resource that has good competence. (Bryson, Ackermann, & Eden, 2007) was classified
resources into "Information, Material, Equipment, Facilities, Money, and People".
Gampong fund is the State Budget and Expenditure Fund (APBN). Where is reserved for
Gampong to finance governance, implementation of development, community development,
and empowerment of society. The goal given Gampong funds are as follows 1) improving
public services in Gampong 2) alleviating poverty 3) advancing the economy of Gampong 4)
overcoming the development gaps between Gampong 5) strengthening the Community of
gampong as the subject of development. “Village Funds Allocation (ADD) management has
implications for driving change or improvement in Village development. Village Funds
Allocation (ADD) management implementation has not been effective but has demonstrated a
meaningful change to the welfare of the community. Accumulative management of Village
Funds Allocation (ADD) reaches the target (work plan) and the contribution is very clear that it
can improve the village development (Kahar & Paranoan, 2014).
The implementation policies for the division of Gampong fund in Syamtalira Bayu District in
North Aceh Sub-District have several obstacles. These Problems are such as the use and
manager’s ability of Gampong fund. The Availability resources are both from the Government
of Gampong and from Community institutions in Gampong in the planning, implementation,
and control activities. In addition, the policy division of Gampong funds in Syamtalira Bayu
District related to the utilization of Gampong fund. Based on this condition, this research aims
to observe the policy of availability resources in the procedures of the Division and
determination of the details of Gampong fund in Syamtalira Bayu District, North Aceh Sub-
District.
2. Research Method
This research using descriptive research methods of analysis is qualitative. (Sugiyono, 2016)
stated that descriptive research is a research problem relating to the question of the existence of
independent variables, either only in one variable or more. This type of research is a qualitative
study that emphasizes attention to the process and meaning of the phenomenon studied, in
which researchers become research instruments in interpreting the data in the field, then build
abstraction, concepts, and theories (Creswell, 2013).
The technical analysis of data in this study includes 1) the process of collecting data through
various techniques, 2) Data presentation Collecting data that has been edited for analysis, 3)
data condensation as a form of analysis that sharpen, focus, reduce and organize data (Miles &
Saldana, 2014).
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According to (Grindle, 2017) mentioned that in a policy implementation need resource support
for both human resources, as well as material resources, and method resources. These three
resources, the most important is human resources, as well as the subject of policy
implementation also includes public policy objects. The importance of a resource in
implementing a policy as (Dorey, 2014) mentioned, "Implementation command may be
transmitted accurately, clearly, and consistently, but if the implementation is lacking the
resources that need to run the policy, implementation is likely to be ineffective".
The policy impact availability of human resources that have not been well, there is still a late
Gampong in the preparation of the Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMG) of Gampong. It
was also late in drafting the Gampong on Government's Work Plan (RKPG) as well as late in
drafting/assigning the Gampong expenditure Budget (APBG) (http://aceh.tribunnews.com
accessed 20/09/2018). Similarly, with the reporting of accountability of Gampong fund, almost
all of Gampong was late in delivering the reporting and accountability that resulted in the
subsequent withdrawal of Gampong fund. (Aryanto, Fontana, & Afiff, 2015; Salehi, 2013)
found that "the quality of the village's human resources was still lacking in understanding the
guidelines for drafting village finances, due to time constraints in administration preparation
and the understanding of the laws as the basis of the rules."
Human resources are very influential in the success of a policy implementation, because
without reliable human resources, the implementation of the policy will run slowly. The
resources must support implementation of the policy implementation so that the
implementation goes well. The results of the research also show the policymakers of Gampong
fund in Syamtalira Bayu District average education graduates from Junior and Senior High
Schools. It also has no competence in its field. This greatly affects the course of the policy fund
of Gampong so that in the accountability of budget reports is always delayed. In addition to the
capture power, the discipline is still very low.
According to (Marlow, Lacerenza, & Salas, 2017) stated that Human resource performance is
influenced by commitment. Organizational commitment is the relative strength of the
employees in identifying their involvement in the organizational section. It can be seen in (1)
acceptance of the values and objectives of the Organization, (2) readiness and willingness to
strive seriously on behalf of the Organization, (3) the desire to maintain membership in the
Organization (Sinha, 2014).
In addition to human resources, it is also the provision of facilities and infrastructures that
support Gampong fund policy. Beyond human resources, other resources that need to be
accounted for are also the resources of finance and resources of facilities and infrastructure.
The Lack of infrastructure resources can be the cause of the policy successful. The results of
Financial and Development Supervisory Agency (BPKP) survey shows that one of the
problems in the financial management of the village is still varied availability of the village
infrastructure (Antlöv, Wetterberg, & Dharmawan, 2016). The facilities that support the policy
implementation of Gampong fund generally in Syamtalira Bayu District in principle adequate.
However, be aware that the main problem of implementing the Gampong fund policy is the
lack of funding support other than the government (central and local areas) or self-support from
the community.
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In achieving the objectives associated with the implementation of development and community
empowerment, it is not fully achievable as stated in the conversation No. 39 in 2017. Article 7
paragraphs 2 that Gampong fund was classified for development and community
empowerment, but the reality in the field is different. This can be seen in table 1 where the
realization of the use of Gampong fund is dominated by development implementation of IDR.
19.809.896.750 or 80.68% when it is compared with community empowerment, which is only
IDR. 4,744,392,250 or 19.32%
Table 1: Realization Utilizing of Gampong and Non-Governmental Funds

Gampong Development Community
N Gampong No
Fund Implementati % Empowerm % Swadaya %
o Names tes
Amount on ent
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Bale 641.299.000. 551.360.000. 85.98 89.939.000. 14.02 35,634,500. 5.56
2. Bie 657.572.000. 495.390.000. 75.34 162.182.000. 24.66 47,805,000. 7.27
3. Beurandang 631.124.000. 591.670.000. 93.75 39.453.500. 6.25 6.217.500. 0.99
4. Baroh KG 637.311.000. 556.146.000. 87.26 81.165.000. 12.74 19,874,500. 3.12
5. Glong 644.344.000. 561.122.000. 87.08 83.222.000. 12.92 27.068.000. 4.20
6. Nibong 635.180.000. 552.723.000. 87.02 82.457.000. 12.98 31,456,500. 4.95
7. Langa 641.440.000. 433.901.000. 67.64 207.593.000. 32.36 54,000,000. 8.42
8. Bunot 645.345.000. 566.880.000. 87.84 78.465.000. 12.16 15,217,500. 2.36
9. Keude Bayu 630.744.000. 554.020.000. 87.84 76.742.000. 12.16 23,437,000. 3.72
10. Blang Bayu 663.616.000. 485.420.000. 73.15 178.196.000. 26.85 24,371,500. 3.67
11. Dayah Tuha 639.638.000. 462.130.000. 72.25 177.508.000. 27.75 43,515,500. 6.80
12. Dayah Baro 644.753.000. 483.406.800. 74.98 161.346.200. 25.02 55,742,500. 8.65
13. Lancok 647.121.000. 555.959.000. 85.91 91.162.000. 14.09 29,865,000. 4.62
14. Punti 641.603.000. 577.806.600. 90.06 63.796.400. 9.94 52,500,500. 8.18
15. Bungong 646.574.000. 562.240.000. 86.96 84.334.000. 13.04 44,915,500. 6.95
16. Blang Rimung 638.923.000. 493.130.000. 77.18 145.793.000. 22.82 48,471,500. 7.59
17. Ule Meuria 650.341.000. 592.625.500. 91.13 57.715.500. 8.87 51,451,500. 7.91
18. K. Panyang 643.928.000. 577.980.000. 89.76 65.948.000. 10.24 63,573,500. 9.87
19. Rheng 651.939.000. 502.641.000. 77.10 149.298.000. 22.90 19.289.000. 2.96
20. T. Meuduroe 640.659.000. 517.400.000. 80.76 123.259.000. 19.24 41,782,000. 6.52
21. U. Gampong 640.427.000. 572.375.000. 89.37 68.052.000. 10.63 54,335,500. 8.48
22. Garoet 655.163.000. 554.710.000. 84.67 100.453.000. 15.33 43,515,500. 6.64
23. Blang Awe 670.597.000. 594.860.000. 88.71 75.737.000. 11.29 88,170,000. 13.15
24. P. B. Mangat 651.966.000. 463.380.500. 71.07 188.585.500. 28.93 35,594,500. 5.46
25. Cibrek 641.859.000. 440.140.000. 68.57 201.719.000. 31.43 47,589,500. 7.41
26. P. B. Trieng 669.163.000. 515.490.000. 77.04 153.673.000. 22.96 43,812,000. 6.55
27. Meudang Ara 649.205.000. 535.759.000. 82.53 113.446.000. 17.47 49,387,500. 7.61
28. Cut Neuhen 649.813.000. 433.159.000. 66.66 216.654.000. 33.34 74,552,000. 11.47
29. Tumpeun 635.467.000. 468.402.000. 73.71 167.065.000. 26.29 62,505,000. 9.84
30. Alen 634.758.000. 533.700.000. 84.08 101.058.000. 15.92 56,825,000. 8.95
31. D. B. Seurikuy 640.973.000. 593.737.000. 92.63 47.236.000. 7.37 16.772.000. 2.62
32. Blang Patra 641.348.000. 583.251.000. 90.94 58.097.000. 9.06 63,541,500. 9.91
33. B. Manjron 645.150.000. 565.846.000. 87.71 79.309.000. 12.29 41,231,500. 6.39
34. Seunebok B 644.419.000. 389.900.000. 60.50 254.519.000. 39.50 51,632,000. 8.01
35. B. Gelumpang 668.182.000. 620.968.000. 92.93 47.214.000. 7.07 25,695,500. 3.85
36. Alu Manjron 643.266.000. 438.550.000. 68.18 204.716.000. 31.82 75,465,500. 11.73
37. Siren Tujoh 657.729.000. 390.363.000. 59.35 267.366.000. 40.65 46,512,500. 7.07
38. B. Seurikuy 641.350.000. 441.354.850. 68.82 199.995.150. 31.18 61,945,000. 9.66
24.554.289.00 4.744.392.25 19.3 1,675,270,50
Amount 19.809.896.750. 80.68 6.82
0. 0. 2 0.
Source: Processed from the usage report of Gampong fund
In addition, the results showed that the community in Syamtalira Bayu District still view the
physical development is more important than the empowerment. Because of this, physical
development is a proposed choice of development programs in Development Planning
(Musrenbang). Physical development options are also strengthened by the lack of adequate
geographical and infrastructure conditions. The choice on physical development is interesting
when compared with the perspective of development developed by (Boyatzis, 2008) who said
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that development is a natural process of realizing the country's ideals in the realization of
prosperous society in a fair and equitable. Welfare characterized by prosperity is, increased
consumption caused by increased revenues.
Conclusion
Policy availability resources in the procedures for the Division and determination of the details
of the fund Gampong in Syamtalira Bayu District North Aceh Sub-District shows that the lack
of competence of human resources or the implementing Policies Gampong in Syamtalira Bayu
District. The policy executor of fund Gampong in Syamtalira Bayu District average education
graduates from Junior and Senior High Schools. In addition to the capture power, discipline in
the implementation of the administration and accountability is still not optimal. It is seen with
the frequent delays in reporting the financial administration of Gampong Fund. Other findings
regarding the amount of village funds are still not enough to finance the planned programs.
Meanwhile, the facility supporting the implementation policy of Gampong in Syamtalira Bayu
District is adequate.
References
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and the 2014 Village Law in Indonesia. Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00074918.2015.1129047
Aryanto, R., Fontana, A., & Afiff, A. Z. (2015). Strategic Human Resource Management,
Innovation Capability and Performance: An Empirical Study in Indonesia Software
Industry. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences.
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Boyatzis, R. E. (2008). LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT FROM A COMPLEXITY
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and distinctive competencies to work in public organizations. Public Administration
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Pemerintah Pusat. Peraturan Pemerintah (PP) No. 72 Tahun 2005 Tentang Desa (2005).
Indonesia LN. 2005 No. 158, TLN No. 4587, LL SETNEG  45 HLM. Retrieved
from https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/49852/pp-no-72-tahun-2005
Pemerintah RI. (2014). Undang-Undang Nomor 6 Tahun 2014 Tentang Desa. Salinan Undang -
Undang No 6 Tahun 2014. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Ryan, L. (2011). Migrants’ social networks and weak ties: Accessing resources and
constructing relationships post-migration. Sociological Review.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.2011.02030.x
Salehi, A. (2013). Strategic human resource management. Advances in Environmental Biology.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-27325-6_2
Sinha, J. (2014). Organizational Behaviour. In Culture and Organizational Behaviour.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9788132100997.n1
Sugiyono. (2016). Research Methods Quantitative, Qualitative, and R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
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Role Of The Government In Shifting Economies Towards The

Fourth Industrial Revolution
Baratha Dewanarayana
National Institute of Business Management, Sri Lanka

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: The origin of human civilization was the foundation of the traditional agriculture;
which was subsistence agriculture initially. Commercial agriculture expanded the volume of
agriculture not confined to few crops and limited geographical areas but more diversified in
terms of crops and boundaries. The steam powered engine and the innovations during the first
industrial revolution structurally shifted the traditional agriculture in to industrialization
making significant influences. Electricity as the core invention during the Second industrial
revolution enhanced the scope of industrialization from the agriculture in to vast varieties. The
electric platforms were given paradigm shift with the introduction of computers, informational
communication technology and internet as the third industrial revolution. The world has
welcomed the newest key technologies; artificial intelligence (AI), internet of things (IoT), big
data analytics, cloud computing and 3D etc to redefine the mode of industrialization with
perfect or partial automation as the effects of the fourth industrial revolution. The measures
and dimensions of global competitiveness were also moderated since the emergence of key
technologies drawn new boundaries at global economic phenomenon based on the ownership
of intellectual property rights of each nation.The role of government in each scenario is
significant not only in terms of the invested amount but also the priority and policy changes
made accordingly. The fourth industrial revolution was welcomed with national programs and
necessary institutes designed and initiated by governments in many countries including United
Kingdom, United States, Japan, Malaysia, Germany, Italy, India and China etc. The so called
government sponsorship led those nations up during the last few years with significant
structural changes in them. The purpose of the article is to review the role of the government in
shifting economies towards fourth industrial revolutions based on secondary data available
with empirical reviews.
Keywords: Fourth industrial revolution, Policy changes, Fiscal policy decisions, Global
competitiveness
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
The origin of human civilization was the foundation of the traditional agriculture; which was
subsistence agriculture initially. Commercial agriculture expanded the volume of agriculture
not confined to few crops and limited geographical areas but more diversified in terms of crops
and boundaries. The steam powered engine and the innovations during the first industrial
revolution structurally shifted the traditional agriculture in to industrialization making
significant influences. Electricity as the core invention during the Second industrial revolution
enhanced the scope of industrialization from the agriculture in to vast varieties. The electric
platforms were given paradigm shift with the introduction of computers, informational
communication technology and internet as the third industrial revolution.
The world has welcomed the newest key technologies; artificial intelligence (AI), internet of
things (IoT), big data analytics, cloud computing and 3D etc to redefine the mode of
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industrialization with perfect or partial automation as the effects of the fourth industrial
revolution. The measures and dimensions of global competitiveness were also moderated since
the emergence of key technologies drawn new boundaries at global economic phenomenon
based on the ownership of intellectual property rights of each nation.
The role of government in each scenario is significant not only in terms of the invested amount
but also the priority and policy changes made accordingly. The fourth industrial revolution was
welcomed with national programs and necessary institutes designed and initiated by
governments in many countries including United Kingdom, United States, Japan, Malaysia,
Germany, Italy, India and China etc. The so called government sponsorship led those nations
up during the last few years with significant structural changes in them.
The purpose of the article is to review the role of the government in shifting economies towards
fourth industrial revolutions based on secondary data available with empirical reviews.
Significance of Government in shifting the Economies towards the Fourth Industrial

Revolution
Deloitte, (2016) pointed out the significance of strong government funding as a way to relocate
low cost manufacturing processers in to new high tech opportunities while creating competitive
advantages. Germany, US and China shifted to manufacturing intensive versions with strong
funds by governments in order to enhance their global competition. Jose Ramon G. Albert,
et.al, (2018) explained role of the government as a good gardener to prepare the ground for
paradigm shirts. Develop human capital, investments on R&D activities to lead innovations,
revising tax policies and regulatory requirements, focusing on bottlenecks in the innovation
process, ensuring the social protection and finally design national paradigm with action agenda
were pointed as parts of government role. M. Ickson Manda & S. Ben Dhaou, (2019)
mentioned ability of government as one of the determinants of transforming societies in to
modern, technologically advanced and smart society.
National Policies and Fourth Industrial Revolution

With the initiation of “High Tech Strategy 2020” in Germany as appeared in 2011 Hanover fair
the action plan related for the same was launched in March 2012 with the aim of developing
their industries to mitigate the degree of global competitiveness. (Liao et al., 2017) United
Kingdom also launched a two year project in parallel called Future of Manufacturing in
December 2011 for the purpose of formulating strategic view until 2050. France also designed
and launched project titled as “La Nouvelle France Industrielle” with the initiation of the
President in September 2013 focusing initiatives in 34 sectors identified. In Sweden context
the Association of Swedish Engineering Industries proposed and launched “Made in Sweden in
2030” in April 2013, focusing six major areas to further develop in production and five
instruments to ensure the long term effective and efficient implementation of research and
innovations. By 2016 Sweden was able to announce strategy for new industrialization called
“smart industry”. Spain also introduced and launched “Industry Conectada 4.0” as their project
in July 2015 initiated by Spanish Ministry of Industry aiming the promotion of digital
transformation among both private and public organizations. “ Piano Nazionale Industria 4.0”
was announced as the project in Italy for the fourth industrial revolution by the Italian Ministry
of economic development in September 2016 in addition to the initiation of Italian Technology
cluster “ Fabbrica Intelligente” by the Italian Education Ministry in September 2012 for the
purpose of promote, facilitate and support research and innovation in manufacturing and to
develop national manufacturing industry. Simultaneously Netherlands also launched “Smart
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Industry” as their effort in April 2014 and “Factories of the Future (FoF)” was launched by the
European Union (EU) in December 2013, basically focusing on the public private partnership
aiming to achieve the destination called “Horizon 2020”.
The earliest effort for the fourth industrial revolution in Asia was basically traced in July 2010
in Japan, initiated with the book published by Dr. Hiroshi Fujiwara about the utilization of
solar power, electric cars and smart grids used in smart societies with more intelligent and
integrated systems and practices. By December 2015 Japan was able to launce “Super Smart
Society” with the purpose of developing new values for future industry and the society with the
expected transformation. China developed and announced “Made in China 2025” as the initial
plan for the industrial revolution but later in May 2015 launched “Internet +” with the aim of
accelerating the industrialization of ten industries selected. South Korea proposed
“Manufacturing Innovation 3.0” in June 2014 with the purpose of developing approximately
ten thousand factories in order to cope up with upcoming developments such as 3D printing,
integrated production methods etc by the end of 2020. Taiwan also introduced “Taiwan
Productivity 4.0 Initiative” in September 2015 with the aim of promoting smart technologies in
all the industries including manufacturing at large, agriculture and services as well. India
launched “Make in India” in September 2014 aiming to transform the India as the global design
and manufacturing hub by encouraging investments and to facilitate best in class
manufacturing atmosphere in 25 selected sectors. Malaysia was concentrating on the
developing three main manufacturing industries listed as, electrical and electronics, chemicals,
machinery and equipment in to high value, diversified and complex products to the world by
launching “Eleventh Malaysia Plan” in May 2015. Singapore named the strategy as Research,
Innovation and Enterprise “RIE 2020” to further develop innovative industries to meet their
national needs and advanced manufacturing and engineering was one of the key technology
domains. It was also studied that the digital transformations should be supported by making
necessary amendments and updates in public policy and policy reforms in order to promote
innovations. Especially in the case of trade restrictions, security of both personal and enterprise
data should be supported by the necessary changes in standards, legislations and policies
etc.(Zhou & Zhou, 2015)
The literature illustrates the public policies of different countries have been launched towards
the Fourth Industrial Revolution as an item in national development agenda. According to
Deloitte, (2016) the Global Manufacturing Countries and Regions Competitiveness Index
Report has ranked certain countries selected based on their public policy initiations. The
reliability of the ranking were further assured by extending the analysis to the top ten
manufacturing countries and regions within a considered period of time as given below;
Table 1: Top Manufacturing Countries and Regions

Country/ Region Rank 2016 (Current) Rank 2020 (Projected )
China 1 2
United States 2 1
Germany 3 3
Japan 4 4
South Korea 5 6
United Kingdom 6 8
Taiwan 7 9
Mexico 8 7
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Country/ Region Rank 2016 (Current) Rank 2020 (Projected )

Canada 9 10
Singapore 10 11
India 11 5
Sweden 13 18
Malaysia 17 13
Netherlands 20 21
France 22 26
Spain 25 27
Italy 28 30
Source: Deloitte, (2016); Quoted by Liao et.al, (2017)
Liao et.al, (2017) focused on the duration of public policies launched in each country in order
to position their economies with the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
Table 2: Duration of Public Policy

Country/ Region Continent Start Year End Year Duration (Years)
United States(US) North America 2011 N/A N/A
Germany Europe 2012 2020 9
France Europe 2013 2020 8
United
Europe 2013 2050 38
Kingdom(UK)
Europe Europe 2014 2020 7
South Korea Asia 2014 2020 7
India Asia 2014 N/A N/A
Netherlands Europe 2014 N/A N/A
Sweden Europe 2015 2020 6
China Asia 2016 2025 10
Spain Europe 2015 N/A N/A
Malaysia Asia 2016 2020 5
Taiwan Asia 2016 2024 9
Japan Asia 2016 2020 5
Mexico North America 2016 2030 15
Canada North America 2016 2030 15
Singapore Asia 2016 2020 5
Italy Europe 2017 2020 4
Source: Liao et.al, (2017)
The article further discusses the elements of each public policy for the clarity. Based on the
survey on elements of each public policy it is clear to understand the way of focus to position
the Fourth Industrial Revolution overcoming the existing areas to be developed. The researches
of the article have summarized the purpose of creating the each public policy under three
elements called What, How and why. As per the analysis the reasons as to why the policies
were created to address to main focuses as to enhance exports and facilitate the economic
growth and to keep, accelerate and to reenergize competitiveness. The perspective of what the
focus of creating the public policy is Human Capital as per majority of countries; more
specifically to generate high skilled and qualified jobs related to the field of manufacturing. In
addition to that Products and Infrastructure are also preferred by countries to focus in the
process on positioning the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Majority of countries adopted
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Innovation and Technology as the mechanism of bridging the existence with the Fourth
industrial Revolution. In addition to that Investments, Marketing, Collaboration and
Standardization were also frequently mentioned as the key elements of the mechanism towards
positioning the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
The table indicates in detail the public policy and its focus along with the financial injections to
view the Role of Government Spending on Production on positioning the Fourth Industrial
Revolution.
Table 3: Governmental Investments for initiatives related to the fourth industrial revolution
Country Public fund (Value) Initiation/ focus
France 1.9 Billion Euro (2013-2016) Industrial projects
Singapore 3.3 Billion Singapore Dollar Research, Innovation and Entrepreneurship lead to
(2016-2020) Advanced Manufacturing and Engineering
United States 2.2 Billion USD (2013) Advanced Manufacturing R&D Projects
Taiwan 36 Billion Taiwan Dollar Taiwan Productivity 4.0 Initiative
(2015-2024)
Europe 1.15 Billion Euro (2014-2020) Horizon 2020 “Factories of the Future”
Germany Until May 2017; 550 Million Euro Industry 4.0 , Support medium sized Companies in
digitization, networking etc
Italy 2.6 Billion Euro (2017-2020) Piano Nazionale Industria 4.0
Spain 78 Million Euro (2017) Industria Conectada 4.0
United Kingdom 200 Million Pounds Additive Manufacturing, Robotic & Autonomous
(2014-2017) systems, Modeling and Simulation
Source: Liao et.al, (2017)
Access partnerships, (2017) revealed three challenges for governments to overcome as;
relatively less investments on infrastructure to adopt technological advancements, absence of
adequate incentives to adopt as well as to promote innovations in the future and mismatch of
employee skills will decelerate the growth and would be a constraint for developments. Further
the report has pointed out the role of government in shifting economies towards the fourth
industrial revolution as three points; (I) support infrastructure needed for the fourth industrial
revolution by investing resources strategically, promote internet and facilitating high speed
internet at affordable manner, (II) making sure the business entities equipped with tools to
promote innovation through hyper cloud by promoting participation towards global hyper
cloud market, be aligning with global could standards, imposing and implementing new
privacy laws and elaborating on benefits of clouds and (III) developing human for 21st century
jobs by creating flexible workforce with soft skills, amalgamate digital skills with education,
changing the mindset of people to accept the change and train towards science education and
computational thinking patterns.
In addition advanced robotics, big data analytics, cloud computing, cognitive computing, cyber
security, internet of things, machine to machine, mobile technologies, RFID technologies and
3D printing were highlighted as the prioritized technologies among public policies of
economies considered in the literature. Chemical Manufacturing, Transportation Equipment
Manufacturing, Food Manufacturing, Pharmaceutical and Medicine Manufacturing, Textile
Mills and Aerospace Product and Parts Manufacturing were featured as focused manufacturing
sectors among most of the countries. (Liao et.al, 2017)
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Conclusion
The significance of the government role is essential for the transformation of economies with
version 3.0 which were impacted with the third industrial revolution towards the version 4.0 the
fourth industrial revolution. Participation of private sector in fourth industrial revolutionary
implementations but government input has to be provided in the level of policy making and
revising in order to lead the process as a national policy while linking outcomes for the
constructive changes gross domestic product, per capita income, employment in high tech
industries, manufacturing value addition and export income etc. Challenges have to be
addressed with appropriate policy reforms as a part of the national policy designed towards the
paradigm shift towards adopting fourth industrial revolution.
Reference
Access partnership, (2017), Delivering the Fourth Industrial Revolution: The Role of
Government, p7-14
Deloitte, (2016) .Industry 4.0: Is Africa ready for digital transformation. [Online] Available
from: http://www2.deloitte.com/za/africaindustry4-
0?id=za:2el:3or:awa_AI40:ai40_vs (Accessed:10/09/2016)
Jose Ramon G. Albert, Aniceto C. Orbeta Jr., Vicente B. Paqueo, Ramonette B. Serafica,
Elmer P. Dadios, Alvin B. Culaba, Argel A. Bandala, and Jose Carlos Alexis C. Bairan, (2018),
Harnessing government’s role for the Fourth Industrial Revolution, ISSN 2508-0865
(electronic) No. 2018-14 (October 2018)
Liao, Yongxin; Loures, Eduardo Rocha; Deschamps, Fernando; Brezinski, Guilherme;
Venancio, Andre, (2017), The impact of the fourth industrial revolution: a cross –
country/region comparison, vol.28, e20180061, 2017
More Ickson Manda & Soumaya Ben Dhaou, (2019), Responding to the challenges and
opportunities in the 4th Industrial revolution in developing countries, ICEGOV2019,
3-5 April 2019, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Zhou, K., Liu, T.& Zhou, L. (2015, August). Industry 4.0: Towards future industrial
opportunities and challenges. In Fuzzy Systems and Knowledge Discovery (FSKD),
2015 12th International Conference on (pp. 2147-2152). IEEE
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Sick-Leave Due To Burnout Among Lecturers In Government-

Linked Universities In Malaysia
Shahidah Ahmad Suhaimi1*, Nor Hafiza Ahmad Agin2

1,2
College of Business Management and Accounting, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Muadzam Shah, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: Shahidah@uniten.edu.my

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: In Malaysia, provisions for sick-leave are mutual but with limits for every employee
which depends on their contract of employment. Some argued that sick-leave should not be
questioned as it is the employee’s right to have been paid during sickness. However, some
employees are found to have sick-leave because of burnout. Hence, this study aimed to explore
psychosocial factors which related to sick-leave due to burnout among lecturers in Government
Link Universities in Malaysia.
Keywords: sickleave, burnout, academician, lecturer, university

____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Economics fluctuation, global competition and transformation in the nature of work design in
today’s world are part of the force that leads to work stress (Thye, 2016). He also mentioned
these forces also would lead to high psychological risks and disorder such as burnout.
Moreover, Gerry (2013) agreed that people are burnout due to work holism in order to fulfil
high job demands with limited resources. The high risk of burnout has commonly happened to
those who are struggling with stress workplace (Scott, 2019). There are few signs of burnout
such as employees did not feel the joy of being at the workplace and suffers headache and
sickness (Roberts, 2019). Besides, employees also will start to alienate themselves from any
company’s activities which also will make vulnerable towards their job performance (Gorvett,
2019; Scott, 2019). However, without further testing, burnout is generally always related to
physical health and sick-leave absenteeism (Toppinen-Tanner, Ojajärvi, Väänänen, Kalimo, &
Jäppinen, 2005).
In Malaysia, Menon (2016) reported that in the year 2020, depression will be the major mental
health illness. Moreover, according to the president of Malaysian Psychiatric Association,
Professor Dr Nor Zuraida Zainal, she warned that people should not ignore burnout as it will
lead to depression. While, Turner (2020) mentioned that once employees are no longer
concentrate and could not focus on their jobs, it shows the symptom of burnout. She also
advised the only solution to recover is by taking leaves. Furthermore, some employees are still
staying working if they are depressed or having anxiety which lead to sickness and low
performance (Grensman, Acharya, Wändell, Nilsson, & Werner, 2016). The study also found
that most research has reported burnout is one of cause that employees taking sick leave.
However, the central barrier for employees are to have a conversation with superordinate on
requesting leaves due to mental health (Jones, 2019).
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According to Ishaq & Mahmood (2017) occurrence of burnout is worldwide and each country
has a different understanding about it. They mentioned that some countries relate the burnout
with the medical illness whereby many states that it is not contributing to the health problems.
From the other perspective discuss by Chatani et al. (2017), burnout has negative impact that
can harm individual psychological. Furthermore, based on Jamil (2016), the productiveness of
academicians in higher education institutions has strong relationship with work demand and
stress level. The intention of job movement and lack of work commitment are the contribution
from the higher workload and job burnout Teng, Hassan, & Kasa (2019). In a study conducted
by Malik, Björkqvist, & Österman (2017), they mentioned that job burnout is the general
initiator of academician’s absenteeism, medical leave and job movement.
In addition, other researchers discussed the higher factors for medical leave is because of the
interrelation of social factors and individual thought and behaviour because of mental
disturbance and family problems (Mather, Bergström, Blom, & Svedberg, 2015). According to
Malaysian Employment Act, Section 60F (1) (bb), the employee is qualified to get 60 days of
paid hospitalization leave. Based on the same act, Section 60F (1) (aa), the employee who are
working for less than 2 years, they enable 14 days of non-hospitalization leave. For the workers
employed for 2-5 years, they entitle sick leave for 18 days while 22 days for a worker whose
has been working for more than 5 years. Moreover the study done by Malik et al. (2017)
mentioned that there are five factors that contribute to the job burnout which have a significant
effect on demand for sick leave. The five factors are good working conditions, social support at
work, promotion opportunities, work stress symptoms and workplace bullying.
Good Working Condition

A study from (Jusmin, Said, Bima, & Alam, 2016) found that good working presentation
influence by the reaction of academicians towards their work environment. Based on
(Humayon et al., 2018), the enjoyment of work can be achieved through a positive working
environment, sufficient facilities and supporting reward based on the academician achievement.
It is also supported by studies of (Duha, 2018) that mentioned the feeling of comfort and safety
in the work organization will put them to stay longer with the organization.
Social Support
According to (Johnsen, Eriksen, Indahl, & Tveito, 2018) social support can give better result
based on the quality of given support rather than the quantity of support obtained. The
implementation of the positive healthiness program among the workers of which involves
active physical activities can reduce the health problems among the workers (Lopez & Smith,
2019). There are also many factors that can support the employee’s performance, such as
satisfaction of working environment, personal rewards, self-security, social support, skill
training and encourage programs provided by the employer and the upgrading of job position.
(Opiate, 2017).
Promotion Opportunities
Globally, the chance to get job improvement is the main aspect of happiness among the
academicians (Busari, Mughal, Khan, Rasool, & Kiyani, 2017). Private universities have a
better chance to get more academicians that are professional rather that public universities
because they can offer more attractive benefits, brilliant reward and high job development.
(Bibi, Pangil, Johari, & Ahmad, 2017). Based on (Sung, Yee, Bahron, & Rahim, 2017), the
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performance appraisal and employee engagement needed as supported components to reduce

the intention rate of turnover among the academicians.
Work Stress Symptoms

The bad experience of stress management can influence the worker’s job performance that can
lead to burnout (Gluschkoff et al., 2016). The effect of stress may vary among the workers such
as attendance problems, hypertension, migraine, anxiety, pass out, digestion problems and loss
of job focus. (Sofie Masuku & Stella Muchemwa, 2015).
Employees need to make the best decision when they face higher stress in working area. They
can choose whether to stay or leave the organization if they cannot adapt to the condition of
high stress. (Giauque, Anderfuhren-Biget, & Varone, 2019). Therefore, better management of
stress is most important because it can assist someone to handle difficult conditions in the work
environment (Luo et al., 2016).
Workplace Bullying
Recently, workplace bullying is one of the phenomenon in a working environment. It can be
described as the condition when the people frequently reveal to persecution, crime, social
problems and psychological exploitation of someone by not giving them opportunities to
protect themselves from unfair situation.(Feijó, Gräf, Pearce, & Fassa, 2019). Based on studies
by (Anjum & Muazzam, 2018), workplace bullying were also exposed individual to mental and
health problems.

The employee could not simply take sick leave for vacation or other non-related errands due to
sickness. It is unlikely for employees to take leave because of burnout as they feel devalued by
the organization because of being ill (Maija and Katri, 2019) It can be concluded that from this
study that majority of the lecturers had sick leave because of burnout. However, they are 18
respondents answered they have been sick leave because of burnout. Even the amount was not
majority of respondents, yet this is a concern for management to ensure that this number will
not increase. Furthermore, the results show that burnout is not the main reason of lecturers took
the sick leaves which from the analysis shows 77.5% of respondents were not sick because of
burnout. This result was supported by a research done by Mather et.al (2014).
Furthermore, from the findings resulted that sick leave due to burnout does not depend on
gender and age. Hence, the outcome of this study shows that they are only 22.5% had sick
leaves because of burnout. Even this is not the majority, however, according to Valcour (2018),
burnout is a sign that employees might leave their job as it will make this mental health being
getting worst.
This study is limited among lecturers in Government- Link universities only. This paper can be
enhanced by expanding this study to other educational institutions, whether it is government
universities or private. The number of respondents also might be added for the future studies.
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Busari, A. H., Mughal, Y. H., Khan, S. N., Rasool, S., & Kiyani, A. A. (2017). Analytical
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The Application Of Meta-Analytic SEM On Exploring Factors

That Influence Physicians’ Usage Of Electronic Medical Records
Yi-Horng Lai1*
1
Department of Health Care Administration, Oriental Institute of Technology, New Taipei City, Taiwan
*Corresponding Author: yhlai1108@gmail.com

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: With the progress and development of information technology, most hospitals have
transformed the internal data from paper-based medical records to a digital version of a paper
chart that contains all of a patient’s medical history. The perception is that Electronic Medical
Record (EMR) will reduce healthcare costs and improve the quality of healthcare provided.
Besides, EMR and other decision support tools help to reduce medical errors. To increase the
quality of healthcare, the use of EMR has become important in these years. Methods: The
combining of SEM and meta-analysis improves the estimation of structural equation models.
SEM requires large sample sizes while combining the information from many samples and
studies. Studies without the integration of these two methods can only give partial solution to
the research questions. Integration of SEM and meta-analysis can acquire a more complete set
of hypotheses and estimated parameters. Results: Perceived ease of use has a positive effect on
perceived usefulness and attitude toward using electronic medical records. Perceived
usefulness has a positive effect on attitude toward using electronic medical records and
behavioral intentions to use electronic medical records. Attitude toward using electronic
medical records has a positive effect on and behavioral intentions to use electronic medical
records. Conclusions: The result of this study shows that Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
is a valid model in discussing factors that influence physicians’ behaviors of using electronic
medical records in Taiwan.
Keywords: Technology acceptance model (TAM), electronic medical record (EMR), structural
equation modelling (SEM), meta-analytic structural equation modelling (Meta-Analytic SEM)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Among all the data in hospitals, patient records are the most crucial. The patient records,
completed by various medical personnel, contain the individual information and medical
treatments, including written descriptions, data reports, graphs, videos, and voices (Miller,
Miller, Burton, Sprang, Adams, 2003). Previously, the patient records were written down by
hands that more space was required to store the data, as the quantity of the patient records were
increasing with the accumulation of time and patient numbers as well as the data had to be
stored for certain years. In terms of hospitals, patient records are not merely the detailed and
complete records of patients being treated and cared, but also the important legal bases and the
proof of insurance payment.
Traditional paper-based medical records experience many problems, including disorganization,

low data mobility, illegibility, space requirements, difficulty of conservation, and low
transferability. With the rapid development of information technology, the patient records in
hospitals could quickly be digitalized that not only could save the space for patient records
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storage, but it can also fasten the search of the patient data as well as not easily lose or damage
of patient records.
Electronic Medical Record (EMR) is the systematized collection of patients’ electronically-

stored health information. An EMR is a digital version of a paper chart that contains all of a
patient’s medical history. EMR is becoming an integral component of many primary-care
outpatient practices. Some countries have implemented successful programs to promote the use
of EMR within primary care, and the financial commitment by governments to support health
information technology continues to grow. There are many Health Information Systems (HIS)
is developed based on EMR in hospitals, such as Picture Archiving and Communication
System (PACS), Nursing Information System (NIS), Pharmacy Information system (PIS), and
Laboratory Information System (LIS), which can be integrated with EMR so that medical
personnel can rapidly retrieve the data for reference. With the rapid growth of the Internet,
EMR should been developed for e-medicine systems (such as Telehealth). Besides, the
perception is that the EMR will reduce healthcare costs and improve the quality of healthcare
provided (Holroyd-Leduc, Lorenzetti, Straus, Sykes, Quan, 2011). EMR and other decision
support tools can help physicians to reduce medical errors (Williams, Boren, 2008).
With the theory of reasoned actions (TRA) (Ajzen, Fishbein, 1980), technology acceptance
model (TAM) addresses factors influencing a user’s attitude toward using and their intention to
use technology (Davis, Bagozzi, Warshaw, 1989). TAM has been widely adopted in studies
exploring technology acceptance due to its parsimonious nature and highly reliable constructs.
Examples include studies testing user acceptance of wearable devices (Lunney, Cunningham,
Eastin, 2016), telehealth services (Cimpermana, Brenčičb, Trkmanc, 2016), and EMR (Gartrell,
Trinkoff, Storr, Wilson, Gurses, 2015)(Kuo, Liu, Ma, 2013).
Online medical services are becoming ripe now. Making more people accept telemedicine or
telehealth is an important issue. Based on the survey questionnaire administered to 400
participants aged 50 years and above from both rural and urban environments in Slovenia,
Cimpermana, Brenčičb, and Trkmanc stated that the level at which home telehealth services are
perceived as easy to use/manage and perceived usefulness are the leading acceptance predictor
in older users’ home telehealth services acceptance (Cimpermana, Brenčičb, Trkmanc, 2016).
EMR refers to the systematized collection of patients' electronically-stored health information.
These records can be shared across different health care settings. Gartrell, Trinkoff, Storr,
Wilson, and Gurses focused on nurses’ use of EMR using a modified technology acceptance
model, and the result of their study is that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are
positively associated with nurses’ EMR use (Gartrell, Trinkoff, Storr, Wilson, Gurses, 2015).
Kuo, Liu, and Ma investigated nurses’ personality traits in regard to technology readiness
toward mobile electronic medical record (MEMR) acceptance (Kuo, Liu, Ma, 2013), and they
find that nurses’ perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of MEMR positively
influences their behavioral intention to use it; and nurses’ perceived ease of use of MEMR
positively influences their perceived usefulness of MEMR.
TAM considers perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) as two major
factors influencing a user’s behavioral intention (BI) in using new technology (Chen, Hsiao,
2012). The former refers to the perceived effectiveness of improving the user’s performance,
while the latter refers to how effortless a user perceives using the technology to be. Prior
research has found that PEOU mostly influences attitude and intention indirectly through PU
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(Hu, Chau, Liu, Tam, 1999). Perceived usefulness and user attitude in turn influence intention
to use, which predicts actual usage of technology.
Based on TAM model (Davis, Bagozzi, Warshaw, 1989), PEOU and PU positively affect
users’ attitude in using electronic medical records; and PEOU positively affect users’ ATT. The
result of Hsu (2012), Shih (2010), and Tsai (2010)’s study is consistent with the TAM model.
However, some studies (Kao, 2015)(Chau, Hu, 2014)(Ma, Kuo, Alexander, 2016) indicated
that PEOU does mot positively affect users’ attitude toward using (ATT) in the usage of
electronic medical records. They claimed that the usefulness of technology plays a more
important role than the ease of use in affecting physicians' decisions to use new information
technology (Chau, Hu, 2014), because physicians are capable of learning new technology
quickly and thus perceived ease of use is not very important (Ma, Kuo, Alexander, 2016).
The combining of SEM and meta-analysis improves the estimation of structural equation
models. SEM requires large sample sizes while combining the information from many samples
and studies. Studies without the integration of these two methods can only give partial solution
to the research questions. Integration of SEM and meta-analysis can acquire a more complete
set of hypotheses and estimated parameters (Cheung, 2015)(Jak, 2015).
The main objective of this study is to integrate existing research that used theory-based TAM
models through the general framework of meta-analytic structural equation modelling (meta-
analytic SEM). This integration enables a more accurate interpretation of modeling results in a
broader context of data and a comparison of the findings based on primary data.
2. Materials and Research Method

In Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw’s study (1989), behavioral intentions to use (BI), attitude
toward use (ATT), perceived usefulness (PU), and perceived ease of use (PEOU) are
integrated. Figure 1 shows the research framework of this present study in a TAM model. From
this figure, we can find that 1) PEOU, and PU positively affect users’ attitude in using
electronic medical records (H2, and H3). 2) PEOU positively affects users’ ATT (H1). 3) PU
and ATT positively affects users’ behavioral intentions to use electronic medical records (H4,
and H5).
Perceived Usefulness
(PU) H4
H2
Attitude toward Behavioral intentions
H1 using in electronic H5 to use electronic
H3 medical records medical records
Perceived Ease of (ATT) (BI)
Use
(PEOU)
Technology Acceptance Model
Figure 1: Research framework in this study (Davis, Bagozzi, Warshaw, 1989)
Data Source
For enough information (such as covariance matrix, observed variables, and questionnaires) for
Meta-Analytic SEM, this study only focus on master thesis and doctoral thesis. This present
paper selected 4 studies that published after 2010 from Taiwan Theses and Dissertations
Knowledge Value-Added System (Glass, 1976) to do meta-analysis. All these 4 studies
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explored Taiwanese physicians' behaviors in using electronic medical records. As shown in

Table 1, these 4 studies are Kao (2015), Hsu (2012), Shih (2010), and Tsai (2010).
Table 1: The research data in this study

The year of
Author Title N
publish
Individual Characteristics Influencing Physician’s Acceptance of the
1 M.F. Tsai 2010 217
Electronic Medical Record System
A Study on the Intention of Physician in Adopting Electronic
2 C.T. Shih Medical Record with Technology Acceptance Model in Rural Area 2010 66
of Taiwan
Adopting Electronic Health Records Combine with Cloud
3 C.L. Hsu 2012 352
Computing to Intentions of Exchange in the Inter-Hospital
A Study on the Physician Behaviors in Affecting Usage with
4 Y.S. Kao 2015 184
Electronic Medical Records Exchange
Meta-analytic SEM
Meta-analytic SEM is an extension of the classical individual structural equation modeling. It
aims to solve the important scientific problem of integrating, combining and comparing
research findings. The meta-analysis is a statistical analysis of a large collection of analysis
results from individual studies for the purpose of integrating the findings (Glass, 1976). It can
generalize findings across studies, identify potential moderators in the model structure and
obtain the appropriate estimates given a larger sample sizes. Structural equation modeling is a
powerful statistical method for estimating multivariate regression models with latent variables
that combines regression analysis with confirmatory factor analysis.
The univariate approach is not broadly recommended because not all studies include all
variables, and this problem will cause lack of precision in the estimation. In the multivariate
approach, the generalized least squares (GLS) or two-stage structural equation modeling that is
based on all correlation coefficients and their dependence is used. In meta-analytic structural
equation modeling, the two-stage approach gains more popularity because it uses the multi-
group structural equation modeling to pool correlation coefficients. The three approaches of
meta-analytic SEM include fixed-effect model, random-effect model, and mixed-effect model
(Cheung, 2015).
In fixed-effect SEM, the effect sizes (correlations, covariance, path coefficients etc.) are
assumed to be comprehensive summaries of many effect sizes and their estimated sampling
variance (differences between studies are the result of sampling error only). If effect sizes are
homogeneous across studies, the weighted average of effects is the unbiased estimate of the
population effect size that share the common value.
The random-effect SEM assumes that studies are not simple replication of each other and the
effect size may vary due to differences in samples and methods used in different studies. The
random-effect SEM can be used where the researchers wish to make inferences and
generalizations on the studies used in the analysis. Random-effect SEM models include not
only sampling variance, but also the between- studies variance components.
The mixed-effect model is used with covariate and it includes both fixed and random effects.
The fixed effects are due to the study-specific covariates, and the random effects are the
unexplained study-specific effects after being controlled for the covariates.
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3. Results
This paper integrated the 4 studies that used TAM models with Meta-analytic SEM, which was
proposed by Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw (1989). The estimations were calculated using R
4.0.2. This present paper only integrated the 1st generation TAM (Davis, Bagozzi, Warshaw,
1989), which includes perceived ease of use (PEOU), perceived usefulness (PU), attitude
towards use (ATT), and behavioral intention of use (BI).
Given the correlations, two-stage SEM was applied in obtaining pooled correlation matrix for
subsequent TAM model. Both fixed-effect and random-effect models were estimated. In the
fixed-effect model, the pooled correlation coefficients were calculated as unbiased estimates of
population correlation matrix. Table 2 shows the estimates of correlation coefficients, their
standard errors, Z values and p-levels. There were 819 respondents in the sample.
Table 2: Estimated pooled correlation coefficients (Fix-effect parameters).

n Estimate S.E. z-value p-value Q-value
PEOU-PU 819 0.5830* 0.0231 25.2167 <0.001 5.1583
PU-ATT 819 0.6898* 0.0184 37.5661 <0.001 11.1624*
PU-BI 819 0.5709* 0.0236 24.1827 <0.001 12.0158*
PEOU-ATT 819 0.5679* 0.0237 23.9312 <0.001 29.6283*
ATT-BI 819 0.6616* 0.0197 33.5921 <0.001 3.1297
*: p-value<0.05
Correlation Analysis
The result of Pearson correlation based on meta-analysis is as Table 3. Perceived usefulness,
perceived ease of use, attitude toward using electronic medical records, and behavioral
intention to use electronic medical records are positively correlation.
Table 3: Correlation based on meta-analysis.

PU PEOU ATT BI
PU 1.000
PEOU 0.648 1.000
ATT 0.780 0.679 1.000
BI 0.647 0.547 0.791 1.000
Reliability Analysis
A reliability analysis of each construct was conducted, and the results are shown in Table 4.
The reliability of all the constructs are at least 0.850, which are all above the ideal level of 0.7.
Therefore, the questionnaire for this study possesses a certain degree of reliability between the
items.
Table 4: Result of Reliability Analysis

Construct Cronbach’s α
Perceived Usefulness (PU) 0.925
Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) 0.881
attitude toward using electronic medical records (ATT) 0.850
Behavioral intention to use electronic medical records (BI) 0.852
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Linear Structural Relation

The purpose of the structural equation is to evaluate the fitness of the entire model and
observation data, and the indicators includes Chi-square (χ2), degree of freedom (DF),
goodness-of-fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI), normed fit index (NFI),
non-normed fit index (NNFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA).
In this study, most of the statistics showed a good fit (Table 5). The aggregate sample size is
819. Chi-square of target model is 4.715 with df=1 and p-value=0.030.
Table 5: Overall Goodness-of-Fit of Model

Indicators Suggested Standard Result of Analysis
Chi-square (χ2) 4.715
Degree of freedom 1
χ2 /df <3 4.715
GFI (Goodness-of-Fit Index) >0.90 0.987
AGFI (Adjusted goodness-of-fit index) >0.90 0.866
NFI (Normed Fit Index) >0.90 0.985
NNFI (Non-normed Fit Index) >0.90 0.928
CFI (Comparative Fit Index) >0.95 0.988
RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) <0.05 0.146
Path Analysis
The result of fix-effects meta-analysis is in Table 4 and Figure 2. Table 4 show that the effects
of PEOU on PU and ATT are 0.648 and 0.300, the effects of PU on ATT and BI are 0.584 and
0.078, and the effect of ATT on BI is 0.733. All of these effects are statistically significant.
Figure 2: TAM path model estimates

From the result of this study presented in Table 6, it has been found that first, perceived ease of
use (PEOU) has a positive effect on perceived usefulness (PU) and attitude toward using
electronic medical records (ATT) (H1 and H3). Second, perceived usefulness (PU) has a
positive effect on attitude toward using electronic medical records (ATT), but perceived
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usefulness (PU) not has an effect on behavioral intentions to use electronic medical records
(BI) (H2 and H4). Third, attitude toward using electronic medical records (ATT) has a positive
effect on and behavioral intentions to use electronic medical records (BI) (H5).
Table 6: The result of this study

Hypothesis Estimate Std. Err z-value P(>|z|)
H1 PEOU-> PU 0.648 0.069 9.399 <0.001
H2 PU->ATT 0.584 0.082 7.132 <0.001
H3 PEOU->ATT 0.300 0.083 3.621 <0.001
H4 PU->BI 0.078 0.119 0.650 0.516
H5 ATT->BI 0.733 0.124 5.904 <0.001

Past studies on the use of new information technology focused on system development and
behavioral intention to use it. However, with rapid development and popularity of information
systems, discussion on the electronic medical record system should not be centered merely on
technological perspectives, since technologies continuously evolve and will reach maturity in
the end. Many previous studies (Kao, 2015)(Hsu, 2012)(Ma, Kuo, Alexander, 2016) discussed
the factors that affect physicians' behaviors in using electronic medical records with the TAM
model proposed by Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw (1989). The result of some of these studies
were not consistent with Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw’s TAM model (Davis, Bagozzi,
Warshaw, 1989), and they attributed the result to users’ special abilities and features (Ma, Kuo,
Alexander, 2016).
Because physicians are a relatively small profession, the respondents in these 4 studies (Kao,
2015)(Hsu, 2012)(Shih, 2010)(Tsai, 2010) are not as many as other studies with TAM model.
The integration of meta-analysis and SEM models provides a powerful tool for a model
generation and parameter check. From the result of the integration of these 4 studies, it can be
found that TAM model is a suitable model in discussing factors that affect physicians'
behaviors in using electronic medical records.
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The Contributions Of Takaful Industry Towards Economic

Growth, Savings And Investment In Malaysia
Nor Izzati Mohd Aziz1, Salina Kassim2

1,2
IIUM Institute of Islamic Banking and Finance (IiBF), Islamic International University Malaysia, Kuala
Lumpur.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Takaful has made significant contributions to the Islamic financial market in
Malaysia, of which the three leading indicators of economic growth include savings,
investment, and income. The Takaful industry has a positive effect on the economic growth and
development in Malaysia through healthy savings, proper allocation of assets (investments)
and increasing national income. The market penetration of Malaysian Islamic insurance in
2020 is expected to surpass 16% and continue to grow in future. Given the wealth of
individuals has been increasing through greater financial awareness, this has allowed
individuals to spend more on Islamic insurance. As compared to conventional insurance,
Islamic insurance is a popular instrument for saving among Malaysians, due to its Shariah-
compliant characteristic. However, it is not religion-based insurance but inclusive of all races,
religions and beliefs. Almost all Takaful products in the financial market have add-on benefits
which can be purchased with basic policies. The inclusion of savings and investment elements
on Takaful products has made it more complex and positive in providing early preparation (in
case of emergency) to policyholders. Takaful has a strong fund pooling capacity, helps to
induce investment contributing to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in boosting the
nation’s income. Therefore, this paper has investigated the impact of the Takaful industry on
the GDP of Malaysia through savings and investment elements. The analysis of Takaful
products is also undertaken with the inclusion of investments that are linked and offered by
Takaful operators. In conducting this study, a questionnaire was developed and distributed to
respondents, thereafter collected and analysed using Smart-PLS, which found a significant
relationship between all variables. The results suggest that the savings and investment
behaviour of individuals, in addition to investment-linked Takaful, have influenced the demand
for Takaful. It is anticipated that the findings and contribution of this study will benefit
practitioners and decision-makers to recognise the behaviour of individuals toward savings
and investment opportunities and providing further insight towards the many benefits offered
by Takaful. Lastly, the results of this study may also help in contributing to the nation’s
economic growth and development.
Keywords: Islamic insurance, Takaful, investment-linked Takaful, economic growth.

____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Acquiring knowledge and information is essential for financial institutions and is also
important for consumers to distinguish between the basic features of insurance products. The
fundamental differences between the features of Takaful insurance to that of conventional
insurance is that conventional insurance firms transfer risk, whereas Takaful adopts a risk-
sharing approach. The money outlaid by policyholders is offered referred to as a ‘premium’ in
the conventional sense of the word, while in Takaful, it refers to a contribution or donation.
The growth of the insurance industry with respect to economic growth (as a measure of GDP)
is measured through insurance penetration in respective markets and density (insurance
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consumption) which accounts for the ratio of total premium divided by GDP (Bhatia & Jain,
2013). The penetration and growth rate of Islamic insurance, however, is relatively weak
compared to conventional insurance.
The Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM) financial sector blueprint (2011-2020) reported the market
penetration of the insurance industry in 2017 at 14.8%, rising to 15.2% in 2018. This small
increase reflects the performance of Takaful business in Malaysia as uninspiring, given the goal
initially set was 25%. In addition, individuals have limited awareness regarding the benefits
associated with insurance protection since the misconception is that Takaful is not for non-
Muslims. Likewise, the knowledge of financial products, particularly for insurance products, is
not well-understood nor well-informed given agents as financial advisers or insurance brokers
are responsible for sharing information regarding insurance to the general public, particularly
those who are not interested in health protection. Takaful has been offered to Muslims in
Malaysia since 1984, even though the awareness remains relatively low.
According to Ratchford (2001), knowledge can be defined as information stored in a person’s

long-term memory. As such, in the context of Takaful, people will remain unaware of the
information until there is a future need to acquire it. The literature in this field has revealed the
several factors contributing to Takaful purchase intention that include: education level, religion
(Gustina & Abdullah, 2012), price of life insurance (Pan, Chang & Su, 2012), and savings
(Zakaria et al., 2016). Some studies were aware that Takaful is a savings and protection
mechanism aside from the religious aspect (Muhamed, Abdullah, Aziz & Azmi, 2016). Here,
the purpose is to have insurance as a protective measure, not because it is a form of Islamic
insurance. The market potential for the Takaful insurance business is mainly due to 65% of the
population in Malaysia are Muslims.
Historical data indicates that in 2009, the majority of people chose conventional insurance
because, during that period, conventional insurance was stable, given its level of maturity in the
market. Present statistics suggest that 70.2% of people are aware and understand that Takaful is
a Shariah-compliant product (Hassan, Salman, Kassim & Majdi, 2018). Research has also
shown that Muslim consumers have acquired a positive attitude towards Takaful based on the
religious factor. As such, it becomes an advantage for Takaful agents in attracting Muslim
consumers, especially the young generation (Mansor, Masduki, Muhamad, Zulkarnain & Aziz
2015).
Takaful differs in a number of dimensions from conventional institutions in this field. Although
in the context of investment, productivity, and consumption, both industries have a similar
impact to a certain extent. For instance, Takaful is extremely stable and productive regarding
its fiscal nature and striving to attain a strong market position and proposition to increase its
market share in boosting economic growth. Accordingly, this study aims to analyse the features
of Takaful that could contribute to economic growth. In other words, knowing about the
savings and investment features and opportunities and the demand of consumers for
investments-link Takaful and other factors that attract consumes to purchase Takaful.
Issues 1: Takaful demand impacts economic growth through savings and investment
As mentioned earlier, Islamic insurance is seen as a valuable source for boosting economic
growth and development. Although, on the other hand, some researchers have suggested there
are different reasons for the nexus of insurance and economic development in which Takaful
could contribute through ‘supply-leading’ (Wobb et al., 2002; Boon, 2005; Han et al., 2010).
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Moreover, insurance development in this industry could help to induce economic growth, plus
the growth in investments by insurance companies could also help to induce economic growth.
At the macro level, variables such as Wakalah practice affects economic growth through
employment and regulatory requirements by increasing the demand to buy insurance.
In Malaysia, most Takaful operators practise the Wakalah model, which is a practice where
policyholders provide capital in the form of contributions. While at the same time, the Takaful
operator can manage contributed funds with a fixed fee called a Wakalah fee; a charge for
providing its services (Whear & Western, 2006). Indeed, the Takaful operator under the
Wakalah model provides a fixed and steady income stream since the fees paid by policyholders
can be collected in advance, able to support the acquisition cost (Frenz & Soualhi, 2010). The
literature also mentions that by directly improving savings in the form of financial assets,
likewise capital formation would increase, consequently boosting real sector growth, including
the insurance sector (Quartey & Prah 2008).
The reason behind some individuals purchasing Takaful is not only for the purpose of saving
but also for death protection and disability benefits (Syadiyah, 2018). Here, agents could help
to promote Takaful to enable broader access to services for the public as a major marketing
channel. The level of awareness could also be enhanced through this channel, given that many
people are unaware that Takaful offers protection, savings, and investment. Additionally,
Takaful motivates people to save and encourages them to acquire well-planned and well-
organised savings plans along with contributions/donation schemes. Some literature has
revealed that Takaful contributes in the form bi-directional causality or reverse causality as
well, where both economic growth and insurance market activities can interact positively
(Alhassan & Biekpe, 2016; Pradhan et al., 2016; Guochen & Wei, 2012; Kugler & Ofoghi;
2005). Likewise, purchasing Takaful can reduce the need to save for emergencies and
mobilising domestic savings from many small investors which is where the insurance market
and economic growth guide each other.
At the country level, life insurance also inspires economic growth in which Takaful offers
broad support and protection against the loss of goods and property and transforming capital
into wealth. The accumulation of capital from those insured makes use of capital for further
expansion of the nation. Besides the individual benefits, Takaful addresses all essential needs
and demands towards economic growth through savings and investment. As an institution,
Takaful may contribute to economic growth in many ways that include, promoting financial
deepening, which can be realised through investment activities on capital market equity, bonds,
and real estate. With the situation around financial deepening (increasing provision of financial
services), Takaful can potentially improve the effectiveness of the financial market and
increase the efficiency of capital market mobilisation. As an individual, Takaful products such
as life insurance encourage long-term savings, whereas the reinvestment of these substantial
funds in public and private sector projects will help to enhance and promote economic growth
(Beck & Webb, 2003). Thus, the following hypothesis is presented:
H1: There is a significant correlation between saving and investment behaviour toward Takaful
decision making
Issue 2: Analysis of Takaful products with the inclusion of an investment-link

With the unique attributes afforded by the insurance sector, it is worth considering those
services that are not provided by other financial institutions. In the period surrounding 2010,
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the Takaful industry was said to be less competitive compared to conventional insurance. Here,
Takaful was bought only for protection and for the purpose of small savings due to limited
availability of Shariah compliance investments at that time. Some researchers suggest that the
positive contribution of Takaful to economic growth is mainly through policyholder funds to
other institutions (known as the financial intermediation cycle) and in mobilising long-term
investments, particularly for life insurance holders.
Takaful operators in Malaysia offer investment products aside from their own core business
services in providing protection through general and family Takaful, known as an investment-
linked Takaful; it is a unique innovation in Islamic finance since it is a combination of
protection and investment. However, investment-linked insurance does not promise high
return, but under this plan, at least money can be invested. Parveen, Razali & Salleh (2019)
found that the fees charged by Takaful operators are not affected by the investment-linked
Takaful preference. Individuals, however, consider the investment type and the plan expiry
before buying investment-linked products.
The literature in the field of insurance does not discuss much on investment-linked Takaful.
While this study sees the importance of giving attention to the area of investment-linked as a
Takaful tool to promote economic growth, these features could attract individuals to procure
Takaful, given the benefits from this investment. Thus, the following hypothesis is presented:
H2: There is a significant correlation between investment-link products and Takaful decision
making
2. Methodology
In conducting the fieldwork for this study, a questionnaire was developed and distributed to
individuals having some knowledge of Takaful, in order to understand the reasons and benefits
in purchasing Takaful and their awareness regarding investment-linked products offered by
Takaful. Accordingly, a total of 107 respondents returned the questionnaire in which all were
usable in proceeding with analysing the data collected. Figure 1 below illustrates the
conceptual framework of the relationship of variables that may influence individuals to
purchase Takaful.
Saving and Investment

Behaviour
Takaful Demand
Investment-linked
Preferences
Figure 1: Conceptual framework
Respondents’ profile
Table 1 below displays the background of the respondents, in which the majority were female,
with ages of respondents ranging between 26 and 39 years. At this stage in life, individuals
enter the working environment and begin planning for growing their income upon reaching the
age between 35 and 40 years. Those who fall within this age group consider this stage in life is
important in planning for the future. The income of respondents at this stage ranged between
RM 5000 and RM 10000 monthly and is one of the reasons why they can afford to purchase
insurance. Indeed, many have surplus income each month and have sufficient income to
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manage their expenses, before considering the need to buy insurance or make an investment.
Interestingly, it was surprising to see that individuals in the low-income category of less than
RM 1500 were also able to buy Takaful.
Table 1: Demographic profile of respondents

Respondents’ profile Frequency Percent (%)
Gender
Male 32 30
Female 75 70
Age
Below 26 2 1.9
26 – 39 86 80.4
40 – 59 17 15.8
Over 60 2 1.9
Income
Less than RM 1500 6 5.6
RM 1500 – RM 3000 11 10.3
RM 3001 – RM 5000 41 38.3
RM 5001 – RM 10 000 43 40.2
RM 10 001 – RM 15 000 5 4.7
More than 15 000 1 0.9
3. Findings and analysis

After running the bootstrapping, the outer loadings having a value of less than 0.7 were
discarded. The benchmark or threshold for loadings in this study was greater than 0.7, which is
in the acceptable range for all variables except investment-linked preferences in which the
loading was set at 0.683. However, the composite reliability for investment-linked preferences
was higher than 0.7, at 0.775. Composite reliability deals with internal reliability, in which the
range between 0.5 and 0.7 is acceptable. Here, the value for the reliability of less than 0.7
shows the items have less than half of the common variance attributed to the latent factor.
Composite reliability, on the other hand, is a better measurement compared to Cronbach’s
Alpha, in terms of an internal consistency assessment since it retains the standardised loadings
of the observed variables. Notably, Cronbach’s Alpha is often criticised for its lower bound
value which underestimates the true reliability (Peterson & Kim, 2013). In this study,
Composite reliability was used as an alternative since this value is slightly higher than that of
Cronbach Alpha, and the difference is relatively inconsequential (Peterson & Kim, 2013).
However, the average variance must be at/or greater than 0.5, which for this study, was
acceptable. Hence, the convergent validity was measured by factor loadings (Outer loading),
Composite reliability and Average variance extracted (AVE) were confirmed.
Table 2: Summary of test criteria and reliability measures

Cronbach Composite AVE (A) (B) (C)
Alpha reliability
Takaful demand (A) 0.005 0.474 0.500 0.707
Saving and Investment Behavior (B) 0.373 0.576 0.582 0.526 0.763
Investment-linked preferences (C) 0.240 0.775 0.467 0.289 0.015 0.683
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Path coefficient
In comparing the strength of the relationships, path coefficients are used to determine to what
extent independent variables affect a dependent variable, while the bootstrapping algorithm
analyses the significance of relationships. Table 2 shows the T-statistic value in the path
coefficient that describes whether the hypothesis is rejected or accepted. This current study has
not applied a directional hypothesis (positive/negative) but rather stating that there is a
relationship between the variables. Therefore, two-tailed tests were employed, with a 95%
significance level, giving a t-value of 1.96. The p-value of two independent variables in this
study supported both hypotheses [H1] and [H2]. The values were significant at the 0.05 level,
which was deemed acceptable. The coefficient of determination, also known as the R² value, is
only applicable to the dependent variable, indicating how well all independent variables
explain the dependent variable.
Accordingly, this study found that the value of 0.35 indicated that 35% of the variance in
Takaful demand was explained by the factors of savings and investment behaviour and
investment-linked preferences. On the other hand, the value of f² indicates to what extent the
independent variables contribute to the strength and explanation of a dependent variable. The f²
for this study showed a value of 0.423 (behaviour to demand) and 0.122 (investment-link to
demand).
Table 3: Summary of Structural Model
Standard dev. T-stats P-values Results

Saving and
Investment 0.169 3.588 0.002 Supported
Behavior
Investment-linked Supported
0.110 2.564 0.011
preferences
4. Conclusion
Both variables tested in this study were found to support the dependent variable. It is also
interesting to observe that the measurement for Takaful demand was measured by the construct
of an individual’s consciousness, which agreed that aside from other investment products,
health insurance constituted a person’s major life expenses. As such, individuals were more
concerned about saving for healthcare expenses. Likewise, the savings and investment
behaviour of individuals was related to their preferences towards buying Takaful. For instance,
self-awareness is where individuals are acutely aware of diversifying their monthly income into
various investments since one’s attitude towards investments is not an inherent habit or
attribute that one is born with.
Additionally, individuals are even prepared to reduce expenses to invest and save. Therefore, it
can be concluded that Takaful products (including insurance) are able to contribute to
economic growth through the savings and investment behaviour of individuals. This study also
found that the investment-link products offered by Takaful are a means of saving that
accumulate into future investments. Individuals who recognised this benefit were aware that
accumulated savings over time benefiting from Takaful would lead to investment opportunities,
even if only a small percentage was offered. Additionally, this study also revealed that
individuals who bought Takaful noticed that they indirectly made an investment.
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Another finding was that those individuals in the low-income range were also interested in
buying Takaful which may be due to their self-awareness about Takaful and their financial
planning abilities in balancing their needs, investments, savings, and health. In other words, if
one’s awareness is high, those at the low-income level are also able to think about their future
health preparations. As such, two goals are accomplished through Takaful, namely health
protection and investment.
References
Alhassan, A. L. & Biekpe, N. (2016). Insurance Market Development and Economic Growth.
International Journal of Social Economics, 43(3), 321-339.
Bhatia, B. S., & Jain, A. (2013). Relationship of Macroeconomic Variables and Growth of
Insurance in India  A Diagnostic Study. International Journal of Advances in
Management and Economics, 2(6), 50–54.
Beck, T. & Webb, I. (2003). Economic, demographic, and institutional determinants of life
insurance consumption across countries The World Bank Economic Review, 17(1),
51-88.
Guochen, P. & Wei, S.C. (2012). The Relationship between Insurance Development and
Economic Growth: A Cross-Region Study for China. Paper presented at China
International Conference on Insurance and Risk Management, held at Qingdao, July
18–21, 2012.
Frenz, T., & Soualhi, Y. (2010). Takaful and ReTakaful: Principles and Practices, Kuala
Lumpur. Malaysia: Munich Re ReTakaful.
Mansor. K. A., Masduki, R. M. N., Mohamad, M., Zulkarnain, N. & Aziz, N. A. (2015). A
Study on Factors Influencing Muslim’s Consumers Preferences towards Takaful
Products in Malaysia. Romanian Statistical Review, 63(2), 78-89,
Parveen, T., Razali, S. S. & Salleh, M. C. M. (2019). Investment-Linked Takaful Plan
Patronage: Evidence from Malaysia. Global Review of Islamic Economics and
Business, 7(1), 041-048.
Peterson, R. A., & Kim, Y. (2013). On the Relationship between Coefficient Alpha and
Composite Reliability. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(1), 194-198.
Pradhan, R.P., Arvin, M.B., Norman, N.R., Nair, M., & Hall, J.H., (2016). Insurance
penetration and economic growth nexus: cross-country evidence from ASEAN.
Research in International Business and Finance 36, 447-458
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a causal link? African Finance Journal 10(1), 28–54.
Ratchford, B. T. (2001). The economics of consumer knowledge. Journal of Consumer
Research, 27(4), 397-411.
Ugler, M. & Ofoghi, R. (2005). Does Insurance Promote Economic Growth? Evidence from
the UK. Paper presented at the Money Macro and Finance (MMF) Research Group
Conference. United Kingdom.
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and ReTakaful, International Cooperative and Mutual Insurance Federation, U.K.
March issue.
Zakaria, A., Azmi, N. M., Nik Hassan, N. F. H., Salleh, W. A., Tajuddin, M. T. H. M., Sallem,
N. R. M. & Noor, J. M. M. (2016). The Intention to Purchase Life Insurance: A Case
Study of Staff in Public Universities. Procedia Economics and Finance, 37, 358 –
365.
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The Effect Of Entrepreneurship Orientation On Entrepreneurial

Intention Among Undergraduate Students In Malaysia
Al-Hussain Abdullah Al-Suraihi 1*, Norailis Ab Wahab 2, Walid Abdullah Al-Suraihi3

1,2
Faculty of Economics and Muamalat Administration, University Science Islam Malaysia, Nilai, Malaysia
3
Faculty of Management, Limkokwing University of Creative Technology, Cyber Jaya, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: abusri72@gmail.com

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Entrepreneurship has become a significant social phenomenon over the time in
many countries and is considered as an effective method to improve and develop the economics
of the country. It is also a solution to the unemployment problem that it impacts the regional
development and economic growth and promotes innovation. Malaysian government has
carried out various supporting activities to promote entrepreneurial activities in the country.
However, the results were less embracing, especially among the young adults. As such,
understanding of what influence young adults’ intention towards entrepreneurship is important
in the effort of entrepreneurship development. Therefore, this study is conducted to address this
gap. The aim of this study is to review the literature in the field of entrepreneurial orientation,
to clarify to what extent entrepreneurial orientation influences entrepreneurial intention among
undergraduate students in Malaysia. In addition, entrepreneurial orientation is a key
ingredient for organizational success and it leads to higher performance. Hence, the paper will
clarify the interaction between the entrepreneurial orientation and entrepreneurial intention
among undergraduate students in Malaysia.
Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurial intention, Entrepreneurship orientation, Higher

education.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Entrepreneurship has become an everyday buzzword. policymakers, economists, academics
and even university students are talking about it. Entrepreneurship has a significant role in the
economic advancement and economic changes of all countries (Khadeeja, 2017). Venture
creation is, therefore, a play an important source of employment in many countries. This
assertion is applicable to both developed countries like the United States (Harris, 2013), the
developing countries like Bangladesh (Kabir, 2017) as well as (Adekiya & Ibrahim, 2016;
Owoseni, 2014), in Africa and (Sandhu et al., 2011) in Malaysia context. Thus,
entrepreneurship has an important position in the global fast changing socioeconomic
environment (Kraus et al., 2018). Although the importance of sustainable entrepreneurship has
increased in academia, as well as in the global societal discourse, the concept itself is still
developing.
Bird (1988) defined entrepreneurship as the process of venture creation and entrepreneurship
intention is crucial in this process. Entrepreneurship intention identifies the link between ideas
and action which is critical for understanding the entrepreneurial process (Krueger, et al.,
2000). According to Ajzen (1992) intention captures the degree to which people show their
motivation and willingness to execute the desired behavior. Intention has also been defined as a
state of mind that directs a person’s attention (and therefore experience and actions) toward a
specific object (goal) or path in order to achieve something.
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The field of entrepreneurship has been increasingly considered as a significant generator of

economic growth, innovation and creation of jobs (Badulescu & Badulescu, 2013).
Entrepreneurial carriers are becoming an area of more concerns by governments, students and
the universities (Karabulut, 2014). Despite the fact, the creation of a new venture or
entrepreneurship is regarded as a voluntary process with conscious intention (Liñán, Francisco;
Nabi, Ghulam; Krueger, 2014). This implies that governments and universities must work
together to support students in developing entrepreneurial career intentions through financial or
entrepreneurial education. Therefore, Mohamad et al. (2015) state that there is a need for more
studies in the developing countries because only few studies relating to this context are
available, especially in the Asian countries. Currently there are more number of graduates.
Specifically fresh and young graduates students are joining the unemployment queue (Farhah
& Binti, 2015). This issue happened due to the lack of opportunities available in competitive
market and job environment with total job opportunities are unfortunately limited. Hence,
entrepreneurship is the best alternative solutions to reduce dependency of graduates students on
being employed (Khadeeja, 2017).
Research on entrepreneurial intention indicates that there are specific personality characteristics
that distinguish entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs. Thus, in order to formulate effective
policies to curb graduate unemployment, we need to have a thorough understanding of the
factors influencing entrepreneurial inclination to entrepreneurship. However, by understanding
the factors to involve in entrepreneurship will also assist policy makers and government to
make better decisions to improve their economic condition and independent on their own
people in formulating strategies to mitigate or remove these barriers in order to increase
entrepreneurial activities.
Problem Statement
Research related to entrepreneurial intention is very relevant in the context of higher education
in Malaysia. One of the reason is due to the level of entrepreneurial intention among students in
Malaysian universities is still at the low level (Abbas, 2015). It is therefore important to study
the factors that can enhance entrepreneurial intention among undergraduate students in in
Malaysian in this context. Enhance entrepreneurial intention among undergraduate students can
be considered as an essential effort because it can improve study outcomes and skills of
students and make an impacts on student’s personal development, change in attitude and
change in ability (Jwara & Hoque, 2018).
The rate of unemployment has been mounting all over the world, especially with the recent
global meltdown. This situation has effects on law and order, crimes, and many social issues
(Owoseni, 2014; Prabhu, 2019b). Among the most chosen alternative solution to
unemployment issues is entrepreneurship (Shamsudin et al., 2019). Through the process of
innovative entrepreneurship will help to improve the standard of living for people (Kabir,
2017). Nevertheless, the creations of new enterprises are difficult beyond expectations. This is
because the creation of a new venture or entrepreneurship is a voluntary process with conscious
intention (Hunt & Lerner, 2018). Hence, entrepreneurship in Malaysia is deemed important in
the socio-economically, politically and transformation of nations. However, before achieving
this vision Malaysia nation need to solve many issues such as inequality, reduction of poverty
and income distribution etc. (Sagaran & Nair, 2015).
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Figure 1: Unemployment rate in Malaysia from 2010 to 2020.

Source: DOSM (2020)
The problem with unemployment in Malaysia has been a major issue in recent years (Md
Salleh et al., 2018). According to the last report from DOSM (2020) in referring to figure 1 it
indicate that the number of unemployment people is still there in the past 10 years with a
fluctuating numbers expect this year 2020 where the unemployment rate spiked to 5.0 per cent
as the unemployed, the highest since 1990. The closure of operations for most of businesses
during Movement Control Order (MCO) which has been extended to April 2020 has impacted
loss of employment and jobseekers could hardly find jobs specifically the youths and fresh
graduate. It is reported that the number of unemployed people is approximately 1.6 million
from the population of 32.37 million. However, the data also indicate that the current economic
growth creates fewer jobs than before and this makes it more difficult for people get jobs.
Furthermore, there is low of productivity and innovation in Malaysian which will indirectly
affect the economic development of the country. Therefore, this study will contribute to the
issue of unemployment among the young generation in Malaysia. The solutions to this issue is
to be self-employed or establish their own businesses.
Overview of Entrepreneurship Intention
The word of Entrepreneurship was first defined by Irish-French economist Richard Cantillon
from a French word "Entrepreneur" which refer to individual who runs and organize business
or businesses and the word appeared first at "Dictionnaire Universel de Commerce" a French
Dictionary that was published in 1723. Richard Cantillon was a person who pays a certain
amount of money for a product to sell it again at uncertain amount of money, thereby making
decisions about using and obtaining the resources while consequently admitting the risk of
enterprise (Garo et al., 2015). The term of entrepreneurship it also known as self-employed.
Scholars from different field has defined entrepreneurship in different ways but all leads to the
same purpose. Referring to Ács et al. (2018) they identify the meaning of entrepreneurship as
the willingness and capacity to manage, develop and organize business venture together with
any risk in order to make a profit. The most popular example of entrepreneurship is starting
new business.
Entrepreneurship is a complex process which involves various stages; whereby one of them is
the formation of entrepreneurial intention (Hisrich, 2015). Entrepreneurship is an intentional
and planned behavior (Krueger et al. 2000). The initial stage in becoming an entrepreneur is
that the person shows certain level of entrepreneurial intention (Bird, 1988). It is thus believed
that entrepreneurial intention precedes any entrepreneurial behavior and it is a reliable predictor
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of entrepreneurship. As such, understanding individual’s intention towards entrepreneurship is

important in developing a great number of entrepreneurs in the country because entrepreneurs
are made, not born (Boulton & Turner, 2006; Mellor, 2008). Individuals will embark on
entrepreneurship only when they demonstrate sufficient level of intention towards
entrepreneurship. Furthermore, it is worth studying entrepreneurial intention because it is a
reliable predictor of entrepreneurial behavior and measuring actual entrepreneurial behavior is
difficult (Sung and Park 2018).
According to studies that indicate the argument among researchers regarding the definition of
entrepreneurship where there is no definition has been considered to be accepted universally
(Kamaruddin et al., 2015). The most important abilities of a successful entrepreneur is by
selecting and identifying the right opportunities for new business (Gartner, 1985). Furthermore,
various schools with different thought which each of them has their own definition of
entrepreneurship. According to Low & Macmillan (1988), entrepreneurship is the initiate of
having new projects. Another definition by Bruyat & Julien (2001), entrepreneurship is known
as the changes of the process which lead to create new values and entrepreneur as a founder of
business. In the 1911 Schumpeter define entrepreneur as a person who exploits new raw
materials, or create or introduces new product or service, creates new forms of organisation in
order to benefit the individual and make profit out of it (Kamaruddin et al., 2015). Hamilton &
Harper (1994) have another definition to entrepreneur as an individual who take another level
of risk in order to capitalise on an invention. On the other hand, Thompson (1999), sees an
entrepreneur as a person have capabilities to identify unexploited business opportunities.
Today, entrepreneurship is regarded as one of the best economic development strategies to

develop country’s economic growth and sustain the country’s competitiveness in facing the
increasing trends of globalisation. However, policy makers, institutions, government and other
agencies are increasingly becoming interested in entrepreneurial development (Owoseni,
2014). The field of entrepreneurship has been highly considered as a significant generator of
economic growth, innovation and the creation of jobs (Uygun & Kasimoglu, 2013). This is
evidenced from the efforts made by government, universities and related institutions to
stimulate venture creation (Karabulut, 2014).
For the success of modern day complex societies entrepreneurship has become of vital
importance not just for their survival but also for their sustainability (Pauceanu, 2016).
According to Adekiya & Ibrahim (2016), entrepreneurship comes with many promises and is
viewed differently by different stakeholders. Policy makers focus it from the view point of
economic competitiveness in global markets and employment creation opportunities.
Entrepreneur focuses it from the opportunity exploitation perspective that would yield high
gains and a meaningful career.
Entrepreneurial Orientation
Entrepreneurial orientation is a tendency of businesses to act autonomously and innovative,
take risks and is taking proactive initiatives to potential market conditions. According to Gupta
& Gupta (2015) entrepreneurial orientation (EO) is overall strategic posture toward
entrepreneurship is emerging as a predominant concept in management science. As knowledge
in the area of entrepreneurial orientation has expanded, researchers have become interested in
issues related to the evolution, potential contributions, and future trajectory of entrepreneurial
orientation research.
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Entrepreneurial orientation (EO) was a concept originated from Miller (1983) which consists of
three dimensions, namely innovativeness, pro-activeness and risk-taking. It was then further
popularized by Covin and Slevin (1989) in their concept of entrepreneurial strategic posture
(ESP). In later years, Dess & Lumpkin (1996), added competitive aggressiveness and
autonomy to the original three dimensions.
Thus, the key dimensions that characterize entrepreneurial orientation are:
• willingness to innovative;
• proactive behavior in regard to marketplace opportunities;
• risk-taking;
• propensity to act autonomously; and
• tendency to be aggressive toward competitors (Dess & Lumpkin, 1996).
Innovativeness refer to the willingness to introduce innovation and novelty through

experimentation and creative processes aimed at developing new products and services, as well
as new processes (Dess & Lumpkin, 1996). Innovation will reflect the tendency to engage in
and support new idea generation, novelties, experimentation and creative processes (Díaz-
García, tal., 2015). However, innovation will enable graduate students to support the creation
of new ideas, experiment with new ways of doing things, renew technological methods, and
advance existing products or services in working field (Amodu & Aka, 2017). Proactivity
refers to a propensity to take the initiative to compete aggressively with others. Risk-taking is
the tendency to commit large amounts of resources to uncertain and novel business ventures.
Autonomy is independent actions performed by individuals or teams seeking to implement
business concepts. Lastly, aggressiveness reflects an intense effort by organizations to outdo
rivals, characterized by a combative stance or an aggressive response aimed at improving the
organizations’ position or overcoming threats in a competitive market (Dess & Lumpkin,
1996)
According to Marques et al. (2018) evaluate the impact of entrepreneurship education (EE) on
the entrepreneurial orientation (EO) of higher education students. The study found that
universities need to develop more effective didactic approaches to EE. These must take into
account new market demands and students’ profile and always taking into account their
different academic areas and levels of previous EE. Another study conducted by Koe (2016) on
the relationship between Individual Entrepreneurial Orientation (IEO) and entrepreneurial
intention, This study was carried out to address the university students’ level of entrepreneurial
intention and the influence of individual entrepreneurial orientation (IEO) on entrepreneurial
intention. The results indicated that university students demonstrated intention towards
entrepreneurship and were quite positive towards becoming entrepreneurs. In addition,
university students’ entrepreneurial intention was found to be positively affected by their
quality of proactiveness and innovativeness.
Yusoff, et al. (2016) investigate the impact of agropreneurship education on entrepreneurial

orientation and intentions of Malaysian agricultural students. The findings of the study
indicated that agricultural graduates’ intention to become agropreneurs is substantially
influenced by proactive orientation and agropreneurship education. Given the substantial role
played by agropreneurship education in promoting entrepreneurial skills and intentions, it is
desirable to revamp the educational system to encourage students to become more
entrepreneurially oriented. Practically and managerially, the findings contribute to the
educational providers in terms of helping them to design a well-directed. According to
Okręglicka et al. (2017) conducted study among 300 Polish students. The aim of the study is to
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study entrepreneurial intention creation of students in Poland, Slovakia and Czechia. The
results of the study indicate that the role of university education in strengthening students’
entrepreneurial intentions is undeniable. Providing the necessary knowledge and skills and
shaping the entrepreneurial attitudes among students stimulate their entrepreneurial behaviours
and, consequently, result in students starting their own business.
Table 1: Summaries Studies Dimensions of Entrepreneurial Orientation

No. Dimensions of Entrepreneurial orientation Reference
1 Innovativeness, Risk-taking and pro-activeness (Mohd Ali et al., 2020)
Innovativeness, Risk-Taking, Autonomy, Proactiveness and Competitive
2 (Prabhu, 2019a)
Aggressiveness
Innovativeness, risky proactiveness, autonomy, and competitiveness
3 (Kurniawan et al., 2019)
Aggressiveness
Innovativeness, Proactiveness, Risk-Taking, Autonomy and Competitive
4 (Wales et al., 2019)
Aggressiveness
Innovativeness, Proactiveness, Risk-Taking, Competitive
5 (Arshad & Rasli, 2018)
Aggressiveness, and Autonomy
5 Risk-Taking, Innovation, and Proactivity (Marques et al., 2018)
7 Risk-Taking, Proactiveness, and Competitive Aggressiveness (Okręglicka et al., 2017)
8 Innovativeness, Proactiveness and Risk-Taking (Palalic et al., 2016)
9 Risk-Taking, Innovativeness, and Proactiveness (Yusoff et al., 2016)
10 Innovation, Proactiveness, and Risk-Taking (Koe, 2016)
Innovativeness, Risk-Taking, Autonomy, Proactiveness and Competitive
11 (Farsi et al., 2014)
Aggressiveness
12 Innovation, Proactiveness, and Risk-Taking (Arrighetti et al., 2013)
Autonomy, Innovativeness, Risk Taking, Proactiveness, and Competitive
13 (Dess & Lumpkin, 1996)
Aggressiveness
14 Innovativeness, Pro-Activeness and Risk-Taking (Covin and Slevin 1989)
15 Innovation, Proactiveness, and Risk Taking (Miller, 1983)
Entrepreneurship Intention in Malaysia

In Malaysia, the development of entrepreneurship, in both concept and activity, is also
becoming more important. The importance of entrepreneurship to the growth of Malaysian
economy is evidenced by the number of supporting mechanisms and policies that exist for
entrepreneurs; including funding, physical infrastructure, and business advisory services. The
establishment of a special ministry for entrepreneurs (Ministry of Entrepreneur Development
Malaysia) in 1995 highlights the priority the government places on entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurs’ development. The establishment of the ministry is also timely considering the
change in employment landscape in Malaysia (Mustaffa et al., 2019).
Entrepreneurship launched first in the Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNIRAZAK) under Bank
Rakyat School of Business and Entrepreneurship (BRSBE) a unique school dedicated to
providing quality education in entrepreneurial and business leadership in Malaysia to gain
exposure to the world of entrepreneurship a holistic approach to training and education which
enable students to improve their skills needed to do business in Malaysia and worldwide
(UNIRAZAK, 2019). UNIRAZAK was one of the only private university in Malaysia to offer
entrepreneurship as an academic programme and which is also partners with Babson College
that ranked number one in USA under school of entrepreneurship. The university officially
established on 21 December 1998 as one of the first private university in Malaysia which
named after the second prime minister YAB Tun Abdul Razak bin Dato’ Hussein (Global
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Entrepreneurship Moniter, 2017). Therefore students who are supplied with entrepreneurship
education and enrolled in entrepreneurship courses are expected to be confident, motivated,
proactive, innovative, willing to face entrepreneurship challenges, as well as have the
substantial skills to work in a team.
Regardless to the actions and efforts made by Malaysian higher education institutions and
government to make entrepreneurship as a compulsory subject in universities, the choice to be
an entrepreneur after graduation is still low among graduate’s students. (Ministery of Higher
Education, 2015). According to the global entrepreneurship Monitor report 2017 – 2018
Malaysia ranked 24th among 60 countries in the list under self-perceptions about
entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intentions with a value of 17.6% which indicate low score
(Global Entrepreneurship Moniter, 2017).
According to Chelliah et al. (2019), more graduates are seeking jobs rather than becoming
entrepreneurs. The difficulty in finding stable employment is not a strong factor that many lead
the graduates to become entrepreneurs. Supporting to the previous statement MOHE (2019)
published latest report on the graduate tracer studies which mentioned in table 2 the number
and percentage of Malaysian graduates by employment status in 2019. The total number of
Malaysian students graduates is 298,551 students. The report classify graduate student by
employment status. Among these graduate students there are 189,543 employed, graduate
students interested in further studies are 49,875 students, graduate students interested in
upgrading skills are 4,029 students which carried the lowest percentage, graduate students
waiting for work placement are 13,943 students and most important 41,161 graduate students
are unemployed that will impact the young graduates in improving their skills and experience.
Table 2: Number and percentage of Malaysian graduates by employment status in 2019

Employment Status No. Percentage
Employed 189,543 63.5%
Further studies 49,875 16.7%
Upgrading skills 4,029 1.3%
Waiting for work placement 13,943 4.7%
Unemployed 41,161 13.8%
Total Graduate Students 298,551 100%
Referring to table 3 the number and percentage of Malaysian graduates according to

employment Status in 2019 out of these employed graduate students there are 25,888 are self-
employed which is the lowest number of total employed graduate students and the other
163,655 graduate students are working permanent, contract, temporary job and working with
family. However, the changing nature of career prospects in large organizations has resulted
the graduates to be more interested in starting their own business. Studies have shown that
permanence and employment longevity is no longer a significant feature of career paths
(Joseph, 2017).
Table 3: Number and percentage of Malaysian graduates according to employment status in2019
Employment Status No. Percentage
Permanent 85,971 45.4%
Contract 38,896 20.5%
Temporary job 29,102 15.4%
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Working with family. 9,686 13.7%

Self-employed 25,888 5.1%
Total Graduate Students 189,543 100%
However, the importance of entrepreneurship in higher education in initiations in Malaysia is to

promote its economy and entrepreneurship development, Ministry of Higher Education in
Malaysia they are making effort to make entrepreneurship subjects to be implemented in
universities programs to all students at the nation of public universities (Din et al., 2016). The
reason behind implementing this strategy is to encourage students to take part in many
activities of entrepreneurship at the university such as seminars, training, conferences, short
courses and entrepreneurship events (Trivedi, 2017). Moreover, these exposures to
entrepreneurship hoped to develop student’s entrepreneurial attitudes and mind set which will
result to have better outcome and lead to less unemployment graduates which will raise he
business opportunities that will help to achieve better status of economy (Md Salleh et al.,
2018).
Conceptual Model
Based on the objectives of this study, the proposed conceptual framework was formulated
using entrepreneurial orientation dimensions (Autonomy, Innovativeness, Risk-Taking,
Proactiveness, and Competitive Aggressiveness) as well as entrepreneurial intention as
dependent variables. Figure 2 shows the conceptual model.
Figure 2: Conceptual Model

The purpose of this study was to review previous studies in the field of entrepreneurial
orientation and its effect on undergraduate students in Malaysia.
This study was performed to determine the university students’ level of entrepreneurial
intention and to identify the effects of entrepreneurial orientation on student’s entrepreneurial
intention. The results from previous studies indicated that graduate students in Malaysia
demonstrated intention towards entrepreneurship and were quite positive towards becoming
entrepreneurs. In summary, in this study various scholars built conceptual model that links
between entrepreneurship orientation dimensions and entrepreneurial intention. The scholars
assume that, entrepreneurship orientation dimensions will affect positively on entrepreneurial
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intention in Malaysia. The subsequent phase of this study will be the empirical testing of the
conceptual model.
As a conclusion, creating entrepreneurial graduates is in this way fundamental for our future
achievement. Colleges and other advanced education foundations ought to be preferably put to
open students to situations which cultivate entrepreneurial attitudes and the viability of the
entrepreneurship programs are critical keys to deliver increasingly youthful business people in
future. The program itself can teach our young age to be progressively beneficial in the wake of
moving on from their examinations at college level. As opposed to getting to be
unemployment, it is great to channel their inventiveness and vitality towards business which is
currently turning into a profitable field in this world. As referenced before, different nations are
currently completing a great deal of work to build up their childhood in entrepreneurship. As a
creating nation, Malaysia ought to do likewise to improve and create in the nation's economy.
In the event that this advantage is being utilized in a legitimate manner, they not exclusively
can create their own salary yet additionally can assist our nation with boosting up its monetary
advancement. The majority of this begins from education.
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The Efforts To Maintain The Prosperous Justice Party Known As

PKS Constituents In 2019 Elections And PKS Party Future
Muh. Haris; Yuwanto; Teguh Yuwono; Nur Hidayat Sardini
Doctoral Program of Social Sciences, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Diponegoro University, Semarang,
Indonesia
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: The development of Islam in the political arena in Indonesia is interesting to be
analyzed comprehensively. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the existence of Islamic
political parties after the 2019 simultaneous elections. The main problem in political life in
Indonesia is the decline of public trust in political parties. One of the main reasons is the
corruption case that ensnared politicians. The presence of Islamic political parties is hopefully
able to bring a change and alter the ugly stigma from the society towards the political parties.
The method that is employed in this paper is a PKS case study as a participant in 2019
simultaneous elections, using a review of the measurement of the existence of the political
parties on an institutional basis. The dynamics of PKS before the 2019 general election were
categorically high. It means that the PKS movement was active in society by offering strategic
programs and policies for voters. PKS has a structured party system starting from the
regeneration system to constituent treatment that can increase the number of voters in the 2019
elections.
Keywords: PKS; Constituent; Election; Political Arena; and Regeneration

____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
The existence of political parties in a country that adopts a democratic system is very important
in representing the community groups. The presence of political parties in the community can
deliver people’s political aspirations and participation. The provision of Article 1 of Law
Number 2 of 2011 concerning Political Parties affirms that political parties are national
organizations and are formed by a group of Indonesian citizens. It is voluntarily based on the
common will and aspirations to fight and defend the political interests of the members,
communities, nations, and state, as well as maintaining the integrity of the Negara Kesatuan
Republik Indonesia (NKRI; English: Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia) based on the
Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution. The presence of political parties in Indonesia bloomed
after the collapse of the Orde Baru (English: New Order) because the government ensures the
freedom of the people in expressing their opinions in public.
The emergence of new political parties after the New Order phenomenon was comparable with
the emergence of Islamic political parties. The emergence of the power of Islamic political
parties in the 1999 Pemilu (Indonesian: Pemilihan Umum; English: General Election) signaled
a change or shift in the map of political power in Indonesia. The Islamic circle’s influence on
the reign was the evidence of the dominance of Islamic political power. Islamic political
parties have developed in Indonesia since the beginning of the elections in 1955. The 2019
elections were the culmination of direct elections and were also the first time to be held
simultaneously to elect the President and Vice President and to elect legislative members at the
national and regional levels.
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The development of Islamic political parties has decreased, both in quantity and in electability.
One of the influencing factors is the inability to present attractive programs for the people and
the inability to yield innovative cadres who can become role models. The phenomenon of the
2014 general election illustrates that Islamic political parties have failed to maintain their
electoral vote. The reason is the inability of Islamic political parties to change their ideology in
politics, internal grouping, and identity crises. Islamic political parties were not able to solve
problems that had previously occurred in the previous administration period, which resulted in
a decrease in the electoral votes in the 2014 elections. The 2019 general election was the
culmination of democracy in Indonesia, in which the 2019 general election was held
simultaneously to elect legislative members at the central and regional levels and to elect the
president and vice president. In the 1999 elections, which were consisting of 48 election
participants, there were 18 political parties or 37.50% of them were Islamic-based political
parties. The rise of political parties was a manifestation of the emergence of Islamic-based
political parties after the New Order. Hence, it was because, at that time, the New Order
regime carried out a de-centralization policy with a series of policies such as a floating mass,
de-politicization of the masses, and de-ideologization by applying Pancasila as the sole
principle.
PKS as an Islamic party is an interesting phenomenon to be examined in the arena of politics in

Indonesia. PKS as a small party and as a strong Islamic party became a religious-nationalist
party, by laying the foundations of Pancasila as its founding, opening up the opportunities for
the non-Muslim communities to join as PKS cadres in various regions in Indonesia. The
continuity of PKS in the general elections in Indonesia can be seen from the cadres who are
promoted by PKS who is elected as the regional heads and deputy regional heads at the
regency, city and provincial level. The total number of regional heads, including regents,
mayors, and governors from PKS cadres are 29 people, who are the product of the direct
election of the people. From 2005 to 2019, the highest number of PKS cadres who became the
regional heads was during 2016, they were 5 cadres who were divided into 2 cadres each to
become the regent and mayor, and 1 cadre to become the governor. While the cadres who were
the deputy regional heads scattered in several regions of Indonesia, 37 of them became the
deputy regent, deputy mayor, and deputy governor. During the 2016 period, 8 PKS cadres
officially became the deputy regent in the 2015 simultaneous regional election period. The
continuity of PKS is seen from the election of regional heads and deputy regional heads both
before the election period simultaneously or not simultaneously, PKS has a solid cadre in each
election period. Some PKS cadres could be elected to the regional head election both as
candidates for regional head and as deputy regional head candidates. In the simultaneous
election period of 2015, 2017, and 2018, PKS cadres won 3 governor’s seats namely in West
Sumatra Province, West Nusa Tenggara Province, and North Maluku Province. The success of
PKS cadres in the regional elections in Indonesia is inseparable from the role of political elites
who can reach the grassroots cadres. Moreover, the role of the professional political elite is
very prominent in each election. PKS cadres who became the regional heads and deputy
regional heads at the regency, city, and province-level from 2005 to 2019 were 66 cadres. The
period was the highest number of cadres who were elected as the deputy regent and deputy
mayor. At the provincial level, the number of governors from PKS from 2005 to 2019 was
12.12% and the deputy governor was 3.03%. The percentage proves that PKS cadres have the
ability in leadership at the regional level.
The modern cadre party must have five characteristics. First, the political elites and
professional leaders’ groups dominate the role, especially in parliament and have a high
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responsibility towards the party members under it. Second, to ensure the continuance of the
party, the ratio of members/voters has a low characteristic by having a source of funding and
media for recruiting candidates for political office. Third, in attracting voters from a variety of
groups, the party does not use the catchall approach and does not aim at particular groups and
classes. Fourth, maintain a strict vertical structure to maintain the existence of the party and
maintain the image of the party, which also ensures the ongoing climate of democracy in the
internal party. Fifth, combine funding sources derived from public subsidies and funding
sourced from members (donations from party members).
This study refers to the assumption that PKS dynamics in following the post-reform general
elections have changed. These changes include the changes in the regeneration system, where
regeneration is at the smallest level, which is within the family by instilling the values and
characteristics in family members. Another assumption is that the grouping (factionalism) that
occurs in PKS in several decades of the general election, does not affect the PKS vote
acquisition. PKS can maintain its existence as an Islamic party with a percentage of votes
between 6% - 8%. As a political party, PKS had carried out the functions of political parties as
stated in the laws of political parties, namely political education. The creation of a conducive
climate in preserving Indonesia’s sovereignty, as a means of absorbing, gathering and
channeling the political aspirations of the people, people political participation and political
recruitment.
PKS Political Dynamics

Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia (NKRI; English: Unitary State of the Republic of
Indonesia) is one of the countries in the world that adheres to the principle of democracy.
Democracy does not manifest by itself, democracy manifestation comes from a long process
and struggle of individuals, groups and other social actors, throughout the country’s political
life from time to time. The most basic difference between democracy and other non-
democratic countries such as socialists, communists, and fascists is the element of opposition.
The presence of the opposition is expected to be the equilibrium in the state life, as a controller
to the state policy.
The political choice of PKS, especially during the reign of Joko Widodo and Jusuf Kalla
(Jokowi-JK), was inseparable from the application of a democratic state. The choice of
opposition that is played by a political party is one of the main factors of modern democracy.
The PKS political decision pattern in determining their stand as the opposition to the Jokowi-
JK government was a collective decision that was motivated by the PKS’s desire to maintain
democratic stability and control government policies. The position of democracy is more than
just the implementation of elections, but democracy is an ideology that contains a set of values
that must be embedded, such as participation, tolerance, equality, justice, freedom, universal
rights, and mutual consensus.
The PKS policy as an opposition party during the Jokowi-JK administration was a policy on
maintaining democracy in Indonesia. The position of the opposition in democracy has several
main functions. First, the opposition functions as the balancing force to the authority. PKS
arose as one of the opposition parties in the Jokowi-JK period, which arose as a party outside
from the government supporters who provided alternative policies or attitudes that led to a
balance so that the government policies were not too far from the people’s interests. Therefore,
the PKS policy of maintaining the opposition is the same as defending democracy. Second, the
opposition has a function in accelerating the policy alternatives. The government in power is
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not fully supported and chosen by the public through the general elections. Therefore, the
position of the PKS as an opposition provides the illustration that all aspirations of the
community must be accelerated and accommodated by the ruling government. Third, the
opposition serves as a stimulus for healthy competition for the political elite and government.
PKS gives the stimulus by offering alternative policies directly to the government through a
hearing meeting in the Legislative Assembly of the Republic of Indonesia. The PKS
oppositional act will make the ruling government “awake”, potentially provide a better policy
than before, and potentially give “interference” to the government’s image in the eyes of the
public. Therefore, in this situation, healthy competition will arise between the ruling
government and the opposition in improving the policies.
The position of the PKS in the Jokowi-JK government as the opposition was inseparable from
the PKS journey in the previous election. In the 2004 and 2009 presidential elections, PKS was
one of the political parties that won and were the coalition of the government at that time,
which was the government under President SBY-JK in the 2004-2009 period and SBY-
Boediono in the 2009-2014 periods. In the 2014 presidential election, the PKS supported
coalition party suffered a defeat in carrying out the presidential and vice-presidential
candidates, so PKS took a policy step by positioning it as an opposition party. Policy in the
PKS decision making is through deliberations. At the level of party policy-making in
positioning as an opposition and coalition government is done through the Shura Council
Assembly.
Looking at it from the organizational side, political parties have a function as a means of
vertical and horizontal control. Vertical control is an organizational mechanism regulated
through the party’s constitution in controlling party structures and management of their
management to the lowest level. Whereas horizontal control is a continuation of vertical control
that ensures that cadres have important positions in public office or political networks that
influence the development of their parties. Based on vertical control, the management of the
PKS organization has a top-level management council that has the authority to make decisions
that are called the Shura Council. The Shura Assembly has the authority over vertical control,
which has two functions. First, it has the highest authority outside the national assembly, which
determines the direction and policies in the appointment of individuals as party officials.
Second, it has the function of carrying out the wheels of party organization and other strategic
policies. The PKS cadres’ horizontal control aspects are several the PKS cadres who have
public positions or have closeness with public figures who are influential in making
government policy. The distinctive feature from the political party’s role in carrying out the
vertical control function is to follow the hierarchy of government administration from the
central (national), provincial, district/city, sub-district to the village level. As a political party,
PKS has the cadres who play a role in the winning of each type of election, both at the central
and regional levels.
In the 1999 general election, the PKS name was Partai Keadilan (PK; English: Justice Party),
an increase in the number of party members (cadres) in the 2004 general election was the time
when the merging and renaming into PKS (Indonesian: Partai Keadilan Sejahtera; English:
Prosperous Justice Party). The increasing number of cadres is followed by the strength of the
party that is the strength of the cadres so that in the 2004 general elections there was an
increase in national votes. The strength of PKS cadres can be seen from the vote acquisition in
each general election even though the percentage of votes and seats is decreased. The
characteristics of PKS are based on the number of cadres with a relatively small number of
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voters, with a percentage of 2% - 3%. The characteristic of a political party as a modern cadre
party is the relatively small number of cadres, but it has a proportion of the number of voters
and has a significant role in the life of the party. The next characteristic is the role of
professional politicians in the PKS, which greatly influences policymaking, especially in public
and government policymaking.
The strength of cadres built by PKS is built through the cadre system of preaching movements
from the smallest level to the national level by prioritizing commitments (iltizam). The
preaching (da’wah) movement that is formed is a cadre movement for the sake of the
congregation’s life. The congregation life is a human need as a social creature, congregational
life is an obligation that is ordered directly by the shari’a. It means that the commitment
(iltizam) to the shari’a requires an attitude of commitment to the congregation. Other internal
activities of political parties are the coherence, which is defined as the ability of political
parties to move as a whole and be able to handle conflicts and disputes within the party.
Coherence is seen through the level of conflicts that occur internally both conflicts that occur
between internal party elites, as well as between individuals and the political parties
themselves. PKS has significant dynamics of internal political conflict. The conflict occurred
between political elites that resulted in the defection/dissent of the cadres against political
parties. A very striking conflict was the conflict that occurred between Fahri Hamzah and PKS
President Moh. Sohibul Iman, which finally led to Fahri’s decision to leave the PKS
membership and establish a new political party, the Partai Gelombang Rakyat Indonesia
(Indonesian Partai Gelora Indonesia; English Indonesian People’s Wave Party). Together with
Anis Matta who is a former PKS President. In addition to the conflicts between elites, PKS also
has factions (groupings) that are quite significant internally, but in the general election
situation, PKS can demonstrate its existence through the acquisition of significant votes with
increasing votes in each election. Even in the 2019 general election, PKS was able to get more
than 11,000,000 votes, this was because PKS cadres were able to move solidly and obey all the
decisions of party leaders (ulil amri).
The Efforts to Maintain the PKS Constituents in the 2019 General Elections and the
Future of PKS
In the PKS journey in the general election, which is held every 5 years, the trend shows an
increase in the number of votes (despite the fluctuating percentage and seat acquisition).
During the Jokowi-JK administration, PKS arose as the government opposition, which had the
task of checking and balancing the governmental wheel. The policies that are considered to be
contrary to the interests of the people will be criticized and provide alternative solutions
through political activities both in parliament and outside the parliament. The 2019 general
election was the first general election to be held simultaneously to elect the legislative members
at the district, city, provincial and central levels, and to elect the president and vice president.
Of course, PKS had a strategy in the election, one of which was by preparing the solid and
militant cadres. The concentration of cadres in winning the election went the extra mile, both
for legislative, presidential, and vice-presidential elections.
One of the PKS strategies in winning the 2019 general election that was the same with other
political parties in Indonesia was the formation of representatives of political parties up to the
village level. In the 2019 general election, PKS had 34 provincial DPWs at the provincial level,
at the regency/city level PKS had 477 DPD from 514 districts/cities or 92.80% of the regional
administration, and it had 5,069 DPC from 7,094 districts or 71,45%. The management that
was formed up to the village level is one of the PKS strategies to broaden the voter base in the
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2019 general elections. The built structures at the village level are fostered through
regeneration to increase the solidity and loyalty of cadres so that cadres can influence voters to
vote for PKS in the 2019 general elections. In the 2019 general election, PKS also continued to
develop a network strategy at the local level and the use of figures as the charm to the voters. It
did not much different from the previous general elections, in the 2014 general elections, 2009,
2004, and the 1999 general elections. PKS still relies on local networks and local preaching
movements as a strategy to win the election. The strategy that is used is through interaction,
communication, and social services carried out by DPC and DPRa in a structured manner by
each Regional and Central Legislative Member Candidate.
The campaigns that were conducted by PKS can be said to be very simple, by using only
simple words but having a direct influence on the PKS votes. PKS realizes that the basic needs
of the community and the willingness of the people are to be free from poverty. PKS provided
an opportunity for the public to support it as the winner in the 2019 general elections so that
PKS could fulfill and implement its political promises. The relatively high number of PKS
votes in the 2019 general elections illustrates the hard work of all the elements of PKS, ranging
from the structure of central and regional legislative members candidates, the campaign team,
wing organizations, and sympathizers. The 2019 DPR RI (English: RI House of
Representatives, legislative) general election win was the main aspect of winning the national
general election. PKS has a general policy in placing candidates who have the capacity and
capability to solve problems in society. In the 2019 general elections, PKS DPR RI candidates
were 533 candidates and were able to get as many as 50 seats.
The form of communication established by PKS is to prioritize the principles of intellectual

values in the development of science. PKS possessed the political concept of ideas that
becomes a communication tool for candidates, cadres and sympathizers, which finally PKS
formulated into four policy points, namely (1) life-long SIM, (2) freeing motor vehicle tax, (3)
fighting for the ulama protection law, and (4) exempting income tax for the people who earn
less than 8 million per month. The communication and networking of public relations that was
built by PKS is an application of the regular preaching movement, but ahead of the 2019
general elections, the preaching movement was intended to arouse the cadre’s enthusiasm in
moving and winning the election. So that it would be embedded in the cadres of PKS, the
consistency values in conducting political education for cadres. The cadres in communicating
with the voters prioritized human values and care for the community. The PKS communication
that was carried out was to use the slogan in the 2019 general election which was “Berkhidmat
untuk Rakyat” (English “Serving for the People”). The slogan or jargon was one form of PKS
in maintaining constituents in the voter base.
The strength of political parties is in the constituents; therefore, it is important in maintaining

the relationship between political parties and constituents. The results of the 2019 general
elections, PKS faced a new chapter of struggle in the dynamics of Indonesian politics. Where
the PKS revival, which was based on the results of the 2019 general election vote, must be able
to be a public representation. PKS had a great responsibility towards the constituents and the
people who have voted for PKS. Of course, the success of the PKS in 2019 in gaining the vote
could not be separated from the active role of constituents on the electoral basis. The
relationship between constituents and PKS is carried out through legislative candidates both at
the central and regional levels. The relationship was created because the community felt they
had the representatives of the people or had held meetings in person. Polsby (1975: 185) said
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that the legislative institution is the institution that is considered as the closest institution to the
community, an institution that is a branch of government that can access the people.
The strategy of building a new network and utilizing the resources of the PKS had proven
successful in gaining PKS votes in the 2019 general election when compared to the 2014
general election. The increase in PKS votes in the 2019 general elections was by 35.54% or
3,013,459 votes, an increase from the 2014 general elections of 8,480,204 votes and the 2019
elections by 11,493,663 votes. Based on the strategy of maintaining constituents in expanding
networks and optimizing the available resources, according to Schroder what is called by the
offensive strategy is employing a market expansion strategy (competitive strategy) and a
market penetration strategies (client strategy). PKS did not implement an overall defensive
strategy, as Schroder argues in maintaining relations with constituents. The PKS defensive
strategies were to maintain the voters and strengthen the seasonal voters, such as the
constituents who consisted of the voters, sympathizers, and the public. Whereas the defensive
strategy carried out by releasing voters was not carried out by PKS even though it was not a
voter base area.
Conclusion
The political dynamics of the PKS in the Jokowi-JK era were a representation of the existence
of PKS in the life of the nation and state. PKS in the Jokowi-JK administration era was one of
the government opposition parties. PKS had the role and function as the control of government
policy. The PKS ability to run as the opposition party to the Jokowi-JK administration was
evidenced by its active role of conducting criticism and control to the government policies that
were considered to be contrary to the political vision and ideology of the people. PKS provided
alternative policies directly to the government through hearing meetings with the DPR RI
(English: Indonesian House of Representatives). The PKS oppositional act will make the ruling
government “awake”, potentially provide a better policy than before, and potentially give
“interference” to the government’s image in the eyes of the public. PKS had the strategy of
maintaining its constituents, which were offensive and defensive methods. The offensive
strategy was carried out by expanding the network and maximizing the resources owned by the
PKS, while the defensive strategy was by maintaining existing voters.
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The Role Of Organizational And Individual Factors On Employee

Pro-Environmental Behaviour
Hamidah Md Yusop1*, Ainul Azreen Adam2, Abdul Rahman Abdul Rahim3

1, 2, 3
Arshad Ayub Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: hamidah.yusop82@gmail.com

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: The need to adopt green practices in the current business landscape is highly
imperative just by looking at the seriousness of the effects of climate change. Starting from the
inception of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by the United Nations (UN) in 2015,
world economies and organizations have tried to transform their employees’ behaviour and
business practices into “green practices” for the purpose of mitigating the environmental
impacts which will directly help the organizations to achieve environmental sustainability.
Transforming these organizations into “green organizations” would need to consider the
formal policies and procedures imposed, activities implemented, and technologies adopted.
More importantly, employees’ discretionary acts and willingness to weigh their acts with
regards to environmental impacts would be achieved by encouraging their colleagues to be
environmentally conscious and proactively suggesting initiatives and activities to the
management for the sake of improvement of energy efficiency processes that brings significant
impact on organizational environmental performance. Continuous industrial expansion,
population growth and the low uptake on the green practices in Malaysia have put tremendous
pressure on the environment and resulted in excessive environmental footprints from big
corporations. If not addressed, environmental degradation may hinder further economic
progress, compromising the prosperity built over centuries, and threaten the life across the
planet. Therefore, it is suggested that inclusive economy is made possible and maybe the only
viable option going forward. One of the ways is to shape employees’ pro-environmental
behaviour (PEB) that will help to accelerate the green practices implementation across
organizations. This conceptual paper will introduce several determinants to measures for the
employees’ pro-environmental behaviour at the workplace that can be used as a guideline for
organizations in Malaysia to encourage employee PEB at the workplace.
Keywords: pro-environmental behaviour (PEB), green HRM, environmental knowledge,

innovation attributes
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Since the beginning of recorded history, humans have improved their conditions by modifying
their surrounding environment and making the most out of their scarce resources towards
achieving greater sustainability. Technical progress occurred first with the agricultural
revolution, and with the industrial revolution later, eased food and energy constraints and
allowed humans to prosper. However, continuous industrial expansion, population growth and
the low uptake on environmental practices have put tremendous pressure on the environment
and resulted in excessive environmental footprint from big corporations. If not addressed,
environmental degradation may hinder further economic progress, compromising the prosperity
built over centuries, and threaten life across the planet. In fact, 69% of global climate change is
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primarily caused by greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, which has been identified as largely
attributed to energy use (Schwab, 2019).
Malaysia, on its way to strive for a prosperous nation after gaining independence in 1957, has
fallen victim to the industrial activities which has taken toll on the environment (Abdul Hamid,
2019). It is supported by the fluctuation of the Malaysian ranking in the Global Green
Economic Index (GGEI) from 2014 to 2018, which measures green performance of nations and
commitment towards environmental issues. In 2014, Malaysia ranked at 35 out of 60 countries,
the performance rank dropped to 65 out of 80 countries in 2016, and in 2018, Malaysia ranked
up to 55 out of 130 countries, but still posed a major dropped from the 2014 ranking (Dual
Citizen LLC, 2015; 2017; 2019). It shows that we are still at the infancy stage in figuring out
how to achieve the balance between socio-economic development and environmental
preservation. It has also been a major concern among local academicians as it is highly
imperative for an organization to possess employees with pro-environmental behaviour (PEB)
in order to maintain sustainability in the business landscape with the current climate change
that will assist businesses becoming completely sustainable in the future (Abdullah, Bakar, Jali,
& Ibrahim, 2017; Bakar, Abdullah, Ibrahim, & Jali, 2017; Yusoff, 2019a; Yusoff, 2019b).
Thus, it is clear that the environmental, social, and economic agendas can no longer be pursued
separately or in parallel; they must be merged into a single inclusive and sustainable growth
agenda. The low-carbon, inclusive economy is possible and maybe the only viable option going
forward. One of the ways is to shape the employee’s PEB that will help to accelerate the green
practices implementation across organizations, since this is crucial in understanding the
individual employee’s behaviour that significantly contributes to the organizational
performance, as employees spend a considerable amount of their time in a day at work (Wells,
Gregory-Smith, & Manika, 2020).
In order to shape employees’ PEB at the organizational level, it is vital for organizations to
strategize initiatives such as the implementation of green human resource management
(GHRM) practices (Guerci & Carollo, 2015; Renwick, Redman, & Maguire, 2013; Ahmad,
2015; Arulrajah, Opatha, & Nawaratne, 2016; Aykan, 2017; Nalini & Durai, 2019; Haddock-
Millar, Sanyal, & Müller-Camen, 2016; Tariq, Jan, & Ahmad, 2016; Tang, Chen, Jiang, Paillé,
& Jia, 2018; Ren, Tang, & Jackson, 2018; Yusoff, Nejati, Kee, & Amran, 2018; Renwick,
Redman, & Maguire, 2008; Opatha & Hewapathirana, 2019; Yong et al., 2019), provide
environmental knowledge to employees (Rayner & Morgan, 2018), and understand the
employees’ perception towards organizational policies, in order to initiate the adoption of green
behaviour among current and future employees. In addition, it is important for the organization
to communicate their strategy and information related to green practices effectively across the
organization to ensure that the implementation of green practices targeted by the organization
is reflected in employees’ behaviour (Bissing-Olson, Iyer, Fielding, & Zacher, 2013).
Failure to understand the communicated information will lead to a failure in implementing the
targeted mission (Fawehinmi, Yusliza, Mohamad, Noor Faezah, & Muhammad, 2020).
Furthermore, it is important for the employees to adopt the green practices voluntarily, since
employees’ behaviour may change over time depending on the environment they are in and
circumstances they face in everyday work life (Bissing-Olson et al., 2013). By having
employees with PEB, it will help organizations to achieve organizational environmental
performance (Yusoff et al., 2018), environmental sustainability (Iqbal, Hassan, Akhtar, &
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Khan, 2018), increase employees’ job performance (Bohlmann, van den Bosch, & Zacher,
2018), and gain competitive advantages (Aykan, 2017).
The importance of having employees with PEB has been a major global concern among the
policy makers and organizations regardless of the nature of their businesses and countries as
more organizations worldwide began to adopt the green policies and practices to increase
environmental sustainability and better environmental performance (Ardito & Dangelico,
2018). Success of the environmental performance of the organization is not solely dependent
on policies and procedures imposed, but it depends on employees’ positive behaviour and
responses to environmental concerns by engaging in PEB (Unsworth, Dmitrieva, & Adriasola,
2013; Afsar et al., 2018). Previous studies had found that employees dedicated long hours in
one day at the workplace; therefore, having employees with a positive PEB will reduce the
negative impact on the environment, even at a minimal level at this point of time (Razak &
Sabri, 2019). In Malaysia, green growth has been a major focus among policy makers
(Economic Planning Unit, 2017), and practitioners. Several organizations have been
incorporating Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in their business practices to achieve
sustainability and a more inclusive socio-economic development.
In 2017, only 13% of the top 100 companies in Malaysia aligned their corporate responsibility
reporting by incorporating the SDGs set by the United Nations (KPMG, 2018). In addition, a
survey on corporate responsibility reporting by KPMG (2017), stated that 97% of Malaysian
companies reported on their sustainability performance compared to global reporting which
totalled 72%. However only 5% of Malaysian companies integrated the sustainable report in
the annual reporting compared to 10% of global companies. Hence, it shows that integrated
reporting is still at the infancy stage in Malaysia, which will affect the information
disseminations cycle regarding environmental sustainability to stakeholders, shareholders, and
the public. In addition, 25% of Malaysian companies prepared their sustainability report in
accordance with the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) guidelines. However, only 8% of the
companies prepared the sustainability reports subject to a formal assurance statement. Also,
only 36% of Malaysian companies acknowledged human rights as a sustainability issue for
their businesses, and only 45% of Malaysian companies worked to improve the environmental,
social and governance performance of their supply chains. Finally, only 3% of Malaysian
companies acknowledged climate change as a risk to their businesses as compared to global
companies with 28%, which is still relatively low, and only 10% reported carbon reduction
targets compared to global companies with 36%. This is supported by the Malaysian ranking in
the Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) 4.0 2019, where Malaysia was ranked at 27 out of 141
countries, depicting a drop in the ranking from the 25th place in 2018. This can be an important
indicator of the lack of interest on sustainable development shown by Malaysian organizations
(Schwab, 2019), and the failure to address the environmental changes which can cause a
significant effect on productivity. It requires not only the government to legislate and
incentivise change, but also the private sector and other stakeholders to carry out their
responsibilities in adopting and internalising sustainable practices in business activities and
operations, as well as in daily life. Financial services industry is one of the private
organizations that serves as a pillar to the Malaysian economic growth.
Addressing the above, Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM) established the Asian Institute of Finance
(AIF) as a think tank to enhance human capital and talent management across the financial
industry, generally for Asia and specifically for Malaysia. A study found that although
incorporating “green practices” into the business strategy and sustainable developments are
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gaining increasing prominence among businesses, only 39% of Malaysian financial institutions
took the initiatives to reduce energy consumption and only 9% of the financial institutions have
energy saving policies (AIF, 2017). The pivotal steps are to initiate awareness and to
comprehend the extent of green HRM in the efforts to achieve a green corporation. Green
corporation is achieved as a result of greening the HRM processes and it may start with the
organizations recruiting potential green employees.
2.1 Pro-environmental Behaviour (PEB)
Employees are considered as agents in implementing the organizational green initiatives and
policies (Dumont, Shen, & Deng, 2017), because improving environmental sustainability and
its success are dependent upon employees’ PEB (Saeed et al., 2019). As an emerging concept,
a wide range of PEB performed by the employees can assist organizations to achieve corporate
greening (Lülfs & Hahn, 2013; Saeed et al., 2019), This is now largely acknowledged that
employees within an organization posed a significant impact, be it positive or negative, towards
the overall outcome of the organization’s sustainability strategies (Cheema, Afsar, & Javed,
2019). Notably, the success of formal environmental management systems of many
organizations is through implementing environmental initiatives to improve environmental
performance by involving employees to engage in PEB at the workplace, though the task is not
part of the employees’ formal job descriptions (Robertson & Barling, 2017), or employees’
required work task (Bissing-Olson et al., 2013). It is becoming essential for organizations
nowadays to promote, motivate and change employees’ behaviour, and to engage in PEB at
work in order to achieve corporate sustainable goals (Dumont et al., 2017; Iqbal et al., 2018;
Paillé & Meija-Morelos, 2019). Pro-environmental behaviour at the workplace is
conceptualized and measured in many different ways by different researchers, as acknowledged
by Ones and Dilchert (2012b), there is a plurality of terms to describe this domain of
behaviours.
The nature, scope, and definition of employees’ PEB are inseparable from corporate greening
initiatives (Boiral, Paillé, & Raineri, 2015). Ramus and Killmer (2007), conceptualized
corporate greening behaviour as extra-role behaviours, which are not rewarded by a formal
system, that contribute to organizational outcome such as the organizational environmental
performance (Dumont et al., 2017). It is supported by Daily et al. (2009), which conceptualized
the term behaviours toward the environment as Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Directed
Toward the Environment (OCBE), that depicts employees’ act out of discretionary within the
organization, but neither rewarded nor required by the work task to improve environmental
performance. Workplace PEB is best conceptualized within the OCBE framework as it
represents the employees’ initiatives that are not tied with a formal reward system (Robertson
& Barling, 2017). The OCBE concept was later improved by Robertson and Barling (2017),
from Boiral and Paillé's (2012) earlier definition, which refers to OCBE as a discretionary act
of employees not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system and that
immediately benefits the natural environments and indirectly benefits organizations and
individuals. Paillé and Meija-Morelos (2019), further improved the understanding of OCBE as
the individual’s willingness to cooperate, either with the organizations or its members, by
performing pro-environmental behaviour on the job based on acts, gestures and decisions
towards greening the organizational setting that consequently benefits the natural environment.
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On the other hand, employee green behaviour (EGB) has been conceptualized as a form of PEB
at the workplace (Norton et al., 2015; Ones & Dilchert, 2012a), referring to an employee’s
individual behaviour engaged to achieve environmental sustainability at the workplace that are
scalable or can be measured (Ones & Dilchert, 2012a). This is more or less similar with
Bissing-Olson et al. (2013), that categorized employees’ PEB at the workplace into two
concepts. The first concept is the task-related PEB, that explains the employees’ behaviour to
complete their required core work tasks mandated by organization in environmentally directed
ways, to represent the extent to which the employees carry out their tasks in environmentally
desirable ways. The second concept is the proactive PEB, which portrays the employees’
initiatives to engage in environmentally friendly behaviours outside core work tasks, such as
the self-approach to one’s work by improvising ways of doing work or encouraging colleagues
to act in an environmentally friendly way, which are not formally required to improve the
existing work process. Graves et al. (2013), conceptualized employees PEB as a broad set of
environmentally friendly activities such as gaining enhanced knowledge about the
environment, contributing and developing ideas to reduce company environmental impact,
developing green processes and products, recycling and reusing, and questioning practices that
damage the environment, which basically sum up all of the tenets mentioned earlier. Despite
these different terms conceptualized by different scholars mentioned above, it can be concluded
that the one main aim is to minimize the negative impact of human behaviours on the built
environment (Tezel & Giritli, 2019; Unsworth et al., 2013).
Using the existing reviewed literature, that conceptualize employees’ PEB at the workplace
based on tenets of both required and voluntary environmental behaviour (Norton et al., 2015),
task-related and proactive pro-environmental behaviour (Bissing-Olson et al., 2013), and
OCBE by Boiral and Paillé (2012), this study defined employee PEB at the workplace as an
employee’s discretionary act in performing enacted and voluntary environmental behaviour
within the organizational context that will contribute directly towards the organization’s
environmental goals and indirectly towards environmental sustainability.
2.2 Green Human Resource Management Practices

It has been recognized that Green HRM played an important role in shaping the organizational
culture as a fundamental part in the shift towards sustainability and indicator of the success or
failure of environmental management programs in organizations (Pham, Tučková, & Phan,
2019). Looking at the current environmental situation, organizations must be proactive to
strategize ways to reduce the carbon footprints on top of dealing with the current economic and
financial issues, in order to succeed within the corporate community and attain profit for the
shareholders (Ahmad, 2015; Govindarajulu & Daily, 2004). It is no doubt that for organizations
to implement any corporate environmental program, each unit within an organization must
work together to put forward a positive joint effort, and it is proven that the most significant
player is the human resource management department as it is the most vital element in building
sustainability through the practice of green HRM (Ahmad, 2015).
Renwick et al., (2008; 2013), defined Green HRM as the integration of HRM facets into
environmental management. Meanwhile, Jabbour et al. (2010), proposed Green HRM as the
process of greening the HRM functions in the context of environmental management, which
include recruitment and selection, training, performance appraisal, and rewards. On the other
hand, a more comprehensive definition was provided by Opatha (2013, p. 15), and Opatha and
Arulrajah (2014, p. 104), referred to activities involved in the development, implementation
and maintenance of a system aimed at transforming employees into ‘green employees’ for the
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purpose of achieving organizational environmental goals for the benefit of the individuals,
society, natural environment, and businesses, and these would indirectly contribute towards
environmental sustainability.
Others describe Green HRM as the application of HRM policies, philosophies, and practices to
encourage the sustainable use of resources within business enterprises, to prevent harm arising
from environmental concerns within business organizations, promote the cause of
environmentalism and promote sustainable practices. Hence, along with the process, it will
improve employee’s morale and satisfaction and gauge employee’s awareness and commitment
on the issues of sustainability (Mampra, 2013; Zoogah, 2011). Also, green HRM can be
defined as the greening of all HR activities with new innovative practices that will stimulate
environmentally-friendly attitude, values, competencies and behaviours of new and current
employees (Berber & Aleksic, 2016). Shah (2019), defined green HRM as the incorporation of
green elements into the HRM functions (job design, staffing, training and development,
motivation, and maintenance) with an aim to improve employees’ PEB, meet employees’
expectations and achieve good organizational practices. It can be concluded that green HRM
inclusively refers to the use of employees related aspects within the organization to promote
sustainable practices related to the environment by increasing employees’ awareness and
commitment regarding environmental issues (Sheopuri & Sheopuri, 2015), with an aim to
increase efficiency, cost reductions, and increased employee retention and engagement
(Yusliza et al., 2019).
2.3 Innovation Attributes

Since the effects of organizational determinants related to employee PEB (individual) vary
widely, it is a must to identify factors that are consistently affecting the said behaviours such as
the environment-related involvement of superiors and physical facilitation of PEB (Lo, Peters,
& Kok, 2012). In addition, Lo et al. (2012), mentioned that there is relevance to include studies
on beliefs to understand further on PEB by utilizing attributes of environmental innovations.
Organizations should provide facilitating conditions that include organizational policies or
organizational initiatives to influence employees to use innovation. The most feasible way is an
organizational adoption which is a process where an organization adopts new ideas to achieve
organizational advantages such as increased profits, strategic domination efficiency and
effectiveness (Talukder, 2014). Environmental innovations such as new facilities and policies
usually occurs at the organizational rather than the individual level. Thus, intra-organizational
adoption occurs at the individual level within the organization (Frambach & Schillewaert,
2002). An innovation is considered a success when it is adopted by employees and integrated
into the organization and employees demonstrate the commitment by continuing the innovation
over a period of time, which this study is proposing that the new idea will influence employees’
PEB and employees will practice green behaviour at the workplace for as long as they work
there.
Innovation attributes are defined as perceptions of various features of an innovation that

influence adoption decisions and can be viewed as beliefs at the organizational level (Lo et al.,
2012). The organizational-related context is believed to affect employees’ perceptions that may
lead to PEB through the process of searching for more information about the environment, the
policies implemented, and thus creating the assumptions about the implementation process of
the environmental practices in an organization. Choosing a new system that works best is
imperative when the perceptions towards the innovation are positive or easily accepted (Seo &
Lee, 2017). Therefore, it is crucial to concurrently examine organizational factors and
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individual factors that lead to employees’ PEB (Talukder, 2014; Frambach & Schillewaert,
2002; Lo et al., 2012). Employees must use innovation to realize the intended benefits
(Talukder, Harris, & Mapunda, 2008).
2.4 Environmental Knowledge

Although increasing knowledge about the environment will change the environmental attitude,
the relationships between knowledge, attitude and behaviour are inconsistent in real life
(Arcury, 1990). However, in recent decades, researchers managed to prove that green
knowledge can lead to the understanding and would incentivise individuals to behave or refrain
from behaving in particular ways (Rayner & Morgan, 2018). Individual’s environmental
behaviour can be affected by different environmental triggers such as knowledge, awareness
and concerns, and these triggers are related to pro-environmental behaviour (Chan, Hon, Chan,
& Okumus, 2014). Furthermore, individuals tend to stay away from situations that are
uncertain where they do not have enough knowledge to guide their behaviour (Kaplan, 1991).
Knowledge are known to influence pro-environmental attitudes, which in turn motivate an
employee to act in an environmentally responsible behaviour (Mostafa, 2006).
Environmental knowledge (environmental literacy) can be defined as general knowledge

consisting of facts, concepts, and relationships concerning the natural environment and its
ecosystems, which can be simplified as what individuals know about the environment, main
relationships leading to environmental aspects or impacts, an appreciation of the whole eco-
systems and collective responsibilities necessary for sustainable development (Fryxell & Lo,
2003; Mostafa, 2009). It can also be defined as knowledge and awareness about environmental
problems and possible solutions to the problems, in which environmental knowledge leads to
environmental awareness that increases employees’ engagement towards the environment,
resulting in PEB (Zsóka et al., 2013; Afsar et al., 2016). Knowledge and awareness can be used
interchangeably and considered as one construct by recent researchers in this focus area (Safari,
Salehzadeh, Panahi, & Abolghasemian, 2018). Others described environmental knowledge as
an individual’s ability to understand and evaluate factors that have an impact on society and
towards the ecosystem (Haron, Paim, & Yahaya, 2005; Sun, Teh, & Linton, 2018), which
resulted in some individuals deciding not to adopt sustainable practices because of lack of
knowledge in the situation (Kaplan, 1991; Haron et al., 2005). The state of individual’s
knowledge about certain issues is found to significantly impact the individual’s decision
making (Kaplan, 1991; Saeed et al., 2019). Environmental knowledge can be defined as the
information that individuals possess related to mutual relationships between the people and the
environment, in which such knowledge influences how these individuals perceive their own
responsibility towards the environment and which then leads to their environmental behaviour
(Lin & Niu, 2018).
Environmental knowledge and pro-environmental attitudes are highly interconnected (Zsóka et

al., 2013), henceforth resulting in PEB (Afsar et al., 2016). Employees should possess ample
environmental knowledge and skills, as without this knowledge and skills (competencies), it
would be impossible for an employee to become a green employee (Opatha, 2013). Previous
studies utilize environmental knowledge in various contexts of their studies, such as the
environmental knowledge that positively and significantly leads to employees’ ecological
behaviour in the hotel industry (Chan et al., 2014). Also, the environmental
knowledge/awareness that significantly moderated workplace spirituality and environmental
passion which leads to PEB (Afsar et al., 2016). A study by Lin and Niu (2018), found that
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environmental knowledge is considered as an important factor affecting environmental attitude

and would result in customer’s green behaviour along with other tested factors.
Environmental knowledge is the level of understanding of the factors related to healthiness and
sustainability of the ecosystems that one lives in (Sun et al., 2018), and this environmental
knowledge might consist of the needed skills to mitigate adverse effects on the ecosystem,
which would result in a pro-environmental action (Fawehinmi et al., 2020). Individuals who
possess such knowledge are able to determine any environmental issues which in turn give
them the ability to transform such knowledge into an influential behaviour (Lin & Niu, 2018).
The ecological literacy refers to the knowledge of humans in understanding about the
consequences far beyond what an average individual is able to conceive (Burchett, 2015).
3. Underpinning Theory
Employee roles can be measured using the Ability-Motivation-Opportunity (AMO) theory
which has been further developed by Appelbaum et al. (2000), at the micro-level to explain
behaviour through psychological and situational construct focusing on individual ability,
motivation and opportunity, and this theory will anchor this study. Renwick et al. (2013),
expanded this theory by integrating HRM areas with environmental management to measure
the impact of HRM practices on organizational performance. Accordingly, this theory
postulates that by providing employees with opportunities, together with skills and motivating
incentives, it will result in a higher job performance relative to other employees (Appelbaum et
al., 2000; Morgan & Rayner, 2019). Through the integration of green HRM into the AMO, it
will increase employees’ ability (A) by attracting the correct individual and developing high
performing employees; enhance employee motivation (M) and stimulate employees
commitment through rewards and effective performance management; and provide employees
with opportunity (O) to engage in knowledge-sharing and problem solving activities through
employee involvement programmes (Renwick et al., 2013; Rajiani et al., 2016), that will lead
to employees’ PEB to achieve organizational sustainable objectives (Fawehinmi et al., 2020).
This theory brings the employees’ PEB into perspective by explaining how the AMO bring
about the influence of green HRM practices on employees’ environmental behaviour.
Organizations that regard the pivotal role of employees’ environmental performance will
provide all the skills and opportunities for employees to participate in the organization’s green
practices and this will eventually improve employees’ environmental awareness, behaviour,
skills and knowledge (Renwick et al., 2013; Dumont et al., 2017). Further, employees who are
knowledgeable are motivated to perform pro-environmental behaviour at the workplace. It
takes a set of identified green HRM practices to ensure employees’ environmental knowledge
manifest into employees’ PEB (Fawehinmi et al., 2020).

In a fast-growing economy and globalization, the Fourth Industrial Relation (IR4.0) have
created new opportunities but also disruptions and polarization within and between economies
and societies. The need for employees to behave pro-environmentally towards their work tasks
is imperative for organizations to adopt the green growth agenda. Employees practicing the
PEB both at work and their personal lives, such as the efficient usage of resources, will develop
and shape the organizational and societal cultures towards environmental sustainability which
we termed as the spill over effect. Through green economy, nations will have a sound
economic and social justification. In addressing the green growth and environmental
sustainability to strengthening resilience against climate change and natural disasters for the
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future, green behaviour is one of the desirable preventive measures. This can be achieved
through continuous and effective communication of information with the employees on the
potential impacts on the environment and encouraging them to weigh their acts with
considerations to the environment. Inclusive cooperation between the government, individuals,
public and private organizations will assist the Malaysian government in achieving their green
trajectory as planned in the Eleventh Malaysian Plan 2016 – 2020.
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The Use of Digital Mind Map to Stimulate Creativity and Critical

Thinking in Students’ Writing Course
Rafidah Abd Karim1*, Ramlee Mustapha2

1
Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Tapah Campus, Tapah Road,
Malaysia
2
Faculty of Technical and Vocational, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: feida16@uitm.edu.my

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Learning visually is a distinguished technique in which diagrams such as concept
maps, mind maps, tree diagrams, and spider diagram are used to help students think and learn
more effectively. In fact, traditional mind maps have long been used as a teaching and learning
tool to generate, visualize, structure, and classify ideas and as aid to studying and organizing
information, solving problems, and making decisions. It is even more effective when done by
using digital mind maps. Digital mind mapping is a potential digital visual aid that stimulates
the students’ ability to be creative and critical thinker. Hence, this case study examines the use
of digital mind map to stimulate creativity and critical thinking in students’ writing course in
empowering the 21st century learning. The data required for this study was collected through a
questionnaire and analyzed with the main purpose to examine the use of digital mind map to
stimulate creativity and critical thinking in students’ writing course. The results of the study
showed that the use of digital mind map evidently stimulates the students’ creativity and
critical thinking for their writing course.
Keywords: Digital mind mapping; creativity; critical thinking; perceptions; 21st century
learning
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
The Malaysian Education Blueprint 2013-2025 has highlighted the critical domains to prepare
students for the 21st century which are creativity, critical thinking, communication, and
collaboration skills. Critical and innovative thinking skills are important for students who
expect to work and excel in the future job of the 21st century. In addition, problem-based
learning is also critical in the new era of digital transformation (Mustapha, 2014). In the
context of language learning, communicative competence especially writing is pertinent to
produce future writers and thinkers. Rao (2007) states that writing is a constant process of
finding and expressing the way of thinking. Nurturing proper thinking process is critical to
produce a student with good writing competence. Positive attitudes toward writing in English is
also important (Mousavi & Kashefian-Naeeni, 2011). In writing, students should plan their
writing first in a pre-writing stage. By planning the writing, the students would be able to think
and brainstorm their ideas and write information effectively. Mind maps have been taken into
consideration as a widespread yet all-inclusive area of study (Rafidah et al., 2020). With the
advent of digital technology, a mind map could be turned into a digital mind map that can be
used as a brainstorming tool that enables the students to create visual diagrams of their ideas.
Using the digital mind, the students can create a dynamic mind map that could illustrate the
hierarchy and connections among different ideas. In this case study, the researchers attempted
to examine the use of digital mind map among university students in their writing.
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2. Purpose of the Study

This purpose of the study was to examine the use of digital mind map to stimulate creativity
and critical thinking in students’ writing course. In this study, we have produced following
objectives to discover how digital mind map can stimulate creativity and critical thinking in
students’ writing.
 To investigate the students’ perceptions on the use of the digital mind map
 To investigate the students’ creativity using the digital mind map
 To investigate the students’ critical thinking using the digital mind map
 To examine the relationship between the use of the digital mind map and students’
creativity
 To examine the relationship between the use of the digital mind map and students’
critical thinking
3. Related Works
This section depicts selected previous works on digital mind mapping, creative writing and the
critical thinking that are relevant to the present study. Lin and Faste (2012) measured several
digital mind mapping applications found that the digital mind mapping helped the users in
various ways. In their study, they further suggested on how to enhance digital mind mapping
methods. Rafidah, Abdul Ghani and Farah Natchiar (2017) also stated that the mind map
applications were enhanced with mind mapping software that aids the students’ mapping
procedure. Nino and Paez (2018) believe that creative writing is an innovative process with the
goal of creating new type of written genre. In addition, William (1970) stated that creative
writing involves the blend of different ideas, using the four cognitive and affective behavior
patterns. Based on his model, he proposed four main skills for creativity in writing which are
fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. Furthermore, we also included the critical
thinking as another construct for this study. Critical thinking requires a series of approaches
that help students establish critical analysis and evaluation of meanings or theories, including
one's own, that determine what to believe or what to do (Fisher, 2001). Critical thinking
construct was adapted from Watson-Glaser Thinking Appraisal Test which was developed by
Watson-Glaser (1952) that designed to evaluate basic intellectual abilities for critical thinking.
He presented three major skills: recognize assumptions, evaluate arguments and draw
conclusions for critical thinking construct.
4. The Conceptual Framework
For this study, a conceptual framework was developed and proposed. Figure 1 shows the
conceptual framework for stimulating creativity and critical thinking in writing course which
based on three different models. The framework focuses on three main constructs: (1) the use
of digital mind map, (2) creativity in writing and (3) critical thinking in writing. The use of tool
can be measured by three aspects: speed and efficiency, appearance and mechanics and
ontology and concept mapping (Lin & Faste, 2012). Next, the second construct is on creativity
in writing. According to William’s Model (1970), there are four main skills: fluency,
flexibility, originality, and elaboration for evaluating creativity in writing. Finally, the third
construct is creativity in writing which proposed by Watson-Glaser (1952) emphasized on three
skills: recognize assumptions, evaluate arguments, and draw conclusions for evaluating critical
thinking in writing. Therefore, it is expected that this new framework will be able to stimulate
the creativity and critical thinking in writing course.
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Creativity in Writing
The Use of Digital  Fluency
Mind Map  Flexibility
 Originality
 Elaboration
 Speed and
Efficiency William’s Model (1970)
 Appearance
and Critical Thinking in Writing
Mechanics  Recognize Assumptions
 Ontology and  Evaluate arguments
Concept  Draw Conclusions
mapping
Watson-Glaser (1952)
Honray Lin & Haakon
Demographic variables
 Gender
 Age
 Hometown
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for Stimulating Creativity and Critical Thinking in Writing Course
5. Problem Statement
It is a widespread issue among the students especially in tertiary education who has difficulties
in writing. Most of the students were unable to brainstorm and develop their ideas in writing.
The problems may highly related to low creativity and critical thinking skills. Sometimes
students have a lot of ideas flowing and enduring in their mind when they begin to think of a
topic. However, their lack of skills in organizing these ideas and tend to think too long on
certain ideas. Hence, this may make them stray away from the intended topic and they might
write something that is out of topic. Besides that, students need an advance technique for
creating and producing ideas for their writing. A transformation from pen and paper technique
to a digital tool asserted several benefits for brainstorming among students (Rafidah, 2018).
This study used a case study design to examine the use of digital mind map to stimulate
creativity and critical thinking in students’ writing course. The researchers developed a
questionnaire which consisted of five sections: (A) Student Profile (6 items), (B) The Use of
Digital Mind Map (18 items), (C) The Use of Digital Mind Map to Stimulate Creativity (24
items), (D) The Use of Digital Mind Map to Stimulate Critical Thinking (18 items) and six
open-ended questions (E). The students were asked to respond to a total of 66 items of the
questionnaire. The questionnaire items for Section B, C and D would be measured by using 5-
point Likert scale: strongly agree (5), agree (4), uncertain (3), disagree (2) and strongly
disagree (1). The questionnaire was disseminated to thirty-two (n=32) Diploma students who
had taken a writing course at one of the public universities in Malaysia. The students were
registered for English Writing Course for Semester 3. The students were taught how to use and
practice the digital mind mapping in the classroom for four-week. Then, they were given
several writing topics for their assignments. The writing topics included “Ways to have a
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healthy diet”, “How one can gain benefits from participating in voluntary work”, “Ways to
overcome stress during Covid-19 Pandemics”, “Is television good or bad?” and “The grading
system should not exist to judge a student’s abilities”. The students were asked to write their
essays using the digital mind maps that they created. At the end of their course, they were
distributed with the online survey questionnaire and they were asked to complete the
questionnaire. The data were collected and analyzed by determining the mean and standard
deviation for each item of the questionnaire. Pearson Correlation was utilized for examining the
relationship between the use of the digital mind map and students’ creativity and critical
thinking. The data was analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS)
software version 23. The results of the questionnaire were presented in the form of tables. The
research question (RQ) of the study was developed as following:
RQ 1 What are the students’ perceptions on the use of the digital mind map?
RQ 2:What are the students’ creativity in using the digital mind map?
RQ 3:What are the students’ critical thinking in using the digital mind map?
RQ 4:What is the relationship between the use of digital mind map and students’ creativity in
writing course?
RQ5: What is the relationship between the use of digital mind map and students’ critical
thinking in writing course?

Table 1 displays descriptive statistics of the respondents of the study. A total of 32 respondents
were consisted of 8 male (25%) and 24 female (75) students.
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents (n=32)
Characteristics Frequency %
Gender
Male 8 25
Female 24 75
Age (years)
17-19 years 1 3.1
20-22 years 31 96.9
Location of Hometown
City 17 53.1
Suburban 9 28.1
Rural 6 18.8
Do you like learning English writing?
Yes 31 96.9
No 1 3.1
Do you know what a digital mind map is?
Yes 32 100
No 0 0
Have you ever used digital mind mapping for learning?
Yes 29 90.6
No 3 9.4
Most of the respondents’ age were 20-22 years old which was 31 respondents (96.9%). Only 1
respondent (3.1%) was 17-19 years old. Majority of the respondents (n= 17) or (53.1%) were
stayed in the city whereas 9 respondents (28.1%) stayed in suburban. Only 6 respondents
(18.8%) came from rural area. Students were also asked about the information on digital mind
mapping and writing background. From Table 1 also, it shows that most respondents (96.9%)
like to learn English writing and only 1 student did not like to learn English writing. All the
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respondents (100%) said that they know how to use the tool. However, 29 respondents (90.6%)
said that they used to practice the tool for learning whereas three students (9.4%) never practice
the tool before.
Next, Table 2 shows the student’ responses on the use of digital mind map in Part B. For item 1
to 6, the students were asked about their speed and efficiency construct in using the tool. For
item 1, the students (M=3.81; SD=0.93) said that they can create ideas faster using the tool.
Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation for the Use of Digital Mind Map
Item Construct M SD Interpretation

Speed and Efficiency
1 I create ideas faster when I use the digital 3.81 0.93 Agree
mind map
2 I store my ideas effectively when I use the 4.00 0.88 Agree
digital mind map
3 I found that using the digital mind map is 3.75 1.08 Agree
faster than using pen and paper to create
mind maps
4 I found that the digital mind map gives 3.78 0.98 Agree
more space than using pen and paper to
create mind maps
5 When I edit my ideas, the digital mind 4.03 0.82 Agree
map enables me to drag ideas, enlarge
lines and use pictures easily
6 While using the digital mind map, I saved 3.81 0.81 Agree
my time a lot because the software
allowed me to work faster
Appearance and Mechanics
7 I design the digital mind map contents 3.78 1.04 Agree
very well
8 I insert text input easily using the digital 3.91 0.89 Agree
mind map
9 I save and retrieve stored information 4.00 0.84 Agree
easily using the digital mind map
10 I found that using colors, nodes and links 4.03 0.82 Agree
while creating the digital mind maps
make learning process at ease
11 I found that dragging one node into 3.88 0.87 Agree
another could easily create a link between
them when using the digital mind map
12 I found that the navigation and layout 3.88 0.79 Agree
mechanics of digital mind maps represent
a prospective digital tool
Ontology and Concept Mapping
13 By using digital mind mapping, I organize 4.03 0.86 Agree
my ideas in a structural way
14 Digital mind mapping enhances my 4.03 0.82 Agree
understanding of concepts and ideas in
writing
15 I understand the relationships across ideas 4.00 0.84 Agree
within the digital mind map
16 I generate ideas using the digital mind 3.91 1.06 Agree
map effectively
17 I found that the digital mind maps helped 3.84 0.85 Agree
me to organize my ideas in writing
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18 I believe that the digital mind is a great 4.00 0.80 Agree

tool to link and organize ideas
Total average 3.92 0.76 Agree
Majority of respondents agreed (M=4.00; SD= 0.88) that they could store their ideas effectively
(item 2). In item 3, the students concurred (M=3.75; SD= 1.08) that the digital tool works
faster than using pen and paper in creating mind maps. Most of students (M=3.78; SD= 0.98)
also found that the technique gives more space than using pen and paper in item 4. In terms of
editing ideas, many respondents (M=4.03; SD= 0.82) answered that they enabled to drag ideas,
enlarge lines, and use pictures easily (item 6). Completely, the students (M=3.81; SD= 0.81)
found that they saved time a lot when using the tool. The respondents were also asked about the
appearance and mechanics (item 7 -12) constructs. For item 7, the students (M=3.78; SD=
1.04) agreed that they designed the mind map contents very well. They (M=3.91; SD= 0.89)
also agreed that could insert text input easily in item 8. For item 9, majority of students
(M=4.00; SD=0.84) agreed that they can save and retrieve stored information easily. Based on
item 10, most of students (M=4.03; SD=0.82) found that using colors, nodes and links while
creating the mind maps make learning process at ease. Moreover, the students (M=3.88;
SD=0.87) also found that dragging one node into another could easily create a link between
them when using the tool in item 11. The students (M=3.88; SD=0.79) also said that the
navigation and layout mechanics of the tool represent a prospective digital tool in item 12.
Based on the table, the students also were sought information on ontology and concept
mapping constructs (item 13-18). For item 13, majority of students (M=4.03; SD=0.86) agreed
that they organize their ideas in structurally. Regarding the students’ understanding, (M=4.03;
SD=0.82), it can be shown that the technique enhances the students’ concepts and ideas in
writing in item 14. Most of respondents (M=4.00; SD=0.84) said that they also understand the
relationships across ideas easily item 15. For item 16, the students (M=3.91; SD=1.06) said that
they were able to generate ideas effectively. Likewise, they (M=3.84; SD=0.85) also found that
the technique helped in organizing ideas in writing (item 17). Finally, most of respondents
(M=4.00; SD=0.80) considered that the tool is great for linking and organizing ideas (item 18).
As described in Table 3, the means, and standard deviations for creativity in Part C. The
findings were divided into four main constructs: fluency, flexibility, originality, and
elaboration. For item 19 to 24, the respondents were asked about the fluency. For item 19, most
of students (M=4.37; SD=0.66) strongly agreed that creativity is important to produce a lot of
ideas in writing. They (M=4.25; SD=0.62) also strongly agreed that the creativity in writing is
also important for producing good ideas in item 20. In item 21, the students (M=3.78;
SD=0.91) said that they developed new ideas in writing. In terms of ideas writing, the students
(M=3.88; SD=0.91) said that the tool helped to enhance their creativity by identifying main
ideas and sub ideas in item 22. The students (M=3.75; SD=0.84) believed that the technique
improved their confident level in writing in item 23.
Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviation for the Use of Digital Mind Map to Stimulate Creativity
Fluency
19 I believe creativity is important to 4.37 0.66 Strongly Agree
produce a lot of ideas in writing
20 I believe creativity in writing is 4.25 0.62 Strongly Agree
important for producing good ideas
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21 I develop my new ideas in writing 3.78 0.91 Agree

through digital mind map
22 I enhance my creativity by identifying 3.88 0.91 Agree
main ideas and sub ideas in writing
through the digital mind map
23 I have improved my confident level in 3.75 0.84 Agree
creating new ideas in writing through
creativity when I use the digital mind
map
24 I became expert in identifying the main 3.69 0.99 Agree
ideas and the sub ideas in writing in
more creative ways through the digital
mind map
Flexibilty
25 I imagine new ideas in writing through 3.84 0.92 Agree
the digital mind map
26 I produce ideas in various ways when I 3.78 0.87 Agree

write essays using the digital mind map
27 I feel motivated to produce more creative 3.78 0.98 Agree
ideas in writing using the digital mind
map
28 I have the ability to visualize creative 4.00 0.72 Agree
ideas for my writing topic
29 I found that I can produce the main ideas 4.09 0.78 Agree
and sub ideas in various ways while
writing
30 I found that I can imagine and produce 3.78 0.83 Agree
ideas in writing easily through the digital
mind map
Originality
31 I create original ideas in writing through 3.72 0.89 Agree
32 I think new ideas while writing through 3.81 0.78 Agree
the digital mind
33 I generate new ideas creatively in writing 3.66 0.97 Agree
when I use nodes and links while
creating the digital mind map
34 I create original main ideas and original 3.97 0.82 Agree
sub ideas in writing through the digital
mind map
35 I identify the main ideas and the sub 3.84 0.85 Agree
ideas in writing in more creative ways
using the digital mind map
36 Ieplt IgdhgIgdfI hthghuIaht IahoIdfuof I 3.84 0.85 Agree
afIgpIo p lsfIp hththuIh fhcIhtIp hghtt
Elaboration
37 I organize my ideas in writing in a new 4.00 0.76 Agree
way through the digital mind map
38 I organize the main ideas and the sub 4.09 0.73 Agree
ideas in writing in a creative way
39 I became expert in organizing my 3.84 0.81 Agree
writing information creatively
40 I found that I can organize my ideas 3.78 0.94 Agree
easier in writing when I use the digital
mind map
41 I organize my previous ideas in writing 3.81 0.97 Agree
easily when I use the digital mind map
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42 When I used nodes and links while 3.87 0.91 Agree

organizing my ideas in writing, it made
my learning easier and more creative
For item 24, the students (M=3.69; SD=0.99) revealed that they became expert in identifying
the main ideas and the sub ideas in writing in more creative ways. Item 25 to 30 represents the
student’ responses for the flexibility construct. For item 25, the respondents (M=3.84;
SD=0.92) believed that the tool helped them to imagine new ideas in writing. The respondents
(M=3.78; SD=0.87) also mentioned that they produce ideas in various ways while writing in
item 26. Regarding to ideas production, the respondents (M=3.78; SD=0.98) feel more
motivated as stated in item 27. Moreover, most respondents (M=4.00; SD=0.72) can visualize
creative ideas (item 28). Many students (M=4.09; SD=0.78) also found that they can produce
the main ideas and sub ideas in various ways while writing (item 29). For item 30, the
respondents (M=3.78; S.D =0.83) found that they can imagine and produce ideas in writing
easily. For the originality construct (Item 31 to 36) as shown in the table. According to item 31,
the students (M=3.72; S.D=0.89) said that they create original ideas in writing. Likewise, the
students (M=3.81; S.D=0.78) also emphasized that they were able to think new ideas (item 32).
In terms of nodes and links usage, the students (M=3.66; S.D=0.97) believed that they generate
ideas creatively while creating the mind maps (item 33). For item 34, the students (M=3.97;
S.D=0.82) said that they create original main ideas and original sub ideas in writing.
Furthermore, they (M=3.84; S.D=0.85) also identified the main ideas and the sub ideas in more
creative ways (item 35). The students (M=3.84; S.D=0.85) also believed that the tool helped
them to produce original ideas (item 36). Item 37 to 42 illustrates the elaboration construct. In
item 37, most of students (M=4.00; S.D=0.76) agreed that they organized their ideas in a new
way. Moreover, the respondents (M=4.09; S.D=0.73) also agreed that they organized the main
ideas and sub ideas in a creative way (item 38). For item 39, the students (M=3.84; S.D=0.81)
believed that they became expert in organizing their writing creatively. In addition, the students
(M=3.78; S.D=0.94) also found that they can organize ideas easier (item 40). Besides that, they
(M=3.81; S.D=0.97) also agreed that they organize their previous ideas easier (item 41).
Finally, the students (M=3.87; S.D=0.91) agreed that the tool made their learning easier and
more creative. It is because they were able to use the nodes and links when organizing their
ideas. Table 4 shows the mean and standard deviation for critical thinking in Part D. Based on
the table, there are three main constructs included recognize assumptions (item 43 to 48),
evaluate arguments (item 49- 54), and draw conclusions (item 55 to 60).
Table 4: Mean and Standard Deviation for the Use of Digital Mind Map to Stimulate Critical Thinking
Recognize assumptions
43 I recognize my ideas in writing when I 3.91 0.93 Agree
use the digital mind map
44 I believe recognizing ideas in writing is 4.06 0.84 Agree
important to stimulate critical thinking
45 I develop my critical thinking in 3.69 0.97 Agree
writing through digital mind mapping
46 I enhance my critical thinking by 3.75 0.95 Agree
recognizing main ideas and sub ideas in
writing through the digital mind map
47 I improve my confident level in my 3.75 0.92 Agree
writing through recognizing ideas when
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I use digital mind map

48 I recognize ideas in writing easily when 3.97 0.90 Agree
I used the digital mind mapping
Evaluate arguments
49 I have developed a more focused and 3.84 0.92 Agree
systematic way of thinking in my
writing when I used the digital mind
map
50 I have learnt more about how to 3.81 0.93 Agree
evaluate arguments in my writing when
I used the digital mind map
51 I have learnt more about how to 3.97 0.74 Agree
evaluate the main ideas and the sub
ideas of writing topic
52 I have learnt how to solve problems 4.09 0.73 Agree
when I was thinking for more ideas in
writing
53 I have learnt how to analyse relevant 3.94 0.76 Agree
and irrelevant writing information
when I used the digital mind map
54 I have improved my ability in 3.72 0.92 Agree
evaluating ideas of writing when I use
Draw conclusions
55 I make decision in choosing relevant 4.03 0.70 Agree
and irrelevant writing information
56 I identify the main ideas and the sub 4.03 0.78 Agree
ideas which are related to writing topic
57 I learnt how to decide after I 3.94 0.80 Agree
brainstormed my ideas in writing
through the digital mind map
58 I have developed my skills in drawing 3.87 0.97 Agree
conclusion in writing through the
digital mind map
59 I have improved my ability in drawing 3.75 0.92 Agree
conclusions in writing when I used the
digital mind map
60 I found that I can draw conclusion in 3.72 0.99 Agree
writing easily when I used the digital
mind map
In terms of recognizing ideas, the respondents agreed (M=3.91; S.D=0.93) that they recognized
their ideas easily (item 43). Likewise, most of respondents believed (M=4.06; S.D=0.84) that
recognizing ideas is important to stimulate critical thinking (item 44). For item 45, the
respondents agreed (M=3.69; S.D=0.97) that they develop their critical thinking using the tool.
Item 46 has supported item 43 as the respondents claimed (M=3.75; S.D=0.95) that they
enhanced their critical thinking by recognizing main ideas and sub ideas in writing. Regarding
item 47, the respondents were confident (M=3.75; S.D=0.92) that they have improved their
level in writing through recognizing ideas when using the tool. The respondents also said
(M=3.97; S.D=0.90) that they recognized ideas in writing easily (item 48). For item 49, the
students agreed (M=3.84; S.D=0.92) that they have developed a more focused and systematic
way of thinking. The students (M=3.81; S.D=0.93) have learnt more about how to evaluate
arguments (item 50). Moreover, they were more confident (M=3.97; S.D=0.74) to evaluate
the main ideas and the sub-ideas of writing topic (item 51). In terms of solving problems,
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majority of students asserted (M=4.09; S.D=0.73) that they were thinking for more ideas for
writing (item 52). The students agreed (M=3.94; S.D=0.76) that they have learnt how to
analyze relevant and irrelevant information for their ideas of writing (item 53). They (M=3.72;
S. D=0.92) have also improved their ability to evaluate ideas of writing (item 54). The final
construct (draw conclusions) examines how the students perceived drawing conclusion for
writing ideas and information. For item 55, majority of students (M=4.03; S. D=0.70) made
their decision easier in choosing relevant and irrelevant information. Similarly, most of
students (M=4.03; S. D=0.78) agreed that they identified the main ideas and the sub ideas
related to writing topic easily (item 56). Relating to item 57, the students (M=3.94; S. D=0.80)
agreed that they learnt how to decide after brainstormed ideas in writing. In terms of drawing
conclusions in writing, the students (M=3.87; S. D=0.97) had developed their skills in this
aspect (item 58). Besides that, the students (M=3.75; S. D=0.92) also had improved their ability
in drawing conclusion (item 59). Finally, the students (M=3.72; S.D=0.99) found that they can
draw conclusion much easier as shown in item 60. Table 6 shows the overall mean and
standard deviation for all constructs: (i) digital mind map (ii) creativity and (iii) critical
thinking.
Table 5: Overall Mean and Standard Deviation for Constructs
Constructs Mean Standard Deviation
Digital Mind Map 3.92 0.76
Creativity 3.89 0.69
Critical Thinking 3.88 0.74
As shown in Table 5, the results for all constructs showed that the digital mind map (M=3.92;
S. D=0.76) , the creativity (M=3.89; S. D=0.69) and the critical thinking (M=3.88; S. D=0.74).
According the table, the mean for digital mind map construct (independent variable) is higher
than the mean for creativity and critical thinking constructs (dependent variable). To answer
the research question 4 and 5, we examined whether there is any significant relationship
between the use of digital mind map and students’ creativity and critical thinking. To answer
the questions, the Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used. Table 6 showed there was a
significant positive correlation between the use of digital mind map and students’ creativity,
which was statistically significant (r = .943, n = 32, p = .000).
Table 6: Relationship between the Use of Digital Mind Map and Students’ Creativity
Variable Creativity
r p-value
Use of digital mind map 0.943 0.000
Table 7 showed that there was a high positive correlation between the use of digital mind map
and students’ critical thinking, which was statistically significant (r = .949, n = 32, p = .000).
Table 7: Relationship between the Use of Digital Mind Map and Students’ Critical Thinking
Variable Critical Thinking

r p-value
Use of digital mind map 0.949 0.000
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The respondents were also asked to answer six open-ended items in the part E of the
questionnaire. This part aimed to identify the reasons and factors that enhance the quality of
students’ writing using the tool. Six open-ended items were given to students to be answered by
them. Table 8 illustrated six sections: A, B, C, D, E and F.
Table 8: Results from the Open-ended Questions

Open-ended Items Rank Main Themes Frequency
(f)
A. List 3 main reasons to 1 Easy to use 22
use digital mind maps 2 Save time 16
3 Add creativity 13
B. List 3 factors that 1 Easy to colour 11
enhances the 2 Easy to design 6
respondents’creativity shapes
3 Wider space 5
C. List 3 factors that 1 Elaborate points 19
enhance my critical
thinking in writing 2 Solve problems 9
when using digital
mind mapping. 3 Draw conclusion 5
D. List 3 factors that 1 Lack of 10

impede my writing knowledge
even if I used digital 2 Slow internet 3
mind mapping. connection
3 Lack of 4
confidence
E. What other factors 1 Knowledge 14
besides creativity and 2 Confidence level 4
critical thinking that
will enhance my 3 Experience 3
writing capabilities.
F. Please provide 1 Provide more 7
recommendations to guidance
enhance the quality of 2 Enhance other 3
writing course. English skills
The first section (A) asked the students to list three main reasons for using the tool. As shown
in Table 8, the students rated easy to use as the highest rank for this item, followed by the other
reasons included save time and creativity. Evidently, it showed that the tool is easy to be used
for essays writing. Section B asked the students for three factors that enhances their creativity
when using the tool. The most important factor that the students answered was easy to color.
Next, the students mentioned that easy to design as the second highest factor that enhances
their creativity. Another factor that the students answered was wider space for them when they
were creating the mind maps. These three main factors are considerable for students in
enhancing their creativity for their writing. In Section C, the students were also needed to list
three factors that enhance their critical thinking in writing when using the tool. The highest
rank that the students measured was elaborate points. They also answered solve problems and
draw conclusion as the other factors that helped to improve their critical thinking in writing.
Hence, the findings showed that the tool helped the students to encourage their critical
thinking. The Section D demonstrates the list three factors that impede the students’ writing
even they used the tool. As illustrated in Table 8, the highest frequency for this factor was lack
of knowledge. The students responded this factor as they said that they still needed more
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knowledge on how to use the digital mind map, lack of grammar and vocabulary skills even
when they practiced this digital tool. The students also responded the technical problem as a
second factor which related to a slow internet connection. They also mentioned that they have a
lack of confidence when using the tool. Section E asked the students to list other factors
besides creativity and critical thinking that will enhance their writing capabilities. Comparably,
the most rated was knowledge as a major factor that will be able to help the students to improve
their writing competency. Next, they answered confidence level as the second highest rank,
followed by the experience factor. These two factors are highly connected because without
experience, the students would not feel very confident in their writing. This study was also
supported by Rafidah and Abdul Ghani (2018) who revealed that the mind mapping tool has a
potential in enhancing the students’ confidence level in writing. The final section (F) requires
the students to provide recommendations to enhance the quality of writing course generally.
The students recommended on more guidance for improving the quality of writing as their
highest response. Besides that, the students also highlighted that they need to enhance other
English skills such as grammar, reading and vocabulary.
Therefore, the empirical data of the study resulting certain conclusions for this study. First, the
students mostly perceived the tool is practical for writing. The students mostly agreed that the
tool helped them to write faster and efficiently, the appearance and mechanics of the tool have
assisted them to design mind map easily, and they managed to organize ideas easily. In terms
of creativity and critical thinking, the students gave positive responses for all items. For
creativity construct, the students claimed that the tool helped them to be fluent, flexible,
original, and able to elaborate in creating and producing ideas creatively for writing. Whilst,
the students found that it also facilitated them to stimulate their critical thinking. The tool
helped them to recognize their assumptions, evaluate arguments and draw conclusions in
writing. Thus, critical thinking and creative thinking have emerged as important skills for all
students to seize their position in fulfilling the requirements of the 21st century learning. Based
on the results of the study, the new framework is proposed for this study which consisted of
seven main elements of creativity and critical thinking for writing: fluency, flexibility,
originality, elaboration, recognizing assumptions, evaluating arguments and drawing
conclusions. Thus, it is hoped that this framework will provide the learners and the educators of
writing course in enhancing teaching and learning of writing. Subsequently, more studies need
to be explored on investigation of the application of the tool in stimulating students’ creativity
and critical thinking. We recommend that future research should deliberate on the effects of the
digital mind map toward the students’ creativity and critical on other language skills.
References
Fisher, A. (2001). Critical thinking: an introduction. What is critical thinking and how to
improve it? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lin, H., & Faste, H. (2012). The Untapped Promise of Digital Mind Maps. Proceedings of
the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI 2012, Austin
Texas, USA.
Mousavi, H.S., & Kashefian-Naeeni, S. (2011). An investigation into the role of EFL learners’
attitude, motivation, and proficiency in learning Among Iranian students of National
University in Malaysia. European Journal of Social Sciences, 23(4), 593-603.
Mustapha, R., Abdul Rahim, Z.L., Azman, M.N.A. (2014). Exploring the problems faced by
technical school students in learning engineering courses. Journal of Engineering Science
and Technology, 9(6), 690-701.
Nino, F., & Paez, M. (2018). Building writing skills in English in fifth graders: Analysis of
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strategies based on literature and creativity. English Language Teaching, 11(9),102–117.

R. A. Karim, A. H. M. Adnan, M. H. M. Tahir, Adam, M.H.M, Idris, N, Ismail, I.(2020). The
Application of Mobile Learning Technologies at Malaysian Universities Through Mind
Mapping Apps for Augmenting Writing Performance. Advances in Science Technology
and Engineering Systems Journal. 5 (3), 510-512. http://dx.doi.org/10.25046/aj050363
R. A. Karim (2018), Technology-Assisted Mind Mapping Technique in Writing Classrooms:
An Innovative Approach. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and
Social Sciences, 8 (4), 1092-1103, 2018. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v8-
i4/4146
Rafidah Abd Karim & Abdul Ghani Abu (2018). Using Mobile-Assisted Mind Mapping
Technique (MAMMAT) to Improve Writing Skills of ESL Students. Journal of Social
Science and Humanities.1(1), 33-38.
Rafidah Abd Karim, Abdul Ghani Abu & Farah Natchiar Mohd Khaja.(2017). Theoretical
perspectives and practices of mobile-assisted language learning and mind mapping in the
teaching of writing in ESL classrooms. Journal of English Teaching. 2 (1), 1-12.
Rao,Z.(2007).Training in brainstorming and developing writing skills. ELT Journal, 6(2),100-
106.doi:10.1093/etl/ccmooz
Watson, Goodwin, and E. M. Glaser, Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, Harcourt,
Brace & World, Inc., 1952.
Williams, F. E. (1970). Classroom ideas for encouraging thinking and feeling. Buffalo, NY:
D.O.K Publishers, Inc.
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Understanding The Implications Of Online Learning For EFL

Students With Different Learning Styles
Urarat Parnrod1*, Warrapojn Panrod2

1
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Songkhla Rajabhat University, Songkhla, Thailand
2
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus, Pattani, Thailand
*Corresponding Author: urarat.parnrod@gmail.com

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: As a teacher, it would be better to prepare our students for the technological future
or any crisis because anything is possible. For example, the strain of coronavirus called
COVID-19 also commonly called the Wuhan coronavirus around the world affects global
education. Consequently, the students cannot continue their regular study life. Among several
approaches, it seems that online learning, learning through the Internet, is an alternative to be
used for the education. This approach has been used widely in language teaching and learning.
In order to use it effectively, the characteristics for the students with different learning styles
should be considered while preparing or designing an online course. Therefore, the study
investigated learning styles of EFL students by using Kolb Learning Style Inventory (2005).
After the quantitative data for the study was collected, the data obtained will be used as a
source to create a possible guideline for using online learning to fit those students with
different learning styles. Hopefully, this study would be part of having more effective language
teaching and learning.
Keywords: COVID-19, online learning, learning styles, EFL students, language teaching and
learning
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Since the strain of coronavirus called COVID-19 also commonly called the Wuhan coronavirus
around the world affects global education, the students cannot continue their regular study life.
In Thailand, the universities announce that all courses and instruction are required to be online.
Several approaches, such as online learning, blended learning and distance learning, are
considered to be used for teaching and learning. Among those, online learning is regarded as an
alternative which could help teachers and university students to follow the announcement under
an extraordinary circumstance as a result of COVID-19. However, in order to use it effectively,
the characteristics for the students with different learning styles should be considered while
preparing or designing an online course. Therefore, the study investigated learning styles of
engineering students by using the questionnaire developed by Kolb and Kolb (2005). After the
quantitative data for the study was collected, the data obtained will be used as a source to create
a guideline for using online learning to fit engineering students with different learning styles. It
is expected that this study would be part of having more effective language teaching and
learning.
Online Learning
Online learning often called as e-learning is defined as the access to learning experience based
on the potential for flexibility and participant interaction (Benson, 2002; Conrad, 2002; Ally,
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2004; Carliner, 2004). It is also Internet-based education which is supported by using a range
of technologies, for instance, the worldwideweb, email and video conferencing delivered over
computer networks (Osguthorpe & Graham, 2003; Hoic-Bozic, Mornar, & Boticki, 2009;
Bliuc, Goodyear, & Ellis, 2010). Online tools, such as mobile devices (i.e. tablets and
smartphones) and computer, which are used can make the learners enjoyable in learning
through the innovative and interactive content delivery (Dhull & Arora, 2017).
In order to educate students successfully, benefits and challenges of using online learning
should be considered. Online learning has been used for the education due to several
advantages (see Table 1).
Table 1: Advantages of online learning

Advantages Description
Online learning allows students to learn from any places and work at a time
Accessibility and flexibility
which is compatible with their learning needs.
Online learning allows students to create their mental process such as

Developing self-regulated learning
planning and dealing with individual learning styles.
Online learning allows students to find unlimited information through the

Developing cognitive abilities
Internet.
Online learning allows students to pay less in terms of travelling and in

Saving cost
buying books.
(Singh, 2001; Thomson, 2010; Dhull & Arora, 2017)
However, online learning also reveals some challenges while using it (see Table 2).
Table 2: Challenges of online learning
Challenges Description
Students may lack motivation while studying and get easily distracted when
Lack of motivation
they study at their own pace.
Students may have less opportunity to have face to face interaction with the
Lack of communication teacher. Then the misunderstandings between students and teacher would affect
learning process and learning outcomes.
Teachers could not teach their lessons as seriously as they do in the normal
Lack of quality
classroom.
It is necessary for students to have online tools (e.g. smartphones) and the
Lack of fund Internet while studying. Thus they have to be ready to pay for those. Having a
lack of money would be a crucial element to an effective online learning.
(Thomson, 2007; Dhull & Arora, 2017)
Learning Styles
Learning styles were defined by several well-known theorists, for example learning style refers
to any individual learner’s natural, habitual, and preferred ways of learning (Willing, 1988) and
are internally based characteristics, often not perceived or consciously used by the learners, for
the intake and comprehension of new information (Reid, 1998, p.ix). As defined, it seems that
learning styles are related to learner’s habitual behaviors and preferred ways which are used
automatically to learn the new information.
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Learning styles are classified differently. Cassidy (2004) analyzed and found that learning
styles have different classifications based on different orientations. For example, according to
Curry (1987), learning styles are divided into four aspects: instructional preference, social
interaction, information processing, and cognitive personality. Rayner and Riding (1997)
classify learning styles into personality centred, cognitive centred, and learning centred.
However, in second language classroom, Christison (2003) pays attention to 3 broad categories
of learning styles. Those are sensory style focusing on different environment while learning,
personality style focusing on learner’s behaviors and cognitive style focusing on learning
process. For the present study, cognitive style, Kolb’s experiential learning theory (1984) in
particular, was selected because the researchers attempt to investigate the learning process of
learners which could cover their all possible behaviors while learning. Then the data obtained
would be useful in terms of designing an online course for the students with different
characteristics.
Experiential learning theory proposed by Kolb defines learning as the process whereby
knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the
combination of grasping and transforming it (Kolb, 1984, p.41). This theory is used to
determine a person’s learning style and increase their understanding of the process of learning
from experience and their unique individual approach to learning. Learning styles are classified
into 4 types, diverger, assimilator, converger, and accommodator. The characteristics of each
learning style are summarized as the following (Kolb, 1984; Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis,
2000).
Diverger learns the new information through concrete experience and process it through
observing. They can generate many alternative ideas and love brainstorming including being
interested in people and feeling-oriented. While learning, they prefer working in groups,
listening with an open mind and receiving personalized feedback.
Assimilator learns the new information abstractly and process disparate observations into an
integrated rational explanation. They are good at inductive reasoning, creating models and
theories, including being a systematic planner and a goal setter. While learning, they prefer
readings, lecturing, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.
Converger learns the new information abstractly and process it into a concrete solution. They
use deductive reasoning to arrive at a single best solution to a question or problem. They are
good at solving problems and making decisions. While learning, they prefer experimenting
with new ideas, simulations, laboratory assignments, and practical applications.
Accommodator learns the new information concretely and transform it actively. They can adapt
to changing circumstances and are skillful in doing things, carrying out plans and tasks and
getting involved in new experiences. They are more likely to learn and work with others, and
feel comfortable in learning through practical experience. While learning, they prefer working
with others to get assignments done, doing field work, and testing out different approaches to
complete a project.
3. Context of the Study

This study was conducted at Songkhla Rajabhat University, Songkhla, Thailand. A total of 49
undergraduate engineering students completed Kolb’s cognitive styles questionnaire (2005) in
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the 2019 academic year. The first year students were the focus of the study because their
detailed information would be beneficial in terms of preparing an online course for having
better language teaching and learning in the long term,
4. Methodology
Participants
The participants in this study were 49 out of 57 first year engineering students (85.96%)
majoring in Logistics Engineering.
Instrument
For the study, Kolb Learning Style Inventory (2005) was used to identify the students’
cognitive styles. This 12-item questionnaire consists of four choices asking the students to rank
sentences which are about their preferred ways while learning.
After distributing the questionnaire to the participants of the study, the raw scores obtained
from the questionnaire were analysed based on the rubric proposed by Kolb (2005). An
example item was given below:
When I learn:
_____ A) I like to deal with my feelings.
_____ B) I like to think about ideas.
_____ C) I like to be doing things.
_____ D) I like to watch and listen.
5. Findings and Discussion

Cognitive Styles among Engineering Students
In this study, in order to identify the cognitive styles of undergraduate engineering students
majoring in Logistics Engineering, the quantitative data obtained from the questionnaire was
analyzed and presented as follows.
Figure 1: Kolb’s cognitive style distributions of engineering students
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Figure 1 shows Kolb’s cognitive style distributions of 49 engineering students. As can be seen,
the highest number of the students are diverger (40.82%, n=20), followed by accommodator
(32.65%, n=16), assimilator (24.49%, n=12), and converger (2.04%, n=1).
When analyzed further, it was found that the first two highest number of the students’ styles,
diverger and accommodator, and the other pair, assimilator and converger, share the same
learning mode (Kolb, 1984). While learning, the first pair (i.e. diverger and accommodator)
highly focuses on having experience in real situations, and the other (i.e. assimilator and
converger) pay attention to using concepts. The pattern of learning-mode sharing revealed from
the current study is consistent with the results shown from previous studies (Hargrove, 2003;
Cagiltay, 2008; Mansor & Ismail, 2012; Parnrod, Darasawang & Wareesiri, 2013; Yigit &
Yigit, 2016). However, more studies which use the detailed characteristics of the students with
different learning styles as a source to support online learning are needed. The implications for
the study, therefore, was presented based on the two pairs sharing the same learning mode.
6. Implications
The findings of the study reveal that most engineering students are diverger, followed by
accommodator, assimilator, and converger. While using online activities, the level of the
students and the context should be considered.
A possible guideline for using online learning for engineering students in the context of
language learning
According to Findings, the students for the study was divided into two groups, Group A
consisting of diverger and accommodator and Group B consisting of assimilator and converger.
Consequently, the implications presented for this part will be relied on the two groups.
A guideline for using online learning for engineering students in the context of language
leraning was summarized based on the challenges of online learning, i) Lack of motivation, ii)
Lack of communication, iii) Lack of quality and iv) Lack of fund, which were mentioned
earlier in Literature Review (see Table 3).
Table 3: Guideline for using online learning for DIVERGERS and ACCOMMODATORS
Challenges Suggested Possible guideline Purpose
Software
Lack of Realtime Board, Use brainstorming activities based To share ideas among the students
motivation IdeaBoardz, on the real situations
Lack of Line, Facebook, Provide ‘consulting sessions’ for To check whether misunderstanding
communication WhatsApp the students occurs between teacher and students
Lack of quality MS Teams, Zoom Use teaching methods, for To make sure the knowledge
Cloud Meetings, example, lecture-based, transferred is clear for the students
Google Meet discussion-based and project-based and can make them meet the course
which depend on the situations objectives
Lack of fund Depend on the students’ budget
Regarding ‘Lack of motivation’, ‘brainstorming activities’ are suggested to stimulate the

students to share ideas while learning by i) asking the students use ‘brain writing’ by having all
of them write their ideas on online board, and ii) adding the topic ‘how to apply the shared
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ideas in the real situations’ for the students in set A (divergers and accommodators) and the
topic ‘reasons’ behind the shared ideas for the students in set B (assimilators and convergers).
In order to reduce’ Lack of communication’, ‘consulting sessions’ are highly necessary for
online learning. It is ‘A Must’ for teachers to provide the session for the students in set A and B
by asking them to report the progress of the assignment they were assigned to check whether
their understanding is in the same direction of teaching intentions. This activity could be
provided individually, in pair and in group. Those depend on different situations. Then in case
any misunderstanding occurs, the teachers would have more opportunity to explain with
appropriate ways for different students, for example, comparing to the real situations for the
students in set A and explained based on reasons for the students in set B.
It is acceptable that while teaching online it is quite hard for teachers to teach each lesson as
seriously as they do in the normal classroom. However, the possible solutions to raise the
quality of online learning for the students in set A and B is about i) checking whether teaching
methods, for example, lecture-based, discussion-based and project-based, are appropriate for
each lesson and fit the students with different styles, for example, discussion-based method
would fit the students in set A and lecture-based method would be the preference of students in
set B, ii) making sure that the knowledge transferred is clear for the students and can make
them meet the course objectives, iii) considering that feedback and availability are strongly
needed by the students (Kolb, 1984; Smidt et al, 2017).
Lack of fund is a point which could affect the created lessons including teaching methods for
online learning. Then teachers should make sure whether the students have an online tool (e.g.
smartphone, notebook and computer) and the Internet while studying. In case the students are
not ready to pay for those, the possible solutions, such as posting the link the students can join
at any time, should be prepared. It should be also noted that having a lack of money would
affect having an effective online learning.
It seems that balancing online activities to fit the students with different learning styles is an
alternative to enhance language learning successfully. Besides, communication is notably one
of the most crucial elements to an effective online course. Interaction, for example, between the
learner and the instructor, the learner and other learners, and the learner and the content, was
also added as a key factor in the success of an online course (Lehman & Conceicao, 2010;
Bettinger, Liu & Loeb, 2016).
7. Conclusion
This study aims at investigating learning styles of Thai undergraduate engineering students
majoring in Logistics Engineering. The findings show that most students are diverger, followed
by accommodator, assimilator, and converger. It seems that different characteristics of the
students with different learning styles could affect their learning process. While teaching, thus,
fruitful activities should be used to fit the students with different preferences. More studies
focusing on a specific objective for different lessons would be needed. This study may be also
extended to explore how to create various group-work activities for the students in the context
of language learning through online learning.
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Ironi Di Sebalik Perkhidmatan Pendermaan Ovum

(Ironies In Ovum Donation Services)
Naziah Binti Abd. Kadir

Fakulti Pendidikan dan Sains Sosial, Universiti Selangor Jalan Timur Tambahan
45600 Bestari Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan
*Pengarang Koresponden: nazya_87@yahoo.com

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Perkahwinan adalah sebagai akad perjanjian untuk menyatukan lelaki dan
perempuan bagi menghalalkan hubungan bertujuan mencapai kebahagiaan yang berkekalan
mengikut garis panduan yang ditetapkan syarak. Islam menekankan faktor penerusan zuriat
yang halal sebagai tujuan utama perkahwinan (Rozumah Baharudin & Rumaya Juhari, 2002).
Namun, tidak semua pasangan suami isteri yang bernasib baik dikurniakan anak secara proses
semula jadi. Kadangkala ketidaksuburan sebelah pihak menghalang proses semula jadi ini
terjadi. Ini adalah suatu realiti yang menyakitkan bagi sesetengah pasangan. Pelbagai cara
yang pastinya akan meraka usahakan demi mendapatkan zuriat. Salah satunya adalah melalui
cara menggunakan ovum yang didermakan oleh penderma. Isu pendermaan ovum sering
dilanda pelbagai kontroversi yang semakin bertambah dari tahun ke tahun yang menyebabkan
banyak isu etika pendermaan ovum masih tidak dapat diselesaikan sehingga ke hari ini. Istilah
pendermaan ovum merujuk kepada kaedah mendermakan ovum seorang wanita yang
berkeupayaan untuk menghasilkan ovum secara sukarela atau dibayar dengan kadar tertentu.
Kaedah pendermaan ovum ini dilakukan kerana seseorang wanita itu tidak boleh hamil
disebabkan pelbagai masalah kesihatan. Namun, kebelakangan ini, kebanyakan wanita
berharta juga turut menggunakan perkhidmatan pendermaan ovum atas faktor mahukan anak
yang mempunyai ciri-ciri tertentu seperti cantik, bijak, berkulit cerah dan sebagainya. Ini
secara tidak langsung menyebabkan wanita yang miskin membuatkan perkhidmatan ini
sebagai suatu kerjaya lubuk duit. Perkhidmatan pendermaan ovum telah mencetuskan banyak
permasalahan di bidang agama dan juga sosial. Permasalahan pertama adalah mengenai
hukum menggunakan ovum pihak lain bagi mendapatkan zuriat. Permasalahan kedua ialah
golongan wanita yang tidak berpendidikan tinggi dan miskin menjadikan perkhidmatan
pendermaan ovum sebagai kerjaya tetap yang memberikan pulangan yang menguntungkan.
Permasalahan seterusnya ialah status dan identiti anak yang dilahirkan melalui kaedah ini.
Melihat kepada permasalahan-permasalahan yang muncul, maka perlunya suatu kajian untuk
membahas tentang isu ini supaya semua pihak mendapat kebaikan dan pencerahan yang
selengkapnya mengenai perkhidmatan pendermaan ovum kepada pasangan suami isteri yang
berhasrat menggunakan perkhidmatan ini ataupun yang telah memiliki zuriat melalui khidmat
pendermaan ovum. Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah kualitatif yang mana pengkaji akan
menjalankan temu bual berstruktur separa bagi memahami makna yang diberikan oleh
responden terhadap fenomena sosial yang berlaku ini.
Kata Kunci: Pendermaan ovum, hukum, kehamilan, kerjaya, lubuk duit, status anak
Abstract: Marriage is a covenant agreement to unite men and women to legalize relationships
aimed at achieving lasting happiness in accordance with Islamic principles. Islam emphasizes
the continuation of the lawful marriage as the primary purpose of marriage (Rozumah
Baharudin & Rumaya Juhari, 2002). However, not all lucky couples are blessed with children
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in the natural process. Sometimes infertility prevents this natural process from happening. This
is a painful reality for some couples. There are a number of ways in which they will certainly
do to get their own child. One of these is through the use of the donor's donated ovum. The
issue of ovum donation is often plagued by a growing number of controversies over the years
that have left many ethical issues of ovum donation unresolved to this day. The term ovum
donation refers to the method of donating a woman's ovum that is capable of voluntarily
producing or being paid at a certain rate. This method of ovum donation is done because a
woman cannot become pregnant due to various health problems. However, most women have
also used ovum donation services for the purpose of looking for children with certain features
such as beautiful, smart, bright skin and so on. This indirectly caused the poor woman to make
this service a lucrative career. The ovum donation service has caused many religious and
social problems. The first issue is whether the law uses the other person's ovum to get child.
The second problem is that poor and uneducated women make ovum donation services a full-
time career that offers lucrative returns. The next problem is the status and identity of the child
born through this method. In view of the issues that arise, there is a need for a study to address
this issue so that all parties have the benefit and enlightenment of ovum donation services to
spouses who wish to use this service or who have had a pregnancy through ovum donation
services. This study uses a qualitative method by which the researcher will conduct semi-
structured interviews to understand the meaning given by the respondents to this social
phenomenon.
Keywords: Ovum donation, law, pregnancy, career, money back, child status
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Pengenalan
Kehadiran anak-anak di dalam rumahtangga dianggap sebagai penyeri yang mengikat kasih
pasangan suami dan isteri. Namun, tidak semua pasangan bertuah untuk mempunyai anak
sendiri disebabkan masalah kesihatan yang tidak dapat dielakkan seperti gangguan pada rahim
atau penyakit kronik seperti kanser atau penyakit jantung.
Walau bagaimanapun, kemajuan dalam teknologi perubatan telah memberi harapan baru
kepada pasangan yang tidak bernasib baik ini. Masalah kesihatan atau ketidaksuburan bukan
lagi hal yang perlu dirisaukan. Jika tidak dapat memiliki zuriat dengan cara semulajadi,
bantuan teknologi boleh membantu. Perkembangan ini dilihat sebagai berita baik kepada
pasangan yang telah lama mengimpikan untuk mempunyai anak sendiri walaupun tidak dapat
melakukannya secara alami.
Salah satu prosedur untuk menjayakan proses kehamilan melalui bantuan teknologi ini adalah
pendermaan ovum. Prosedur ini merujuk kepada proses menyedut cecair daripada folikel dan
disalurkan ke dalam tabung uji yang seterusnya diserahkan kepada ahli embriologi untuk
diperiksa. Ovum-ovum tersebut kemudiannya diletakkan ke dalam piring makmal yang
mengandungi media kultur sebelum disimpan ke dalam inkubator yang diselaraskan pada suhu
badan.
Sperma pasangan kemudiannya akan diproses. Hanya sperma yang baik sahaja akan diambil.
Dalam kaedah persenyawaan in-vitro, ovum akan diletakkan bersama sekumpulan sperma
untuk membolehkan persenyawaan semulajadi berlaku. Manakala bagi kaedah suntikan
sperma, ovum akan dibersihkan lalu disuntik dengan sperma yang dianggap normal dan hidup.
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Pendermaan ovum lazimnya diperlukan apabila si isteri atau wanita yang mahu hamil tidak
dapat menghasilkan telur sendiri untuk disenyawakan. Oleh itu, mereka memerlukan wanita
atau gadis lain yang sudi mendermakan ovum untuk disenyawakan bersama sperma suami atau
pasangan mereka. Pendermaan ovum ini tidaklah berlaku atas dasar ‘derma’ semata-mata.
Sebaliknya melibatkan transaksi urusniaga di antara penderma (atau agensi yang menguruskan
pendermaan ovum) dengan pasangan yang memerlukan ovum tersebut.
Memetik kenyataan yang disiarkan di freemalaysiatoday.com, di Malaysia kebanyakan

penderma ovum adalah terdiri daripada graduan yang memiliki ijazah serta berusia antara 21
hingga 32 tahun. Ada juga penderma dari kalangan profesional seperti doktor, peguam dan
akauntan.
Secara umumnya, setiap penderma ovum berhasrat untuk membantu wanita lain yang
mempunyai keinginan memiliki anak namun tidak berupaya untuk berbuat demikian kerana
pelbagai alasan. Walau bagaimanapun, mereka tetap diberikan ganjaran atau upah yang
dipersetujui bagi menghargai bantuan yang diberikan. Jumlah sebenar ganjaran kepada
penderma ovum tidak dinyatakan dengan jelas. Tetapi jika dilihat kepada caj bagi prosedur
persenyawaan in-vitro yang adakala mencecah RM50,000.00 yang merangkumi upah kepada
penderma ovum dan prosedur lain, dapat dianggarkan ganjarannya agak lumayan juga.
Terdapat beberapa keadaan yang menyebabkan seseorang wanita perlu mendapatkan bantuan
melalui kaedah pendermaan ovum. Antaranya ialah
• kegagalan ovari di mana proses menopaus berlaku lebih awal dari sepatutnya
(kebiasaannya di usia awal 40 tahun).
• ovum yang terhasil tidak berkualiti, lazimnya disebabkan faktor umur yang telah
meningkat atau masalah kesuburan.
• wanita tersebut mempunyai masalah kesihatan berkait dengan genetik yang mungkin akan
diwarisi oleh anak yang bakal dikandungkan.
• pernah mengalami kegagalan dalam prosedur persenyawaan in-vitro, terutamanya apabila
doktor merasakan punca kegagalan tersebut adalah disebabkan keadaan ovum yang tidak
sesuai.
Penggunaan kaedah pendermaan ovum telah menjadi perkara biasa, lebih-lebih lagi di kalangan
wanita berusia melebihi 40 tahun yang mahukan anak. Pada tahun 2010 sahaja, sebanyak 11%
prosedur persenyawaan in-vitro adalah menggunakan ovum dari penderma.
2. Permasalahan Kajian
Kemajuan dalam teknologi adakalanya mempunyai kesan sampingan yang memudaratkan.
Begitu juga tidak terkecuali bagi isu pendermaan ovum ini. Walaupun prosedur pendermaan
ovum telah banyak membantu pasangan yang mahukan anak, namun di sebalik kejayaan
tersebut ada masalah yang perlu diberi perhatian.
Isu hukum bagi umat Islam yang mahu menggunakan kaedah ini, risiko kesihatan yang perlu
dihadapi oleh penderma serta isu sosial seperti menjadikan aktiviti menderma ovum sebagai
jalan mudah mendapatkan wang adalah sebahagian daripada masalah yang akan dibincangkan.
Terdapat tiga permasalahan utama yang akan dibincangkan iaitu hukum menggunakan ovum
pihak lain bagi mendapatkan zuriat, golongan wanita yang tidak berpendidikan tinggi dan
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miskin menjadikan perkhidmatan pendermaan ovum sebagai kerjaya tetap yang memberikan
pulangan yang menguntungkan serta status anak dan identiti anak yang dilahirkan melalui
kaedah ini.
Permasalahan Di Sebalik
Perkhidmatan Pendermaan Ovum
Hukum dari segi agama Pendermaan ovum Status dan identiti anak
dan undang-undang sebagai kerjaya lubuk duit yang dilahirkan
Rajah 1 : Permasalahan kajian yang akan dibincangkan
2.1 Hukum Pendermaan Ovum

Islam tidak menghalang pasangan yang mahukan anak daripada berusaha. Namun terdapat
beberapa garis panduan yang perlu dipatuhi agar kesucian setiap anak itu dapat dipelihara. Hal
ini bukan sahaja demi menjaga nasab keturunan sesebuah keluarga Islam, malah penting demi
memelihara kesucian Islam itu sendiri.
Islam telah menetapkan jika sesuatu proses persenyawaan in-vitro ingin dilakukan, maka
sperma dan ovum yang akan disenyawakan mestilah daripada pasangan suami isteri yang sah
sahaja. Sperma dan ovum yang telah disenyawakan pula mestilah dimasukkan ke dalam rahim
si isteri tersebut bagi membolehkan kehamilan berlaku secara semulajadi.
Ovum yang telah disenyawakan tidak boleh dimasukkan ke dalam rahim wanita lain (ibu
tumpang). Haram hukumnya. Persenyawaan dari sperma atau ovum penderma juga tidak
dibenarkan di dalam Islam.
Ibnu Abbas meriwayatkan bahawa Rasulullah s.a.w pernah bersabda,

“Siapa sahaja yang menghubungkan nasab kepada orang yang bukan ayahnya atau seorang
hamba bertuan (taat) kepada selain tuannya, maka dia akan mendapat laknat dari Allah, para
malaikat dan seluruh manusia.” Hadis riwayat Ibnu Majjah.
Dari segi undang-undang sivil di Malaysia, masih tidak ada undang-undang khas berkaitan isu
pendermaan ovum ini. Juga tidak terdapat sebarang statistic yang dapat menunjukkan jumlah
kes berkaitan. Namun begitu, terdapat beberapa Negara di dunia yang membenarkan
perlaksanaan pendermaan ovum secara sah. Ini termasuklah di India, Thailand, Amerika
Syarikat, Rusia, Georgia dan Ukraine.
2.2 Pendermaan Ovum Sebagai Kerjaya Lubuk Duit

Menurut sebuah forum di internet iaitu carigold.com, terdapat pihak tertentu yang membeli
ovum wanita sebelum dijualkan dengan harga yang tinggi kepada pasangan yang memerlukan.
Akhbar Sinchew Daily melaporkan bahawa surirumah dan wanita bujang berusia di antara 18
hingga 28 tahun direkrut untuk menjadi penderma ovum.
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Setiap penderma yang berjaya mendermakan ovum akan menerima ganjaran sebanyak
RM4,500 sebagai penghargaan bagi pengorbanan mereka. Aktiviti jual beli ovum ini dijadikan
peluang untuk mengaut keuntungan yang banyak oleh sesetengah pihak, walaupun niat asalnya
adalah untuk membantu pasangan yang tidak mampu memiliki anak secara semulajadi.
Pendermaan ovum secara dasarnya tidak menyalahi undang-undang namun tetap menimbulkan
perbalahan dari segi moral dan etika masyarakat.
Melihat kepada ekonomi yang tidak menentu, kos sara hidup yang semakin tinggi dan
keinginan untuk hidup mewah akan mendorong golongan wanita yang miskin ataupun tidak
untuk terlibat dengan perkhidmatan pendermaan ovum kerana imbuhan lumayan yang diterima
setiap kali pendermaan ovum dijalankan.
Dahulu, wanita muda memilih pekerjaan seperti escort girl atau call girl untuk mendapatkan
pendapatan lumayan. Ada yang melakukannya kerana mahu membantu keluarga di kampong,
menampung perbelanjaan bulanan dan mahu menikmati kehidupan mewah. Jika undang-
undang mengenai perkhidmatan pendermaan ovum tidak diberi perhatian, bimbang suatu masa
nanti wanita muda terutamanya yang telah berkahwin dan melahirkan anak akan memilih
kerjaya ini sebagai sumber pendapatan mudah mereka. Lebih-lebih lagi jika wanita-wanita ini
berkahwin dengan pasangan yang kurang berkemampuan untuk memenuhi kehendak mereka.
2.3 Status dan Identiti Anak Yang Dilahirkan

Ketidaktentuan status dan identiti anak merupakan permasalahan paling berat yang dirisaukan
oleh banyak pihak apabila menyentuh tentang isu pendermaan ovum. Seorang wanita
berbangsa Inggeris mendermakan ovumnya kepada wanita berbangsa India. Terdapat
kekeliruan bangsa di situ dan ada juga kemungkinan di mana penderma ovum adalah di
kalangan adik beradik atau sanak saudara sendiri.
Kerosakan yang ketara dalam perlaksanaan pendermaan ovum adalah percampuran nasab. Di
mana anak yang terhasil itu bukanlah anak yang sah dan di luar perkahwinan di antara ibu dan
ayahnya.
3. Perbincangan dan Kesimpulan

Walaupun perkhidmatan pendermaan ovum dapat memberikan sinar harapan baru kepada
pasangan yang tidak mampu memiliki anak secara semulajadi, namun ianya turut
meninggalkan kesan negatif yang agak serius. Persoalan mengenai hukum sahaja telah
menjelaskan banyak hal mengapa perkara ini diharamkan dalam Islam. Ianya mencemarkan
kemurnian institusi keluarga serta melanggar etika kemanusiaan.
Selain itu, terdapat juga beberapa risiko atau kesan sampingan yang mungkin menjejaskan
keadaan kesihatan penderma ovum. Di antara risiko tersebut adalah seperti:
• Pendarahan yang mungkin berlaku akibat penggunaan jarum semasa proses

mengeluarkan ovum.
• Penggunaan ubat kesuburan yang berisiko memberi kesan terhadap pertambahan berat
badan, perubahan mood, tekanan pada bahagian perut, sakit kepala, alergi, Ovarian
Hyper-Stimulation Syndrome (OHSS) yang boleh jadi serius sehingga perlu dimasukkan
ke hospital.
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• Hyper-stimulation boleh mengakibatkan pertambahan cecair dalam abdomen atau saluran

pernafasan, kegagalan buah pinggang atau strok. Risiko untuk kehilangan salah satu atau
kedua-dua ovari juga boleh terjadi sekiranya berlaku hyper-stimulation dalam prosedur
pendermaan ovum.
• Potensi untuk mendapat komplikasi serius seperti pendarahan, jangkitan kuman dan
kecederaan pada salur darah. Ada keadaan di mana penderma ovum perlu dibedah bagi
merawat kecederaan organ atau mengurangkan kesan pendarahan dalaman.
• Kesakitan pada bahagian abdomen akibat daripada perubahan tumbesaran ovari, sakit
ketika melakukan senaman atau ketika bergerak sangat biasa berlaku kepada penderma
ovum.
Walau bagaimanapun, ketika ini masih tidak ada kajian yang membuktikan aktiviti pendermaan
ovum boleh menyumbang kepada masalah ketidaksuburan di masa hadapan atau menyebabkan
penderma mendapat kanser atau mana-mana penyakit jangka panjang yang lain.
Rujukan
https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/bahasa/2019/10/29/graduan-malaysia-antara-
penderma-ovum-ivf-kata-ejen-penuhi-impian-warga-singapura/
http://citutrg.blogspot.com/2007/12/bayi-tabung-uji-menurut-sains.html?m=1
https://www.webmd.com/infertility-and-reproduction/guide/donor-eggs-in-fertility-treatments
https://mykhilafah.com/sn129-bank-sperma-apakah-ukuran-sensitiviti-umat-islam/
https://www.eggdonoramerica.com/become-egg-donor/donor-egg-risks-complications
https://carigold.com/forum/threads/jual-beli-ovum-melalui-internet-penderma-terima-rm4-
500.633691/
https://www.imedik.org/kaedah-bantuan-reproduksi-antara-sains-dan-agama/
https://newmalaysianpost.com/2016/06/06/jual-ovum-melalui-internet/
https://www.klik.com.my/item/story/5926143/warga-malaysia-turut-derma-ovum
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracytoplasmic_sperm_injection
In vitro fertilisation – Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation
Zainal Kling, The Anthropological Study of Genealogy, dalam Genealogy and Preservation
of Progeny: An Islamic Perspective, (Kuala Lumpur: MPH Publishing Sdn.
Bhd., 2006), 37 dan lihat US History Encyclopedia serta Columbia Encyclopedia di
http://www.answers.com/topic/surrogate- mother?cat-biz-fin
Prof. Dr. Abu Bakar Majid, Biopharmacueticals in Preserving the Progeny, Geneology
and Preservation of the Progeny: An Islamic Perspective, (2006), 168
Annas, G.J and Elias, S., In Vitro Fertilisation and Embryo Transfer: Medico-Legal Aspects of
A New Technique To Create A Family, Family Law Quarterly, (1993), 199-233
In re Baby M., 109 N.J. 396, 537 A.2d 1227
The First Contest Surrogacy Case: The Story of Baby M – Family Source Surrogacy &
Egg Donation Agency https://www.familysourcesurrogacy.com/first- contested-
surrogacy-case-story-baby-m/
Baby M – Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby_M
Prof. Madya Dr. Siti Nuraini Mohamed Nor, Ethical Issues in Artificial Reproductive
Techniques, dalam pembentangan kertas kerja International Seminar on Genealogy
and Preservation of The Progeny, pada 27-28 April 2004
Hukum-dan-hubungan-nasabnya-dalam-perspektif-hukum-islam.pdf
https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/42561-ID-bayi-tabung-status-
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Qardawi, Muhammad Yusuf Al-. 1990. Halal dan Haram dalam Islam. alih bahasa Muhammad
Hamidy. Surabaya: Bina Ilmu
Syaltut, Mahmud. Tanpa Tahun. Al-Fatawa. Mesir: Darul Qalam
Soal Jawab Berkenaan Masalah Pembekuan Embrio Dan Penentuan Jenis Jantina Anak –
Hizbut Tahrir Malaysia https://mykhilafah.com/soal-jawab-berkenaan- masalah-
pembekuan-embrio-dan-penentuan-jenis-jantina-anak/
Hukum Percampuran Sperma Orang Lain yang Tidak Suaminya | Islamic Centre
http://multazam-einstein.blogspot.com/2013/01/hukum-percampuran-sperma-orang-
lain.html
Dr. Yusuf al-Qaradhawi, Islam Teras Tamadun Masa Depan, (Kuala Lumpur: Institut
Terjemahan Negara,1998), 61-67.
Khauli, D. (2011). Ta'jir Al-Arham fi Fiqh Al-Islami. Majalah Jami'ah Dimsyik Lil Ulum Al-
Iqtishadiyah Wal Qanuniyah, 27 (3), 279
Salim. (1993). Bayi Tabung, Tinjauan Aspek Hukum. Jakarta: Sinar Grafika
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Kesan Rantaian Bekalan Sepanjang Perintah Kawal Pergerakan-

Satu Ulasan
(Impact Supply Chain During Movement Control Order)
M.H. Norhidayah1*, H.Y. Ahmad Mujahideen2

1
Jabatan Muamalat, Kolej Islam Antarabangsa Sultan Ismail Petra, Kota Bharu, Kelantan
2
Jabatan Usuluddin, Kolej Islam Antarabangsa Sultan Ismail Petra, Kota Bharu, Kelantan
*Pengarang Koresponden: norhidayah169@gmail.com

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Pada akhir tahun 2019, dunia dikejutkan dengan kemunculan virus Covid-19. Virus
ini memberikan impak kepada seluruh dunia dalam pelbagai sector seperti pelancongan,
perindustrtian, pembinaan dan sebagainya. Hal ini termasuklah mempengaruhi rantaian
bekalan kepada sektor-sektor berkenaan. Kajian ini secara ringkasnya mengulas antara kesan
perintah kawalan kawalan pergerakan serta pengurusan risikonya. Sebagai kesimpulannya,
rantaian bekalan secara digital seharusnya diperkenalkan memandang dunia masih
menghadapi krisis ini. Sekali gus ianya tidak akan merencatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi Negara.
Kata Kunci: rantaian bekalan, pengurusan, risiko, perintah kawalan pergerakan.
Abstract: : At the end of 2019, the world is shocked by the emergence of the Covid-19 virus.
This virus has an impact on the world in various sectors such as tourism, architecture,
construction and more. This includes affecting the supply chain to these sectors. This study
briefly reviews the effects of movement control commands. In conclusion, the digital supply
chain should be introduced as the world is still in crisis. It would not impede the growth of the
economy.
Keywords: supply chain, risk management, movement control order

____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Pengenalan
Rangkaian bekalan merujuk kepada rangkaian yang terdiri daripada rangkaian syarikat yang
terlibat dalam pembuatan dan penyampaian produk atau perkhidmatan kepada pelanggan akhir
(Mentzer et al. 2001; Wisner, Leong & Tan 2005). Ringkasnya, rantaian bekalan merangkumi
langkah-langkah yang diambil untuk mendapatkan barang atau perkhidmatan dari pembekal
kepada pelanggan. Objektif utama rantaian bekalan adalah untuk mencipta nilai dari segi
kualiti, kos, kelajuan dan fleksibiliti kepada pelanggan akhir dan juga syarikat dalam rantaian
(Chow et al. 2008; Walters & Lancaster 1999; Wisner, Leong & Tan 2005 ). Pelbagai faedah
pengurusan rantaian bekalan bersepadu telah dicadangkan dalam kajian sebelumnya.
Pengurusan rantaian bekalan yang bersepadu akan meningkatkan keupayaan untuk merancang
produk dengan lebih cepat (Ajmera & Cook 2009), membawa kepada pengurangan kos
(Management Accounting Committee,1999), stok dan masa tamat (Talib, Rahman & Qureshi
2011), peningkatan keberkesanan perkhidmatan dan kecekapan kos (Richey et al. 2010) dan
ketepatan ramalan yang lebih baik dan pengurangan masa kitaran tunai ke tunai (Katunzi
2011).
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2. Ulasan Kajian Lepas

Coronavirus yang baru dikenal pasti pertama kali dilihat di Wuhan, ibu kota China tengah
Hubei, pada 31 Disember 2019. Pada akhir Februari 2020, hampir 90,000 orang telah dijangkiti
oleh virus, yang menyebabkan lebih dari 3.000 kematian. Walaupun terdapat banyak usaha
untuk mencegah penyebaran virus, termasuk larangan perjalanan ke dan dari lapan bandar di
wilayah Hubei. COVID-19 telah tersebar di peringkat global. Lebih 65 negara kini melaporkan
kes positif, dengan ketara semakin banyak kes positif di Korea Selatan, Itali, Jepun, dan Iran.
Lebih 10 peratus kes positif, dan berkembang, kini berada di luar China membahayakan
komuniti, ekosistem, dan rantaian bekalan yang lain. Dibericiri virus ini, dan pergerakan
manusia secara global, membendung sangat sukar. Kesan penuh COVID-19 pada rantaian
bekalan masih belum diketahui, dengan ramalan paling optimis yang meramalkan "normal" di
China kembali menjelang April. Namun, satu perkara pasti - ia akan mempunyai ekonomi dan
kewangan globalkesan yang akan dirasakan melalui rantaian bekalan global, dari bahan mentah
hingga produk siap Kajian lepas adalah pencarian dan penilaian kajian-kajian yang terdahulu di
dalam ruang lingkup topik anda.
3. Perbincangan dan Kesimpulan

Rantaian bekalan telah menjadi sangat canggih dan penting untuk daya saing banyak
syarikat.Tetapi sifat global mereka yang saling berkaitan juga menjadikan mereka semakin
terdedah kepada pelbagai risiko, dengan lebih banyak titik kegagalan yang berpotensi dan
margin kesalahan yang kurang untuk menghapuskan kelewatan dan gangguan. Fokus selama
puluhan tahun pada pengoptimuman rantaian bekalan untuk mengurangkan kos, mengurangkan
inventori, dan meningkatkan penggunaan aset telah dihapuskan. COVID-19 menggambarkan
berapa banyak syarikat yang mungkin tidak sepenuhnya menghargai kerentanan mereka
terhadap kejutan global hubungan rantaian bekalan mereka.
Pandangan tradisional rantaian bekalan linier dan mengoptimumkan untuk perniagaan berubah
menjadi rangkaian bekalan digital (DSN) di mana berfungsi dipecahkan dalam organisasi dan
disambungkan ke rangkaian bekalan penuh untuk membolehkan penglihatan akhir, kolaborasi,
responsif, ketangkasan, dan pengoptimuman. Semakin banyak rangkaian bekalan digital ini
sedang dibina dan dirancang untuk menjangkakan gangguan dan mengkonfigurasi semula diri
mereka dengan betul untuk mengurangkankesan masing-masing.
Kemajuan dalam maklumat dan komunikasi teknologi membuat evolusi rantaian bekalan lebih
mungkin. Teknologi seperti IOT, cloud pengkomputeran, 5G, AI, percetakan 3D, dan robotik
semuanya penting untuk membolehkan rangkaian bekalan digital masa depan. Pada masa yang
sama, persekitaran perniagaan yang tidak menentu menjadikannya lebih mustahak. Sama ada
COVID-19, perang perdagangan, tindakan perang atau keganasan, perubahan peraturan,
pertikaian buruh, lonjakan permintaan untuk produk tertentu di wilayah tertentu, atau
kebankrapan pembekal, syarikat untuk bergantung pada yang tidak dijangka.
Perincian cara membuat rangkaian bekalan digital akan berbeza dari sektor industri ke sektor
dan bahkansyarikat ke syarikat. Walau bagaimanapun, bekalan digital rangkaian tidak hanya
harus diselaraskan dengan strategi perniagaan setelah ia ditetapkan, tetapi menjadi penting
dalam perumusannya. Dan,pengurusan risiko akan menjadi elemen penting dari itu reka
bentuk, seperti pengurusan risiko dan kesinambungan perniagaanjuga merupakan elemen
integral strategi perniagaan secara keseluruhan.Dari perspektif pengurusan risiko, kuncinya
adalahuntuk membina rantaian bekalan yang berdaya tahan yang bukan sahaja berusahauntuk
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mengurangkan risiko tetapi juga bersedia untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan cepat dan pulih dari
mana-mana rantaian bekalan yang tidak dijangka gangguan yang berlaku.
Rujukan
Ajmera, A., & Cook, J. (2009). A multi-phase framework for supply chain integration. SAM
Advanced Management Journal, 74(1), 37.
Chow, W. S., Madu, C. N., Kuei, C. H., Lu, M. H., Lin, C., & Tseng, H. (2008). Supply chain
management in the US and Taiwan: An empirical study. Omega, 36(5), 665-679.
Jazayeri, M., & Hopper, T. (1999). Management accounting within world class manufacturing:
a case study. Management Accounting Research, 10(3), 263-301.
Katunzi, T. M. (2011). Obstacles to process integration along the supply chain: manufacturing
firms perspective. International Journal of Business and Management, 6(5), 105
Mentzer, J. T., DeWitt, W., Keebler, J. S., Min, S., Nix, N. W., Smith, C. D., & Zacharia, Z. G.
(2001). Defining supply chain management. Journal of Business logistics, 22(2), 1-
25.
Radzi, R., Saidon, I. M., & Ab Ghani, N. (2015). Overcoming barriers of food supply chain in
Malaysia by Japanese food companies. Research Journal of Business and
Management, 2(3), 380-400.
Talib, F., & Rahman, Z. (2010). Integrating total quality management and supply chain
management: Similarities and benefits. Journal of Information Technology and
Economic Development, 1(1), 53.
Walters, D., & Lancaster, G. (1999). Value and information–concepts and issues for
management. Management Decision.
Wisner, J. D., Tan, K. C., & Leong, G. K. (2014). Principles of supply chain management: A
balanced approach. Cengage Learning.
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Penerimaan Sistem Pembayaran Tanpa Tunai (RFID) Dalam

Pembelian Dan Pembayaran Di Pusat Beli Belah
Muhamad Nur Iqmal Bin Mohd Ismail, Ishak Abd Rahman, Abdulah Sanusi Othman
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Dengan kemudahan teknologi yang serba canggih dan moden, segala maklumat
yang diperlukan menjadi lebih pantas dan effisien. Apabila sistem pembayaran tanpa tunai
(RFID) diperkenalkan, segalanya menjadi mudah. Sehubungan itu, kajian ini bertujuan untuk
mengkaji sejauh mana penerimaan RFID ini dalam pembelian dan pembayaran ketika membeli
belah di sekitar Lembah Klang. Faktor-faktor ini dikaji berdasarkan menggunakan model
theory acceptance model (TAM) iaitu kebekerkesanan diri, persepsi kegunaan, persepsi
kemudahan penggunaan dan persepsi risiko mempengaruhi niat kepada kegunaan. Kajian soal
selidik telah diedarkan dan seramai 304 responden telah memberi kerjasama dengan
menjawab borang soal selidik tersebut. Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa hanya dua daripada
pembolehubah menunjukkan hubungan yang positif kepada pembolehubah bersandar iaitu
persepsi kegunaan dan persepsi kemudahan penggunaan mempunyai hubungan yang positif
terhadap niat untuk kegunaan hasil daripada keputusan yang signifikan dimana dua
pembolehubah tidak bersandar tersebut mencatatkan 0.00<0.05. Dua lagi pembolehubah tidak
bersandar iaitu keberkesanan diri dan persepsi risiko tidak boleh digunapakai keputusannya
kerana mencatatkan melebihi 0.05. Hal ini mungkin disebabkan oleh responden kurang faham
tentang soalan tersebut atau berlakunya ketidaktelusan dalam menjawab soal selidik yang
diberikan.
Kata Kunci: RFID,keberkesanan diri,persepsi kegunaan,persepsi kemudahan penggunaan,

perspesi risiko, niat untuk kegunaan.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Pengenalan
Sejak beberapa tahun kebelakangan ini, pengenalan teknologi frekuensi radio (RFID) telah
dijadikan sebagai alat utama dalam sistem pembayaran di Malaysia. Hal ini bertujuan untuk
meningkatkan kecekapan pembayaran. Secara amnya, teknologi frekuensi radio (RFID) ialah
merujuk kepada teknologi di mana data digital yang dikodkan dalam tag RFID atau label pintar
ditangkap oleh pembaca melalui gelombang radio. RFID adalah serupa dengan bar kod dalam
data dari tag atau label yang ditangkap oleh peranti yang menyimpan data dalam pangkalan
data. RFID mempunyai beberapa kelebihan berbanding sistem yang menggunakan perisian
pengesanan aset bar kod. Yang paling ketara adalah bahawa data tag RFID boleh dibaca di luar
garis pandangan, sedangkan bar kod harus selari dengan imbasan optik. Hampir kesemua
sektor seperti perbankan , peruncitan dan sebagainya menggunakan RFID secara menyeluruh.
Dalam hal ini, setiap pengguna tidak perlu lagi membawa wang yang banyak untuk berbelanja
,hanya memerlukan kad untuk melakukan sebarang pembayaran.
Penyataan masalah
Semua pihak ingin menjimatkan masa dalam segala urusan tidak kira untuk kepentingan
peribadi mahupun kepentingan orang lain. Untuk menjadikan sesebuah urusan itu mudah, ia
memerlukan kerjasama yang baik antara pihak iaitu pihak yang memberi kemudahan/servis dan
juga pihak yang menggunakan servis tersebut. Sekiranya kerjasama dapat direalisasikan ,
segala bentuk urusan dapat diselesaikan dengan mudah , pantas dan sistematik.Di era
globalisasi ini, segala urusan dikendalikan dengan menggunakan mesin. Hal ini bertujuan
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untuk memudahkan segala pengguna untuk melakukan segala urusan. Tidak ada lagi sistem
yang perlu semua manusia untuk beratur di kaunter. Walaupun masih ada sistem giliran
digunakan, tetapi semakin banyak juga sistem yang menggunakan laman sesawang dan juga
aplikasi yang boleh digunakan di mana-mana sahaja. Akan tetapi segala hal yang menggunakan
mesin pasti akan menimbulkan pelbagai persepsi terhadap sistem tersebut. Mesin yang
digunakan rosak, sistem aplikasi menjadi lembab, mudah digodam merupakan antara persepsi
negatif yang menjadi kerisauan pengguna dalam hal ini.
Persoalan kajian
1. Apakah faktor yang menyumbang kepada penerimaan RFID dalam pembelian dan
pembayaran di pusat beli belah?
2. Adakah sistem RFID memudahkan pengguna untuk melakukan pembayaran semasa
pembelian dibuat ?
Objektif Kajian
Secara umumnya, kajian ini dijalankan untuk melihat sejauh mana penerimaan pengguna
terhadap sistem pembayaran tanpa tunai (RFID) digunakan di pusat beli belah.
2. Kajian literatur
Sistem pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID boleh didefinisikan sebagai sistem yang membolehkan
pengguna untuk mewujudkan akaun yang dipautkan ke peranti RFID (cth. gelang lengan, kad,
rantai kunci atau bilik hotelkunci) yang boleh digunakan untuk membuat pembelian dengan
hanya melambai melalui POS yang dibolehkan RFID stesen kerja di mana-mana lokasi yang
menyokong pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID (Muta, 2006).Pada masa ini, pelbagai jenis sistem
pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID tersedia di pasaranyang berbeza dalam ciri teknikal dan kawasan
permohonan mereka. Walau bagaimanapun, salah satu cara utama dan biasa untuk
mengkategorikan sistem pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID adalah berdasarkan jumlah mata
penerimaan yang ditawarkan kepada pengguna akhir. Dari perspektif ini, RFID,sistem
pembayaran tanpa tunai boleh dikelompokkan di bawah dua kategori yang luas: gelung
terbukasistem dan sistem gelung tertutup.Sistem RFID gelung terbuka menghubungkan peranti
pembayaran (mis. Kad yang dibenamkan dengan RFIDcip) secara langsung kepada kad kredit
atau kad debit pengguna (sebagai alternatif, pengguna boleh menyediakan akaun prabayar yang
mereka isi semula melalui pos, dalam talian atau di lokasi saudagar pilih.) Kepada membuat
pembelian, pengguna hanya menggerakkan kad RFID mereka ke atas pengimbas di mana-mana
peruncit yang menyokong pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID (BTD International Consulting,
2012). Guritakad yang dilancarkan pada tahun 1997 di Hong Kong adalah contoh yang baik
bagi gelung terbuka Sistem RFID. Terutamanya selepas skop transaksinya melebar pada tahun
2000, pengguna kini boleh menggunakan kad Octopus bukan sahaja untuk pengangkutan
tempatan seperti untuk membayar perjalananferi, kereta api atau bas, tetapi juga untuk
pembelian di kedai serbaneka, pasar raya danrestoran makanan segera (Lok, 2004).Berbeza
dengan sistem gelung terbuka, sistem RFID gelung tertutup direka bentuk untuk
diterimapembayaran tanpa tunai secara eksklusif di harta tanah masing-masing (mis. hotel dan
taman tema)atau tempat. (BTD International Consulting, 2012). Pada pendaftaran, pengguna
(tetamu) ditetapkanup akaun yang dikaitkan dengan peranti pembayaran (cth. gelang lengan
atau kunci bilik denganCip RFID di atasnya) yang boleh digunakan untuk membuat pembelian
dengan melambaiya melalui RFIDtitik jualan (POS) stesen kerja di mana-mana dalam harta
benda (Ozturk et al, 2012). Inhotel, sebagai contoh, tetamu disediakan dengan kunci bilik yang
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dibolehkan RFID atau gelang lenganpada pendaftaran dan mempunyai pilihan menggunakan
peranti ini untuk membuat bayaran teruske bilik mereka (Rock, 2007)
Rajah: Kerangka Konseptual
3. Metadologi Kajian
Berdasarkan kepada penelitian terhadap kajian-kajian yang lepas, kaedah yang digunakan
untuk melakukan penyelidikan adalah sama iaitu satu kajian kuantitatif yang berbentuk
tinjauan. Kajian sebelum ini tertumpu kepada pengunaan RFID itu sahaja tetapi kajian yang
ingin dilakukan tertumpu pada bidang penghospitalan.Instrumen yang digunakan adalah soal
silidik yang telah diubah suai daripada beberapa kajian oleh pengkaji-pengkaji yang lepas. Soal
selidik ini diedarkan secara rawak menggunakan Google Form. Data kajian diperoleh
sepenuhnya daripada soal selidik. Soal selidik digubah supaya dapat memenuhi objektif kajian
ini. Borang soal selidik dibahagikan kepada 6 bahagian. Bahagian 1 terdiri daripada demografi
responden iaitu umur, jantina dan pekerjaan. Bahagian 2 mempunyai mempunyai 4 soalan
tentang faktor penerimaan RFID dalam bidang penghospitalan dan 1 soalan mengenai benarkan
RFID memudahkan pengguna. Setiap item dalam bahagian ini diukur dengan menggunakan
skala seperti dibawah:
Rajah 1 : Skala Jawapan Soal Selidik

1 2 3 4 5
Sangat Tidak
Tidak Setuju Neutral Setuju Sangat Setuju
Setuju
Kaedah Persampelan.
Bagi persampelan pula , kajian ini telah dilakukan di sekitar Lembah Klang sahaja. Hasil
daripada soal selidik yang diedarkan secara rawak melalui google form memberikan jumlah
sebanyak 304 responden. Soal selidik kajian telah dijawab oleh reponden berdasarkan
pandangan mereka menggunakan sistem RFID dalam sektor penghospitalan. Menurut
Noraini(2013), dalam persampelan rawak mudah setiap ahli populasi mempunyai peluang yang
sama untuk dipilih sebagai sampel. Bilangan sampel yang diperoleh melebihi jumalah yang
diperlukan iaitu sebanyak 100 responden sebagai diperlukan oleh teknik pensampelan
kebarangkalian, menunjukkan bahawa ia boleh dianalisis dengan menggunakan statistik
kesimpulan.
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4. Penemuan Kajian
4.1 Demografi
Daripada soal selidik yang telah diedarkan , jumlah responden ialah seramai 304 orang.
Berdasarkan soal selidik, demografi responden telah di analisis oleh pengguna RFID dalam
membeli dan membuat pembayaran di pusat beli belah. Jadual 1 menunjukkan bahawa
responden wanita adalah sebanyak (52.6%) manakala lelaki sebanyak (47.4%). Dari segi
faktor umur, majority yang menjawab adalah golongan yang berumur 22 – 25 tahun iaitu
sebanyak (28%) diikuti 30 tahun dan ke atas (25.3),18-21 tahun (24%) dan 26-29 tahun
(22.7%). Mengikut faktor pekerjaan pula , majoriti adalah dari golongan pekerja dalam sektor
swasta iaitu sebanyak (33.2%) diikuti oleh pekerja dalam sektor awam (24.7%), golongan
pelajar (24.3%) dan bekerja sendiri (17.8%).
Jadual 1: Demografi responden (n=304)

Responden demografi Sub-profil Peratusan
Jantina Lelaki 47.4

Perempuan 52.6
Umur 18 – 21 tahun 24
22 – 25 tahun 28
26 – 29 tahun 22.7
30 tahun dan ke atas 25.3
Pekerjaan Bekerja sendiri 17.8

Pelajar 24.3
Sektor Awam 24.7
Sektor Swasta 33.2
Model pengukuran
Jadual 2 menunjukkan keputusan kebolehkepercayaan dan kesahan instrumen. Kajian soal
selidik ini terdiri daripada 16 elemen yang melibatkan empat aspek yang melibatkan 4
pembolehubah: keberkesanan diri(6),persepsi kegunaan(4),persepsi kemudahan
oengguna(3)dan persepsi risiko(3). Analisis faktor dengan putaran oblimin langsung dilakukan
untuk empat pemboleh ubah yang lemibatkan kesemua 16 elemen. Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin Test
(KMO) mengukur kecukupan pengukuran dilakukan untuk setiap pembolehubah dengan
keputusan yang boleh diterima. Hasil statistic menunjukkan bahawa (1) setiap pembolehubah
yang digunakan melebihi nilai penerimaan yang Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin dari 0.6,(2) setiap
pembolehubah yang digunakan menandakan pentingnya ujian Bartlett tentang sphericity,(3)
setiap pembolehubah yang digunakan nilai eigen yang lebih besar daripada 1,(4) setiap elemen
untuk setiap pembolehubah yang digunakan melepasi faktor 0.40 (Hair et al., 2010) ,dan (5)
dua pembolehubah yang digunakan melepasi standard yang boleh diterima iaitu 0.70 untuk
analisis kebolehpercayaan (Nunally&Bernstein,1994). Terdapat tiga lagi pembolehubah yang
masih boleh diterima iaitu di antara 0.6 ke 0.7 untuk analisis kebolehpercayaan tetapi perlu
menambah lebih banyak elemen dalam membuat ujikaji kajian (Mohsen Tavakol dan Reg
Dennick,2011). Keputusan statistik seterusya membuktikan instrumen yang melepasi pelbagai
kebolehpercayaan dan kesahan.
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Jadual 2: Kesahan dan Kebolehpercayaan Instrumen

Ukuran Item Factor Loading KMO Bartlett’s Test Eigenval Variance Cronbach
of Sphericity ue explained Alpha
Keberkesanan 6 0.577 ke 0.695 0.882 868.003 3.789 62.896 0.882
Diri
Persepsi 4 0.505 ke 0.743 0.811 572.273 2.800 69.991 0.854
Kegunaan
Persepsi Kemudahan 3 0.755 ke 0.818 0.725 417.590 2.338 77.925 0.858
Pengunaan
Persepsi Risiko 3 0.652 ke 0.800 0.694 352.655 2.223 74.111 0.824
Niat Untuk 3 0.817 ke 0.858 0.751 583.197 2.517` 83.900 0.904
Kepenggunaan
Hasil daripada ujian kebolehpercayaan instrumen, Jadual 3 menunjukkan kesemua faktor boleh
dipercayai.
Membina Analisis
Jadual 3 menunjukkan hubungan korelasi Pearson dan hasil statistik deskriptif. Pembolehubah
mempunyai nilai min antara 3.5592 hingga 4.0450, menujukkan keberkesan diri,persepsi
kegunaan,persepsi kemudahan penggunaan,persepsi risiko dan niat untuk kepenggunaan yang
berbeza dari tahap 1 hingga ke tahap . korelasi yang melibatkan pembolehubah tidak bersandar
( keberkesanan diri,persepsi kegunaan,persepsi kemudahan penggunaan dan persepsi risiko)
dan pembolehubah bersandar (niat untuk kegunaan) mempunyai nilai koefisin yang lebih kecil
daripada 0.90 menunjukkan data yang diperoleh tidak mempunyai masalah kollinear (Hair et
al.,2010). Hasil statistik memberikan pengesahan tambahan terhadap pembinaan yang melepasi
pelbagai ujian kesahan keandalan.
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
TKD 304 1.00 5.00 4.0450 .71740
TPK 304 1.00 5.00 3.9482 .73401
TPKP 304 1.00 5.00 3.9485 .73812
TPR 304 1.00 5.00 3.5592 .93860
TN 304 1.00 5.00 4.0132 .77680
Valid N (listwise) 304
Ujian Korelasi
Korelasi dilaksanakan untuk melihat hubungan antara pembolehubah tidak bersandar dan
pembolehubah bersandar. Analisis yang dijalankan adalah berbentuk ujian korelasi Pearson (r)
kerana taburan data didapati adalah normal kepada kesemua pembolehubah. Analisis ini adalah
untuk melihat hubungan diantara tiap-tiap pembolehubah tidak bersandar dengan
pembolehubah bersandar. Dalam jadual korelasi , menunjukkan Pearson (r) koefficen,
significant value dan number of cases with non-missing value (N). dalam ujian ini, nilai
korelasi adalah dalam lingkungan -1 hingga 1. Untuk membuktikan bahawa terdapat hubungan
korelasi,skor akan bertanda sama ada (+) atau (-). Dalam hal ini, nilai mutlak terhadap korelasi
bermakna adalah kukuh perhubungannya antara setiap pembolehubah. Nilai korelasi paling
besar diagonal adalah sentiasa 1 kerana setiap pembolehubah mempunyai nilai positive linear
yang kukuh terhadap hubungannya. Sama ada signifikan atau tidak pada setiap hubungan
korelasi ditunjukkan pada jadual di bawah. Nilai significan atau nilai p kemungkinan adalah
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menunjukkan keputusan yang sangat baik dalam hubungan. Nilai p hendaklah tidak melebihi
0.05.
Jadual 4 : Statistik Deskriptif dan Analisis Korelasi Pearson

Sisihan
Pembolehubah Mean Korelasi Pearson (r)
Piawai
Persepsi Niat untuk
Keberkesanan Persepsi Persepsi
Kemudahan Kepenggunaan
Diri Kegunaan Risiko
Penggunaan
Keberkesanan Diri 4.0450 .71746 1 .575** .548** .272** .493**
Persepsi
3.9482 .73401 .575** 1 .673** .449** .647*
Kegunaan
Persepsi Kemudahan
3.9485 .73812 .548** .673** 1 .456** .648**
Penggunaan
Persepsi Risiko 3.5592 .93860 .272** .449** .456** 1 .413**
Niat Untuk
4.0132 .77680 .493** .647** .648** .413** 1
Kepengunaan
** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Jadual 4 menunjukkan hubungan kolerasi Pearson dan hasil statistik deskriptif untuk
menganalisa pembolehubah tidak bersandar dan pembolehubah bersandar. Dalam kajian ini,
pembolehubah bersandar adalah keberkesanan diri, persepsi kegunaan,persepsi kemudahan
penggunaan dan persepsi risiko manakala persepsi bersandar ialah niat untuk kepenggunaan.
Korelasi antara pembolehubah tidak bersandar dan pembolehubah bersandar menunjukkan
bahawa nilai korelasi ialah kurang dari 0.09 dan hal ini menunjukkan bahawa data ini tidak
multicollinearity dan faktor keberkesanan diri memperoleh nilai korelasi tertinggi terhadap niat
untuk kepenggunaan.
Regresi Perkali
Tujuan melaksanakan regresi perkalian adalah untuk melihat persamaan yang mewakili
pembolehubah tidak bersandar yang terbaik memberi impak terhadap pembolehubah bersandar.
Dalam kajian ini, pembolehubah bersandar ialah niat untuk kepenggunaan manakala elemen
yang lain ialah pembolehubah tidak bersandar. Melalui ujian ini, sekiranya didapati bahawa
anggaran piawaian mendekati 0, ujian ini adalah tepat untuk digunakan namun sekiranya R
square , 0.6, kajian ini kurang tepat dan tidak boleh digunakan. Hasil kajian mendapati
anggaran piawaian menunjukkan nilai R square 0.512 < 0.6.
Jadual 5.1 Model summary (adjusted R square)
Jadual 5.2: Anova

Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate
1 .716a .512 .506 .54625
a. Predictors: (Constant), TPR, TKD, TPKP, TPK
a. Dependent Variable: TN
b. Predictors: (Constant), TPR, TKD, TPKP, TPK
Jadual 5.2 pula memaparkan hasil ujian dalam anova. Jadual ini menunjukkan hubungan kait
dengan pengaruh terhadap pembolehubah tidak bersandar dengan niat untuk kepenggunaan
RFID. Hasil dari ujian ini mendapati p <0.05 membuktikan bahawa kesemua pembolehubah
tidak bersandar berkait rapat antara satu sama lain 0.00 < 0.05 dalam menentukan niat untuk
kepenggunaan.
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Jadual 5.3: Coefficients

a
Coefficients
Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients
Model t Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) .572 .207 2.766 .006
TKD .108 .056 .100 1.941 .053
1 TPK .344 .063 .325 5.465 .000
TPKP .352 .061 .335 5.743 .000
TPR .072 .039 .087 1.880 .061
a. Dependent Variable: TN
Jadual 5.3 menunjukkan ujian mengenai pengaruh individu terhadap niat untuk kepenggunaan
RFID sekiranya p < 0.05 hipotesis sangat berkait rapat terhadap pembolehubah bersandar.
Melalui ujian ini mendapati persepsi kegunaan dan persepsi kemudahan pengguna
mempengaruhi niat untuk kepenggunaan RFID berdasarkan skor 0.00 < 0.05. Bagi elemen
keberkesanan diri dan persepsi risiko, ia dirasakan kurang tepat kerana skornya >0.05.
KEBERKSANAN DIRI B=O.108 t+1.941 S>0.05
PERSEPSI KEGUNAAN
B=0.344 t=5.465 S<0.05
PERSEPSI NIAT UNTUK KEGUNAAN

KEMUDAHAN B=0.3522 t=5.743 S<0.05
PENGGUUNAAN
PERSEPSI RISIKO
B=0.072 t=1.880 S>0.05
Rajah: Kerangka Konseptual
5. Perbincangan Dan Implikasi Kajian

Keberkesanan diri
Keberkesanan diri mempengaruhi apa tingkah laku orang memilih untuk melaksanakan,
jumlah usaha mereka sedia untuk digunakan dan jumlah masa mereka akan berterusan untuk
mengatasi halangan-halangan(Bandura, 1986). Berdasarkan kajian perbankan mudah alih
Luarn dan Lin (2005), kajian ini mempunyai memberi tumpuan kepada sama ada individu
percaya bahawa mereka mempunyai pengetahuan, kemahiran atau pengetahuan yang
diperlukan keupayaan untuk menggunakan sistem pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID. Oleh itu,
keberkesanan diri dilihat ditakrifkan sebagai penghakiman keupayaan seseorang untuk
menggunakan sistem pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID.
Persepsi kegunaan
Persepsi kegunaan dianggap sebagai motivasi untuk melibatkan penggunaan maklumat sistem,
sedangkan kemudahan penggunaan dianggap sebagai antecedent yang dirasakan kegunaan.
Lebih khusus, persepsi kegunaan ditakrifkan sebagai "tahap yang mana orang percaya bahawa
menggunakan sistem tertentu akan meningkatkan tugasnya prestasi ". Salah satu daripada dua
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pemboleh ubah kunci dalam model penerimaan teknologi. Persepsi kegunaan langsung
mempengaruhi kedua-dua sikap terhadap penggunaan sistem dan niat tingkah laku untuk
menggunakan sistem. Persepsi kegunaan dipengaruhi oleh persepsi kemudahan penggunaan.
Persepsi kemudahan penggunaan

Dianggap mudah digunakan, sebaliknya merujuk kepada "sejauh mana orang percaya bahawa
menggunakan sistem tertentu akan bebas daripada usaha (Davis, 1989,p. 320) ". Penyelidikan
sebelumnya membuktikan kesan penggunaan yang dirasakan dan dirasakan kegunaan
keinginan untuk digunakan dalam pelbagai konteks IT termasuk tempahan dalam talian
(Kucukusta et al., 2015), teknologi tanpa wayar mudah alih (Kim dan Garrison, 2009), e-
dagang (Hernandez et al., 2009), perbankan mudah alih (Gu et al., 2009) dan mudah alih
dagang (Chong et al., 2012)
Persepsi Risiko
Seperti dalam semua teknologi lain, ada risiko tertentu yang melibatkan penggunaan RFID
tanpa tunai sistem pembayaran. Seperti yang dibahas sebelum ini teknologi RFID bergantung
kepada wayarles penghantaran antara tag dan pembaca yang menimbulkan risiko gangguan
antara RFID dan teknologi lain di tempat kerja (Core, 2009). Di samping itu, prestasi tag RFID
merosot dari semasa ke semasa. Masalah ini mengurangkan julat bacaan dan akibatnya teg
berhenti bekerja sepenuhnya menyebabkan seluruh sistem gagal. Dalam konteks ini, risiko
seperti yang berkaitan dengan sistem pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID boleh mempengaruhi
kegunaan dan keinginan tingkah laku pengguna. Walaupun ada telah beberapa kajian terhad
yang khusus memberi tumpuan kepada pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID sistem, beberapa kajian
menyelidik risiko yang berkaitan dengan sistem RFID yang serupa. Untuk contohnya, kajian
terbaru yang dijalankan oleh Zhu et al. (2012) mengkaji peranan yang dilihat risiko dalam
penggunaan kad kredit RFID. Dengan mengintegrasikan risiko yang dirasakan kepada TAM,
mereka.
Limitasi
Pertama sekali, dalam kajian ini, niat untuk kegunaan diukur bukannya mereka tingkah laku
sebenar. Dengan kata lain, kajian ini adalah kajian hanya berasaskan persepsi dan bukan yang
sebenar. Penggunaan sistem pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID tidak dipertimbangkan. Penjelasan
ringkas tentang teknologi RFID secara umum dan sistem pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID
khususnya yang disediakan pada permulaan tinjauan dan dianggap cukup untuk peserta
membentuk beberapa persepsi asas terhadap sistem pembayaran tanpa tunai RFID. Oleh itu,
pada masa depan, pengkaji yang lain boleh menggunakan atau menambahbaik soalan yang
sedia ada dan ukur pada tingkah laku yang sebenar untuk mendapatkan keputusan yang lebih
baik.
Implikasi Kajian
Kajian ini menunjukkan hanya dua pembolehubah tidak bersandar memberi keputusan yang
signifikan terhadap pembolehubah bersandar iaitu persepsi kegunaan dan persepsi kemudahan
penggunaan memberi keputusan yang signifikan kepada niat untuk kegunaan RFID. Kajian ini
masih perlu ditambah baik dalam banyak aspek dan masih tidak boleh dijadikan sebagai satu
rujukan yang terbaik dan lengkap untuk individu mahupun institusi yang ingin mengukur tahap
niat untuk kegunaan.
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Cadangan
Hasil daripada implikasi kajian yang menunjukkan bahawa persepsi kegunaan dan persepsi
kemudahan penggunaan memberi kesan positif kepada niat untuk kegunaan RFID. Hal ini
menujukkan bahawa apabila sesuatu teknologi yang baru diperkenalkan, pengguna lebih gemar
untuk menggunakan sekiranya teknologi tersebut memudahkan urusan mereka dan ia mudah
untuk dikendalikan atau digunakan oleh semua orang. Oleh itu, pada pengkaji masa depan,
mereka boleh mengkaji atau menambah sekurang-kurangnya satu lagi pembolehubah tidak
bersandar yang mampu memberi kesan kepada niat untuk kegunaan RFID. Walaupun mudah
digunakan dan memudahkan segala urusan antara faktor yang mempengaruhi niat unukt
menggunakan RFID, mungkin ada satu lagi faktor yang mempengaruhi pengguna untuk
menggunakan RFID kerana bukan semua golongan yang celik pada IT. Jadi ,pengkaji masa
depan boleh mencari solusi bagaimana sekiranya pengguna yang tidak mahir dengan IT
menggunakan RFID tersebut.
Kesimpulan
Secara keseluruhannya , daripada dapatan kajian yang diperoleh dan dianalisis faktor
penerimaan RFID dalam pembelian di pusat beli belah, hanya dua daripada empat
pembolehubah tidak bersandar iaitu persepsi kegunaan dan persepsi kemudahan penggunaan
memberikan jawapan yang signifikan kepada niat untuk kegunaan RFID dalam pembelian dan
pembayaran di pusat beli belah. Melalui data SPSS, dua pembolehubah tidak bersadar iaitu
keberkesanan diri dan persepsi risiko tidak boleh dijadikan ukuran kerana nilainya >0.05.
Melalui spss juga mendapati kesemua data yang diperoleh boleh dipercayai berdasarkan Jadual
2: Kesahan dan Kebolehpercayaan Instrumen. Dengan ini, dapat disimpulkan bahawa sekiranya
teknologi baru tercippta seperti RFID diperkenalkan, untuk mempengaruhi pengguna untuk
menggunakan sistem tersebut perlulah teknologi itu mudah digunaakan dan memudahkan
segala urusan pengguna.
Rujukan
Chen, C. (2013). Perceived risk, usage frequency of mobile banking services. Managing
Service Quality: An International Journal.
Chiu, C. M., Wang, E. T., Fang, Y. H., & Huang, H. Y. (2014). Understanding customers'
repeat purchase intentions in B2C e‐ commerce: the roles of utilitarian value,
hedonic value and perceived risk. Information Systems Journal, 24(1), 85-114.
Mendes, J. M. B. (2018). Monitoring a mobile ticketing system based on NFC and BLE
beacons.
Hasan, B. (2007). Examining the effects of computer self-efficacy and system complexity on
technology acceptance. Information Resources Management Journal (IRMJ), 20(3),
76-88.
Hossain, M. M., & Prybutok, V. R. (2008). Consumer acceptance of RFID technology: An
exploratory study. IEEE transactions on engineering management, 55(2), 316-328.
Im, I., Kim, Y., & Han, H. J. (2008). The effects of perceived risk and technology type on
users’ acceptance of technologies. Information & Management, 45(1), 1-9.
Kapoor, K., Dwivedi, Y., Piercy, N. C., Lal, B., & Weerakkody, V. (2014). RFID integrated
systems in libraries: extending TAM model for empirically examining the use.
Journal of Enterprise Information Management.
Lim, N. (2003). Consumers’ perceived risk sources versus consequences. Electronic
Commerce Research and Applications, 2(3), 216-228.
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Morosan, C. (2014). Toward an integrated model of adoption of mobile phones for purchasing
ancillary services in air travel. International journal of contemporary hospitality
management.
Ozturk, A. B., Palakurthi, R., & Hancer, M. (2012). Organizational-level RFID technology
adoption in the hospitality industry. Tourism Analysis, 17(5), 629-642.
Thiesse, F. (2007). RFID, privacy and the perception of risk: A strategic framework. The
Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 16(2), 214-232.
Borriello, G. (2005). RFID: Tagging the world. Communications of the ACM, 48(9), 34-37.
237
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Resilien Dalam Kalangan Pelajar Sekolah Menengah Harian Luar

Bandar Daerah Segamat
Rokiah Ali1*, Salleh Amat1

1
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
*Pengarang Koresponden: kopsrocks@gmail.com

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Selaras dengan aspirasi Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia 2015-2025
pembentukan pelajar yang holistik, seimbang dan berciri keusahawanan sejajar dengan
Falsafah Pendidikan Negara membuktikan bahawa pelajar yang hendak dihasilkan adalah
berkualiti unggul dan memiliki disiplin ilmu yang releven, akhlak dan penetapan minda yang
sesuai serta tingkahlaku beradab. Justeru itu kajian ini berusaha untuk mengenalpasti tahap
resilien dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah luar bandar dalam mendepani cabaran yang menguji
kemampuan dan ketahanan mereka. Seramai 331 orang pelajar dari Sekolah Menengah Luar
Bandar di Daerah Segamat terlibat dalam kajian ini. Soal Selidik Reselience Scale For Early
Adolescents (RSEA) telah digunakan sebagai instrumen bagi pengumpulan data. Hasil kajian
mendapati secara keseluruhannya tahap daya tahan dalam kalangan pelajar adalah sederhana
tinggi. Selain itu tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara tahap daya tahan pelajar
berdasarkan demografi jantina. Dapatan kajian ini menggambarkan apakah yang perlu
dilakukan oleh pihak berkepentingan khususnya Majlis Guru Kaunseling Kebangsaan Daerah
Segamat (MGKK) dalam usaha merancang dan menghasilkan modul atau program yang
bersesuaian untuk membantu meningkatkan tahap daya tahan pelajar.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Pengenalan
Generasi muda masa kini tidak terlepas daripada berhadapan dengan pelbagai bentuk cabaran
yang akan mencabar kemampuan dan ketahanan diri mereka (Zainah et al, 2013). Oleh itu,
pendidikan memainkan peranan penting dalam usaha membangun dan menyediakan modal
insan yang mempunyai daya tahan serta jati diri yang kukuh, berketerampilan, berkeperibadian
mulia, berpengetahuan dan berkemahiran tinggi bagi mengisi keperluan negara untuk mencapai
taraf negara maju (Hashim, 2013). Namun dewasa ini, isu golongan pelajar menjadi tidak
produktif apabila dilihat terjebak dengan pelbagai bentuk salah laku seperti membuli, melepak,
mencuri, menagih dadah di samping terlibat dengan pelbagai bentuk gejala sosial lain (Zainah
et al. 2013). Tingkahlaku ini dikenalpasti sebagai tingkahlaku devian yang mana di anggap
menyimpang dan kebanyakannya melibatkan golongan pelajar yang tidak berdaya tahan
(Azizah et al. 2015; Zainah et al. 2013).Aspek resilien yang dikaitkan dalam kajian ini adalah
merupakan keupayaan individu untuk lebih tabah apabila menghadapi tekanan dan tidak
berputus asa serta bangun semula daripada kesukaran apabila berhadapan dengan dugaan
persekitaran( Henderson, 2011).
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk meninjau tahap resilien (daya tahan) dalam kalangan pelajar di lima
buah sekolah menengah luar bandar yang terletak di Zon Labis dalam Daerah Segamat.
Henderson 2011 menyatakan daya tahan atau resiliensi adalah kemampuan seseorang untuk
bangkit kembali dari tekanan hidup, belajar dan mencari elemen positif dari persekitarannya
untuk mengembangkan seluruh kemampuannya walau berada dalam keadaan hidup yang
tertekan baik secara luaran atau dalaman. Individu yang memiliki ciri hubungan positif,mahir
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dalam penyelesaian masalah dan memiliki motivasi untuk memperbaiki diri itu dilabelkan
sebagai berdaya tahan (Tasleem 2013). Resilien juga merujuk kepada proses penyesuaian diri
terhadap sebarang kesukaran secara dinamik (Luthar et al.,2000). Justeru itu aspek resilien
menyumbang kepada kelangsungan individu khususnya untuk berhadapan dengan situasi yang
sukar dalam kehidupan sehariannya.
2. Penyataan Masalah
Fokus utama Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia ialah untuk kemenjadian murid dari segi
kurikulum, kokurikulim dan sahsiah (KPM 2012a : 2012b dalam Azmiza, Saemah & Ruslin,
2014). Namun pencapaian objektif ini masih menjadi tanda tanya, sejak kebelakangan ini
kebanyakkan remaja melakukan perkara-perkara yang membawa kepada isu sosial yang
merungsingkan (Azmiza, Saemah & Ruslin, 2014). Keseriusan masalah tingkahlaku dalam
kalangan pelajar perlu ditangani dengan langkah yang sewajarnya khususnya dengan memberi
perhatian terhadap faktor-faktor psikologi yang dapat meningkatkan ketahanan diri pelajar
(Jamie, 2011; Rozmi 2015). Jika tidak ditangani dengan sebaiknya pelbagai isu tingkahlaku
yang dipandang remeh mungkin akan menjadi tingkahlaku devian yang mendatangkan masalah
kepada masyarakat dan negara di masa hadapan (Mazlili Suhaini, 2013).
Bagi memastikan golongan ini tidak terus melakukan tingkahlaku bermasalah, aspek resilien
perlu dibangunkan agar mereka mempunyai jati diri yang kuat untuk berhadapan dengan
pelbagai masalah yang dihadapi. Guru Bimbingan dan kaunseling khasnya perlu mengenalpasti
tahap resilien golongan remaja ini agar pencegahan dapat dilaksanakan (Nasir et al, 2015).
Pembentukkan indentiti merupakan satu cabaran yang diharungi oleh seseorang remaja pada
fasa remaja (Erikson, 1995). Dalam proses pencarian dan pembentukkan kendiri, seseorang
remaja memerhatikan nilai diri daripada pelbagai aspek dalaman dan luaran. Apabila seseorang
itu terlibat dengan tingkahlaku berisiko, mereka dikatakan rentan untuk terlibat dengan gejala
sosial dan ianya mempengaruhi pembentukan kendiri remaja (Favara & Sanchez, 2017). Hanya
Remaja yang mempunyai tahap resilien yang tinggi sahaja mempunyai kecenderungan untuk
menyelesaikan masalah kehidupan mereka(Veselska et.al, 2009).
Resilien adalah daya tahan individu yang anjal dalam memanifestasikan kecekapan dalam
menguruskan permasalahan dan kesukaran hidup (Ghimbulut & Opre, 2013). Kanak-kanak dan
remaja mempunyai potensi untuk membangunkan daya tahan dalam diri mereka (Albuquerque
et. Al, 2014). Resilien juga adalah penting untuk dalam meningkatkan keupayaan individu
dalam menanggung, mengurus dan menyelesaikan masalah sekiranya menghadapi masalah
sosial (Perreira et. Al, 2019). Terdapat dua sumber yang menjadi tunggak kepada daya tahan
seseorang individu iaitu sumber dalaman seperti kecekapan kendiri, emosi, pergaulan sosial
dan autonomi. Manakala sumber luaran seperti keluarga, komuniti, sekolah dan persekitaran
sosial (Albuquerque et. Al, 2014). Resilien perlu ada dalam diri seorang remaja bagi
memastikan mereka berupaya menggunakan pelbagai strategi daya tindak yang positif dalam
mengubah gaya hidup ke arah yang lebih sejahtera (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012).
Justeru itu berdasarkan komponen yang dibincangkan ini maka penyelidikan ini adalah
bertujuan untuk meninjau tahap resilien dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah di luar bandar. Ini
kerana generasi muda masa kini tidak terlepas daripada berhadapan dengan pelbagai bentuk
cabaran yang akan mencabar kemampuan dan ketahanan diri mereka (Zainab et al, 2013).
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3. Sorotan Kajian
Dapatan kajian terdahulu menunjukkan remaja yang terdedah dengan persekitaran berisiko
yang mana faktor perlindung tidak berfungsi dengan sempurna akan mengalami tekanan
psikologi dan ianya turut menjejaskan tahap resilien remaja (Khalid & Aslam, 2012). Kajian
oleh Fatimah E.S (2005) mendapati remaja yang mempunyai masalah tingkah laku di dapati
mempunyai tahap resilien yang rendah dan berpotensi untuk terus mengulangi masalah
tingkahlaku samada dalam keluarga atau di sekolah Selain itu kajian Zainah et al. (2013),
mendapati pelajar yang tidak berdaya tahan dan terjebak dengan masalah tingkah laku
memerlukan tekad yang kuat untuk memperbaiki diri mereka.
Kajian ini juga mendapati selain berusaha menjaga diri dari pelbagai cabaran, pelajar juga perlu
sentiasa berhati -hati dengan mengawal pemikiran ke arah yag positif. Hal ini selari dengan
Kuyper (2014) yang menyatakan bahawa jika remaja menjaga hubungan dengan ibu bapa, ahli
keluarga dan rakan-rakan, tahap resilien individu dapat ditingkatkan. Manakala Yudhi (2014)
menegaskan bahawa jika remaja mempunyai tahap resilien yang tinggi mudah baginya untuk
berhadapan dengan situasi yang penuh dengan cabaran. Hal ini kerana daya tahan bertindak
sebagai benteng supaya tidak terdedah kepada pelakuan yang tidak wajar, keganasan,
penderaan atau penganiyaan. Individu yang berdaya tahan akan melihat kesukaran sebagai
suatu skop yang terbatas dan bersifat sementara, seterusnya memandang kehidupan secara
positif (Mazlili Suhaini, 2013).
Resilien mendapat perhatian khas pengkaji-pengkaji yang terdahulu yang cuba membantu klien
untuk meningkatkan tahap resilien melalui sesi intervensi menggunakan pendekatan sesi
kaunseling individu dan kelompok. Bagi mengesan tahap resilien subjek kajian yang terlibat
dengan intervensi, pengkaji terdahulu telah menggunakan soal selidik yang bersesuaian dengan
subjek kajian mereka (Artuch-Garde et al., 2017 ; Md Noor Saper, 2012)
Berdasarkan kajian terdahulu jelas membuktikan bahawa aspek resilien merupakan salah satu
aspek psikologi yang perlu diberi perhatian kerana jika diabaikan akan menjejaskan
perkembangan individu terutama remaja yang terdedah kepada pelbagai risiko untuk lebih
bermasalah dan mengalami gangguan emosi.
Objektif Kajian
Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk meninjau tahap resilien dalam kalangan pelajar. Pengkaji juga
ingin mengetahui apakah terdapat perbezaan tahap daya tahan dalam kalangan pelajar
berdasarkan demografi jantina.
Persoalan Kajian
Kajian ini dijalankan bagi menjawab soalan yang berikut :
1. Apakah tahap resilien pelajar di sekolah luar bandar?

2. Apakah terdapat perbezaan tahap daya tahan pelajar dalam kalangan pelajar berdasarkan
jantina.
4. Metodologi Kajian
Rekabentuk Kajian
Kajian ini berbentuk kuantitatif iaitu kaedah tinjauan menggunakan soal selidik. Pengumpulan
data menggunakan instrumen bagi mengenalpasi tahap resilien responden kajian. Menurut
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Creswell (2005), kajian tinjauan merupakan kaedah yang popular dalam penyelidikan
pendidikan kerana keupayaan mengutip dan menganalisis data pada satu masa. Kaedah ini juga
sesuai digunakan dalam menerangkap tahap sesuatu perkara dan juga mencari perbezaan.
Persampelan Kajian
Secara keseluruhannya populasi kajian adalah pelajar lima buah sebuah sekolah menengah luar
bandar di Zon Labis dalam Daerah Segamat. Jumlah keseluruhan enrolmen adalah seramai
2494 orang. Dalam menentukan saiz sampel pula pengkaji telah menggunakan jadual Krejcie
dan Morgan (1970) dengan berasaskan jumlah populasi. Maka pengkaji menyasarkan 331
orang pelajar sebagai sampel kajian bagi kajian ini.
Jadual 1: Profil Sampel Kajian

Demografi n %
Jantina
Lelaki 156 47.1
Perempuan 175 52.9
Bangsa
Melayu 210 63.4
Cina 67 20.2
India 53 16.0
Lain-Lain 1 .3
Jumlah 331 100
Instrumen Kajian
Bagi mengukur tahap resilien dalam kalangan pelajar, pengkaji menggunakan Reselience Scale
For Early Adolescents (RSEA) yang dibina oleh Baltaci dan Karatos (2014). Proses pengujian
kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan ini telah melalui proses Back Translation oleh Brislin (1969 ;
Brislin, Looner dan Thonedike (1973). Penterjemahan soal selidik daripada Bahasa Inggeris ke
Bahasa Melayu dan sebaliknya (Back translation) telah dilaksanakan oleh dua orang pakar
bahasa yang menguasai Bahasa Melayu dan Bahasa Inggeris bagi memastikan ketepatan
bahasa, struktur dan tatabahasa.
Bagi menentukan nilai kesahan kandungan Soal Selidik Resilien ini, seramai enam orang pakar
telah dipilih. Pakar-pakar tersebut terdiri daripada sorang pensyarah kanan dalam bidang
psikologi dari universiti awam, tiga orang pensyarah bimbingan dan kaunseling, seorang
pensyarah bidang psikometrik dari Institusi Pendidikan Guru serta seorang guru bimbingan dan
kaunseling sekolah. Kesemua pakar yang dipilih mempunyai pengalaman dalam bidang
masing-masing lebih daripada lima tahun (Cohen, 2011).
Nilai kebolehpercayaan item Soal Selidik Resilien telah dianalisis secara deskiptif
menggunakan perisian IBM SPSS Versi 21. Nilai Cronbach’s Alpha bagi mengukur ketekalan
item, nilai melebihi 0.06 adalah di terima (Mohd Majid, 2000). Nunnally dan Bernstein (1978)
berpandangan nilai Cronbach’s Alpha perlu melebihi .70. Berdasarkan persetujuan pakar soal
selidik resilien ini mempunyai kesahan yang tinggi iaitu dengan indeks pekali .967 dan nilai
kebolehpercayaan Cronbach’s Alpha bagi keseluruhan item adalah .85. Nilai pekali subkontrak
resilien iaitu Resilien Diri, Keluarga dan Sekolah masing-masing .756, .819 dan .638
(Nor’Aziah, Mohamad Nasir & Fauziah, 2019).
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Analisis Data
Data kajian dianalisis menggunakan pogram IBM SPSS Versi 22. Proses penganalisian data
yang digunakan melibatkan jenis statistik deskriptif. Statistik deskriptif digunakan untuk
mengenalpasti tahap daya tahan dalam kalangan pelajar. Bagi tujuan menentukan tahap daya
tahan pelajar, Jadual 2 adalah dirujuk.
Jadual 2: Interpretasi Skor Min
Skor Min Tahap
1.00 – 2.00 Rendah
2.01 – 3.00 Sederhana Rendah
3.01 – 4.00 Sederhana Tinggi
4.01 – 5.00 Tinggi
Ujian -t digunakan dalam kajian ini bagi menjawab persoalan kajian yang kedua iaitu adakah
terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan tahap daya tahan berdasarkan demografi jantina. Menurut
Chua (2006), ujian- t diaplikasikan dalam sesuatu kajian untuk menentukan samada terdapat
perbezaan yang signifikan secara statistik ataupun tidak diantara dua kumpulan data yang diuji.
Dapatan & Perbincangan Kajian
Jadual 3: Tahap Daya Tahan Pelajar
Domain Daya Tahan Skor Min S.P Tahap

Diri Sendiri 3.95 .734 Sederhana Tinggi
Keluarga 4.11 .881 Tinggi
Sekolah 3.88 .848 Sederhana Tinggi
Purata 3.99 .748 Sederhana Tinggi
Daya tahan pelajar dapat diliha melalui tiga domain iaitu diri sendiri, keluarga dan sekolah.
Tahap daya tahan dapat di rujuk pada Jadual 3. Secara keseluruhannya, tahap daya tahan
pelajar dalam kajian ini adalah sederhana tinggi (min = 3.99, s.p = .748) dan domain daya
tahan yang paling tinggi antara ketiga-tiga domain ialah keluarga (min=4.11, s.p =.881).
Sementara dua domain lain berada pada tahap sederhana tinggi iaitu domain diri sendiri (min =
3.95, s.p =.734) dan domain sekolah (min =3.99, s.p = .848).
Setelah merujuk kepada Jadual 3, persoalan seterusnya adalah adakah terdapat perbezaan daya
tahan dalam kalangan pelajar mengikut demografi jantina.Keputusan ujian-t yang telah diuji
pada aras signifikan p < 0.05 seperti tertera di dalam Jadual 4.
Jadual 4: Perbezaan Tahap Daya Tahan Mengikut Jantina

Pembolehubah Jantina N MIN S.P t P
Daya Tahan Lelaki 156 4.01 .675 .410 .682
Perempuan 175 3.97 .809
P < 0.05
Ujian t telah dilakukan bagi tujuan menguji samada wujud persamaan atau perbezaan tahap
daya tahan antara pelajar lelaki dan perempuan. Hasil ujian- t menunjukkan bahawa tidak
terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan (t=.410, p> .682) antara tahap daya tahan pelajar lelaki dan
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perempuan walaupun nilai min pelajar lelaki (min = 4.01, s.p = .675) lebih besar daripada nilai
min pelajar perempuan (min = 3.97, s.p =.809).
Berdasarkan kajian ini, tahap daya tahan pelajar tinggi pada domain keluarga membuktikan
bahawa kefungsian keluarga terhadap ketahanan diri dalam kalangan respoden. Secara tidak
langsung menyokong kajian Zainah et al (2013) bahawa hubungan kekeluargaan yang baik
mempengaruhi kesejahteraan hidup individu termasuklah dalam mempengaruhi tahap
ketahanan diri dan tingkahlaku dalam kalangan pelajar. Dapatan kajian ini turut memberi
perhatian kepada faktor-fakor pelindung seperti faktor diri sendiri, keluarga dan sekolah.
Faktor-faktor ini amat mempengaruhi perkembangan aspek pskologi individu dengan baik. Jika
faktor-faktor ini berfungsi dengan baik maka tahap resilien remaja juga meningkat dan akan
berkembang dengan baik.
Implikasi Kajian
Hasil dapatan kajian ini boleh dijadikan panduan kepada pihak sekolah khususnya guru
bimbingan dan kaunseling bagi merangka atau melaksanakan program intervensi yang
berkesan bagi meningkatkan lagi tahap daya tahan pelajar berdasarkan pecahan item soalan
mengikut domain. Disamping skop intervensi yang dirancang akan menjadi lebih mudah dan
berfokus menjurus kepada subkontrak yang terdapat dalam konstruk utama. Dapatan kajian ini
juga boleh dirujuk oleh Majlis Guru Kaunseling Kebangsaan Daerah Segamat (MGKK) dalam
merancang dan merangka modul atau program di peringkat daerah bagi meningkatkan tahap
daya tahan dalam kalangan pelajar.
Kesimpulan
Selaras dengan tuntutan dalam membangun dan mengekalkan modal insan berkualiti, maka
dimensi yang berkaitan dengan daya tahan ini perlu dipertingkatkan dengan semua pihak
samada sekolah, keluarga, organisasi kerajaan dan bukan kerajaan, media massa dan
masyarakat perlu memahami seterusnya memainkan peranan masing-masing dalam
memastikan dimensi daya tahan berfungsi dengan baik. Proses pembangunan daya tahan dalam
diri insan pada hakikatnya adalah proses kehidupan di mana semua manusia mesti memiliki
ketahanan fizikal dan mental untuk mengatasi tekann, masalah dan gangguan dalam menjalani
proses kehidupan.
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
MANAGEMENT, EDUCATION, SOCIAL SCIENCES
AND INNOVATION
(ICMESSI 2020)
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Chairman
Ts. Dr. Zahari Abu Bakar
Treasurer
Hanisah Taib
Technical Committee
Rohaida Hanum Mohd Hassan
Muhammad Aminuddin Zahari
Muhamad Firdaus Abdul Razab
Technical Reviewer
Dr. Safaie Mangir
Dr. Lee Khai Loon
Dr. Mohd Yazid Md Taib
246
eISBN: 978-967-17837-9-5
Published by:
Asian Scholars Network
(002903215-H)
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Asian Scholar Network (002903215-H)

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MANAGEMENT,

23. Ironi Di Sebalik Perkhidmatan Pendermaan Ovum .................................................... 218

A Brief Survey Of Meiji Slogan (Fukoku Kyohei) And Its Influence

*Corresponding Author: firdausmansor@iium.edu.my

Keywords: Fukoku Kyohei, Meiji Restoration, Meiji figures

In January 1868 a substantial number of daimyo were summoned to Kyoto to be informed of

based on British and German models respectively; adoption of enterprise capitalism in

4. Meiji key figures

A Study On Students Perception Towards Online Classes And

Asha Nair Ganeser1*

*Corresponding Author: asha@iumw.edu.my

Keywords: perception, online classes, active participation, communication skills

The objectives as follows:

Advantage and disadvantage of online classes in education

Student’s perception towards online classes

Effects towards student’s communication and participation

Advantage and disadvantage of e-learning in education

4. Results and Findings

Table 1: Student’s perception towards online classes

Question Mean Std. Deviation

Table 2: Effects in enhancing active participation and communication skills

3. Discussion and Conclusion

Additionally, when it comes to the effectiveness of active participants and communication,

Analysis Implementation Of Flood Control Strategy In Semarang

Diana Sukorina1, Sri Suwitri2, Y. Warella3, Hartuti Purnaweni4

Table 1: Implementation of flood control strategy in Semarang City

4. Result And Discussion

In addition, there is also necessary coordination mechanisms between institutions related to

Analysis Of Management Aspects Of E-Government

Bayu Joko Mulyono1, Sri Suwitri2, Endang Larasati3, Kismartini4

Keywords: E-Government; Salatiga City; Organization; Various Parties; Resources

Kurniawan (2011) stated that one of the disadvantages of e-Government implementation in

(Sosiawan, 2008) stated that one of the disadvantages of E-Government implementation in

Some empirical conditions indicating the weakness in the management dimension of e-

Development of the institutional capacity of e-government implementation through the

Furthermore on (Grindle, 2011) identified the dimensions of factors affecting the

4. Result And Discussion

Network and Relationship with Other Organization

Assessing The Relationships Between Information Seeking,

Faiswal Kasirye1, Hassan Radwan Jamal2, Saodah Wok3, Md Saydul Haque4

Department of Communication, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) Jalan Gombak

*Corresponding Author: kasirye.faiswa@gmail.com

Statement of the Problem

Significance of the Study

Allen (2011) provides experimental representations on what time-constrained information

Information Sharing on Haze

The ASEAN countries have established a specialized Meteorological Centre, based in

Motives for Using Social Media

Agenda Setting Theory

Population and Sampling Procedure

Instrumentation and Measurement

Multiple questions in Sections 2, 3, and 4 of the questionnaire employed a 5-point Likert-like

Validity and Reliability

Table 2: Demographic characteristics of the respondents

Information Seeking on Haze and Air Pollution

I look for haze updates on government websites to be

Information Sharing on Haze and Air Pollution

I actively post information about haze and air

Motives for Using Social Media

Limitations and Suggestions

Krikelas, J. (1983). Information-seeking behavior: Patterns and concepts. Drexel Library