Title Workover Best Practices

RO-EP-DA-PO-06-POL-001-02 OMV Petrom Exploration Production
Revision 1 2012 OMV Petrom Workover Best Practices
Title WORKOVER BEST PRACTICES
Dr Miso Solesa
Prepared by CMS Prodex
Technical Consultant
DA-PO-WO Ivan Vukov

Content checked by Department Department Manager
Harald Zetche
Content reviewed by CII Consulting Technical Consultant
Roland Perdacher
DA-Operation Senior Head of
Operations
Urlich Winter
Approved
WO/WI BU Director of Workover &
WO&WI BU
Well Intervention BU
Gabriel Selischi
DA Director of Domestic
Asset Business Unit
Organizational
Name/Title Date Signature
Entity
http://www.petrom.com
WORKOVER BEST PRACTICES
OMV Petrom continuous drive towards quality and performance improvement includes among
others the need for definition of workover standards. Known the importance and the complexity of
the workover operations in OMV Petrom Romania, bringing them to international industry standards
level is mandatory. Thus workover standards have been defined within SIRIUS II project and they
include the Workover Best Practices (the design phase, or ‘what is to be done’), the Workover
Procedures (the execution phase, or ‘how to perform workover operations’) and the Workover Rules
(the basic workover principles).
The document herewith represents the Workover Best Practices developed and released in 2012.
Workover Best Practices is a technical document containing information regarding most applicable
engineering solutions, equipment and tools used during workover operations of oil, gas and injection
wells. This document has been developed & compiled by an external technical consultant based on
current OMV Petrom workover practices, worldwide recognized workover practices & standards, as
well as on latest developments in workover and well service technologies. During preparation of WO
Best Practices there was a continuous communication between different parties and technical
authorities. Among them DA HQ Production Operation’s ‘Well Completion’ department, ‘Sand
Control & Stimulation’ department, ‘Production Optimization’ department and ‘Workover’
department, moreover WO/WI BU HQ, as well as field experts from both DA Operation and WO/WI
BU (Assets). OMV Austria Workover & Drilling department technical staff has also contributed during
preparation of the WO Best Practices.
In total there are ten specific areas of workover best practices with detailed information regarding
the specific topics. Each of these best practices has also an Executive Summary in order to guide the
reader through the main ideas and focus onto most important practices.
This document is primary addressed to the engineering staff involved in the workover design,
planning and program preparation - both Operations and Services. Furthermore other parties
involved into well operation and subsurface maintenance process will also benefit from WO Best
Practices document.
OMV Petrom E&P staff will have to ensure that these WO Best Practices are implemented and will be
used on regular bases during workover operations.
OMV Petrom Workover Best Practices is intended to be a ‘live’ document. With development of new
technologies and changes of the working environment this document will be updated accordingly.
Content
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
2. WORKOVER BEST PRACTICES METHODOLOGY
3. RIG SPECIFICATIONS
4. WELL CONTROL
5. WELL RECOMPLETION
6. PERFORATING
7. TECHNOLOGICAL OPERATIONS
8. WELL REPAIR
9. STIMULATION BY ACIDIZING
10. SAND CONTROL
11. STIMULATION BY FRACTURING
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Contents
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1-1

1.1 Purpose of the Manual ............................................................................................................ 1-1
1.2 Contents ................................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.2.1 Source of Information........................................................................................................ 1-2
1.2.2 Ownership.......................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.2.3 Confidentiality ................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.3 Updating, Amendment and Control ........................................................................................ 1-2
The latest initiative for WO Services improvement for the period of 2012-2016, as part of the SIRIUS II
Project Continuation, calls for preparation of Workover Standards in OMV Petrom. The essential part
of WO Standards is the WO Best Practices Manual (sub-project). This document has been created to
provide a comprehensive description of WO services, equipment, conditions and other requirements
for safe and professional WO operation within OMV-Petrom Romania.
The Best Practices are non-binding company recommendations. All employees, active in field
operations, should, however, get acquainted with those Best Practices relevant to their
responsibilities. More detailed information can be found in subsequent sections of this document.
1.1 Purpose of the Manual
This comprehensive manual has been compiled with the main purpose of serving as a guide to
Workover Operations (WO) personnel and a reference to new Workover Engineers. The most
common OMV Petrom WO have been presented in this document to familiarize the reader with the
actual workover Best Practices (BP) achieved in OMV Petrom and step by- step technology
procedures to plan workover operations and to select the best technology and sequences required
for preparing a detailed technical program in order to start with the job execution. This document is
written in such a way that it is clear, easy to follow; it uses acceptable oilfield terminology, and the
information is current and very specific for Petrom OMV operations.
Additionally, the purpose of this document is to guide OMV Petrom experienced engineers of all
technical disciplines how to implement efficiently the best practices and workflows in the process of
planning, designing, executing, supervising and monitoring results of workover operations and its
importance on achieving the targeted KPI. These, in consequence, have a large impact on costs and
field profit. The Corporate Standards in this document define the requirements, methodologies and
rules that enable the operation to be uniform and in compliance with the Corporate Company
principles. This, however, makes each individual part of the WO processes capable to operate
according to local laws or particular environmental conditions. The final aim is to improve
performance and efficiency in terms of safety, quality and costs by providing common guidelines in
all domestic assets in Romania where OMV Petrom operates to all personnel involved in Workover
activities. The approach to WO has to be interdisciplinary, involving Drilling, Completion, Reservoir
and Petroleum Production Engineering. This is vital in order to perform WO operation successfully
and to obtain as much as possible incremental oil and gas production by utilizing the recommended
best practices. This WO BP will guide the engineers and technicians of varies disciplines through the
process with the objectives of helping them make the key decisions and obtain the optimum design
to maximize productivity and, hence a profit. Many of the decisions made by the various disciplines
are interrelated and impact the decisions made by other disciplines. For instance, the decision about
the WO sequences and required technology may subsequently be changed due to the availability of
well servicing and/or workover techniques, as well as by constraints caused by reservoir and well
condition.
This provides a system of ongoing workover optimization to suit changing conditions, increased
knowledge of the field and incorporate new technologies.
http://www.petrom.com 1-1
OMV Petrom Exploration Production RO-EP-DA-PO-06-POL-001-02
OMV Petrom Workover Best Practices Revision 1 2012
1.2 Contents
1.2.1 Source of Information
The information contained in this manual has been collected from many different sources. These
include: Petrom OMV workover technical programs, standards, procedures, working instructions
workover, completion and production manuals, Service companies’ manuals and catalogues and field
oil industry recognized standards (API, ISO, etc.) and other sources.
1.2.2 Ownership
OMV Petrom is the sole owner of the information in this document. Any alterations or future
updates of Workover Best Practices shall be done only OMV Petrom Exploration and Production
staff.
Internal Project team resources are:
1. Domestic Assets (DA) HQ Production Operation’s departments.
• Workover,
• Completion,
• Sand Control and Stimulation, and
• Production Optimization.
2. Workover/Well Intervention Business Unit (WO/WI BU) HQ.
3. Field experts from both DA Operation and WO/WI BU (Assets).
External engineering support is provided by consulting company CMS Prodex.
1.2.3 Confidentiality
The information in this document has been prepared for OMV Petrom and cannot be distributed
outside the company. This document is the property of OMV Petrom and all rights are reserved.
Neither the whole nor any part of this document may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, reprographic, recording or
otherwise) without the prior written consent of the copyright owner.
Hard copies of the Workover Best Practices will be distributed within OMV-Petrom DA Production
Operations. Copy of the WO Best Practices Manual will be stored in electronic form on the OMV –
Petrom server for easy access
1.3 Updating, Amendment and Control
The Corporate Standards in this document define the requirements, methodologies and rules that
enable to operate uniformly and in compliance with the Corporate Company Principles. This,
however, still enables each individual parties of the WO process to operate according to local laws or
particular environmental conditions.
OMV Petrom Workover Best Practices has to be periodically updated to reflect changing field
conditions, application of new technologies and techniques. Suggested changes should be forwarded
for reviewing and inclusion in the next version of the document.
1-2 http://www.petrom.com
Contents
2. WORKOVER BEST PRACTICES METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 2-1

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 2-1
2.2 Workover Process Definition and Description......................................................................... 2-2
2.3 Workover Objectives and Functions ........................................................................................ 2-3
2.4 Workover Best Practices Methodology ................................................................................... 2-3
2.5 Workover Categorization in OMV Petrom ............................................................................... 2-4
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................... 2-6
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................... 2-6
2.1 Introduction
After a well is drilled to the final depth, the production casing and wellhead are set, cemented, and
pressure tested.
Any subsequent operations for preparing well for long production life are referred to as well
completion. However, changes might occur in the reservoir, nearwellbore zone and the completion
equipment itself could be damaged. Therefore it becomes necessary to service or workover the well
so to maintain/improve oil and gas production or performance of injection well.
Well workovers involve a wide variety of operations that often require a number of contractors,
technical services, and suppliers working together at the wellsite. These operations must be planned
and executed by qualified and competent people at all levels to ensure the safety of workers and
public, protect the environment, and conserve natural resources. The well owner or assets
conducting these operations have overall responsibility for achieving these goals. The wellsite
supervisor plays a key role by directing and coordinating all workers at the wellsite to implement the
planned workover activities, defined by the detailed technical program.
This document is focused on Workover Best Practices in OMV Petrom and explains why wells need
workover and repairs, which technologies and techniques should be used and what benefits could be
expected as a result of workover operation. It also gives the best practices for sequences of various
WO categories and the well control equipment that is to be used for safe and reliable WO.
Numerous developed technology workflows bring at glance the best practices for each workover
operations and direct a user through all phases of workover operations (well candidate selection,
planning, execution, monitoring/real time control and postjob evaluation). The comprehensive
workover process implemented in OMV Petrom is described in document “Wells Operation and
Maintenance Process of OMV Petrom E&P and ESP” (C-06-01-E) and here is a briefly outlined
workover system approach implemented in OMV Petrom (Figure 2-1).
Figure 2-1 WO process implemented in OMV-Petrom
2.2 Workover Process Definition and Description
The term workover refers to a variety of remedial operations performed on a well to maintain,
restore, or improve productivity. Workover operations include such jobs as replacing damaged
tubing, recompleting to a higher zone, acidizing nearwellbore damage, plugging and abandoning a
zone, etc. The term “well intervention” refers to workover operations performed through the
Christmas tree with the production tubing in place. Coiled tubing, small-diameter tubing, wireline,
and snubbing work strings can be used for special technological operation requirements. Many of
these operations are similar to those in workovers but are constrained by the internal diameter (ID)
of the existing well completion.
2.3 Workover Objectives and Functions
Although there are various reasons for workovers, most of them can be grouped into six basic
categories:
• Repair or replace damaged equipment.

• Repair natural damage within the well.
• Recomplete to another zone.
• Increase production from an existing zone.
• Convert well from production to injection.
• Replace artificial-lift equipment.
2.4 Workover Best Practices Methodology
As shown in the Figure 2-2 below, the applied methodology for writing best practices consists of
several steps:
WO process definition and description in OMV Petrom E&P and WO/WI BU (Assets)
• WO types/categories
• Best Practice content definition
• Development of detailed technology workflows
• Downhole and surface equipment specifications dependent on well conditions
• Quality assurance and HSE requirements
• Technology and technical details and specifications
Figure 2-2 WO Best Practices Methodology
2.5 Workover Categorization in OMV Petrom
Based on previously mentioned reasons for workover, OMV Petrom has categorized all workover
operations which have been used for writing ten various best practices. The table 2.1 show the main
WO categories for which all required and systemized information have been collected and written
as Best Practices document.
Table 2-1 WO Categorization
WO
Subcategory
Category/Operation
Well Control
Well Recompletion
Perforating
Technological
Operations
Well Repair
Stimulation by
Acidizing
Stimulation by
Fracturing
WO
Subcategory
Category/Operation
Sand Control
Zonal Isolation
List of Figures
Figure 2-1 WO process implemented in OMV-Petrom,
Figure 2-2 WO Best Practices Methodology.
List of Tables
Table 2-1 WO Categorization.
Contents
3. RIG SPECIFICATIONS ......................................................................................................................... 3-1

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 3-1
3.2 Overview of Workover Rigs Activities ...................................................................................... 3-1
3.3 Workover Rigs Data Sheets...................................................................................................... 3-2
3.4 Selection of a Workover Rig................................................................................................... 3-17
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................... 3-19
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... 3-19
3.1 Introduction
An important factor influencing the overall cost and success of workover job is the proper choice of a
workover rig to do the job. The primary objective of this WO best practice is to outline the most
important factors impacting to allocate properly the available workover rigs according to the job
specifications. Failure to utilize the proper rig even if operations are delayed several days, results in
additional rig time, special tool rental and costly mistakes.
Currently, the total of 424 rigs, from which 337 are active and 87 inactive or temporally suspended, is
deployed in OMV Petrom.
3.2 Overview of Workover Rigs Activities
WO rigs, WO Operations, number and durations of WO operations for 2011 are shown in charts
below (Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2). As it can be seen from the charts below the total number of
workover operation were completed with available rigs is 1450. Almost 30% of the total operation
belongs to recompletion of the wells. Around 20% of the operation belongs to category of “others”
what could cause some problems in proper job planning and rig selection.
Figure 3-1 Number of Workovers by job Type
Figure 3-2 Number of Jobs per Rig and Job Type
3.3 Workover Rigs Data Sheets
During the life of the well, it becomes necessary at times to perform WO rig work that requires rig
equipment to be operated near the designed limit. If this limit is exceeded, then the equipment is
likely to fail thus causing financial loss and delays in the WO operations. It is common practice to
review the rig equipment specifications in order to operate within its capabilities and limitations.
Each and every rig is supplied with different equipment. The main groups of components used for rig
specification are:
1. General Information
2. Rig equipment
3. Rig power
4. Mud system & pump
5. BOP equipment (see Chapter 4. Well Control )
Important information about a rig is the depth limitation or capacity. Every piece of equipment has a
maximum operating limit before failure occurs. In the case of the rig depth limitation, it is based on
the load the derrick structure can sustain during operations. The limit is calculated based on the drill
pipes and tubing (weight) to be run, additional equipment on the drill pipe, and the amount of over
pull which might be needed in case of getting stuck. There are also safety factors included in the
limitation to account for normal wear and tear.
The rig specification sheets are generated using currently available information and for these
reasons, it is important to update the proposed specification data sheets in Tables from Table 3-1 to
Table 3-14 every time the WO Best Practice is revised.
The complete specification, transport, rig-up, rig-down with detailed job procedures and safety
regulation is written in document titled “TRANSPORTUL, MONTAREA SI DEMONTAREA
INSTALATILLOR DE LUCRU LA SONDA”
This document has been issued by OMV Petrom EP WO &WI BU during 2011.
Table 3-1 WO Rig type TP 7.5 Specification
Table 3-2 WO Rig Type TP 10 Specification
Table 3-3 WO Rig Types EC 5 T/EL/ERT Specification
Table 3-4 WO Rig Type TW 30 Specification
Table 3-5 WO Rig type TW 32 Specification
Table 3-6 WO Rig Type TW 40 Specification
Table 3-7 Rig type TW 50 Specification
Table 3-8 WO Rig Type TD 80 Specification
Table 3-9 WO Rig type TW 100 Specification
Table 3-10 WO Rig type TD 125 Specification
Table 3-11 WO Rig Type AM 10 Specification
Table 3-12 WO Rig Type AM 12-50 Specification
Table 3-13 WO Rig type Rig 40 Specification
Table 3-14 WO Rig type AM 12-40 Specification
3.4 Selection of a Workover Rig
Conventional workover rig equipment has been specialized and refined so that it is a common
practice to choose rig to fulfill all expected phases in accomplishing the integrated workover
operations. The flexibility of the rig is required because it could easily be reallocated from one to
another location in order to optimize time and costs of operations.
A number of factors will influence the selection of a workover rig including:
• The nature of the operation to be conducted e.g. tubing size and hence the suspended
weights of the tubing string, pressure control requirements for well re-entry, etc.
• Depth or load capacity ( rig capacities are commonly spoken of in terms of depth rating
with a particularly size and rig capacity is primarily depends on braking capacity, derrick
capacity, and drawworks power
• Logistical constraints - location of well, proximity to operating company base, availability,
space on rig/platform, crane lift capacity.
• Economics - cost, availability and its impact on deferred production.
• Reservoir characteristics (type of fluid, fluid contaminants e.g. H2S content, pressure,
temperature, fluid rate, depth of well etc.).
To use workover unit properly it is advisable:
• To release one type of rig and move in another more suitable to accomplish the particular
job at hand especially for land operations.
• Avoid to use heavy-duty rigs to run small diameter tubing,
• Don’t use heavy-duty production rigs on shallow wells.
Table 3-15 give practical recommendations how to choose workover rig properly considering the
previous criteria and planned workover operations.
Table 3-15 Workover services
List of Figures
Figure 3-1 Number of Workovers by job Type,
Figure 3-2 Number of Jobs per Rig and Job Type.
List of Tables
Table 3-1 WO Rig type TP 7.5 Specification,
Table 3-2 WO Rig Type TP 10 Specification,
Table 3-3 WO Rig Types EC 5 T/EL/ERT Specification,
Table 3-4 WO Rig Type TW 30 Specification,
Table 3-5 WO Rig type TW 32 Specification,
Table 3-6 WO Rig Type TW 40 Specification,
Table 3-7 Rig type TW 50 Specification,
Table 3-8 WO Rig Type TD 80 Specification,
Table 3-9 WO Rig type TW 100 Specification,
Table 3-10 WO Rig type TD 125 Specification,
Table 3-11 WO Rig Type AM 10 Specification,
Table 3-12 WO Rig Type AM 12-50 Specification,
Table 3-13 WO Rig type Rig 40 Specification,
Table 3-14 WO Rig type AM 12-40 Specification,
Table 3-15 Workover services.
4. WELL CONTROL
4. WELL CONTROL
Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................... 4-1

4. WELL CONTROL ................................................................................................................................ 4-3
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 4-3
4.1.1 Well Control Description ................................................................................................... 4-3
4.2 Well Control Principles............................................................................................................. 4-3
4.2.1 Barrier Concept .................................................................................................................. 4-5
4.3 Well Control Methods/Procedures ........................................................................................ 4-10
4.3.1 Well Shut-in ..................................................................................................................... 4-10
4.3.2 Well Killing ....................................................................................................................... 4-13
4.3.3 Non Circulating methods (bullheading, constant tubing pressure method…) ................ 4-19
4.3.4 Well Control Indications of Kicks ..................................................................................... 4-26
4.4 Downhole Equipment ............................................................................................................ 4-26
4.4.1 Special Equipment for Well Control ................................................................................ 4-26
4.5 Surface Equipment................................................................................................................. 4-27
4.5.1 Wellhead and Christmas Tree.......................................................................................... 4-27
4.5.2 Blowout Preventers (types, selection)............................................................................. 4-28
4.6 Workover Control Fluids ........................................................................................................ 4-38
4.6.1 Types of workover fluids used in Petrom OMV ............................................................... 4-38
4.6.2 Functions of WO Fluids .................................................................................................... 4-38
4.6.3 Workover Fluid Properties............................................................................................... 4-39
4.6.4 Components of WO fluids................................................................................................ 4-42
4.7 Well Control Workflow .......................................................................................................... 4-44
4.7.1 Well Control Best Practices Workflow Applied in OMV Petrom .................................... 4-44
4.7.2 Well Control Complications (Holes in Tubing, Reversing Gas Kicks, Problems with
Circulating/Lost etc.) ....................................................................................................... 4-48
4.8 Quality and Safety Requirements for Well Control ............................................................... 4-50
4.8.1 Quality Control................................................................................................................. 4-50
4.8.2 Safety Assurance.............................................................................................................. 4-53
4.8.3 Personnel Requirements ................................................................................................. 4-54
Appendix 4 A Physical Properties of Potassium Chloride .............................................................. 4-55
4. WELL CONTROL
Appendix 4 B Physical Properties of Sodium Chloride ................................................................... 4-57

Appendix 4 C Physical Properties of Calcium Chloride................................................................... 4-59
Appendix 4 D Physical Properties of Ammonium Chloride ............................................................ 4-63
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... 4-64
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... 4-65
References .......................................................................................................................................... 4-66
4. WELL CONTROL
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 4. WELL CONTROL

No. Strongly Recommended
If pipe rams are used, make sure the string is at the height that avoids closing the pipe ram
1. on a tool joint or tubing connection across the stack. This height should be known in
advance.
The number of barriers depend on well category (see Page 7).
2.
Shut in and secure the well, circulate at least one bottom-up volume of the well to check for
the presence of gas in the workover fluid. This step will require running tubing to the bottom
3. if it is not already there. If this is an open-hole completion, leave the work string inside the
casing. If the well has been taking fluid, consider spotting a fluid loss pill across the suspect
zone.
If the well was shut-in, before reopening the well, follow steps below:
1. Check the tubing string pressure gauge by opening its needle valve. If no
pressure is registered on the gauge, check for flow past the safety valve.
2. Check the annulus pressure gauge. If no pressure is registered, check for annular
4.
flow. Normally, you should check for flow through the choke manifold.
3. If there is no pressure or flow on either the tubing or the annulus, is it safe to
open the well? If there is pressure or flow, the well must be killed with the
appropriate fluid and following the required procedure.
Kill workover fluid should be compatible with the formation and the formation fluids in
5. order to prevent swelling of clays and scale deposition and other problems that can
permanently block the perforations or greatly reduce productivity.
WO fluid should be in accordance with HSE regulation considering the potential impact of
6.
the presence of sour gases like H2S, CO2.
If a reverse circulation is used as a killing method, the well should be circulated holding a
7. back pressure on the formation so that a constant bottom hole pressure can be maintained
to eliminate any further flow of reservoir fluid.
Use volumetric method to manage gas when there is no tubing communication. Since tubing
8. pressure cannot be read, the process must be controlled with the casing pressure and the
volume of fluid bleed from the annulus.
Select the best killing method which fits the well conditions, use workflow on Page 27
9.
(Figure 4-12)
10. All kicks should be treated as gas kicks until positive evidence shows otherwise.
The stab-in valve (with appropriate thread configuration & tested) must be always available
11.
on the rig flore (RF) while POOH or RIH with workstring.
Workover fluid weight needs to provide an overbalance at top perforations of 3,5 to 7 in
12.
order to protect the formation of excessive differential pressure and safe operations.
4. WELL CONTROL
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 4. WELL CONTROL

No. Not Recommended at All
To start workover operation in an H2S area (or potentially H2S area) without a written H2S
Emergency Response Plan (ERP) and if this site plan for shut-in and evacuation is not
1.
properly understood by Site Supervisor and company personnel prior to rigging up any
equipment on location.
Do not allow any leaking of used barriers or used barriers which don’t fulfil the standard of
2.
acceptable leak rate per API RP 14B and RP 14H for Xmas tree valves.
To continue with workover operation if the casing pressure decline. If this decline takes
3.
place, it is not allowed to continue the pump and the choke and shut in the well.
That duration of barrier pressure tests (the maximum anticipated pressure plus adequate
4. safety factor), be shorter than 10 minutes. To use barriers if during test period of 10
minutes there is pressure decline.
To use any completion and treatment equipment and associated safety systems if the
equipment is not tested for functionality. Carry out the pressure test upstream of the choke
5.
below the maximum anticipated working pressure and full working pressure downstream of
the chokes.
4. WELL CONTROL
4. WELL CONTROL
4.1 Introduction
Well control is one of the most important considerations of those who complete and perform
workovers on wells that are being drilled. Because of the increased awareness of the need to prevent
injury of personnel and to save the environment, well control during workover operations is of
particular concern in OMV Petrom SA. A proper, reliable and safe well control is the most important
step as a part of complete workover process intended to prevent the hazard and uncontrolled flow of
liquid and/or gas (blowout) during workover operations. The principal purpose of this chapter is to
define the process for controlling wellhead events (kicks, leak or other adverse situation which could
lead to blowout if uncontrolled) during well servicing activities in the OMV Petrom fields.
4.1.1 Well Control Description
Well control philosophy is to have pressure barriers that prevent uncontrolled flows of oil, gas or
water to the surface or subsurface during workover operations. Barriers must be stand-alone and
capable of acting independently, so that if one is removed the other is not affected.
During a workover the Well-Site Supervisor (WSS) and crew must contain the formation fluids within
the formation while remedial work is being carried out. An undesired flow of these fluids into the
wellbore is called a kick. If a kick fluid enters and moves up the wellbore, it has a tendency to expand
and unload fluid above it. This may result in an uncontrolled and potentially dangerous flow of
formation fluids from the wellbore. There are three main goals of well control:
• Prevention of kicks by maintaining wellbore hydrostatic pressure at a level equal to or

slightly greater than formation pressure (primary well control)
• Early detection of kicks that do occur Initiation of corrective action to prevent kicks from
developing into uncontrolled flow
• Have always, ready to use, appropriate surface equipment on the rig floor, in case a kick
occurs.
4.2 Well Control Principles
By applying the appropriate principles and calculations to the well control situation, the supervisor
should be able to:
• Interpret surface indicator data correctly.

• Eliminate small problems before they become bigger on the surface.
• Determine the controls needed to execute a workover kill operation.
• Choose the appropriate well control procedure for a given situation.
• Diagnose problems during well control procedures and take corrective action.
4. WELL CONTROL
Surface Indicators of Pressure
Tubing and casing pressure gauges indicates pressure at surface and make it possible to conclude
what the downhole pressures are and how they change with time. These pressure readings can be
used for well control calculations. Monitoring these pressures can help in preventing burst casing,
formation damage, lost circulation, and other well control problems. It is important, therefore, that
they be reported accurately and monitored carefully. Two important pressure indicators are the
Shut-In Tubing Pressure (SITP) gauge and the Shut-In Casing Pressure (SICP) gauge.
The SITP gauge is connected to the bore of the tubing or work string. How you use the SITP reading
depends on the circulation path that will be used to control the well. If the circulation is forward
(down the tubing and up the annulus), then the well will be generally controlled over the long term
with the tubing gauge. In addition to the SITP reading, the SICP reading will be used to assist in
initially establishing circulation. Also, the SITP reading will be used to estimate pressure at the
bottom of the well and to calculate the fluid weight needed to balance the well.
The SICP gauge is connected to the annulus. Again, using the SICP reading depends on the circulation
path. If the circulation path is reverse (down the annulus and up the tubing), then the well will be
controlled over the long term with the annulus gauge. During certain specialized well control
procedures, the SICP gauge reading is used to control bottomhole pressure when fluid must be
pumped into the top of the well or bled out of the well.
Friction Pressure and Principles
Understanding the meaning of friction pressure and its effect and well control are important for
complete managing of the process. At any segment of the circulation fluid path some pressure drop
will occur because of friction and pump has to generate energy to overcome friction pressure or
“pump pressure.”
1. In a workover with typical completion geometry, 65–95% of the friction is generated in the
tubing and the remainder in the annulus. This is due to a higher fluid velocity inside the smaller
tubing diameter compared with that in the larger annulus.
2. The total friction (and hence the pump pressure) does not change with the circulation path.
Pump pressure will be the same whether forward circulating (down tubing, up annulus) or reverse
circulating (down annulus, up tubing).
3. In reverse circulation, the friction pressure exerted on the formation perforations is equal to
the total downstream resistance (i.e., the tubing friction). In forward circulation, the tubing friction
pressure is expended by the time the fluid reaches the end of the tubing; it is not “felt” by the
formation perforations.
4. WELL CONTROL
Figure 4-1 Tubing/annulus friction pressure distribution
According to the first two principles, the indicated pump pressure is the same for both forward and
reverse circulation (a sum total of 1,000 psi - 68.94bar, however, that the friction pressure exerted
on the formation is considerably different). The formation is exposed to 750 psi (51.7 bar) friction
pressure in reverse circulation, but only 200 psi (13.7 bar) in forward circulation, as shown in Figure
4-1. The WSS needs to be aware of this effect when choosing the circulation path. Although the
pressure differential cannot be seen on the pump gauge (it reads the same in both cases), the effect
is “felt” downhole. If the formation perforations are exposed, whole fluid may be pumped away or
the formation fractured.
4.2.1 Barrier Concept
While a workover is in progress, physical barriers are necessary to prevent kicks because the usual
controls and conditions that prevent kicks during drilling are absent. Workover conditions that differ
from drilling conditions include the following:
• Formations are more permeable since they have been perforated, stimulated, or
hydraulically fractured.
• Overbalanced conditions sustained in drilling are difficult to sustain in workover
wellbores that contain open, permeable zones.
• Workovers do not normally use a solids-laden fluid to deposit an impermeable filter
cake, so the formation is more likely to take fluid, resulting in a loss of hydrostatic
column height and possibly a loss of primary well control.
A barrier is defined as “any impervious material or device that can be demonstrated to temporarily
or permanently prevent the flow of wellbore and reservoir fluids”. If fluid is considered to be a
barrier, its hydrostatic pressure must be greater than the formation pressure and its condition and
position must be capable of being monitored. Monitoring includes knowing the density of the fluid
4. WELL CONTROL
and the level of the fluid. The fluid level is most accurately determined by using acoustic level
measuring with echometer.
Barriers are divided into the following classes:
• Primary barriers are those used during normal workover operations. They include such
tools as a wireline stuffing box or a workover fluid providing hydrostatic pressure.
• Secondary barriers are used in support of normal operations or as a contingency (e.g. an
annular preventer or back-pressure valve).
• Tertiary barriers are used in emergencies—e.g. a shear or blind ram or a tree master
valve used to cut wireline.
Required numbers of barriers depend on the estimation of operation risk level, shown in Table 4-1.
The proposed classification of the wells, considering a potential risk in well during operation, is:
• LOW RISK WELL - Well that cannot flow to the surface naturally
• MEDIUM RISK WELL - Well capable of sustaining flow to the surface, or one with:
 SIWHP less than 210 bar (3000 psi)
 H2S less than 1% (10,000 ppm)
• HIGH RISK WELL - Gas well, or one with:
 SIWHP greater than 210 bar (3000 psi)
 H2S more than 1% (10,000 ppm)
See also classification for the:

REGULAMENT PENTRU PREVENIREA SI COMBATEREA MANIFESTARILOR ERUPTIVE LA SONDELE IN
FORAJ, REPARATII CAPITALE SI PRODUCTIE. Ed. 1982
Table 4-1 Number of barriers depend on well risk classification
Type of Well based on risk criteria Number of barriers

Low 1
Medium 2
High 2 (Quality and standards of the barriers shall be
greater for high risk wells)
Detailed specification of required barriers in high risky wells is shown in Table 4-2 , Table 4-3 and
Table 4-4.
4. WELL CONTROL
Table 4-2 Minimum number of barriers on annulus and tubing/casing (high risk wells)
Heavy lifting over
Risk Remove/Install Drilling / Workover
wellhead
Classification BOP / XMAS TREE Operations
(i.e. move rig in/out)
Minimum 2 independent Minimum 2 independent Minimum 2 independent
High Risk Wells barriers barriers barriers
Surface barriers (separate Surface barriers (separate Surface barriers:
for tubing and annulus side): for tubing and annulus • Pressure tested BOPs +
•Closed Xmas tree. side): Kelly cock or Gray valve +
•Closed annular side outlet •Pressure tested tubing annular. (*)
valves. hanger seals + annular side • Pressure tested annular
outlet valves. side outlets, casing /
•Shallow set plug pressure liner. (*)
tested from above to
maximum anticipated BOP stack shall be rated
working pressure to a minimum of 350 Bar
differential. Liquid volume Shearing rams that can
pumped shall be controlled shear work string shall
to avoid testing against be included.
deeper plug.
•Shallow set and pressure
tested.
Retrievable Test, Treat and
Stimulation (RTTS) packer
(or equivalent) with storm
valve.
Subsurface barriers Subsurface barriers Subsurface barriers:
(separate for tubing and (separate for tubing and • Over balanced mud or
annulus side): annulus side): brine column, either
• Cemented and un- • Cemented and un- static or with partial
perforated casing +shoe perforated casing +shoe losses, which is
track with floats or cement track with floats or cement continuously monitored
plug. plug. and the level maintained
• Overbalanced static mud • Overbalanced static mud at surface.
column. column. • Confirmed and
• Overbalanced annular mud • Overbalanced mud or pressure tested cement
or brine column with partial brine column with partial plug.
losses, both with level at losses, both with level at
surface and continuously surface and continuously
monitored. monitored.
• Inflow tested SSSV with • Inflow tested SSSV.
zero leak rate and zero • Pressure tested or inflow
pressure above it. tested tubing packer in
• Tubing packer in combination with zero
combination with zero annulus pressure and brine
annulus pressure. to surface. (*)
• Inflow tested downhole • Inflow tested bottom
plug (shallow set) with zero wireline plug. (Inflow test
pressure above it. for 4hrs minimum).
• Pressure tested deep or • Pressure tested deep set
shallow set downhole plug plug with kill brine to
with brine above it. (*) surface. (*)
(*) Deep set plug or
(*) Deep set plug and brine completion packer and brine
column are dependent and column are dependent and
therefore considered one therefore considered one
barrier. barrier.
4. WELL CONTROL
Table 4-3 Minimum number of barriers on annulus and tubing/casing (medium risk wells)
Heavy lifting over

wellhead
Minimum 2 independent Minimum 2 independent Minimum 2
Medium Risk barriers barriers independent barriers
Wells Surface barriers (separate Barriers shall be Barriers may be
Or for tubing and annulus side): combination of: combination of one
Shallow sections • Closed Xmas tree. subsurface and one
of high risk wells • Closed annular side outlet Surface barrier: surface.
where medium valves. •Pressure tested tubing
risk criteria apply • Inflow tested TWCV or hanger seals + Annular side Surface barriers:
BPV. outlet valves. • Pressure tested BOP +
• Inflow tested shallow set •Shallow set wireline plug Kelly cock or Gray valve +
wireline plug with pressure or TWCV, pressure tested annular side outlets.
fully bled off above it. from above. Control the • Pressure tested annular
liquid volume pumped to side outlets, casing /
Subsurface barriers avoid testing against liner.
(separate for tubing and deeper plug.
annulus side): •Shallow set and pressure Subsurface barriers:
• Cemented and un- tested RTTS packer (or • Over balanced mud or
perforated casing +shoe equivalent) with storm brine column, either
track with floats or cement valve. static or partial losses,
plug. Subsurface barriers: which is continuously
• Overbalanced static mud •Cemented un-perforated monitored and level
column. casing + shoe track with maintained at surface.
• Overbalanced mud or brine floats or cement plug. • Dynamic water column,
fluid column with partial •Over balanced static mud closely monitored, and
losses and continuously column. continuously filled up
monitored zero surface •Over balanced mud or with specified minimum
pressure. (*) brine column with partial water rates.
• Dynamic water column, losses, and continuously • Confirmed and
closely monitored and monitored zero surface pressure tested cement
continuously filled up with pressure (relevant to plug.
specified minimum water annulus side).
rates. (relevant to annulus •Dynamic water column (*) Pressure tested at
side). closely monitored, and least to closed in Tubing
• Pressure tested tubing continuously filled up with Head Pressure (CITHP) +
packer. specified minimum water 10%.
• Pressure tested deep or rates (relevant to annulus
shallow set downhole plug side).
with brine above it. (**) •Pressure tested tubing
packer with brine to
(*) In case a Two Way Check surface. (*)
Valve (TWCV) or Back •Inflow tested bottom
Pressure Valve (BPV) is wireline plug.
installed, only confirm •Pressure tested deep set
pressure above TWCV /BPV plug or shear out plug with
is zero. kill brine to surface. (*)
(**) Deep set plug and brine (*) Deep set plug or
column are dependent and completion packer and
therefore considered one brine column are
barrier. dependent and therefore
considered one barrier.
4. WELL CONTROL
Table 4-4 Minimum numbers of barriers on annulus and tubing /casing (low risk wells)
Heavy lifting over

wellhead
Low Risk Wells Minimum 1 barrier Minimum 1 barrier 1 barrier

Or Surface barriers (separate •Shallow set and pressure •Drilling BOP or Sucker
Shallow sections for tubing and annulus side): tested RTTS packer (or rod BOP + Kelly cock or
of high or equivalent) with storm Gray valve + annular side
medium risk • Closed Xmas tree. valve. outlets.
wells where low • Closed annular side outlet •Cemented un-perforated •Confirmed and pressure
risk criteria apply valves. casing +shoe track with tested cement plug.
floats or cement plug.
Occasionally, gas broken out Tubing side:
of the crude is present in the •Wireline plug or TWCV
annul us of non free flowing pressure tested from
wells. This gas shall be above.
bullheaded back into the
formation. Confirm that the Annulus side:
pressure on the tubing and •Pressure tested tubing
annulus is zero. hanger seals + Annular side
outlets.
Occasionally, gas broken
out of the crude is present
in the annul us of non free
flowing wells. This gas shall
be bullheaded back into the
formation. Confirm that the
pressure on the tubing and
annulus is zero.
Very often workover operation or well intervention will be performed in the wells having pressure at
the bottom lower than hydrostatic pressure. In such situations there is no control over the fluid level
because of continues losses of the workover fluid into formation. If the reservoir pressure and GOR
are very low losing WO fluid is very intensive and the fluid level is close to the pump setting depth or
bottom of the well. According to the OMV Petrom internal training and procedures (which are still
under development), it could happen that during WO and WI there is no barrier in place.
Below are listed the operations in the wells during which for a particular period of time there is no
barrier:
1. Change pipe rams manually or hydraulically (single ram preventer )

2. POOH/RIH downhole equipment for different pump types (sucker rod pumps –SRP,
progressive cavity pump- PCP and electrical submersible pump-ESP with downhole drive and
cable).
3. Swabbing with a closed and open system (oil, water and gas wells without H2S).
4. Procedure for pull out of hole stuck sucker rod string and pump.
5. Change dual completion in oil wells with installed pumps and water wells (until now there
are now wells with dual completion and pump installed in OMV Petrom).
In all of these situations special precautions and procedures has to be used to assure safe operations.
Development of these procedures is ongoing process and should be completed in the near future.
4. WELL CONTROL
4.3 Well Control Methods/Procedures
4.3.1 Well Shut-in
The importance of containing a kick and keeping the influx volume to a minimum cannot be
overemphasized. Large kicks lead to high wellbore and surface pressures and large volumes of kick
fluids that must be handled on the surface. The shut-in, or containment procedures can vary,
depending on the type of equipment in use and the operation in progress at the time of the kick,
whether on-bottom circulating or tripping. The shut-in procedures explained below apply to a
conventional workover rig. Due to the limited wellbore volumes available in a completed well or one
being worked over, it is imperative that minimal time be expended in shutting in a well.
Shut-in Procedure for Conventional Workover Rig (On-Bottom Circulating)
Initial lineup:
• Killed BOP valves are closed.

• Path is open from BOP valves to choke.
• Choke is closed.
Use the following steps to shut in the well:
1. With pump(s) running, pick up work string until a tool joint is above the floor level.
2. Shut down pump(s) and watch for flow.
3. If the well is flowing, close the work string valve with its closing tool. This tool should be
stored in a conspicuous location on the rig floor.
4. Close annular BOP. If there is no annular BOP, use the pipe rams.*
5. Open the choke line valves on the stack to gain access to casing pressure.
6. Notify the WSS that the well is shut in.
7. Monitor and record SITP, SICP, and pit gain.
*If pipe rams are used, make sure the string is at a height that avoids closing the pipe ram on a tool
joint or tubing connection across the stack. This height should be known in advance.
Shut-in Procedure for Conventional Workover Rig (Tripping)
Initial lineup:
• Killed BOP valves are closed.

• Path is open from BOP valves to choke.
• Choke is closed.
• Work string safety valve and wrench are available on floor.
• Safety valve is in open position.
Check the well for flow; if it is flowing, use the following steps to shut in the well:
1. Position a connection for stabbing at rig floor.

2. Install an open work string safety valve. Close valve with a wrench.
3. Close annular BOP. If there is no annular BOP, use the pipe rams.*
4. WELL CONTROL
4. If the work string is less than 900 m (3000 feet) long, or if there is a packer on the tubing
string, space out the work string and close and lock a pipe ram.**
5. Open the choke line valves on the stack to gain access to casing pressure.
6. Notify the WSS that the well is shut in.
7. Read and record SITP, SICP, and pit gain.
*If pipe rams are used, make sure the string is at a height that avoids closing the pipe ram on a tool
joint or tubing connection across the stack. This height should be known in advance.
**Locking the pipe ram resists the force of the wellbore pressure as it attempts to eject the string
from the well.
Procedure for Shutting In Well
If the workover operation should stop from any reason, a well has to be shut in before the stopping
operation
The following steps to shut in and secure the well should be followed:
1. Circulate at least one bottom-up volume of the well to check for the presence of gas in
the workover fluid. This step will require running tubing to the bottom if it is not already
there. If this is an open-hole completion, leave the work string inside the casing. If the
well has been taking fluid, consider spotting a fluid loss pill across the suspect zone.
2. Make up a pup joint on the top of the tubing string. Lower the string, close the pipe rams
on the pup joint, and lock the pipe rams. (The pup joint collar below the rams will
prevent upward movement of the tubing string in the presence of unforeseen well
pressure that might build during the closing period).
3. Install the tubing safety valve and a pressure gauge on top of the pup joint. (This gauge
and valve allow you to make a safely check for pressure after the starting operation).
4. Close the safety valve.
5. Consider securing the tubing string with a chain and binder or other suitable device to
prevent further upward movement.
Procedure for Opening Well
It is not uncommon for a gas bubble to enter the wellbore during shut-in period. During the long
time period, a slow feed- in of gas can accumulate into a sizeable volume. When the well opens,
a pressure release and the flow will be achieved.
Follow these steps before reopening the well for normal workover operations:
4. Check the tubing string pressure gauge by opening its needle valve. If no pressure is
registered on the gauge, check for flow past the safety valve.
5. Check the annulus pressure gauge. If no pressure is registered, check for annular flow.
Normally, you should check for flow through the choke manifold.
6. If there is no pressure or flow on either the tubing or the annulus, is it safe to open the
well? If there is pressure or flow, the well must be killed with the appropriate fluid and
following the required procedure.
4. WELL CONTROL
Trapped Pressure at Shut-in
When shut-in pressures are initially recorded following the initial buildup, it is important to
determine whether these pressures are accurate—that is, whether they are representative of the
differential between formation pressure and wellbore hydrostatic pressure. Complications such
as trapped pump pressure and rapid gas migration can affect their accuracy.
The following procedures can be used to detect the presence of trapped pressure and to remedy
the situation if any is found. Perform this trapped pressure check only after surface pressures
have been stabilized (after an initial period of rapid buildup).
Procedure for Checking for Trapped Pressure
Use the following procedure with the graphs in Figure 4-2. Bleed a small amount of fluid through
the choke 40 to 75 lit (1/4 to 1/2 bbl). Surface pressures will initially decrease, build, and then
stabilize.
Observe shut in tubing pressure (SITP). If the SITP is stabilized at a value less than the previously
observed stable pressure and trapped pressure was detected and at least partially bled off,
continue with the procedure.
Bleed another small amount of fluid through the choke and once again observe the stabilized
SITP. Accurate SITP is verified when consecutive and identical values appear on the tubing gauge.
In a workover, the SITP will often bleed to zero pressure.
Figure 4-2 and Figure 4-3 provide graphic representations of the bleeding process and
accompanying SITP and SICP readings.
Figure 4-2 Pressure profile during bleeding with mechanically induced kick
Figure 4-2 shows the bleeding process when the crew handles a mechanically induced kick (i.e., a
kick induced by not keeping the hole full during trips, swabbing, etc.). It is common that in many
workovers and completions, when the SITP bleeds to zero pressure, the density of the fluid in the
hole is sufficient to balance formation pressure.
4. WELL CONTROL
Figure 4-3 Pressure profile during bleeding with light fluid in the hole
In Figure 4-3 the SITP did not bleed to 0 psi, presenting clear evidence that the fluid in the hole is
lighter than required. Although rare, this can occur when light fluid is pumped into the well,
creating a reduction in overall hydrostatic pressure and causing a kick.
Procedure for Obtaining the SITP with a Back Pressure Valve in the String
It is quite common that the SITP cannot be read due to the presence of a Back-Pressure Valve
(BPV) or check valve in the work string, as a common practice in workovers. Nevertheless, an
accurate reading is required to calculate the kill fluid density, ICP (Initial Calculating Pressure),
etc.
The following procedure should be used to open the pump valve and determine the SITP:
1. Line up the manifold to pump into the tubing and monitor the gauge.
2. Slowly pump into the tubing (e.g., at a rate of 1/4 to 1/2 bpm); the pressure will increase.
When the BPV first opens, the pressure will stop rising momentarily (the gauge needle
“stutters” or hesitates).
3. Record the exact SITP pressure reading when the gauge needle hesitates.
To continue pumping at this point will further increase the pressure and would be of no use. If
there is a computer logging service on location, request a plot of pump pressure versus strokes. It
is easy to see the pressure stabilization point on a graph (it looks very similar to the breakover
point in the leak-off test done in drilling).
4.3.2 Well Killing
The choice of well kill procedure will depend on a number of factors including tubing and casing
integrity, ability to circulate the annulus fluid, formation pressure and the well completion method.
When it is required to kill a well during workover operation, the easiest, the quickest and the most
certain method is by a circulation. This requires that there are some means of establishing
communication as close to the producing zone as possible. This might be by opening a Sliding Side
4. WELL CONTROL
Door (SSD) just above the packer (or punching a hole in the tubing, or pulling a dummy from a Side
Pocket Mandrel (SPM) in a completion or by using a string of pipe that has been run to a suitable
(deep) depth using Coiled Tubing or Snubbing.
In this case, the method of killing the well is to circulate (forward or reverse) a kill weight fluid
around the wellbore whilst maintaining a constant Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP) at all times sufficient
to give a slight overbalance against the formation pressure. This is achieved by opening or closing a
surface choke, and by following a pre-calculated kill sheet which gives the required tubing surface
pressure at all times during the kill. The principles for working out the kill sheet are the same
whether it is forward or reverse circulation.
Various factors must be taken into account when calculating a kill sheet (or graph).
• Is the tubing used the same ID/OD for the whole length?
• Weight of fluid currently in tubing and annulus and weight of kill fluid?
• Current shut in WHP and annulus pressure?
• Contents of wellbore, oil or gas?
Well killing methods used in OMV Petrom are:
• Bullheading
• Direct Circulation
• Reverse Circulation
• Intermittent Bullheading
• Using Lubricator Facility
Typical kill workover fluids might include:
• Brine
• Completion fluid
• Drilling mud (oil or water based).
It is very important that the kill workover fluid is compatible with the formation and the formation
fluids. Incompatible fluids can cause swelling of clays and chalks, scale deposition and other
problems that can permanently block the perforations or greatly reduce productivity. Because of that
OMV Petrom procedure for selecting the best workover fluid is based on the following principles:
• Workover fluid must fit producing fluids (oil, gas and water) and used production/lift
methods (flowing and AL).
• Should be compatible with reservoir fluid and rock in order to avoid potential damage during
workover operation (induced damage which will cause additional costs)
• Impact of reservoir/wellbore pressure and temperature on WO fluid density and its changes
during operation and execution of job.
• WO fluid should be in accordance with HSE regulation considering the potential impact of the
presence of sour gases like H2S, CO2.
• Environmental protection is followed in accordance with government law regulations.
4. WELL CONTROL
Wait-and-Weight Method
This method is most frequently used during drilling operation, but can be used to control well in
workover well control.
The name of the method is indicative of what happens—it should wait until the fluid is weighted up
to the correct density and then kill the well. Whether the fluid density should be increased is
determined by the stable SITP reading. If the SITP does not bleed to 0 bar, then the fluid density is
insufficient and must be weighted up. The density can become insufficient for the following reasons:
• Mismanagement of the fluid on the surface, resulting in light fluid being pumped
downhole.
• Formation fluid contamination of the fluid in the tubing.
• Penetration of a zone of higher formation pressure, as when sidetracking or washing
through sand plugs.
The wait-and-weight method is a one-circulation kill procedure. Kill fluid is pumped in while the influx
is circulated out. If it is performed properly, it will require the least amount of “on choke” time. A
drawback to this method is the time required to weight up and condition the fluid before the
pumping begins. In the event of a gas influx, the time required to condition and weight up may allow
gas migration to take place, requiring surface pressure monitoring and controlled bleeding of fluid
until the actual well killing operation can begin.
Additionally, the Well Site Supervisor (WSS) must generate a circulating “pressure schedule” and use
it to monitor the tubing pressure while displacing the tubing string. Tubing pressure will gradually
decrease as the tubing string is displaced to kill fluid—that is, filled with kill weight fluid. This
decrease in tubing pressure is the result of kill fluid hydrostatic pressure replacing the original
underbalance shown on the tubing gauge.
Forward circulation
In a forward circulation, kill fluid is pumped down the tubing, through a circulating device (or out the
end of a workstring/coiled tubing) and up the annulus. Forward circulation has several disadvantages
over reverse circulation and is not recommended because:
• It involves higher circulation pressures

• Disposal of formation fluids through the side outlet valves is difficult.
• It is more difficult to pump the oil/gas ahead of the kill fluid.
• The fluid in the wellbore will probably mix with fluid in the annulus making choke
operation more difficult.
• The casing will be exposed to corrosive wellbore fluids.
Under normal circumstances, a forward circulation kill would probably only be undertaken with a
Coiled Tubing or Snubbing string in the hole.
The graph below (Figure 4-4) represents the typical pressure at the top of the Coiled Tubing or
Snubbing string (tubing pressure) and at the top of the pipe/completion annulus (annulus pressure).
These graphs are rather simplistic and assume various things;
4. WELL CONTROL
• The sizes of the workstring and completion do not vary from top to bottom.
• The workstring is already full of the kill weight fluid.
• The well is not approaching horizontal.
• The well contains oil and gas.
• There is no gas invasion of the kill fluid as it comes up the annulus.
Figure 4-4 Forward circulation tubing pressure
Reverse circulation
The reverse circulation is the simplest and the safest kill method. It uses the natural ’U´ tube effect of
the different gravities of fluids in the tubing and annulus to flow the well fluids up through the tubing
and out through the Xmas tree choke. The only pumping required is during equalization across the
circulation device before it is opened and when the kill fluid is in near balance with the other fluids in
the tubing.
In a reverse circulation kill, the well is circulated holding a back pressure on the formation so that a
constant bottom hole pressure can be maintained to eliminate any further flow of reservoir fluid.
This procedure is even more effective if a plug can be set to isolate completion fluids and kill fluids
from the formation.
As kill fluid enters the completion, there is a probability that gas will be encouraged to enter the kill
fluid as it is being pumped up the completion. This can be minimized by adding viscosifiers to the kill
fluid to inhibit the entrapment of gas.
This is normally the preferred method of killing a well when communication can be established at a
suitable depth between the tubing and annulus. It has the great advantage of filling the tubing and
annulus with kill fluid in one operation and all wells can be killed using this method.
When calculating the kill graph for a reverse circulation method, it must be remembered that the
completion annulus already has a full column of fluid. This fluid may or may not be at a higher
density than the kill fluid, as shown in Figure 4-5, Figure 4-6, Figure 4-7 and Figure 4-8.
4. WELL CONTROL
The following graphs represent typical annulus and completion surface pressures during a reverse
circulation kill.
They assume:
• constant completion geometry,
• no gas invasion,
• deviation is not approaching the horizontal.
The following graphs also assume that the annular volume is greater than the tubing volume and that
the new kill fluid is lighter than the existing completion fluid. This might happen in an old well where
the original, kill weight, completion fluid is now too heavy for the depleted reservoir.
The graphs have been drawn with the zero psi lines above the axis to allow them to be seen.
Figure 4-5 Reverse circulation kill graph
Figure 4-6 Reverse circulation tubing pressure – kill fluid is heavier than completion fluid
4. WELL CONTROL
Figure 4-7 Reverse circulation annulus pressure – kill fluid is heavier than completion fluid
Figure 4-8 Reverse circulation – kill fluid is approximately equal to completion fluid
Lubricate and Bleed
This method is recommended in wells where the other methods are not possible. The technique
consists of pumping a small volume of very dense fluid down the string until the maximum allowable
surface pressure is reached. Operations are stopped for a period of time to permit the dense fluid to
fall. The well is then opened and the production fluids and/or gas are bled off until some of the dense
fluid is recovered. The process is repeated until the entire tubing volume is displaced with the dense
fluid and the well is dead.
4. WELL CONTROL
4.3.3 Non Circulating methods (bullheading, constant tubing pressure method…)
Bullheading
Bullheading (or squeeze killing) involves pumping kill weight fluid down the tubing and forcing the
wellbore fluids back into the formation through the perforations. This method is only possible if the
well conditions are such that pumping back into the formation is possible. If the tubing or
perforations are blocked then this method cannot be used.
The pumping rate during bullheading must be high enough to stop any gas migrating back up through
the kill fluid and to keep the fluid from free falling down the tubing and mixing with the wellbore
fluids. Ideally, a workover fluid should be forced down the tubing, pushing everything in front of it.
The pump rate (and pressure) must not exceed formation fracture pressure. Fracturing the formation
can cause severe losses that are very difficult to stop even with coarse Lost Circulation Material
(LCM). Pressure ratings of surface equipment must also be considered.
Most producing wells in OMV Petrom have low formation pressures and a full column of kill fluid
may give rise to excessive bottom-hole pressures which may cause a fluid to be lost into the
formation. In this case, solids such as sized salt particles or Calcium Carbonate etc. may be required
to temporarily block off the perforations to enable them to support the full column of kill fluid.
In low permeability wells it might be difficult to pump fluids into the formation. This can result in very
high surface pressures for low pump rates.
Small tubing strings may also cause pressure problems because of high friction losses in the tubing. If
the tubing is very large, pressure will probably not be a problem although it may be difficult to
maintain the clear interface between the kill fluids and the wellbore fluids. This can cause the kill to
take much longer with much more fluid lost to the formation.
The main disadvantage of bullheading is that everything that is in the wellbore, including scale,
debris, sand, etc., is likely to be forced back into the formation. There is even the risk of plugging the
perforations before the kill is achieved. Surface and downhole pressures will be the highest with
bullheading.
The bullheading kill sheet template used as best practice in OMV Petrom is shown in Figure 4-9.
Procedures for Controlling Gas Migration
The two modes of gas behavior in the wellbore exist: gas expansion, where gas is free to expand
normally (as it does in constant bottomhole pressure kill procedures), and gas migration, where gas
migrates up a shut-in or blocked wellbore and does not or cannot expand.
There are two recognized methods of dealing with migration, or “allowing expansion”: the constant
tubing pressure method and the volumetric method. These methods are used to control gas
migration when it is not possible to circulate or bullhead the well. They can be used temporarily
while operations are ongoing to get in a position where the well can be circulated or bullheaded.
4. WELL CONTROL
Figure 4-9 Bullheading Kill sheet template
Constant Tubing Pressure Method

4. WELL CONTROL
The constant tubing is based on the following assumptions:

1. There is communication between the tubing and the choke located on the annulus.
2. The tubing pressure can be read.
This procedure can be used to control gas migration while mixing the kill fluid or making other
preparations for a circulating kill procedure.
Procedure for Constant Tubing Pressure Bleed Method:
1. Allow SITP to increase by a safety margin of 3.5 – 7 bars (50-100 psi), which prevents further
influx due to over bleeding with choke. This is called the lower limit.
2. Allow SITP to increase additional 3.5 – 7 bars. This is the upper limit.
3. Using the choke, bleed the annulus until the tubing pressure drops down to the lower limit.
The time lag should be marked.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3, keeping the tubing pressure between the lower and upper limits as
long as desired or until another procedure is implemented.
Important Note: There is a time lag between opening the choke and seeing the pressure drop on the
tubing gauge. The recommended procedure is to open the choke until the desired drop is seen on
the casing gauge, then close the choke and wait until the change appears on the tubing gauge.
In the long term, the casing gauge reading will not stay constant the way the tubing gauge does (the
WSS should not use the choke to make it so!). With successive bleed cycles, the gas is continually
expanding as it rises up the annulus.
Volumetric Method
This procedure accomplishes the same objective as the constant tubing pressure method in allowing
gas expansion, but it uses a different process control. This method is used when there is no tubing
communication. Since tubing pressure cannot be read, the process must be controlled with the
casing pressure and the volume of fluid bleed from the annulus. There must be a calibrated tank on
the rig located downstream of the choke capable of reading of small volume increments - 80 lit (1/2
bbl).
Procedure for Volumetric Method
1. Select a safety margin and a range. Recommended margin: 7 bars (100 psi).
2. Calculate Hydrostatic Pressure (HP) per fluid volume in the upper annulus (bar/m3).
HP (bar/m3) = Fluid Gradient (bar/m)/Annular Capacity Factor (m3/m)
3. Calculate Volume to Bleed each cycle.
Volume to bleed (m3/cycle) = Range (bar)/HP(bar/m3)
4. Construct casing pressure vs. volume to bleed schedule.

5. Allow SICP to increase by margin without bleeding.
6. Allow SICP to increase by range without bleeding.
7. Maintaining SICP, bleed small volumes of fluid into tank until calculated volume in step 3 is
bled. Repeat steps 6 and 7 until gas is at surface or another procedure implemented.
4. WELL CONTROL
During the procedure, it is critical to hold SICP constant while bleeding fluid. The bleeding is done on
the flat part of the pressure graph—that is, the SICP is not to increase or decrease. The choke should
not be opened more to speed up the bleeding process (which lowers SICP below the line) or another
kick will result. Patience is required: the bleed for the first volume may take several hours (depending
on well depth and type of wellbore fluid).
The question often arises, “How long should this procedure be carried on?” Remember that the goal
is to control gas migration and allow expansion. If the gas influx reaches the top of the well during
the volumetric schedule, the procedure is over: gas migration has been controlled. (This is evidenced
by the sound of gas flowing across the choke and a stable SICP when the well is closed in.)
Do not open the choke at this point and bleed gas off the well. This will reduce bottomhole pressure
and most likely result in additional influx. It will then be necessary to create yet another pressure
schedule and repeat this rather time consuming procedure. Removing gas from the top of a well (at
constant BHP) requires lubricate-and-bleed procedures.
Volumetric kill sheet template is shown in Figure 4-10.
Figure 4-10 Kill Fluid Volume Calculation sheet
4. WELL CONTROL
In Figure 4-11 is shown workflow for selection the well killing method depending on downhole and
surface pressure and fluid inflow conditions.
WELBORE PRESSURE CONTROL
Pressure equilibrium in the

wellbore and arround it
Ppores≤ Pwellbore ≤ Pfrac
Kick indicators
Lost of circulation
Ppores >
Pwellbore>Pfrack
Pwellbore
Control the Prevent the

kick kick
Not Controllable
controllable kicks
kicks
Control Influx Control influx out

without flowing it of wellbore
out of wellbore
Force fluid
Control influx
back to
at surface
formation
Without With circulation

circulation
Volumetric
method
By pumping
By pumping weighted fluid By pumping
weighted fluid in several By pumping non-weighted
Bull heading while weighted fluid fluid (driller’s
method stages
circulating in one stage method)
(simultaneous (wait and
method) weight method)
Lubrication
method
Figure 4-11 Technology Workflow for Selection Well Killing Method
4. WELL CONTROL
International kill sheet step by step procedure in Figure 4-12 is accepted and used in OMV Petrom as
best practice.
Figure 4-12 Surface BOP vertical well kill sheet
4. WELL CONTROL
Figure 4-13 Surface BOP vertical well kill sheet (continuation)
4. WELL CONTROL
4.3.4 Well Control Indications of Kicks
Understanding the causes and warning indications of kicks can help the WSS and crew prevent them
from occurring or, if they do occur, at least minimize their effect. Most kicks can be eliminated safely
and effectively if the WSS and crew monitor operations carefully and understand the necessary
actions that should be taken in the event of a kick. The best option, however, is preventing kicks.
Knowing what causes an influx of undesired well fluids into the wellbore is the first step in preventing
kicks. Known causes of kicks include:
• Insufficient fluid density or weight- primary well control is lost

• Swabbing
• Surging
• Failure to fill well when pulling tubing
• Failure to monitor and maintain correct hole fill volume during tripping
• Failure to circulate after shut-in periods
• Loss of fluid downhole
The crew must watch for various warning signs that a kick is occurring or conditions are favorable for
a kick. These indicators are described below, along with recommended actions to be taken when
they are observed. Warning signs include:
• Incorrect hole fill volume when pulling tubing or work string.

• Incorrect displacement volume when running tubing or work string.
• Increase in well flow during circulation.
• Pit gain.
• Shows of oil or gas at the surface.
• Cut fluid weight.
• Drilling, milling, or washing breaks.
• Increase in weight indicator reading.
• Well flow with pumps off.
4.4 Downhole Equipment
4.4.1 Special Equipment for Well Control
Subsurface Safety Valves
These valves shut off well flow through the tubing bore. Tubing-retrievable safety valves are integral
to the tubing string and can be retrieved only by removing the entire string. Wireline-retrievable
safety valves are located in landing nipples and are installed and removed with wireline tools. These
valves are further classified by the way they are controlled:
Surface-Controlled Subsurface Safety Valves (SCSSSV)
These safety valves have a connection for a hydraulic control line that runs back to the surface. A
control panel on the surface is used to close the valve, either by manual intervention or with an
automatic system that actuates in an emergency such as fire or uncontrolled well flow downstream
4. WELL CONTROL
of the valve. The valves are also designed to self-close if hydraulic control pressure is lost. They are
mandatory in many producing areas, particularly offshore. SCSSSVs are set at the shallowest possible
depth so that if the hydraulic control line is damaged, the hydrostatic pressure of the annular fluid
will not open the valve. They are also set at shallow depths to facilitate retrieval and repair.
Subsurface-Controlled Subsurface Safety Valves (SSCSSV)
This type of safety valve is controlled by well conditions. When downhole pressure or flow velocity
reaches a preset value of differential pressure, the valve will close automatically. The valve is
actuated by the pressure differential across the valve that is created by increased fluid velocity,
which occurs when the integrity of the production string above the safety valve is broken. These
valves are also called storm chokes.
4.5 Surface Equipment
4.5.1 Wellhead and Christmas Tree
A wellhead is customarily divided into three sections for descriptive purposes. The first section
consists of the lower wellhead section, which is connected to the outermost cemented casing string
with a threaded or slip-on weld connection. This section supports the weight of the BOPs while
drilling and the weight of the rest of the wellhead during production by transferring the load to the
cemented surface casing. A tapered bowl to accept the hanger and primary seal for the next casing
string to be installed is also included in the first section. This may be the intermediate casing or the
production casing. The first section normally has one or two casing outlets to allow communication
with the surface casing annulus for pressure monitoring, for the injection of inhibitors, or for killing
or cementing in the event of dangerous pressure conditions. An example of a dangerous pressure
situation would be a ruptured casing string caused by inadvertently applying bullheading kill pressure
to the casing via a hole or breach in the tubing string. The casing valves provide a conduit through
which kill fluid can be introduced into the annular space and gas bled off.
The second section, which is flanged to the top of the first one, includes a secondary seal at the top
of the production string. The secondary seal is used as a backup in case the primary seal of the first
section fails. The second section includes a tapered bowl that holds the tubing hanger and the
primary seal for the tubing. Two outlets are provided in this section body. On at least one of them, a
valve and a pressure gauge is installed for monitoring pressure in the tubing/casing annulus.
The third section is flanged to the top of the second one. It includes the tubing head, which
terminates the tubing string, and the familiar assembly of valves called the Christmas tree. At the
bottom of the tree are one or more master valves (in a multiple-string completion, there will be a
master valve for each string). The master valve is the main surface-control point for access to the
tubulars. It is always fully open when the well is producing or when a workover is in progress.
Usually, for safety reasons, the Xmass tree has two master valves. One to be operated when needed
and the second held as backup. The working pressure of the master valve is sufficient to handle full
wellhead pressure, and it can be used to close the well in and allow work on a tree valve or a fitting
above it without killing the well. Above the master valve is a flow fitting, which may be a tee or a
cross. The wing valve and a choke will be attached to one or both sides of the flow fitting and
4. WELL CONTROL
production flows through the fitting. On top of the flow fitting there is often a crown valve or swab
valve fitted with an adapter for attaching a lubricator for wireline/slick line works. A lubricator is a
pressure-rated tube that allows a tool string to be lowered into the well while the well is flowing or
under pressure. One end of the lubricator is attached to the swab valve with a flanged connection;
the other end contains a seal assembly (called - stuffing box) that seals against the wireline or slick
line used to run the tool string down hole.
4.5.2 Blowout Preventers (types, selection)
BOP Equipment
BOP equipment, which is used to control the well in the event of a kick, includes the following:
• Annular preventers,
• Ram preventers ,
• String safety valves,
• Chokes,
• BOP control systems,
• Back-pressure valves.
Annular Preventers
The annular preventer, when closed, seals the annular space between the pipe or tubing and the
wellbore. Circular, one-piece resilient sealing elements of various designs are used to make the seal.
Annular preventers are often called “annular BOPs” or simply “annular.”
The design of the annular preventer allows it to accomplish the following:
• Close around the complete circumference of a variety of tubing sizes

• Seal against irregularly shaped completion components
• Seal around the tubing that is being stripped in under pressure
• Close on open-hole in emergencies
Ram Preventers
Ram preventers also called “ram BOPs” or simply “rams”—use two opposing pistons (or manual
screws) to move two opposing ram blocks into the wellbore. Depending on the geometry and seal
arrangement of the ram blocks, the rams can be used for the following purposes:
• Seal around a pipe or tubing of a particular size (pipe rams).

• Seal around two tubing strings simultaneously (dual or offset rams).
• Seal around wireline.
• Seal around sucker rods (production rams).
• Cut tubing or pipe (shear rams).
• Cut tubing or pipe and then seal the wellbore above the cut (blind/shear rams).
• Seal an open wellbore (blind rams).
• Seal around pipe or tubing in a range of sizes (variable-bore rams).
4. WELL CONTROL
Rams may hold a small amount of pressure from above, but they are primarily designed to hold
pressure from below. Rams are shorter in profile than annular preventers, and for this reason, they
may be the only type of preventers installed on a well due to headroom restrictions from the rig
substructure. In general, rams close more quickly than annular and require less hydraulic fluid. They
should not be closed on pipe tool joints or tubing upset areas; otherwise seal damage will result.
Most rams used in workovers have a provision for manually locking them in the closed position,
which is desirable during well control operations or when shutting in for the night. Typical Ram
preventer is shown in Figure 4-14
Figure 4-14 Typical Ram preventer
Inside Blowout Preventers (IBOPs)
IBOPs are spring-loaded one-way check valves that seal the bore of the tubing or work string. An
internal plunger seals upward against a seat when pressurized from the wellbore while allowing
pumping through the valve in the opposite direction.
4. WELL CONTROL
Table 4-5 Types of BOPs used in OMV Petrom
Name Type of Description/Features

BOP
UZ 03 Annular Designed to operate with drilling or WO
fluids based on water or oil, with
maximum fluid temperature of 100°C. At
lower side of the body, the preventer is
provided with a flange end, according to
API 6A. At the top the preventer is
provided with studded flange. Packer is
actuated by double acting hydraulic
cylinders. The BOP design ensures the
“self-packing” effect, that means the well
pressure helps to the ram sealing; After
them shutting, the sealing is maintaining
even if the hydraulic fluid pressure is lost.
Consists of a cast steel body, in which are

mounted two sealing systems. The body is
provided with sealing rams local entering.
The bottom dwelling has two ferries
travel guides, and at the top sealing
element.
The rams are made of metal coated with

rubber, fastened the rockers, which can
be removed by means of two threaded
rods with left and right. Lower rams are
always design for total closure. Preventer
has two caps of cast steel, threaded rods
through which to handle ferries. Outlet
sealing rods are made by glands with
B2 Ram gaskets.
Threaded rods of each ram system are
coupled with roller chains. One of the
rods is extended by a coupling shaft axis Blind
and the wheel handle to handle, which
serves for remote opening and closing of
rams systems. When closing the rams
rubber material deforms and seals on the
body of tubular.
Pipe ram
4. WELL CONTROL

BOP
The preventers are single ram type,
manual operated and manual bonnet
opening for ram assembly. Using two
SE type production blowout
preventers, mounted back-to-back,
ensure both the complete shut-off of
the well bore and closing on a size of
pipes. Designed to operate with WO
and drilling fluids based on water or
oil, with maximum fluid temperature
of 100°C. Top and bottom with
connection flanges ends according to
API 6A, as well as studded flange or
SE Ram
threaded outlet. The ram assemblies
are actuated with the help of the
hand-wheel. The assembly ram design
assure the “self-packing” effect, which
means the well pressure helps to the
ram assembly sealing. Also, it is
assured an extrusion of the rubber
gasket towards the seal surfaces.
Stem sealing test is performed using a
limber hole on the bonnet.
Supplementary stem sealing by soft
packing injection, if is necessary.
SHE Ram SHE blow-out preventer 7.1/16 x 700,
for tubing is hydraulically operated
BOP. The rams can be manually
blocked in closed position by means
of hand-wheel. Quick access to that
rams, in order to replace them is by
shifting hydraulically the front caps .
The preventer handling allows limited
operational pressures of tubing string.
DF Ram The DF blowout preventer are
consisted of body and front covers of
cast alloy steel and are designed to
operate with WO fluids based on
water or oil with maximum fluid
temperature 100°C. DF BOP is
equipped with a flanged side outlet,
under the lower rams, to which the
fluid drain joint is assembled. The
rams are actuated by hydraulic
cilinders with double- operation-sense
pistons to close or open BOP. The
access to rams, to repair or replace
them, is performed through the acces
windows, provided on the front faces
of the blowout preventer body
4. WELL CONTROL

BOP
UZD Ram The UZD 02 Ram BOP’s are double
02 ram type, hydraulic acting, with
hydraulic covers open, for ram
assemblies replacing. Alloy steel body.
Designed to operate with WO and
drilling fluids based on water or oil,
with maximum fluid temperature of
100°C. Top and bottom with studded
flange ends according to API 6A. Two
studded flange outlets according to
API 6A (under the every ram
assembly) Rams are designed either
to seal off on drill pipes, tubing or
casings or to complete shut-off. The
ram assemblies are actuated by
double acting hydraulic cylinders. The
ram assembly design ensures the
“self-packing” effect, that means the
well pressure helps to the ram
assembly sealing; after them shutting,
the sealing is maintaining even if the
hydraulic fluid pressure is lost.
Centering guides push the drill pipes,
tubing or casings to a central position
by special machining practice in the
ram assembly body. Hydraulic
open/close of the covers, for quickly
replacement of the ram assemblies.
Well pressure is isolated beside
hydraulic fluid pressure using two
sealing systems: one for well pressure
and one for hydraulic fluid pressure.
Hydraulic acting allows to quickly
open and close the ram assembly. The
ram assemblies are locked manually in
shut off position; when the well
pressure is smaller then maxim Ram
BOP’s pressure (about 10% from
maximum pressure), it could make the
ram assy shutting.
4. WELL CONTROL

BOP
PITB IBOP Use for WO operation if the maximum
operating temperature is less than
250 ° F (121 ° C). The preventer has on
bottom side a pin threaded
connection which can be scrwed in to
the box connection of the tubulars.
The closing element is a valve type
with duble sealing sistem, rubber o-
ring /metal for low pressure and
metal to metal for high pressure. The
preventer is provided with a helical
compression spring which supports
the weight of the valve and on the
same time ensure minimum contact
pressure, low pressure seal
requirement. Constructive solution of
the preventer allows the well pressure
to help in sealing process.
Table 4-6 Summary of BOP application in OMV Petrom
Working Nominal Size

Pressure
2-7/8 in 3-1/2 7-1/16 in 9 in 11 in 13-5/8 in
(bar/psi)
B2 B2 DF B2
210/3000 DF DF UZD 02 UZD 02
UZD 02 UZ 03 UZ 03
IPTB SE DF DF UZD 02
DF UZD 02 UZD 02 UZ 03
350/5000
UZD 02 UZ 03 UZ 03
UZ 03
IPTB SE DF DF UZD 02
SHE UZD 02 UZD 02
700/10000 DF
UZD 02
UZ 03
1050/15000 DF DF
4. WELL CONTROL
String Safety Valves
These valves are used to close off the bore of the tubing or work string in the event of flow. They are
available in various designs and configurations.
Full-Opening Safety Valves
Full-opening safety valves generally have an internal ball that is rotated into position manually with a
wrench. When open, they have an unrestricted through bore that allows full-bore access and avoids
erosion caused by high-velocity fluid. Full-opening safety valves can be made up and included in the
string, or they can be used as stab-in valves installed by the crew on top of the tubing string when the
well flows through the string. Because of the unrestricted bore, the crew has a fairly good chance of
installing this type of valve when fluid is flowing through the tubing. A stab-in valve with the proper
end connection to the string in use must be available on the rig floor. The closing wrench must also
be available.
Drop-in Check Valve
Another type of IBOP is the drop-in check valve, or “dart”. The dart is placed into the string by the rig
crew and allowed to fall (or be pumped) through the string, landing and sealing in a special seating
nipple installed in the work string. This particular IBOP can be retrieved with wireline methods.
Wireline/ Slickline -Set Tubing Plugs
These valves serve the same purpose as IBOPs, but they are installed with a wireline/slickline in one
of the landing nipples in the tubing string. If there are no nipples in the completion, these plugs can
be set with a device called a collar stop, which holds them in position against the inside of the tubing
or with DPU (Downhole Power Unit) a electromechanical device that is designate to produce a
linear force for setting (or pulling ) wellbore tools such bridge plugs or packers actuated by batteries
or wireline electrical signal . Many of these plugs use an internal mandrel, or prong, that is shifted or
pulled by wireline/slickline to uncover internal ports that equalize pressures across the plug before it
is released. Caution should be taken after equalizing and unseating these plugs. Any gas present
under the plug behaves like a secondary kick and can cause well flow. There are many manufacturers
of these plugs.
Chokes
Chokes are used to control back pressure in the well during well control operations. They are
available in both manual (hand-adjustable) and hydraulic remote control types in various pressure
ratings.
Manual chokes typically have a tapered stem and a beveled seat that together form an orifice for
controlling fluid flow and pressure. Fluid is allowed to flow through the orifice while the amount of
back pressure is controlled by turning the hand wheel to adjust the amount of stem that is forced
into the seat. The stem and seat are normally made of tungsten carbide, which resists the abrasive
effect of the fluids flowing past them under turbulent flow conditions.
Hydraulically operated remote chokes are normally located in the choke and kill manifold, but they
are operated from a remote control panel on the rig floor. This enables the choke operator to better
4. WELL CONTROL
communicate with the driller during the kill procedure. Remotely operated choke systems have
additional features not found on manual chokes:
• Variable-speed control of choke

• Both casing and tubing pressure gauges on panel
• Pump stroke counters on panel
• Hand-pump operation in emergency
Production chokes are normally attached to the Christmas tree’s wing valve. They serve a purpose
similar to their drilling and workover counterparts in that they restrict flow. Production flow can be
restricted when the production string has a volume limitation or there is an excessive amount of
abrasive solids.
Production chokes are of two types: positive and adjustable. Positive chokes use an insert of a
desired size to achieve the restriction. Several styles of adjustable production chokes use
mechanisms such as dart and seat, needle and seat, and gate and seat to achieve restriction.
BOP Control Systems
BOP control systems consist of hydraulic control units, accumulators, and remote panels.
Hydraulic Control Units
The unit’s main components are as follows:
• Hydraulic pumps that supply energy to charge accumulators.

• Backup pumps, called air pumps, in case of main pump failure. Nitrogen backup
systems are also used in some cases as a backup pressure source for the
accumulator.
• A regulator to reduce accumulator pressure to the level of manifold pressure.
Manifold pressure operates ram preventers and BOP side outlet valves.
• A regulator to reduce accumulator pressure to the level required to operate the
annular preventers.
• A hydraulic control manifold that contains the regulated manifold pressure.
• Four-way control valves on the hydraulic control manifold. These valves route
manifold pressure to the appropriate ram preventer or high closing ratio (HCR)
valve.
• A four-way control valve that routes regulated annular pressure to the annular
preventer.
• A bypass valve used to route unregulated accumulator pressure straight to the BOP
components when required (e.g., when using shear rams).
• Connections to accumulators, pumps, motors, and remote panels.
• Relief valves for pumps.
• A reservoir for BOP control fluid.
• Gauges for accumulator, air, manifold, and annular pressure.
• A flowmeter to indicate fluid volume used to operate preventers and to charge
accumulators.
4. WELL CONTROL
Control unit CH 6U-3M:
Generals
The BOP control system “CH 6U – 3000” (Figure 4-15), is intended for use in blowout prevent
equipments hydraulic actuating and represents an assembly of hydraulic equipments (devices)
designed to store and deliver hydraulic energy at high pressure.
The fluid with lined out pressure is directed to the annular and ram blowout preventer hydraulic
actuators.
The fluid could be also used for the hydraulic actuated valve from the chokes and kill manifolds.
Generally, this kind of equipments are equipped with electric driving triplex pumps, and hydro-
pneumatic pumps (pneumatic actuated). The remote control system of the hydraulic distribuitor is
pneumatic type.
The main parts of a BOP Control System are:
• Hydraulic control system CH6U-3000 (CH),

• Control panel (PC),
• Pipes rack (CH -blowout preventers and CH - PC) Installation.
Figure 4-15 Control unite CH-U 3000
Accumulators
Accumulators are bottle-shaped steel cylinders that are often mounted on the same skid as the BOP
closing unit. Offshore they can be installed elsewhere on the rig and connected to the closing unit.
Accumulators store energy in the form of pressurized BOP control fluid, which is used to open and
close BOPs and valves when required. The closing unit pumps BOP control fluid in the bottles, which
contain a nitrogen gas precharge. This action compresses the gas, increases its pressure, and traps
energy in the control fluid to be used later.
The volume of control fluid inside the bottles between the maximum system pressure and a pressure
200 psi above the precharge is called the “useable” volume.
4. WELL CONTROL
With the charging pump off, there is a sufficient fluid volume to accomplish the following (with
accumulator pressure at least 200 psi (14 bar) above precharge remaining):
1. Close annular.
2. Close rams (except blind rams).
3. Open all HCRs.
4. Reopen annular.
5. Reopen rams.
6. Close all HCRs.
7. Close annular.
8. Open HCR for choke line.
Control Panels
Control panels allow the BOPs to be operated away from the closing unit itself. It can be located on
the rig floor. The similar panels on land rigs are often placed at a safe distance from the rig floor. On
offshore locations, additional remote panels are sometimes placed in the toolpusher’s office. Remote
panels have a master control that must be activated and held in position while operating the BOPs.
Back-Pressure Valves (BPVs) and Two-Way Check Valves
A back-pressure valve is a check valve that can be installed in the tubing hanger to prevent flow up
the tubing while removing the tree and installing the BOPs prior to the workover. It is also installed
prior to removing the BOPs and reinstalling the tree after the workover. The design of the valve
allows pumping through the valve from the top while holding pressure from below.
Another device, a two-way check valve, seals pressure from above or below. A BPV is replaced with
the two-way check valve in order to test the BOPs. The design of the two-way check valve allows for
bleeding of any trapped pressure from below the valve.
A long rod called a dry rod is used to install and remove either the BPVs or the two-way check valves.
The dry rod has right-handed threads on one end to engage valve threads on valves with a similar ID.
The OD threads on the valves are left-handed. Consequently, when removing the valves, the rod is
turned to the right until it bottoms out (this action also unseats the check inside the valve and
releases any trapped pressure below the valve). Continued turning to the right backs the left-handed
OD threads on the BPV out of the tubing hanger. Because pressure may be released during this
operation, a lubricator should be used. Injuries and fatalities have occurred when lubricators were
not used. Only trained personnel are allowed to install and remove these valves
Equipment Specifications Details used in OMV Petrom SA can be find in Technical Book Intervention
and Workover ( CARNET TECHNIC: Interventil si reparatii capital sonde )
4. WELL CONTROL
4.6 Workover Control Fluids
Many workover operations, such as running the reservoir or upper completion, perforating, gravel
packing and stimulation, require a clean, clear fluid. This fluid has to have sufficient density to exceed
reservoir pressure (i.e. a kill weight fluid) in order to prevent an influx. A kill weight fluid is not a
barrier in its own right; it requires mechanical isolation from the reservoir in order to prevent losses.
Isolation can be achieved through a filter cake but this still does not constitute a barrier because
disrupting this filter cake will lead to a loss of the overbalanced fluid.
4.6.1 Types of workover fluids used in Petrom OMV
A completion fluid is used at the time a well is completed or recompleted. It provides primary well
control during the completion process and is designed to minimize damage to the producing interval
of the reservoir.
A packer fluid is placed in the wellbore above a packer in the annular space between the production
tubing and the casing. Packer fluids provide hydrostatic pressure to resist the well pressure force
from below the packer, helping to hold the packer in place.
Additional functions of packer fluids are:

• Offset the effect of the internal tubing pressure when the well is on production
• Provide a noncorrosive environment for the casing and tubing.
• Provide internal support for the production casing.
Workover fluids are used during operations such as killing the production tubing, displacing the
packer fluid, flushing out tubing scale or debris, and conveying fluid loss pills to the perforations.
Workover fluids provide hydrostatic pressure for primary well control and help lift and convey
cuttings, scale, sand, and contaminants out of the hole. They may also be used as solvents, dissolving
crude oil by-products like wax, asphaltenes, and paraffins, which restrict the tubing bore and affect
production. Like completion fluids, they are designed to minimize damage to the producing interval
unless the interval is to be abandoned.
4.6.2 Functions of WO Fluids
The functions of completion and workover fluids can be divided into two basic categories: active
functions and preventive functions.
Active functions include the following:
• Primary well control
Workover fluids provide a level of hydrostatic pressure equal to or greater than formation
pressure to avoid kicks during the workover operation. When properly controlled and monitored,
fluid hydrostatic pressure may be considered as a barrier. When workover the well or during well
servicing activities, workover fluid weight needs to provide an overbalance at top perforations of
3,5 to 7 bar. This best practice has been applied in OMV Petrom in order to protect the formation
of excessive differential pressure and safe operations.
• Circulation and displacement
Fluids remove unwanted material such as sand, debris, cement, spent acid, cuttings, or milled
steel cuttings from the well. Fluids also help to spot or circulate cement, acid, kill pills, gelled pills,
or frac sand.
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• Cooling and lubricating

In workovers that involve deepening or sidetracking a well, the fluid cools and lubricates the drill
bit. Some workover operations involve milling of downhole equipment like packers and isolation
plugs. The fluid allows the mill to function correctly by removing heat and reducing friction while
cutting.
Preventive Functions of Fluids
Preventive functions of completion and workover fluids include the following:
• Minimizing fluid losses to the formation

 Loss of whole fluid into the formation must be controlled. Kicks will result if the fluid
level falls and primary well control is lost. In addition, the formation can be damaged by
fluids, and workover costs increase when lost fluid must be replaced.
 If mud is used for workover then an impermeable filter cake against the formation will be
formed. This filter cake minimizes the loss of fluid but very often is a cause of formation
damage. To avoid additional impairment of formation, clear, solids-free fluids should
used. These clear fluids have no solids to build filter cake, so they must prevent fluid loss
by either their viscosity or by using additives to bridge across the formation. Preventing
formation damage such as oil wetting of reservoir rock, clay swelling, scale precipitation,
and solids blockage are important functions of workover fluid.
• Maintaining stability over time and at varying temperatures
This applies particularly to packer fluids. The fluid must be formulated to remain stable for years
even at elevated temperatures.
• Preventing corrosion to tubing, casing, and completion components.
4.6.3 Workover Fluid Properties
The various components for the workover or completion fluid should be selected, so that the fluid
will function as needed for a specific well. Each WO fluid consists of a base fluid plus a weighting
agent. Then an additive package is selected to condition the fluid to the individual requirements of
the well. To fulfill the job requirements the following fluid properties should be measured:
• Density,
• Viscosity,
• Turbidity,
• pH,
• Crystallization temperature,
• Fluid loss rate.
Density
The density of WO or completion brines (inorganic salts and water) changes with temperature and
must be corrected so that the brine will have the sufficient density downhole to balance the
formation pressure at a specific depth. The calculations to determine a brine density thermal
correction are shown below. Example of calculation of required working fluid density to kill the well
is shown in Figure 4-16.
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(𝑃𝑅 + ∆𝑃)
𝜌𝑤𝑓 =
0.0000981 ∗ 𝐻𝑚𝑝
𝜌𝑤𝑓 – WO fluid density (Kg/m3)

𝑃𝑅 – Reservoir pressure (bar)
∆𝑃 – Differential pressure (bar) = 1.4 bar (Industry recommended practice)
𝐻𝑚𝑝 – Middle perforation depth
𝜌𝑤𝑓(21℃) = 𝜌𝑤𝑓 + (∆𝑇 − 21)𝐸𝑓 + (𝑃𝑅 ∗ 𝐶𝑓 )
𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑏ℎ
∆𝑇 =
2
𝜌𝑤𝑓(21℃) –Necessary brine density on surface (kg/m3)

𝜌𝑤𝑓 – Necessary brine density on the depth of the open interval (middle perforation depth) (kg/m3)
∆𝑇 – Average temperature in well (°C)
𝑇𝑠 – Surface temperature (°C)
𝑇𝑏ℎ – Bottom hole temperature (°C)
𝐸𝑓 – Expandability factor (kg/m3/°C)
𝐶𝑓 – Compressibility factor (kg/m3/bar)
𝑝𝑅 – Well working fluid hydrostatic pressure (bar)
Table 4-7 Expandability and compressibility coefficients for different brine densities
Brine density (kg/m3) Expandability Compressibility Factor

Factor(kg/m3/°C) (kg/m3/KPa)
1079-1318 0.51776 3.3 ℮-7
1330-1738 0.71180 2.95 ℮-7
1750-2037 0.77651 3.82 ℮-7
2049-2301 1.035347 5.39 ℮-7
Viscosity
When required, viscosity is increased with various additives. Increasing viscosity enhances the ability
of the fluid to carry or suspend solid particles. It also helps prevent the fluid from flowing into the
perforations. WO crew and fluid specialist must control the viscosity of WO fluids.
Turbidity
Turbidity is related to the cleanliness of the fluid. This property is important when workovers are
done in damage-sensitive formations that require clear, solids-free fluids. If a fluid contains
undesirable particles of silt, clay, and the like, it scatters light and appears turbid or cloudy. If a fluid
is particle free, it appears clear, the opposite of turbid. Turbidity is measured by a turbidity meter,
and the measurement is commonly reported in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTUs).
pH
WO fluid pH should be monitored and controlled in order to limit corrosion of downhole equipment,
inhibit scale formation, limit formation clay swelling, and ensure that the components of a
completion and workover fluid function together properly.
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Figure 4-16Density calculation example
Crystallization Temperature
If the temperature of the fluid falls below a certain point, workover fluids or brine completion
containing dissolved salts will crystallize (freeze) or lose density as their salts fall out of solution.
When crystallization occurs, crystals give the brine the appearance of slush. The viscosity of the fluid
may increase to the point where the crystals plug the lines and the fluid becomes unpumpable.
The crew needs to know at what point this crystallization takes place. The fluids engineer or project
engineer performs a test using the LCTD (Last Crystal To Dissolve) method. In this test, the brine is
stirred constantly as it is cooled below the point where the first crystals appear. Then the fluid is
warmed until the last crystal dissolves, which indicates its crystallization temperature, or LCTD.
It is possible to lower the temperature below the crystallization temperature without solids forming,
as shown in Figure 4-17. Such supercooling is unstable; when solid crystals do eventually form, the
heat of crystallization increases the temperature until it reaches the True Crystallization Temperature
(TCT) of the remaining solution. The recommended practice for measuring the TCT is provided by the
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API (API RP 13J, 2006) where the first crystal to appear (FCTA) and the TCT must not differ by more
than 10.6 oC (51oF).
Figure 4-17 Crystallization processes in brines
4.6.4 Components of WO fluids
Each fluid begins with a base fluid and a weighting agent. Then an additive package is selected to
condition the fluid to fit the specific characteristics of the well. The selected base fluid should satisfy
two basic requirements:
• It must be capable of controlling the well.
• It must protect the formation from permanent permeability damage.
Base Fluid
Fluids have two main components:
• Base fluid (liquid-water/oil or gas
Water is the easiest to use and is less expensive than oil-based fluids or gas, but it is not always
suitable for a particular formation.
• Solids to condition the base fluid to meet the requirements of the well
Water based
The water in a water-based fluid may come from a variety of sources including produced water
(reservoir salt water), fresh water an potable water
Oil Based
Crude oil or diesel may be used as a base. An oil-in-water emulsion is a fluid of about 40% oil in a salt
brine. It is used while gun perforating.
Gas
For gas-based systems, nitrogen gas is combined with water and a chemical called a surfactant to
create stable foam. Foams are used in workovers on wells that have very low formation pressures
and therefore will not support the weight of a column of liquid. Nitrogen densities range from
0.1198-0.5991 g/dm3 (1 to 5 ppg )
Clear Brine fluids
Clear brine is a fluid made up mainly of chemical salts, such as sodium, chloride, calcium, or
potassium chloride. Densities for the various commercially available brines are shown in Table below:
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Table 4-8 Maximum densities of some commercially available brines
Common WO fluid brines with approximate maximum densities

Max density
Fluid brine Formula
ppg kg/m³
Potassium chloride KCl 9.6 1150.1
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl 9.7 1162.1
Sodium chloride NaCl 9.9 1186.0
Sodium / potassium chloride NaCl/KCl 10.0 1198.0
Potassium chloride/bromide KCl/KBr 10.9 1305.8
Sodium formate NaCOOH 11.1 1329.8
Sodium/calcium chloride NaCl/CaCl2 11.1 1329.8
Potassium bromide KBr 11.5 1377.7
Calcium chloride CaCl2 11.6 1389.7
Sodium chloride/bromide NaCl/NaBr 12.3 1473.5
Sodium bromide NaBr 12.5 1497.5
Sodium /potassium bromide NaBr/KBr 13.1 1569.4
Potassium formate KCOOH 13.3 1593.3
Calcium Bromide CaBr2 14.9 1785.0
Zink Bromide ZnBr2 19.0 2276.2
Ceasium bromide CsCOOH 19.2 2300.2
Calcium chloride/calcium/zink bromide CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2 19.2 2300.2
Sodium/zink bromide NaBr/ZnBr2 20.5 2455.9
Calcium/zink/sodium bromide CaBr2/ZnBr2/NaBr2 22.5 2695.5
Weighting Material
The weighting material in the fluid can be barite (barium sulphate), limestone (calcium carbonate), or
inorganic salts such as zinc bromide, calcium chloride, sodium chloride, or potassium chloride.
Additives
Additives are used to condition the fluid to meet the well requirements. The most common fluid
additives and their basic uses are listed in table below (Table 4-9):
Table 4-9 Common additives and their uses
Aditive Use
Viscosifiers Fluid loss control, gas migration control, suspending agent
Surfactants Aids in recovering fluid used to load hole, emulsifier
Bridging agents Fluid loss control
Clay damage control, corrosion control, H2S inhibition
pH Control
Inhibitors Scale and corrosion control
Inhibitors Scale and corrosion control
Bactericides Controls bacteria counts
Commonly Used Brines
Some of the most commonly used brines include:
• Sodium chloride,
• Potassium chloride,
• Calcium chloride.
Sodium Chloride
Statistically, sodium chloride (NaCl) is the most commonly used brine. It can be mixed in densities
from 1006.54 – 1186.0 kg/m3 (8.4 to 9.9 ppg). Many brine charts show the upper limit of NaCl brine
as 1198.26 kg/m3 (10.0 ppg), but this density is difficult to achieve in the field. That number is based
on laboratory conditions—using distilled water and chemically pure salt and stirring with a high-
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speed blender. The crystallization temperature range is -0.55°C (31°F) for 1006.54kg/m3 (8.4 ppg)
down to -20.55°C(-5°F) for 1174.3kg/m3 (9.8 ppg).
Potassium Chloride
Potassium chloride (KCl) can be mixed in densities from 1006.54 - 1150.1 kg/m3 (8.4 to 9.6 ppg). The
crystallization temperature range is -0.55°C (31°F) for 1006.54kg/m3 (8.4 ppg) to 15.55°C (60°F) for
1150.1kg/m3 (9.6 ppg). A 2% KCl solution, which requires NaCl, is so commonly used (for clay
inhibition).
Calcium Chloride
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) can be mixed in densities from 1006.54-1389.99 kg/m3 (8.4 to 11.6 ppg), so it
provides a large density range. The crystallization temperature range is -0.55°C (31°F) for
1006.54kg/m3 (8.4 ppg) to 6.7°C (44°F) for 11.6 ppg. Dry calcium chloride is available in two grades:
77% and 94%. The 94% grade is preferred since it contains fewer unidentified solids.
For economic reasons, solutions of NaCl/CaCl2 are sometimes used instead of CaCl2 only. Mixing
CaCl2 produces an exothermic (heat-generating) reaction, so the WSS should ensure that personnel
take precautions to avoid burns.
4.7 Well Control Workflow
4.7.1 Well Control Best Practices Workflow Applied in OMV Petrom
The general workflow of well control process includes the following steps:
• Collect correct well and reservoir information.
• Ensure the appropriate numbers of barriers are always in place depending on
risk estimation.
• Barrier integrity shall be proved and maintained by testing.
• Select the method for killing/controlling well using available information.
• Monitor workover operations and remain constantly alert for unplanned
situations.
• Suspend operations immediately at the first sign of:
 Barrier loss.
 Adverse well flowing conditions.
 Underground flows (casing leaks etc).
 Equipment leaks (wellhead leaks, subsurface valve leaks).
If a barrier fails causing the minimum number of barriers to fall below the required number, wellhead
operations must stop and the barrier repaired or another competent barrier installed. When the
required number of barriers is back to minimum standard, wellhead operations may resume. General
Well Control workflow during workover of any type of well according to the previous description is
shown in Figure 4-18.
Early detection of a kick and prompt initiation of control procedures are the keys to successful well
control. Casing pressures resulting from a kick depend upon the volume and density of the invading
fluid, as well as the differential between the formation gradient and fluid gradient. The
recommended workflow to early recognize the nature of invading fluid is show in Figure 4-19 and
Figure 4-20.
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Figure 4-18 General well workflow for well control during workover execution
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Figure 4-19 Recommended workflow for determination of the nature of invading kick fluids
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Figure 4-20 Recommended workflow for determination of the nature of invading kick fluids (continuation)
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4.7.2 Well Control Complications (Holes in Tubing, Reversing Gas Kicks, Problems with
Circulating/Lost etc.)
Holes in Tubing
Holes in the tubing string create undesirable communication, or leaks, between the tubing and
casing, which complicates well control operations. Even a relatively simple operation like bullheading
can become difficult if leaks have developed between the strings. One of the best ways to seal or
pack off the leak is to install a pack-off assembly, which can be conveyed and set by means of either
wireline or coiled tubing.
The first step in packing off the holes is to locate the area of communication by using a collar stop
running tool and a ponytail. The collar stop running tool is used to install a stop in 8-round tubing (8
rounded threads per inch) to keep wireline and other tools from falling out the end of the tubing if
they are inadvertently dropped. The stop is essential with any side-pocket gas-lift work because it
prevents the loss of a dropped gas-lift dummy or valve.
As the WSS, you can record the depth or depths at which the running tool encountered the holes and
use this information to decide whether to attempt to install a pack-off.
If it seems feasible to run a pack-off, determine the internal diameters of the downhole safety valve,
tubing nipples, and sliding sleeve(s) as well as the internal diameter and drift of the tubing. If there
are multiple holes in the tubing, also determine the distance from the uppermost hole to the
lowermost hole. This distance can affect the design and installation of the pack-off assembly, which
consists of the lower pack-off, the spacer pipe, and the upper pack-off.
With the data in hand:
1. Run and set a lower tubing stop to provide an anchor point for the lower pack-off assembly.
2. Run the pack-off assembly and place it on the tubing stop.
3. Install an upper tubing stop to serve as an upper anchor point.
If the procedure is successful, the holes will be packed off, allowing fluid to be pumped down the
spacer pipe while isolating the tubing and casing from each other.
Curing lost circulation
Lost circulation is a common phenomenon in completion and workover operations. When working
with clear fluids whilst maintaining a pressure overbalance in the wellbore, lost circulation is usually
unavoidable. Excessive losses may cause long term permeability impairment and is also economically
unacceptable when working with expensive brines or brines which have undergone expensive
treatment, e.g. filtration.
Spotting highly viscous pills of clear brine is the most common method to combat lost circulation.
Other, more drastic methods comprise spotting pills of viscosified brines containing degradable
bridging material. Compositions are given in the above sections. By increasing the particle size range
of the bridging solids, pills can be formulated which are more effective in situations where massive
losses are to be cured.
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In case a more permanent seal is required, for instance in the event of extensive workover activities,
one may consider to spot an acid-soluble cement, such as Magneset. The design of Magneset is
similar to that for normal cement slurries, i.e. it requires the addition of retarders or accelerators
depending on bottomhole temperature. Formulation requires laboratory testing.
Problems While Circulating Mechanical problems and equipment failures can occur while circulating
kicks. The following section describes these problems and the recommended solutions.
Choke Washout
A choke that is washing out or cutting out can be initially difficult to detect, but an alert crew will
notice certain warning signs. The first indication that the choke has washed out is its failure to seal
when fully closed. Another indication, though not as noticeable, is a pattern of frequent choke
adjustments during a stage of the kill operation when such adjustments are not usually required. The
solution is simple: change to another choke after isolating the faulty choke using upstream and
downstream valves on the choke manifold. After the well is dead, the faulty choke should be
repaired, tested, and returned to service. If there is no other choke available, you may have to
replace the washed-out choke before proceeding with the kill operation.
Plugged Choke
An increase in casing pressure followed by an increase in pump pressure can indicate a plugged
choke. Both pressures may rise sharply, and this sharp increase can be very detrimental to the well.
Another indicator of a plugged choke is a loss of returns in conjunction with the sharp increase in
pressures. Therefore, if the crew notices that the choke has become plugged, they should
immediately shut down the pump.
As with a washed-out choke, the remedy is to change to another choke after isolating the plugged
choke by upstream and downstream valves. Using the second choke, bleed any trapped pressure
from the well and continue circulating.
Once the well is dead, the plugged choke should be cleaned out. This can be quite hazardous, and in
some cases, it would be advisable to turn this operation over to specialists who are equipped to deal
with the quantity of solids that may be trapped in the choke body and the resulting high pressure.
Any sudden release of pressure or trapped solids could seriously injure or kill personnel nearby.
Work-String Washout
Like the washed-out choke, a washed-out work string can be somewhat hard to detect at first. In
theory, as the string begins to wash out, pump pressure will decline. However, the decline is so
gradual that it often goes unnoticed. The hole will continue enlarging until the tubing fails.
Another indication of a string washout is the premature return of kill weight fluid if a lighter fluid is
being replaced by a heavier one.
The floorhands should be made aware that most washouts occur at connections or in slip areas and
should watch for any of the telltale signs by inspecting each joint. At the first sign of a washout, the
joint in question should be removed from the work string, laid aside, and painted with conspicuous
red paint so it is not inadvertently picked up and used again.
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Plugged Work String
When a work string plugs up, the pump pressure will noticeably increase without an increase in the
casing pressure. In fact, the casing pressure may decline a bit along with a decrease in return flow. If
this decline takes place, the crew should stop the pump and the choke and shut in the well. The crew
can pump up the pressure on the work string to try to free the obstruction. However, pumping up
the pressure on the annulus may damage the wellbore and the producing formation and is therefore
not recommended.
If pumping up the pressure does not remove the obstruction, then begin volumetric well control and
plan to perforate the work string to reestablish conventional well control.
4.8 Quality and Safety Requirements for Well Control
4.8.1 Quality Control
All tubing pressure tests performed should be for a minimum period of 15 minutes. A 10% drop from
the initial pressure is acceptable provided that the pressure remains constant for at least the final 5
minutes.
• For all tubing/production casing annulus tests, the annulus shall be filled and the side outlet kept
open. The annulus shall be monitored for flow during testing. The side outlets shall be closed after
the test.
• Check burst and collapse ratings of tubing, casing and auxiliary equipment prior to a pressure test.
The effect of tension on the collapse and effect of buckling on the tensile yield shall also be
considered.
• Particular attention shall be paid to actuation pressures of completion accessories (e.g. gas lift
valves, shear-out valves) to avoid accidental actuation of such equipment.
Areas where pressure testing is to be conducted shall be isolated. Tests shall be preceded by a 5
minute 20 bar low pressure integrity check. Consideration shall be given to the consequences of a
leak on the integrity of the system. Pressures shall be increased in a stepwise manner. All pressure
test must hold for a minimum of 10 minutes. A pressure drop of up to 2% within first 5 minutes is
acceptable, provided the pressure remains stable for the remaining 5 minutes. Testing period for
completions is 15 minutes. All tests shall be recorded and copies retained in the well record, with a
log of volumes pumped and returned.
• All Well Control Equipment shall be tested as per the requirements of API Spec 16A and API RP 53.
• All pressure containing casing, liner, completion or tubing strings shall be tested prior to being
drilled out or perforated. Pressure tests shall not cause loads to exceed any of: 80% of API burst, a
tri-axial stress 80% of nominal yield, connection pressure rating or 75% of connection tensile rating.
Surface and intermediate casing shall be tested to the greater of the well control burst design case
and the planned casing seat test inclusive of a 10% margin. The minimum test for casing and liners
where production or testing is planned shall be taken as the shut-in tubing pressure on top of the
planned completion fluids. Liner laps shall be tested to demonstrate integrity both in respect of
4. WELL CONTROL
internal pressure and inflow sufficient to demonstrate integrity against anticipated load cases.
Production and test tubing shall be tested to the maximum anticipated surface pressure.
• Surface well testing, completion and treatment equipment and associated safety systems shall be
function tested. Pressure test upstream of the choke shall be taken to the maximum anticipated
working pressure and full working pressure downstream of the chokes.
Barrier Tests
Barrier integrity shall be proved and maintained by testing as follows:

1. Open barriers (BOPs, valve, etc) are to be tested regularly at prescribed intervals.
2. Fixed mechanical barriers shall be tested upon installation.
3. Testing shall be as per the application of the flow if feasible and practical (eg. Valve should be
tested in the direction of the pressure or flow). Testing in the opposite direction of the flow
may be acceptable subject to approval.
4. Barriers must be leak tight, or meet the standard of acceptable leak rate per API RP 14B and
RP 14H for xmas tree valves.
5. Pressure tests shall be held for a minimum of 10 minutes for the maximum anticipated
pressure plus adequate safety factor. Zero pressure decline over the 10 minute test period is
required to pass the test.
6. Inflow tests shall be conducted for a minimum of 30 minutes with the full differential
pressure anticipated.
7. Wireline plugs can only be used as a barrier if they have been tested and have hydrostatic
pressure on top that sufficient to over balance the well pressure. In other words, the wireline
plug and hydrostatic column are considered integral and not independent of each other.
8. Tubing hanger can only be passed as a barrier if it has been tested from below (eg. In the
direction of the flow, through a test port).
9. Cement plug test criteria is to tag with weight, pressure test and/or inflow test. Pressure test
must be greater than the fracture gradient of the formation below the cement.
10. Casing and shoe track with cement floats are a barrier if pressure tested by bumping the plug
when cementing and the floats held against the cement column outside the casing.
Standard IPM-ST-WCI-012 requires at least two barriers at all times. The WSS should review this
entire standard to ensure compliance with all its conditions
Filters which are in use in OMV Petrom
Filtration may be required for a variety of completion activities such as gravel packing or overbalance
perforating. It is critical for fluids that may be exposed to the reservoir. Filtration can be performed
on incoming fluids (e.g. to remove shipping-related contamination), during circulation operations or
offline (between circulation operations).
Filters progressively plug over time; this plugging increases the pressure differential and eventually
the filtration medium must be recharged or replaced. However, this capture of particles within the
filter medium progressively restricts the flow of fluids and therefore the capture of fine particles
improves over time. A number of different filtration technologies are available. The two most
common are the filter press (plate/frame) and the cartridge filter (Figure 4-22 and Figure 4-23). The
filter press (Figure 4-21) consists of a series of vertical parallel chambers.
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Figure 4-21 Plate/Frame filters
In the chambers there are plates holding a filter cloth. This arrangement maximizes the surface area
of the filter medium. The purpose of the filter cloth is not to filter the fluids but to hold precoat
material (initially in a layer of around 1/8 in.). Precoat is a material with a large surface area; it is
added to the filter press before filtration operations and may be continually added during filtering, in
which case it is called filter aid. The most common precoat/filter aid is diatomaceous earth (DE).
Figure 4-22 Catridge filter unit
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Figure 4-23 Replacing cartridges in a dual pod cartridge filter
4.8.2 Safety Assurance
High density brines have unique chemical properties. Consequently, they should be handled in a
different manner than conventional muds, especially for safety reasons.
Personnel safety when handling these brine systems involves two aspects:
1) Education of all personnel
2) Proper safety apparel.
A brine is simply a salt (or a blend of salts) plus water. Low concentrations of these salts cause little
or no problem. Commercially available salts currently used in OMV Petrom are:
• Sodium chloride (NaCl)
• Potassium chloride (KCl)
• Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
This is a list of the minimum safety apparel which should be worn when working with or in the
vicinity of brines:
• Hard hats
• Chemical splash goggles
• Rubber gloves
• Rubber boots
• Aprons/slicker suits
• Disposable dust/mist respirators
Rig Safety Equipment
Following is a list of the minimum safety equipment that should be available when working on a WO
rig with brines:
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• Eye wash fountains and drench showers

• Pipe wipers
• Floor mats
4.8.3 Personnel Requirements
It is required to verify that the rig contractor’s personnel have received formal workover well control
training and possess valid certificates. There are two widely accepted certificates for workover well
control training:
Workover/Completion Well Control, Supervisory Level Certificate. This certificate is issued by the
International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC) under the organization’s WellCAP program
and is printed with the familiar IADC logo.
Workover and Completion Supervisor Certificate. This certificate was issued by the U.S. Minerals
Management Service (MMS) prior to 15 October 2002. The MMS no longer issues this certificate.
Each type of certificate is valid for two years. Its expiration date should be checked.
A third certifying agency, the International Well Control Forum (IWCF), issues drilling and well
intervention well control certificates, but it does not issue workover well control certificates at this
time. IWCF well intervention training covers wireline, coiled tubing, and snubbing operations. If these
operations are part of the workover, you may require that the wireline, coiled tubing, or snubbing
operators possess the appropriate certificate. IADC also issues these certificates, and MMS issued
them prior to 15 October 2002.
Complying with the H2S Standard
Key points from the document that are relevant to planning and preparation are as follows:
Each operation in an H2S area shall have a written H2S Emergency Response Plan (ERP). A site
contingency plan must be in evidence, with all ERP information posted. Site plans for shut-in and
evacuation must be read and understood by Site Supervisor and company personnel prior to rigging
up any equipment on location.
• The H2S Contingency Plan shall be tested prior to start-up in suspected or known H2S areas.
• The H2S Contingency Plan shall be tested periodically by performing H2S drills.
• H2S drills shall be held at least on a weekly basis when working in a suspected or known H2S
area.
• The drills shall be preplanned and shall emphasize the key learning point(s).
• The drills shall be held on varying days of the week and at varying times.
• Training shall meet local regulations, Client or requirements.
• Crews working on H2S wells must be certified to H2S level 2 by a qualified instructor.
• Crews working in non suspected H2S areas must have completed H2S level
• Standard working limit is max 10 PPM free H2S in the produced gas or in gas associated with
produced oil or gas evolving from drilling mud circulated from an H2S well. 10 PPM is the
trigger level of our detection equipment. At any concentration above this, special breathing
apparatus must be worn, otherwise all work is to be terminated immediately and all
personnel evacuated.
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Appendix 4 A Physical Properties of Potassium Chloride

Table 4-10 Physical Properties of Potassium Chloride (API)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Specific Density KCl H2O KCl Chlorides Vol.Incr. Crystallization
% Wt
Gravity (lbm/gal) (lbm/bbl) (gal/bbl) (mg/L) (mg/L) Factor Point (°F)
1.0 1.005 8.37 3.5 41.8 10,000 4,756 1.005 31.2
2.0 1.011 8.42 7.1 41.6 20,200 9,606 1.009 30.3
3.0 1.017 8.47 10.7 41.4 30,500 14,506 1.013 29.5
4.0 1.024 8.53 14.4 41.3 41,000 19,499 1.017 28.6
5.0 1.030 8.59 18.1 41.1 51,500 24,493 1.022 27.8
6.0 1.037 8.64 21.8 40.9 62,200 29,582 1.026 26.9
7.0 1.044 8.69 25.6 40.7 73,000 34,718 1.031 26.1
8.0 1.050 8.75 29.4 40.5 84,000 39,950 1.035 25.2
9.0 1.057 8.80 33.3 40.4 95,100 45,229 1.039 24.3
10.0 1.063 8.86 37.3 40.2 106,300 50,556 1.045 23.4
11.0 1.070 8.90 41.2 40.0 117,700 55,977 1.050 22.4
12.0 1.077 8.97 45.3 39.8 129,200 61,447 1.055 21.4
13.0 1.084 9.03 49.4 39.6 140,900 67,011 1.061 20.4
14.0 1.091 9.08 53.5 39.4 152,700 72,623 1.066 20.0
15.0 1.097 9.12 57.6 39.1 164,600 78,282 1.072 18.5
16.0 1.104 9.20 61.9 38.9 176,700 84,038 1.078 17.0
17.0 1.111 9.26 66.1 38.7 188,900 89,840 1.084 16.0
18.0 1.119 9.32 70.5 38.5 201,300 95,737 1.090 15.0
19.0 1.126 9.38 74.9 38.3 213,900 101,730 1.097 14.0
20.0 1.133 9.44 79.3 38.0 226,622 107,770 1.104 13.0
21.0 1.140 9.51 83.9 37.8 239,500 114,000 1.111 22.0
22.0 1.147 9.56 88.4 37.6 252,400 120,040 1.117 34.0
23.0 1.155 9.64 93.1 37.4 265,700 126,473 1.125 48.0
24.0 1.162 9.68 97.7 37.1 278,900 132,643 1.132 59.0
4. WELL CONTROL
Table 4-11 Physical Properties of Potassium Chloride (SI)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Specific Density KCl H2O KCl Chlorides Vol.Incr. Crystallization
% Wt
Gravity (Kg/m ) 3
(g/l) (ml/L) (ppm) (ppm) Factor Point (°C)
1.0 1.005 1,002.94 10.00 995.20 9,950.25 4,732.34 1.005 -0.44
2.0 1.011 1,008.93 20.29 990.44 19,980.22 9,501.48 1.009 -0.94
3.0 1.017 1,014.93 30.57 985.68 29,990.17 14,263.52 1.013 -1.39
4.0 1.024 1,022.12 41.14 983.30 40,039.06 19,041.99 1.017 -1.89
5.0 1.030 1,029.31 51.71 978.53 50,000.00 23,779.61 1.022 -2.33
6.0 1.037 1,035.30 62.29 973.77 59,980.71 28,526.52 1.026 -2.83
7.0 1.044 1,041.29 73.14 969.01 69,923.37 33,254.79 1.031 -3.28
8.0 1.050 1,048.48 84.00 964.25 80,000.00 38,047.62 1.035 -3.78
9.0 1.057 1,054.47 95.14 961.87 89,971.62 42,789.97 1.039 -4.28
10.0 1.063 1,061.66 106.57 957.11 100,000.00 47,559.74 1.045 -4.78
11.0 1.070 1,066.45 117.71 952.34 110,000.00 52,314.95 1.050 -5.33
12.0 1.077 1,074.84 129.43 947.58 119,962.86 57,053.85 1.055 -5.89
13.0 1.084 1,082.03 141.14 942.82 129,981.55 61,818.27 1.061 -6.44
14.0 1.091 1,088.02 152.86 938.06 139,963.34 66,565.54 1.066 -6.67
15.0 1.097 1,092.81 164.57 930.92 150,045.58 71,360.07 1.072 -7.50
16.0 1.104 9.20 61.9 38.9 160,054.35 76,121.38 1.078 -8.33
17.0 1.111 9.26 66.1 38.7 170,027.00 80,864.09 1.084 -8.89
18.0 1.119 9.32 70.5 38.5 179,892.76 85,555.85 1.090 -9.44
19.0 1.126 9.38 74.9 38.3 189,964.48 90,346.36 1.097 -10.00
20.0 1.133 9.44 79.3 38.0 200,019.42 95,119.15 1.104 -10.56
21.0 1.140 9.51 83.9 37.8 210,087.72 100,000.00 1.111 -5.56
22.0 1.147 9.56 88.4 37.6 220,052.31 104,655.62 1.117 1.11
23.0 1.155 9.64 93.1 37.4 230,043.29 109,500.43 1.125 8.89
24.0 1.162 9.68 97.7 37.1 240,017.21 114,150.60 1.132 15.00
Table 4-12 Formulas used in Table 4-10 and Table 4-11
Formulas:
Salt (lbm/bbl Water) = Vol. Increase Factor x KCl (Lbm/bbl)
Specific Gravity = 1.00056 + 1.22832 (10-6) (Cl -, mg/l)
Volume Increase Factor = 1+ (2.775 x 107)(Cl -) 1.105
4. WELL CONTROL
Appendix 4 B Physical Properties of Sodium Chloride

Table 4-13 Physical Properties of Sodium Chloride (API)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Specific Density NaCl H2O NaCl Chlorides Vol.Incr. Crystallization

% Wt Aw
Gravity (lbm/gal) (lbm/bbl) (gal/bbl) (mg/L) (mg/L) Factor Point (T)(°F)
1.0 1.007 8.40 3.5 41.87 10,070 6,108 1.003 31.0 0.996
2.0 1.014 8.46 7.1 41.75 20,286 12,305 1.006 30.0 0.989
3.0 1.021 8.52 10.7 41.63 30,630 18,580 1.009 28.8 0.983
4.0 1.029 8.58 14.4 41.46 41,144 24,957 1.013 27.7 0.976
5.0 1.036 8.65 18.2 41.34 51,800 31,421 1.016 26.5 0.970
6.0 1.043 8.70 21.9 41.10 62,586 37,963 1.020 25.3 0.964
7.0 1.050 8.76 25.8 41.02 73,500 44,584 1.024 24.1 0.957
8.0 1.058 8.83 29.7 40.86 84,624 51,331 1.028 22.9 0.950
9.0 1.065 8.89 33.6 40.70 95,850 58,141 1.032 21.5 0.943
10.0 1.073 8.95 37.6 40.54 107,260 65,062 1.036 20.2 0.935
11.0 1.080 9.01 41.6 40.38 118,800 72,062 1.040 18.8 0.927
12.0 1.088 9.08 45.7 40.19 130,512 79,166 1.045 17.3 0.919
13.0 1.095 9.14 49.9 40.00 142,350 86,347 1.050 15.7 0.910
14.0 1.103 9.20 54.1 39.85 154,392 93,651 1.054 14.1 0.901
15.0 1.111 9.27 58.4 39.66 166,650 101,087 1.059 12.4 0.892
16.0 1.118 9.33 62.7 39.44 178,912 108,524 1.065 10.6 0.882
17.0 1.126 9.40 67.1 39.25 191,420 116,112 1.070 8.7 0.872
18.0 1.134 9.46 71.5 39.03 204,102 123,804 1.076 6.7 0.861
19.0 1.142 9.53 76.0 38.85 216,980 131,616 1.081 4.6 0.850
20.0 1.150 9.60 80.6 38.64 229,960 139,489 1.087 2.4 0.839
21.0 1.158 9.66 85.2 38.43 243,180 147,508 1.090 0 0.827
22.0 1.166 9.73 89.9 38.22 256,520 155,600 1.099 -2.5 0.815
23.0 1.174 9.80 94.6 37.97 270,020 163,789 1.106 -5.2 0.802
24.0 1.183 9.87 99.5 37.74 283,800 172,147 1.113 11.4 0.788
25.0 1.191 9.94 104.4 37.50 297,750 180,609 1.120 15 0.774
26.0 1.199 10.01 109.3 37.27 311,818 189,143 1.127 25 0.759
4. WELL CONTROL
Table 4-14 Physical Properties of Sodium Chloride (SI)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Specific Density NaCl H2O NaCl Chlorides Vol.Incr. Crystallization

% Wt Aw
Gravity 3
(g/l) (ml/L) (ppm) (ppm) Factor Point (T)(°C)
(Kg/m )
1.0 1.007 1006.538 9.99999 996.8661 10,000.00 6,065.54 1.003 -0.56 0.996
2.0 1.014 1013.728 20.28569 994.0091 20,005.92 12,135.11 1.006 -1.11 0.989
3.0 1.021 1020.918 30.5714 991.152 30,000.00 18,197.85 1.009 -1.78 0.983
4.0 1.029 1028.107 41.14282 987.1046 39,984.45 24,253.64 1.013 -2.39 0.976
5.0 1.036 1036.495 51.99995 984.2475 50,000.00 30,329.15 1.016 -3.06 0.970
6.0 1.043 1042.486 62.57137 978.5335 60,005.75 36,397.89 1.020 -3.72 0.964
7.0 1.050 1049.676 73.71421 976.6288 70,000.00 42,460.95 1.024 -4.39 0.957
8.0 1.058 1058.064 84.85706 972.8194 79,984.88 48,517.01 1.028 -5.06 0.950
9.0 1.065 1065.253 95.9999 969.01 90,000.00 54,592.49 1.032 -5.83 0.943
10.0 1.073 1072.443 107.4285 965.2006 99,962.72 60,635.60 1.036 -6.56 0.935
11.0 1.080 1079.632 118.857 961.3913 110,000.00 66,724.07 1.040 -7.33 0.927
12.0 1.088 1088.02 130.5713 956.8676 119,955.88 72,762.87 1.045 -8.17 0.919
13.0 1.095 1095.21 142.5713 952.344 130,000.00 78,855.71 1.050 -9.06 0.910
14.0 1.103 1102.399 154.5713 948.7727 139,974.61 84,905.71 1.054 -9.94 0.901
15.0 1.111 1110.787 166.857 944.2491 150,000.00 90,987.40 1.059 -10.89 0.892
16.0 1.118 1117.977 179.1427 939.0112 160,028.62 97,069.77 1.065 -11.89 0.882
17.0 1.126 1126.364 191.7141 934.4876 170,000.00 103,119.01 1.070 -12.94 0.872
18.0 1.134 1133.554 204.2855 929.2497 179,984.13 109,174.60 1.076 -14.06 0.861
19.0 1.142 1141.942 217.1426 924.9641 190,000.00 115,250.44 1.081 -15.22 0.850
20.0 1.150 1150.33 230.2855 919.9643 199,965.22 121,294.78 1.087 -16.44 0.839
21.0 1.158 1157.519 243.4283 914.9645 210,000.00 127,381.69 1.090 -17.78 0.827
22.0 1.166 1165.907 256.8569 909.9647 220,000.00 133,447.68 1.099 -19.17 0.815
23.0 1.174 1174.295 270.2854 904.0125 230,000.00 139,513.63 1.106 -20.67 0.802
24.0 1.183 1182.683 284.2854 898.5366 239,898.56 145,517.33 1.113 -11.44 0.788
25.0 1.191 1191.07 298.2854 892.8225 250,000.00 151,644.84 1.120 -9.44 0.774
26.0 1.199 1199.458 312.2854 887.3465 260,065.05 157,750.63 1.127 -3.89 0.759
Table 4-15 Formulas used in Table 4-13 and Table 4-14
Formulas:
Salt (Lbm/bbl Water) = Volume Increase factor x NaCl (Lbm/bbl)
Specific Gravity = 1.0036 [0.99707+6.504(10-3)(%Wt NaCl) + 4.395 (10-5)(%Wt NaCl) 2 ] or 1 + 1.94(10-6)(Cl -,mg/L)0.95
Volume Increase Factor = 1.00045 + 2.72232 (10-3)(%wt NaCl) + 8.15591 (10-5) (%wt NaCl) 2 Or 1+5.88 (10-8)(Cl -, mg/L)1.2
Formation Activity Coefficient Aw = 0.99755 - 4.3547 (10-3) (%Wt NaCl) - 1.8205 (10-4) (%Wt NaCl) 2
%wt CaCl2 = [(100 % NaCl 2 (g/L) x %Purity NaCl 2)/Specific Gravity x 350 ]x 0.35
4. WELL CONTROL
Appendix 4 C Physical Properties of Calcium Chloride

Table 4-16 Physical Properties of Calcium Chloride (API)
4. WELL CONTROL
Table 4-17 Physical Properties of Calcium Chloride (API) (Continuation)
4. WELL CONTROL
Table 4-18 Physical Properties of Calcium Chloride (SI)
4. WELL CONTROL
Table 4-19 Physical Properties of Calcium Chloride (SI) (Continuation)
Table 4-20 Formulas used in Table 4-16, Table 4-17, Table 4-18 and Table 4-19
Formulas:
Salt (Lbm/bbl Water) = Volume Increase factor x CaCl (Lbm/bbl)
Specific Gravity = 1.0036 [0.99707+6.504(10-3)(%Wt CaCl) + 4.395 (10-5)(%Wt CaCl)2 ] or 1 + 1.94(10-6)(Cl-,mg/L)0.95
Volume Increase Factor = 1.00045 + 2.72232 (10-3)(%wt CaCl) + 8.15591 (10-5) (%wt CaCl)2 Or 1+5.88 (10-8)(Cl-, mg/L)1.2
Formation Activity Coefficient Aw = 0.99755 - 4.3547 (10-3) (%Wt CaCl) - 1.8205 (10-4) (%Wt CaCl)2
%wt CaCl2 = (100%CaCl2 (lbm/bbl) x %Purity CaCl2)/Specific Gravity x 350
%wt CaCl2 = [(100 % CaCl2 (g/L) x %Purity CaCl2)/Specific Gravity x 350 ]x 0.35
4. WELL CONTROL
Appendix 4 D Physical Properties of Ammonium Chloride

Table 4-21 Physical Properties of Ammonium Chloride (API)
Specific bbls
Density Lbs NH4Cl %
Gravity Water
per bbl Weight
per bbl
lb/gal @ 60 0 F Brine (NH4Cl)
Brine
8.4 1.007 7.0 0.990 1.98
8.45 1.013 10.5 0.981 3.00
8.5 1.020 19.0 0.969 5.30

8.6 1.031 30.0 0.940 8.40
8.7 1.044 42.0 0.919 11.50
8.8 1.055 53.0 0.900 14.40
8.9 1.068 65.0 0.881 17.40

9.0 1.079 77.0 0.860 20.40
9.1 1.128 88.0 0.840 23.00
9.2 1.103 100.0 0.819 25.90

9.5 1.139 135.0 0.750 33.90
Table 4-22 Physical Properties of Ammonium Chloride (SI)
Specific (g) NH4Cl (g) Water %

Density
Gravity per (L) per (L) Weight
Kg/m3 @ 15 0 C Brine Brine (NH4Cl)
1,006.54 1.007 20.0000 2.8286 1.98
1,012.53 1.013 30.0000 2.8029 3.00
1,018.52 1.020 54.2857 2.7686 5.30
1,030.50 1.031 85.7142 2.6857 8.40
1,042.49 1.044 119.9999 2.6257 11.50
1,054.47 1.055 151.4284 2.5714 14.40
1,066.45 1.068 185.7141 2.5171 17.40
1,078.43 1.079 219.9998 2.4571 20.40

1,090.42 1.128 251.4283 2.4000 23.00
1,102.40 1.103 285.7140 2.3400 25.90
1,138.35 1.139 385.7139 2.1429 33.90
4. WELL CONTROL
List of Figures
Figure 4-1 Tubing/annulus friction pressure distribution,
Figure 4-2 Pressure profile during bleeding with mechanically induced kick,
Figure 4-3 Pressure profile during bleeding with light fluid in the hole,
Figure 4-4 Forward circulation tubing pressure,
Figure 4-5 Reverse circulation kill graph,
Figure 4-6 Reverse circulation tubing pressure – kill fluid is heavier than completion fluid,
Figure 4-7 Reverse circulation annulus pressure – kill fluid is heavier than completion fluid,
Figure 4-8 Reverse circulation – kill fluid is approximately equal to completion fluid,
Figure 4-11 Technology Workflow for Selection Well Killing Method,
Figure 4-12 Surface BOP vertical well kill sheet,
Figure 4-13 Surface BOP vertical well kill sheet (continuation),
Figure 4-14 Typical Ram preventer,
Figure 4-15 Control unite CH-U 3000,
Figure 4-16Density calculation example,
Figure 4-17 Crystallization processes in brines,
Figure 4-18 General well workflow for well control during workover execution,
Figure 4-19 Recommended workflow for determination of the nature of invading kick fluids,
Figure 4-20 Recommended workflow for determination of the nature of invading kick fluids
(continuation),
Figure 4-21 Plate/Frame filters,
Figure 4-22 Catridge filter unit,
Figure 4-23 Replacing cartridges in a dual pod cartridge filter.
4. WELL CONTROL
List of Tables
Table 4-1 Number of barriers depend on well risk classification,
Table 4-2 Minimum number of barriers on annulus and tubing/casing (high risk wells),
Table 4-3 Minimum number of barriers on annulus and tubing/casing (medium risk wells),
Table 4-4 Minimum numbers of barriers on annulus and tubing /casing (low risk wells),
Table 4-5 Types of BOPs used in OMV Petrom,
Table 4-6 Summary of BOP application in OMV Petrom,
Table 4-7 Expandability and compressibility coefficients for different brine densities,
Table 4-8 Maximum densities of some commercially available brines,
Table 4-9 Common additives and their uses,
Table 4-10 Physical Properties of Potassium Chloride (API),
Table 4-11 Physical Properties of Potassium Chloride (SI),
Table 4-12 Formulas used in Table 4-10 and Table 4-11,
Table 4-13 Physical Properties of Sodium Chloride (API),
Table 4-14 Physical Properties of Sodium Chloride (SI),
Table 4-15 Formulas used in Table 4-13 and Table 4-14,
Table 4-16 Physical Properties of Calcium Chloride (API),
Table 4-17 Physical Properties of Calcium Chloride (API) (Continuation),
Table 4-18 Physical Properties of Calcium Chloride (SI),
Table 4-19 Physical Properties of Calcium Chloride (SI) (Continuation),
Table 4-20 Formulas used in Table 4-16, Table 4-17, Table 4-18 and Table 4-19,
Table 4-21 Physical Properties of Ammonium Chloride (API),
Table 4-22 Physical Properties of Ammonium Chloride (SI).
4. WELL CONTROL
References
1. OMV Petrom Internal Documents

• Types of workover fluids used in Petrom OMV, Technical procedure (draft version).
• IWCF Training material, Ploesti, 2011
• Internal well control training – for well intervention and workover, Suplac, January 7th 2011.
• Well Control Equipment Types of BOP (Blow Out Preventer), Suplac, January 7th 2011.
• Kalser E. : General Information – Workover Manual (procedures under development)
• Equipment Specifications used in OMV Petrom SA).
• WO Fluids and Additives Specifications.
• OMV Petrom SA standards used for well control.
• Well Control Applications Analysis in Petrom OMV.
• Blowout Preventers (types, selection).
• Well Control Instruments (Pictures).
• Kill Well Calculation Sheet , Well Control Calculation Model.
• Petrom Drilling Standard (Sep. 2008).
• API RP-53 Blowout Prevention Equipment & systems for Drilling Operations, Third edition
• API RP-54 Oil and Gas Well Drilling and Servicing Operations, Second edition
2. API RP-53 Blowout Prevention Equipment & systems for Drilling Operations, Third edition
3. API RP-54 Oil and Gas Well Drilling and Servicing Operations, Second edition
4. Aberdeen Drilling Schools Well Control for the Rig –Site Drilling team, Training Manua, 2002
Revised Edition
5. Alberta recommended Practice (ARP), Completing and Servicing Critical Sour Wells, 98/04
6. Baker Hughes INTEQ Fluidos – Manual de Ingenieria, 1998.
7. Caledonia Training & Consultancy Ltd, Well Intervention Pressure Control, Aberdeen, Scotland
(Aug. 2003).
8. Neal Adams, Workover Well Control, Penn Well Publishing Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma (1981).
9. Schlumberger, Well Control For Workover Operations, 1999
10. Well Control for Completion and Workover by Well Control School, Petroleum Extension Service,
1992
11. Well Control Manual, Enterprise Oil, October 2001, Revision 2
12. Well Control for Completion and Workover, By Well control school, Edited by RON Baker,
Published by Petroleum Extension Service Division of Continuing Education, The University Of
Texas at Austin 1992.
Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................ 5-1

5. WELL RECOMPLETION ...................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 5-3
5.1.1 Factors Influencing Well Recompletion ............................................................................ 5-3
5.2 Well Recompletion Technology Architecture .......................................................................... 5-4
5.2.1 Recompletion Type Selection ........................................................................................... 5-4
5.2.2 Openhole Recompletion ................................................................................................... 5-4
5.2.3 Uncemented, Slotted Liner Re-completion ...................................................................... 5-5
5.2.4 Perforated Re-completions .............................................................................................. 5-5
5.3 Well Recompletion Modes And Techniques ............................................................................ 5-5
5.3.1 Single String/Single Zone Initial Completion .................................................................... 5-6
5.3.2 Single String/Multi Zone Initial Completion ..................................................................... 5-7
5.3.3 Specialized Solution to Recomplete Well ......................................................................... 5-7
5.4 Downhole Equipment for Well Recompletion ......................................................................... 5-7
5.4.1 Production Casing/liner .................................................................................................... 5-7
5.4.2 Tubing String (Types, Connections, Inspections, Handling and Running Practices) ......... 5-7
5.4.3 Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valves (SCSSSVs).................................................. 5-9
5.4.4 Packers (mechanical, hydraulic, permanent/retrievable, optimum packer type selection) ..
.................................................................................................................................... 5-13
5.4.5 Re-entry Guide ................................................................................................................ 5-16
5.4.6 Perforated Pup Joint ....................................................................................................... 5-17
5.4.7 Sliding Sleeve (Sliding Side Door) ................................................................................... 5-18
5.4.8 Flow Couplings ................................................................................................................ 5-19
5.4.9 Blast Joints ...................................................................................................................... 5-20
5.4.10 Expansion Joint ............................................................................................................... 5-20
5.4.11 Chemical injection mandrel ............................................................................................ 5-21
5.4.12 Tubing/packer Movement, Forces and Stress Analysis ................................................. 5-22
5.5.1 Wellhead ......................................................................................................................... 5-32
5.5.2 X-mas tree/Tubing hanger .............................................................................................. 5-32
5.6 Materials Selection for various well conditions ..................................................................... 5-35

5.6.1 Downhole Equipment Metallurgy Selection ................................................................... 5-35
5.6.2 Elastomers Selection ....................................................................................................... 5-41
5.7 Recompletion Selection Workflow ........................................................................................ 5-43
5.8 Quality Assurance and Safety Requirements ......................................................................... 5-44
Appendix 5 A Casing and Tubing Specifications ............................................................................. 5-46
Appendix 5 B Applied Packers in OMV Petrom Specifications ....................................................... 5-47
Appendix 5 C Typical OMV Petrom HP/HT Gas Well Completions ................................................ 5-53
Appendix 5 D Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions, No GP (PR <100 bar) ........................ 5-54
Appendix 5 E Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions, With GP (PR <100 bar) ..................... 5-55
Appendix 5 F Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions (PR >100 bar) - No GP ........................ 5-56
Appendix 5 G Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions (PR >100 bar) - With GP .................... 5-57
Appendix 5 H Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions w/SRP .................................................. 5-58
Appendix 5 I Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions w/PCP ................................................... 5-59
Appendix 5 J Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions For Heavy Oil HZ Wells (Suplac) ........... 5-60
Appendix 5 K An example of tubing movement, forces and stress calculation ............................. 5-61
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... 5-64
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... 5-65
References .......................................................................................................................................... 5-66
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 5. WELL RECOMPLETION

1. Equalize pressure across the SS, before opening/closing.
Equalize pressures across a tubing plug before POOH. Approximately 10 bar of differential
2.
pressure is allowable acting upward, to help POOH the plug.
3. Install flow couplings below/above the SCSSSV (API recommendation).
Uninstall flow couplings below/above any tubing restriction (nipples, BH chokes) if the
4.
installed BH device restricted tubing flow are for more than 10%
5. Have a full set of tubing pup joints available on the well site (2', 4', 6', 8' 10' & 12').
Calculate tubing movement/forces for all expected pressure/temperature changes. Select an

appropriate expansion joint length or a LSA length & position to compensate for calculated
6. movements. Make sure that the total packer/tubing force, tubing string wall inner/outer
total stress and the first joint below tubing hanger force are less than 80% of the tubing yield
strength.
7. Always operate the upper master valve only. Use the lower master valve as a "last resort".
Run a Back Pressure Valve (BPV) into tubing hanger whenever nipple down/up BOP or X-
8.
mass tree.
9. Use an extended neck tubing hanger for additional seal on all gas wells.
Calculate H2S and CO2 partial pressure on all wells suspected to have those gases. That's the
10.
first indication of having a sour environment.
11. Select appropriate downhole material for sour service, based on the actual well conditions.
12. H2S pp limit is 0.0035 bar and CO2 pp limit is 0.5 bar.
13. Measure and drift (with an API OD drift) before RIH.

Always prepare a detailed downhole equipment schematic of the final completion (with
14.
lengths, OD/IDs, thread types, material characteristics).
Select all the DH equipment elastomers (packer seal, LSA seals, SS seals, tubing hanger
15. seals), to withstand maximum expected temperature, pressures and all expected chemicals
to be used (acids, different inhibitors).
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 5. WELL RECOMPLETION

1. To set a packer at the casing collar.
2. To operate the lower master valve.
3. To run a TWCV (two way check valve) before nippling down/up BOP or X-mass tree.
To use packer fluid without appropriate inhibition, in case of tubing/packer completion
4.
(corrosion inhibitor, oxygen scavenger and biocide).
To install any string (work or final production) that is not measured, tallied and drifted, with
5.
an API sized drift.
To start workover operation without checking Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for
6.
equipment and products to be used during job operation.
5.1 Introduction
The production engineer is responsible for monitoring and ensuring the ongoing safe operation of
the well. As such the responsibilities include:- The identification and resolution of problems that will
occur with the production system. This area of work is critical to the on going viability of field
developments and wells, and can be sub divided into a number of areas namely:
1. Identification of problems and their source - this is normally conducted on the basis of
surface information which indicates changes in production characteristics such as rate and
pressures. In addition downhole investigations using production logging techniques and
transient pressure surveys (flow tests) can also help to identify the location of problems and
the reasons for the changes
2. Plan the required corrective action - this requires considerable attention to detail and will
necessitate:
a) Identifying the equipment, manpower and other capabilities required.
b) Identification and assessment of the unknowns/uncertainties.
c) Identification and evaluation of the key safety point and mile stones.
d) The assessment of the probability technical and economic success.
e) To identify the required resources, skills and their supervision.
f) The workover phase is the most dangerous in terms of well control and the
potential for damage on existing production wells. Attention to detail and careful
planning is essential.
5.1.1 Factors Influencing Well Recompletion
Once a well has been drilled and completed, it will be utilised to produce from or inject fluid into the
formation. Workover is a the term that is commonly used to describe the process anytime the well is
entered after it is initially completed. This normally involves a process to stop the well producing
hydrocarbons, so that the purpose for which it has been entered may be carried out in a safe and
controlled manner.
Workover operations are performed after the initial completion to either:

• Re-establish commercial production or injection,
• Repair a mechanical problem in the well, or
• Plug and abandon the well.
Workover operations are usually initiated when hydrocarbon production rates decline substantially.
Completions and workover operations are alike in that they vary depending on the type of well and
the area. They can be as simple as changing out pumps in a rod job, or as complex as a multiple zone
recompletion with a three or four-stage stimulation treatment. Sometimes workovers are done to
control excessive water or gas production. Undesired water or gas production could be the result of a
poor primary cement job or water/gas coning. These types of workovers typically involve a remedial
cement job to control the unwanted water/gas production. Another common cause for remedial
work is mechanical (tubing/casing) failures. These failures are often the result of erosion or corrosion
occurring in the wellbore.
5.2 Well Recompletion Technology Architecture
5.2.1 Recompletion Type Selection
Recompletion type selection depends on the existing well completion. The existing well completion
could be the initial one or the well has already been recompleted once or even several times since it
had been initially completed (usual case with OMV Petrom).
Figure 5-1 Possible initial or existing equipment in the well to be recompleted
5.2.2 Openhole Recompletion
OH re-completion can be done as follows:

• RIH an appropriately designed stand alone screen (further SAS) in case of sand production
problem (recent OMV Petrom initiative).
• RIH an appropriately designed slotted liner (OMV Petrom Suplac heavy oil field).
• RIH an appropriately designed slotted liner with several swellable ECPs set in shales.
• RIH an uncemented liner with several swellable/inflatable ESPs, set in shales, and sliding
sleeves (as frac or production ports) between them for selective or commingled production
(311 Lipanescu horizontal open hole section, offshore wells equipped for multi stage
fracturing).
The selection of ECPs (swellable vs inflatable or hydraulic set packers) depends mainly on the
geometrical shape of the open hole. Swellable packers usually can’t swell enough in the open
hole sections with increase ID. In those situations, inflatables could be packers of choice.
5.2.3 Uncemented, Slotted Liner Re-completion
This type of recompletion is typically used in wells with expected sand production problems, but is
not the best in many cases. OMV Petrom runs un-cemented, slotted liners as an initial completion
method on Suplac, shallow, heavy oil wells, with pretty good success. Slots have been designed
based on the reservoir sand sieve analysis, to prevent sand inflow into the wellbore. Workover or
recompletion on these wells, in case of the slotted liner damage and formation sand inflow into the
wellbore, includes:
• POOH sucker rod pump, cleaning out the sand with foam or tubing sand bailer, and
re-running the sucker rod pump for further production, or
• Eventually RIH an inside slotted liner SAS, after cleaning out the sand from the
wellbore, then resuming the sand free production.
5.2.4 Perforated Re-completions
This is the most common way of initial well completion in OMV Petrom. Usually a 7” production
casing is RIH, cemented and perforated for production. 4 ½” or 5” liner as standard sizes are
sometimes RIH as production liners through 7” previously RIH and cemented casing. Both possible
liner sizes are typically cemented and perforated for production. Workover or recompletion on these
wells can include:
• Permanent abandonment of the existing perforated interval and perforating upper in

the same layer or into a different layer.
• WSO, then re-perforating the upper part of the existing layer and acidizing through
new and existing perforations.
• Just re-perforating the existing perforations and eventually “extending” perforations

up/down in the same layer, or adding perforations in a different layer for a
commingled production.
5.3 Well Recompletion Modes And Techniques
Well recompletions modes and techniques depend on the existing production casing ID, existing
tubing string and other downhole equipment RIH during the initial completion or previously done
WO/recompletion. The most common types or initial completion in OMV Petrom for gas wells are:
• Single tubing string, packerless completion for gas wells with a low existing reservoir
pressure (usually < 100 bar).
• Single tubing string/single zone completion, with a packer and TRSCSSSV, for gas wells
with higher than 100 bar existing reservoir pressure.
• Single tubing string/multi zone completion, with two or more packers and sliding
sleeves between them for a separate (some SSs are closed) or fully commingled (all
SSs are opened) production.
A very low percentage of gas wells have been equipped with plunger lift system for a permanent
liquid unloading.
Very small number of oil wells in OMV Petrom are in natural flow, so the majority of the oil wells are
drilled in reservoirs with highly depleted pressures and some kind of ALS is necessary to be installed.
There are four major types of ALSs used in OMV Petrom:
• Coupled sucker rod reciprocating pumps (majority insert type, minority tubing type),
• PCPs RIH on coupled sucker rods,
• ESP’s (Petromar) and several of them recently installed onshore, and
• Continuous gas lift on the oil fields where the injection gas is available.
COROD (continuous rod) has been installed on some wells instead of coupled rods with reciprocated
bottom hole pumps.
5.3.1 Single String/Single Zone Initial Completion
This the most common downhole equipment RIH during the initial completion on gas wells in OMV
Petrom. A sliding sleeve is usually RIH, so it could be opened by an appropriate slickline shifting tool
for killing the well, before removing the X-mass tree and installing an appropriate BOP stack (Figure
5-2a).
Figure 5-2 a) Typical single string/single zone completion w/SS; b) Typical single string/multi zone completion
5.3.2 Single String/Multi Zone Initial Completion
This type of well completion is not fully implemented in OMV Petrom for onshore wells, so far, and is
shown in Figure 5-2b. There is a recent initiative for introducing a commingled completion on
reservoirs/layers where that is possible and efficient. On the other hand, that kind of completion has
been fully implemented offshore on gas or oil wells which have been multi stage fractured and put
on production out of all fractured d zones simultaneously (see Chapter 11).
5.3.3 Specialized Solution to Recomplete Well
Petroleum industry has accepted a general definition of anHP/HT well as any well with existing
reservoir pressure equal or higher than 700 bar (10000 psi) and existing reservoir temperature equal
or highre than 150 oC (300 oF), combined. OMV Petrom doesn’t apply these criteria and considers
even wells as HP/HT, with pressures and temperatures less than 700 bar/150oC (4539 Totea, as an
example – reservoir pressure/temperature 480 bar/135oC @ 3400 m). A very small number of HP/HT
have been completed in OMV Petrom, so far. A typical completion on those kind of wells consists of a
HP/HT permanent packer with a tail pipe (nipple, perforated pup joint, No-Go nipple, mule shoe
guide), LSA , premium connection tubing string with a TRSCSSSV (Appendix 5 C Typical OMV Petrom
HP/HT Gas Well Completions). Packer fluid on these wells has usually got density lower than density
required for killing the well. In the case of an urgent need for a re-completion these wells should be
killed with a WO fluid of very high density (bromides or formates), which will have a high impact on
the WO cost. Besides, premium connection tubing requests a special attention and handling,
especially during disconecting/connecting the tubing joints. The tubing joints must be connected
with an optimum torque , by using power tongs with a real time torque control.
5.4 Downhole Equipment for Well Recompletion
That includes all the equipment which could be run in hole on the final production tubing string as a
final recompletion equipment, from the tubing hanger to the tubing string end. The most important
downhole recompletion equipment will be mentioned here, and it’s simply impossible to mention all
different downhole equipment existing at the market in this document.
5.4.1 Production Casing/liner
In most of the cases, OMV Petrom well are cased with 7” production casing, or 7” production casing
and 4 ½” or 5” liner. A slim hole design has been recently introduced for sweet, low pressure, gas
wells with less than 100000 Sm3/d of gas production.
5.4.2 Tubing String (Types, Connections, Inspections, Handling and Running Practices)
OMV Petrom has introduced tubing standard in 2011 (see Appendix 5 A Casing and Tubing
Specifications). According to the adopted tubing standard, following tubing sizes are standard one: 2
3/8”, 2 7/8” and 3 ½” OD, with regular API threads for oil and water injection wells and with Tenaris
Blue premium threads for gas wells. Tubing refers to the pipe used to create a flow conduit inside the
wellbore, between the reservoir and the wellhead. This flow conduit provides control of the
produced fluid and facilitates wellbore servicing operations such as electric wireline, slickline and
pumping activities. Typically, tubing is run inside a casing string or a liner but tubing can also be
cemented in slim hole wells as the production tubing. One or more strings of tubing may be used in a
completion and this decision is a function of the number of reservoirs to be produced, whether the
fluids will be commingled or produced separately and whether the reservoirs will be produced
concurrently or sequentially. The purpose of using tubing in a well is to convey the produced fluids
from the producing zone to the surface, or in some cases to convey fluids from the surface to the
producing zone. It should continue to do this effectively, safely and economically for the life of the
well, so care must be taken in its selection, protection and installation. The tubing must retain the
well fluids and keep them out of the annulus to protect the casing from corrosion and well pressure
which may be detrimental to future well operations such as workovers. Tubing connections play a
vital part in the function of the tubing.
There are two types of connection available:
• API (external upset EUE and non- upset NU – Figure 5-3), and
• Premium connections.
API connections are tapered thread connections and rely on thread compound to seal whereas the
premium thread has at least one metal-to-metal seal. Premium connections are generally used in gas
and high pressure wells.
Tubing size and grade selection is governed by several factors:
• Anticipated well peak production rate,
• Well depth,
• Casing sizes,
• Wellbore fluid type,
• Use of electric wireline and slickline tools and equipment,
• Pressures/temperatures during the well life, and
• Tubing/annulus differential pressures.
To meet various completion designs, there is a wide range of tubing sizes, wall thickness (weights)
and materials to provide resistance to tubing forces and differing well environments. The best tubing
selection is the cheapest tubing which will withstand the external, internal and longitudinal forces it
will be subjected to, and resist all corrosive fluids in the well fluid stream. Tubing in the main, is
supplied in accordance with API specifications which have a range of materials to resist most of the
potential corrosive well conditions, but, where deeper high pressure sour reservoirs are being
developed, the API range is not suitable. To fill this gap in the market, steel suppliers provide
propriety grades and different CRA material, for various HP/HT and sour well conditions. For ease of
identification, tubing is colour coded to API specification. Some specialist supplier's steels are not
covered by the code and provide their own specific codes.
In most of the cases the existing tubing string in the well is at the same time a work string during
workover operations. That’s specially the case when an API threaded tubing string is in the wellbore
and when no fishing operations are expected requiring a higher grade, even thick walled tubing
string, for applying higher pull/slack off forces. Higher grade, thick walled tubing strings or even the
same OD drill pipes can be used for a complicated workover job if applying of higher pulling/slack off
forces or higher torques is expected during the planned workover operations (fishing, milling, etc.).
Any string (work or final production) must be measured, tallied and drifted, with an API sized drift,
before running in hole. The tubing drift API length is 1066.8 mm (42”), and it’s OD can be calculated
by using the Excel spreadsheet similar to one shown in Figure 5-4.
Figure 5-3 a) API EUE and NU tubing collars b) Tenaris Blue premium connection
Figure 5-4 An example of a tubing drift OD calculation
OMV Petrom casing and tubing standards are shown in Appendix 5 A Casing and Tubing
Specifications.
5.4.3 Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valves (SCSSSVs)
The SCSSSV is a downhole safety device that can shut in a well in an emergency or provide a barrier
between the reservoir and the surface. As the name suggests, the valve can be controlled from the
surface by hydraulic pressure transmitted from a control panel through stainless steel tubing to the
safety valve. The remote operation of this type of valve from the surface can also be integrated with
pilots, emergency shutdown (ESD) systems, and surface safety control manifolds. This flexibility of
the surface controlled safety valve design is its greatest advantage. In the simplest system an SCSSV
is held open by control line pressure supplied by a manifold at the surface, the pressure being
maintained by hydraulic pumps controlled by a pressure pilot installed at some strategic point at the
wellhead. Damage to the wellhead or flow lines causes a pressure monitor pilot to exhaust
pneumatic pressure from a low pressure line which in turn causes a relay to block control pressure to
a three-way hydraulic controller resulting in hydraulic pressure loss in the SCSSSV control line. When
this pressure is lost, the safety valve automatically closes, shutting off all flow from the tubing.
There are two main categories of SCSSSVs:
• Slickline Retrievable - SRSCSSSV(Figure 5-5a)
• Tubing Retrievable - TRSCSSSV (Figure 5-5b)
Figure 5-5 a) SRSCSSSV b) TRSCSSSV, flapper closure type
Statistics on reliability indicate that TRSCSSSVs with are more reliable than SRSCSSSVs, as well as, the
flapper type closure mechanism is more reliable than the ball type one. Both categories are supplied
with or without internal equalizing features. The equalizing feature allows the pressure to equalize
across the valve so it can be re-opened. Valves without this feature need to be equalized by applying
pressure at surface. Mean times to failures are approximately 6 years for SRSCSSSVs compared to 15
years for TRSCSSSVs. TRSCSSSVs are also full bore giving higher flow rates. Therefore, the TRSCSSSV
flapper valve is the most reliable of all. OMV Petrom uses only non-equalizing, TRSCSSSVs with
flapper type closure mechanism.
The equalizing valve has more operating parts and is less reliable than non-equalizing valve, however,
with the latter, equalization pressure is often difficult to provide and may be time consuming.
TRSCSSSVs are part of the tubing string and usually are run in hole at 50 to 60 m from surface
operate using the same principle as SRCSSSvs except all the components are incorporated in one
assembly which is installed in the completion string. Some later models have rod pistons instead of
concentric piston designs. They also have both equalizing and non-equalizing versions and versions
that enable the insertion of a valve inside the TRSCSSSV, on slickline, when the operating mechanism
has failed. If the failure is due to a leaking control line then this contingency measure is ineffective.
To enable the installation of the insert valve, the TRSCSSSV needs to be ‘locked open’ or ‘locked out’;
however the reduced internal bore may adversely affect production rates.
The components required for a TRSCSSSV safety system are:
• Hydraulic control line,
• Control line tubing joint/over tubing collar protectors, and
• Hydraulic control manifold.
• TRSCSSSV for insert capability:
• SRSCSSSV,
• Locking mandrel,
• Slickline installation and retrieval tools for the locking mandrel,
• Lock-out tool for the TRSCSSSV,
• A connection to the surface control panel, for keeping the TRSCSSSV open during the
production phase or for closing it, in case of an emergency,
• Tubing hanger with a hole in it for the control line, and
• Tubing hanger flange with an appropriate passage for connecting surface line to the
surface control panel.
TRSCSSSVs are run held open using control line pressure or a hold open sleeve or straddle. Leak off
tests are performed immediately after TRSCSSSVs are installed. A typical leak off test involves closing
the production, kill and swab valves on the Xmas tree and bleeding off the control line pressure to
the TRSCSSSV. Tubing pressure is bled off slowly above the valve to zero for a TRSCSSSV and in 100
6.9 bar (100 psi) stages for a SRSCSSSV. The system is closed in again and tubing pressure monitored.
If there is a rapid build-up, a major leak is indicated or improper functioning of the valve; in this case
the valve should be cycled and the test repeated. After a specified shut-in period the tubing head
pressure should be below a maximum allowable pressure as specified by the operator’s leak off
criteria although there is an API standard.
It is extremely important that pressure data is fully and accurately recorded. After initial installation,
leak tests should be carried out periodically; this accomplishes two functions:
• Testing the integrity of the seal in the safety valve.
• Cycling the valve to prevent 'freezing' in wells where they have been sitting in either
the fully open or fully closed position for extended periods of time.
Only trained, experienced and authorized personnel should conduct all the above tests on all
SCSSSVs. Insert valves are small SRSCSSSVs which can be inserted through a failed tubing retrievable
valve to provide continued production, although restricted, until a workover campaign is scheduled.
Typical slickline runs include:
• RIH to lock out the flapper valve.
• RIH with a communication tool and function the communication system to the open
position. This provides control line pressure to the valve.
RIH and set the insert valve. The insert valve straddles the control line port to provide the hydraulic
pressure integrity required to function the valve. It’s generally recommended that SCSSSV should be
installed in a well which is capable of sustaining natural flow. In most oil and gas operating areas, the
installation of SCSSSV is governed by law. Unfortunately, the SCSSSV installation in oil and gas wells is
not officially regulated in Romania. SCSSSV installation is mandatory in all offshore wells within OMV
Petrom, no matter if they are natural flowing or if they have an ALS installed. SCSSSV control line
should be well protected during RIH, i.e. appropriate over tubing collar protectors (Figure 5-6) and
tubing body clamps should be used.
Figure 5-6 Over tubing collar protector
The SCSSSSV maximum fails close depth and maximum surface pressure required for keeping the
SCSSSV opened, can be calculated by using an Excel spreadsheet as the one shown in Figure 5-7.
Figure 5-7 An example of a SCSSSV maximum fail close depth and required surface SCSSSV opening pressure calculation
5.4.4 Packers (mechanical, hydraulic, permanent/retrievable, optimum packer type

selection)
To increase productivity, more wells are being stimulated with acidizing and fracturing treatments.
Squeeze cementing operations are being used to abandon one zone for another and to shut off
unwanted water. These treating jobs require packers designed for these applications. Enhanced oil
recovery projects have also created new requirements for packers. Thermal recovery projects need
special designs to avoid damage to tubing strings from extreme temperature changes. Miscible flood
projects using carbon dioxide have placed additional demands on metals and rubber compounds.
Gravel packing is a method which has been used to Increase production in unconsolidated sands. To
be successful, this process requires advance planning and special tools for the proper gravel
placement. Each of these procedures has its own unique problems, and special packers have been
designed to overcome them. It is important for anyone involved in the planning and execution of
workover and completion operations to know that these special packers exist and were designed for
these applications. By using the packer tailored for a specific operation, workover and completion
operations will run smoothly. Packer specialists are available through equipment companies, and
their expertise should be taken advantage of in the proper selection of a packer. It is very important
to point out that a packer should never being be set in a casing collar, no matter what packer is RIH,
production or service one. Types of production and service packers (including bridge plugs- BPs) are
presented in Figure 5-8 and Figure 5-9. Common types of production and service packers used by
OMV Petrom are shown in Appendix 5 B Applied Packers in OMV Petrom Specifications.
Service, treatment packers are always retrievable (except cement retainers), but production packers
could be permanent, permanent/retrievable (like Weatherford “Black Cat” packer, for instance) or
retrievable. Production, retrievable packers could be mechanical (compression or tension type) or
hydraulic, depending on the way of setting. Hydraulic production packers could be RIH on a tubing
string and set by applying pressure on tubing. Tubing string should be plugged at bottom with an
appropriate tubing plug set in a nipple, or a kind of pump out plug in order to set that type of packer.
These packers could be set on an electric wireline as well.
Permanent/retrievable or permanent production packers could be set on tubing or on an electric

wireline. Pulling out of hole a permanent/retrievable packer is possible with an appropriate pulling
tool, but permanent production packer can be only drilled out.
Figure 5-8 Production packer types
Figure 5-9 Service packers and BPs
5.4.5 Re-entry Guide
A re-entry guide takes on or two forms (Figure 5-10):

• Bell guide, and
• Mule shoe.
The bell guide has a 45° lead in taper to allow easy re-entry into the tubing of well intervention
strings (i.e., electric wireline, slickline or coil tubing). This guide is commonly used in completions
where the end of the tubing string does not need to bypass the top of a liner hanger.
The mule shoe guide is essentially the same as the bell guide, with the exception of a large 45°
shoulder. Should the tubing string land on a liner lip while running the completion in the well, the
large 45° shoulder should orientate onto the liner lip and guide the tubing in the liner.
Figure 5-10 Mule shoe and bell guide
A landing nipple is a short tubular device with an internally machined profile, which can
accommodate and secure a locking device called a lock mandrel usually run on a slickline. The landing
nipple also provides a pressure seal against the internal bore of the nipple and outer surface of the
locking mandrel. Landing nipples are incorporated at various points in the completion string
depending on their functional requirement. Common uses for landing nipples are as follows:
• Installation points for setting plugs for tubing string pressure testing, setting
hydraulic set packers, or isolating zones.
• Installation point for SRSCSSSVs.
• Installation point for downhole regulator or choke.
• Installation point for bottom hole pressure/temperature gauges.
A so called “No-Go” nipple has got a small shoulder located within the internal bore of the nipple.
The primary reason for a No-Go shoulder is to locate the correct lock mandrel. A secondary function
of the shoulder is to prevent electric wireline or slickline tools from falling out of the end of the
tubing string, if dropped. Only one No-Go landing nipple of the same size can be used in a completion
string, the lowermost nipple being the No-Go nipple. More than one No-Go nipple can be
incorporated in a completion string, provided that a step down in No-Go shoulder is observed. In
highly deviated wells (>70°), it may not be possible to use landing nipples. In those cases, electric
wireline/slickline operations (done by using special rollers or tractors), commonly use landing nipples
for depth references only.
Figure 5-11 Otis type “X” landing and “XN” No-Go landing nipples
The plugs (tubing plugs) that can be installed in landing nipples are:
• Plug with a shear disc (pump to open),
• Plug with an equalizing valve, and
• Plug with a non-return valve.
The choice of plug depends on the pressure control required and the chances of its retrieval. In most
of the cases, OMV Petrom uses Otis type “X” and “XN“ No-Go nipples for standard wall thickness
tubing and Otis “R” and “RN” No-Go nipples for heavy wall tubing.
5.4.6 Perforated Pup Joint
A perforated pup joint should be incorporated in the completion string as a part of the packer tail
pipe, to provide a bypass flow of the formation fluid, if bottom hole pressure/temperature gauges
are used for production testing or reservoir monitoring. The design criteria for a perforated pup joint
is that the total cross section area of the holes be at least equivalent to the cross section area
corresponding to the internal diameter of the tubing string above the packer. In many cases, packer
tailpipe is stepped down, and it is one size down from the production tubing string above the packer.
Figure 5-12 Perforated pup joint
5.4.7 Sliding Sleeve (Sliding Side Door)
A SS or SSD (Figure 5-13) allows communication between the tubing string and annulus. It consists of
two concentric sleeves, each with slots or holes. The inner sleeve can be moved with an appropriate
slickline tool, to align the openings to provide a communication path for the circulation of fluids.
SSs are used for the following purposes:

• To evacuate the well completion brine from the tubing string with a less dense fluid
(usually nitrogen), prior to production.
• To circulate an appropriate kill fluid into the well prior a workover job.
• As a production devices enabling production from different zones in a single
string/multi zone completion.
• As a contingency should tubing string/packer tail pipe plugging occur.
• As a contingency to equalize pressure across a deep set tubing plug, after pressure
integrity testing.
• As an alternative flow path should a tubing plug become stuck in a nipple.
• As a point for setting a tubing plug, for whatever reason (its recommended to use a
SS with a profile close to its top).
As with all communication devices, the differential pressure across SSs should be known prior to
opening. In some areas, the sealing system between the concentric SS’s sleeves are incompatible
with the produced fluids and hence alternative methods of producing tubing to annulus
communication is used (e.g., side pocket mandrel - Figure 5-13b, chemical injection mandrel, tubing
punching). In case the SS can’t be opened with an appropriate slickline tool, tubing punching is the
only option for establishing tubing string/annulus communication. In recent years, so called “non-
elastomeric” SSs (with metal to metal seals) are offered by service companies, meaning that those
SSs can be installed in, for instance, HP/HT wells and can be exposed to different kind of wellbore
fluids without any problem. But, the SSs material should be selected properly to fit expected harsh
bottom hole conditions.
Figure 5-13 a) Sliding Sleeve; b) Side Pocket mandrel
5.4.8 Flow Couplings
Flow couplings are used in many completions above and/or below a completion component, where
turbulence may exist to prevent loss of tubing string integrity and mechanical strength due to
internal erosion directly above and/or below the component. Turbulence may be caused by the
internal profile (ID restriction) of the completion component. Flow couplings (Figure 5-14a) are thick
walled tubulars (of the sam internal diameter as the tubing string), made of a high grade alloy steel,
usually supplied in 3m, 4.5 m or 6 m (10, 15 or 20 ft) lengths. Their use depends on internal erosion
criteria obtained from fluid velocity and particle content analysis. API recommended practice
suggests the use of flow couplings around a SCSSSV (API RPI4B, 1994). In addition, flow couplings are
typically used downstream of landing nipples or circulation devices. A suggested rule of thumb is to
include flow couplings above and below any downhole device which restricts the flow area by more
than 10% of the nominal tubing string ID.
Figure 5-14 a) Flow coupling; b) Blast joint
5.4.9 Blast Joints
Fluids entering perforations may display a jetting behavior. This fluid-jetting phenomenon may
abrade the tubing string at the point of fluid entry, ultimately causing tubing failure. Blast joints are
joints of pipe with a wall thickness greater than the tubing. These joints are run in the completion
opposite the casing perforations. The blast joint (Figure 5-14b) delays the erosional failure at the
point where fluids enter the wellbore and impinge on the tubing string. Blast joints are similar in
design to flow couplings. They have the same internal diameter as the tubing, but a larger external
diameter. Blast joints are normally available in 6 m or 9 m (20-ft or 30-ft) lengths. They are usually
used in single string/multi zone completions, and installed in the vicinity of the perforated intervals
isolated with packers.
5.4.10Expansion Joint
An expansion joint is used to allow tubing movement while maintaining pressure integrity. An
expansion joint consists of two concentric tubes that telescope relative to one another (Figure 5-15).
Seal elements on the inner tube isolate annulus pressure and fluids from the tubing string as the
expansion joint strokes open and close. An expansion joint allows the completion string to expand or
contract freely with changes in downhole pressure and temperature, thereby solving the problems
associated with tubing contraction and elongation in producing wells, injection wells, or disposal
wells. Typically, an expansion joint is placed in the completion string above the shallowest packer to
accommodate tubing movement. An expansion joint may also be placed between packers or near the
surface to facilitate well space out. Standard stroke lengths for travel joints are 0.6 m, 1.2 m, 2,4 m,
3 m, 4,5 m, 6 m and 7.5 m (2, 4, 8, 10, 15, 20, and 25ft). The expansion joint can be shear-pinned fully
closed or partially open. The position of the expansion joint when it is run in the hole is a function of
the expected tubing movement. For example, if future well operations will introduce both tubing
expansion and contraction over time, then the joint can be run partially opened to allow for both
types of downhole movement. Expansion joints can rotate freely, or can provide the capability to
translate tubing rotation to the packer. A swivel expansion joint offers continuous 360° rotation, but
can’t translate this motion downhole. Swivel joints with a clutch are similar to the regular swivel
expansion joints except that in the collapsed position (or fully extended position) torque can be
transmitted to packers or other equipment located below. Splined expansion joints are used when
transmission of torque through the expansion joint is required.
Figure 5-15 Expansion joint
5.4.11Chemical injection mandrel
A chemical injection mandrel is a part of tubing string enabling continuous chemical injection down a
chemical injection line connecting the mandrel with a surface chemical injection pump. The chemical
injection line (usually 1/4” or 1/2” OD) comes out of the well through specially drilled hole in tubing
hanger and appropriately machined passage through the tubing hanger flange. Some operators put a
chemical injection line through one of the casing valves and use a special, high pressure seal, to seal
around the chemical injection line inside the casing valve. A typical chemical injection line is shown in
Figure 5-16. Chemical injection mandrel usually has one or even two check (back pressure) valves.
Figure 5-16 Chemical injection mandrel
5.4.12Tubing/packer Movement, Forces and Stress Analysis
Changing the tubing pressure, annulus pressure or the well temperature results in either a force on
the end of the tubing string or a change in the length of the tubing string. If the tubing is not free to
move, forces are generated on the packer and the wellhead. If the tubing is free to move, it will
either shorten or elongate. There are five basic effects which can occur if the well conditions change.
Each effect can be analyzed separately and then combined with the others to get the total effect.
They are:
1. Piston effect,
2. Ballooning,
3. Buckling,
4. Temperature effect, and
5. Applied forces.
The piston effect, buckling and ballooning are all a result of pressure changes. The temperature
effect and any applied forces are independent of the well pressure. The temperature effect is the
most important one and causes the biggest tubing length change (elongation if hot fluid is pumped
down tubing string or shrinkage if a cold fluid is pumped down tubing string) if tubing string is free to
move. The same temperature effect forces will be created if the tubing string is not free to move
(latched to the packer). Each effect is considered individually and then combined with the others to
achieve a total effect. The end result could be a force or a length change. The total effect depends on
the type of tubing-packer connection. The different types of seal assemblies were considered, where
the three possibilities are:
1. Stung Through Tubing (free motion)
2. Located or Landed Tubing (limited motion)
3. Latched Tubing (no motion)
If the end result of all the effects acts in a direction in which the packer allows motion, then the
tubing length changes are to be determined. If the total effect is in a direction in which the packer
does not allow motion, then generated forces are to be calculated.
When determining the force due to the piston effect, it is pressure change rather than absolute
pressure that is important. Accordingly, the initial and final well conditions must be known. The initial
conditions are those that existed when the packer was set, or when the seal assembly was stung into
the packer. The final conditions are those expected during well servicing or production. If the tubing
is not free to move, the piston force can be calculated by the following Equation (5-1)
(for pressure changes in kPa):
F1 =
[∆P (A −A ) − ∆P i (A
o p o p ] [kPa]
− Ai )
(5-1)
1
100
If the calculated force value is negative, the force is a tension on the packer (acting upward), and if
the calculated force value is positive, the force is a compression on the packer (acting downward). A
schematic explaining the piston effect is shown in Figure 5-17.
Figure 5-17 Piston effect visualization
If the tubing is free to move, the piston length change can be calculated as follows (for pressure
change in kPa):
∆L1 =
[∆P (Ao p − Ao )− ∆Pi (A p − Ai ) Lt ] [m] (5-2)
10 E As
Where:
Ai = tubing I.D. area (cm2)
Ao = tubing O.D. area (cm2)
Ap = packer seal bore area (cm2)
As = tubing cross-sectional area (cm2)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel (207,000 MPa)
F1 = force due to piston effect (daN)
Lt = length of tubing (m)
ΔL1 = length change due to piston effect (cm)
ΔPi = change in tubing pressure @ packer TVD (kPa)
ΔPo = change in annulus pressure @ packer TVD (kPa)
Ballooning effect is a result of higher pressure inside the tubing string than outside. The pressure
differential creates stresses which try to burst the tubing string. The burst stress causes the tubing to
swell as shown in Figure 5-18 -left. As the tubing swells, its length becomes shorter, if free to move. If
the tubing is anchored, the swelling generates a tensile force on the packer. If the pressure in the
annulus is higher than that in the tubing, the pressure differential creates stresses which tend to
collapse the tubing (see Figure 5-18 -right). If free to move, the tubing length will increase as the
tubing string collapses. If the tubing is anchored, the stresses in the tubing generate a compressive
force on the packer. A lengthening of the tubing string due to collapse stresses is called reverse
ballooning. The ballooning effect is directly related to the area which the pressures act on. The
outside area of a tubing string is larger than the inside area, so a change in the annulus pressure has
a greater effect than a corresponding change in the tubing pressure. Therefore, pressure changes in
the tubing and annulus must be treated separately to determine the ballooning effect. Unlike the
piston effect, ballooning is not localized but occurs throughout the entire length of the tubing string.
Hence, the calculations for ballooning are based on the average pressure change in the tubing and
annulus. The average pressure is half the sum of the surface (applied) and bottom hole pressures.
Because the bottom hole pressure is the sum of the surface and hydrostatic pressure, a change in the
surface pressure has double the effect of changing the fluid gradient. Since both the average annulus
and tubing pressures may change during well servicing or production, ballooning and reverse
ballooning effects are calculated together. Like the piston effect, ballooning causes either a force or a
length change depending on the tubing/packer connection. If the tubing is not free to move, the
ballooning force can be calculated as follows (for average pressure changes in kPa):
F2 = 0.006 [(∆Poa Ao ) − (∆Pia Ai )] [kPa] (5-3)
If the calculated force value is negative, the force is a tension on the packer, acting upwards. If the
calculated force value is positive the force is a compression on the packer, acting downward. If the
tubing is free to move, the length change caused by ballooning can be calculated with the following
formula:
0.06 Lt  R 2 ∆Poa − ∆Pia 
∆L2 = [cm] (5-4)
E

 (
R 2 −1 ) 

If the calculated tubing string length change is negative, the tubing string shortens. If the calculated
tubing string length change is positive the tubing string elongates, where:
F2 = ballooning force (daN)
ΔL2 = length change due to ballooning (cm)
ΔPia = change in average tubing pressure (kPa)
ΔPoa = change in average annulus pressure (kPa)
R = ratio of tubing O.D. to tubing I.D. = Tbg. O.D./Tbg. I.D.
Figure 5-18 Tbg string ballooning/reverse ballooning
The buckling effect is the most unusual and difficult to understand of all the effects. Buckled tubing is
caused by two distinct force distributions. A compressive force on the end of the tubing string will
cause it to buckle. Buckling is also caused by an uneven pressure distribution across the tubing wall.
Buckled tubing is bowed from its usually straight position (see Figure 5-19). If the compressive force
is high enough, the tubing will continue to buckle until it contacts the casing wall. After contacting
the casing, the tubing will begin to coil inside the casing in the form of a spring or helix (Figure 5-20).
So long as the buckling stresses in the tubing remain below the its yield strength, the tubing will
return to its original shape once the buckling force is removed. If the bending stresses exceed the
tubing’s yield strength, it will remain permanently deformed. There are several important facts about
buckling that must be understood. Buckling is most severe at the bottom of the tubing string. There
is a point, called the neutral point, above which no buckling occurs (see Figure 5-20). If the buckling is
very severe, the neutral point may be above the wellhead, in which case the entire tubing string is
buckled. Since a compressive force is necessary, buckling will only shorten the tubing string; buckling
cannot cause an increase in length. Buckling due to pressure exerts a negligible force on a packer and
is ignored as a force. If the annulus pressure is greater than the tubing pressure, no buckling will
occur. Finally, a tubing string can buckle even if the tubing is in tension. The buckling is due to the
uneven pressure distribution across the tubing wall. An important consideration with buckling due to
applied weight, is the generated friction from the tubing contacting the casing wall. This friction will
reduce the weight that reaches the packer. As more weight is slacked-off onto the packer, more
tubing will contact the casing wall, increasing the friction. Eventually, the friction becomes great
enough to support the excess weight of the tubing string, and no more weight reaches the packer.
This effect is covered in more detail later in the chapter. Since the force on a packer due to buckling
is negligible, only the tubing length change needs to be found. If the final annulus pressure is greater
than the final tubing pressure, there is no buckling due to pressure, i.e., there is no length change
due to buckling.
Figure 5-19 a) Straight tbg; b) bowed tbg
Figure 5-20 Buckled tubing
The tubing length change due to buckling can be calculated as follows:
∆L3 = 
(
 r 2 A p2 (∆Pi − ∆Po )2 

) [cm] (5-5)
 − 8 E I (Ws + Wi − Wo ) 
The height of the tubing string neutral point above the packer can be calculated by using following
formula:
n=
[
10 A p Pifinal − Pofinal ] [m] (5-6)
Ws + Wi − Wo
If the height of the neutral point (n) is longer than the length of the tubing string (Lt), then a
correction factor for the length change (ΔL3) due to buckling is applied as follows:
L    Lt 
∆L'3 = ∆L3  t  2 −   [cm] (5-7)
n   n 
The corrected length change (ΔL3’) is always less than the original length change (ΔL3). The terms in
above equations are as follows:

Ap = packer seal bore area (cm2)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel (207 GPa)
I = moment of inertia of tubing (cm4)
n = height of neutral point above packer (m)
Pifinal = final tubing pressure @ packer TVD (MPa)
Pofinal = final annulus pressure @ packer TVD (MPa)
ΔL3 = buckling effect length change (cm)
ΔL3’ = corrected buckling effect length change (cm)
ΔPi = change in tubing pressure @ packer TVD (MPa)
ΔPo = change in annulus pressure @ packer TVD (MPa)
r = radial clearance between tubing and casing (cm)
Wi = linear weight of tubing fluid (daN/m)
Wo = linear weight of annulus fluid (daN/m)
Ws = linear weight of tubing string (daN/m)
Force and length changes due to temperature effect are the only ones which are not caused by
pressure changes in the well. Temperature is also the easiest effect to deal with. Simply stated, an
object expands when heated and contracts when cooled. Force and length changes are dependent
only on the average temperature change in the well and the physical properties of the tubing. When
the average temperature of a well increases, (either by injecting hot fluids or by producing hot
formation fluid) the tubing will elongate if free to move. If the tubing string is anchored to the
packer, the temperature change generates a compressive force on the packer and wellhead. When
the average well temperature decreases, (by injecting cool fluids) the tubing string will shorten if free
to move. If the tubing string is anchored at the packer, decreasing the average well temperature will
generate a tensile force on the packer and wellhead. Like the ballooning effect, the temperature
effect occurs throughout the entire length of the tubing string. Therefore the average temperature
change is used to determine the magnitude of the force and length changes. The average
temperature of a well is found as follows:
Tavg =
Tst + Tbh
2
[ C]
o
(5-8)
Where:
Tavg – average well temperature (oC)
Tst – surface temperature (oC)
Tbh – bottom hole temperature (oC)
If the tubing is anchored, the temperature force can be calculated as follows:
F4 = 10 E As β ∆T [daN ] (5-9)
A negative calculated thermal effect force means a tensile force on the packer, and a positive
calculated thermal force means a compression force on packer.
If the tubing is free to move, the tubing string length change due to the temperature effect can be
calculated using formula:
∆L4 = 100 β ∆T [cm] (5-10)
A negative calculated tubing length change means the tubing shortens, and a positive calculated
thermal length change means the tubing elongates. The terms in the preceding formulas are defined
as:
As = tubing wall cross-sectional area (cm2)
E = modulus of elasticity for steel = 207,000 MPa
F4 = temperature effect force (daN)
h = true vertical depth (m)
Lt = length of tubing string (m)
ΔL4 = length change due to temperature effect (cm)
ΔT = change in average tubing initial and final temperature (°C)
β = coefficient of thermal expansion for steel = 0.0000124 cm/cm/°C
As well as the effects of temperature and pressure, any forces applied at the surface must be
considered. Tension may be pulled into the tubing string or tubing weight slacked-off onto the
packer. Tubing will stretch according to “Hooke’s Law” if subjected to a tensile force. When under a
compressive force, tubing will shorten according to “Hooke’s Law” and the Buckling Effect. Force or
length changes from the surface are almost always applied after the tool is set. By carefully
monitoring the weight indicator and tubing string, both the force and length changes will be known.
However, if one applied effect is known ahead of time, the other is easily found.
If tension is pulled into the packer, and the tension force is known, the tubing length change could be
found by using using Hooke’s Law:
∆Lt =
10 Ft Lt
[cm] (5-11)
E As
If the length of tubing pulled is known, the force due to the tension is found by re-arranging Hooke’s
Law and solving for the force:
∆Lt E As
Ft = [daN ] (5-12)
10 Lt
If a known amount of tubing weight is slacked-off onto the packer, the tubing length change is found
from:
10 Fs  Lt  r 2 Fs 
∆Ls =   +  [cm] (5-13)
E  As  8 I (Ws + Wi − Wo )
The slack-off force (Fs) is found by watching the weight indicator. The terms in the above formulas
are defined as:
As = tubing cross-sectional area (cm2)
Fs = slack-off force (daN)
Ft = tension force pulled into packer (daN)
I = moment of inertia of tubing (cm4)
ΔLs = length change due to slack-off (cm)
ΔLt = length change due to tension (cm)
r = radial clearance between tubing and casing (cm)
Wi = linear weight of tubing fluid (daN/m)
Wo = linear weight of annulus fluid (daN/m)
Ws = linear weight of tubing string (kg/m)
The total effect of any pressure and temperature changes after the packer is set is the sum of the
individual effects. Like the individual effects, the total effect is either a length change or a force on
the packer. If the packer permits movement in the direction of the individual effects, find the sum of
the length changes for each individual effect. If the packer does not permit movement in the
direction of the individual effects, find the sum of the generated forces. There will either be a force
on the packer or change in the length of the tubing. There cannot be a combination of the two. The
total force on the packer is the vector sum of the individual forces. One should be very careful when
dealing with the directions the forces act in. If the tubing is anchored to the packer, the tubing always
exerts a compression or tension on the packer. If the tubing is stung through the packer, the tubing
can never exert a force on the packer. If the tubing is landed on the packer, there can only be a
compression on the packer. It should be remembered that a positive or downward force is a
compression. If the total force effect is negative, the tubing will shorten because tension cannot be
pulled through a landed hook-up. Finally, the force due to buckling is negligible so it is not considered
in the total force effect. The total force on a packer with a tension force applied on packer is:
Fp = F1 + F2 + F4 + Ft (daN ) (5-14)
The total force on a packer with a slack-off force applied on the packer is:
Fp = F1 + F2 + F4 + Fs [daN ] (5-15)
The total length change is the vector sum of the length changes due to the individual effects. A
positive length change means the tubing elongates and a negative length change means the tubing
shortens. If the tubing is anchored to the packer, there cannot be a length change, only a force on
the packer. If the tubing is landed on the packer, the tubing can only shorten (negative length
change) because the packer will not allow the tubing to move down. If the tubing is stung through
the packer, a positive length change indicates the tubing elongates and a negative total length
change means the tubing shortens. The total tubing length change with applied tension force is:
∆Ltot = ∆L1 + ∆L2 + ∆L3 + ∆L4 + ∆Lt (daN ) (5-16)
The total tubing length change with a slack-off applied is:
∆Ltot = ∆L1 + ∆L2 + ∆L3 + ∆L4 + ∆Ls (daN ) (5-17)
The above terms are defined as:

Fs = slack-off force (daN)
Ft = tension pulled into packer (daN)
Fp = total force on packer (daN)
F1 = force on packer due to the piston effect (daN)
F2 = force on packer due to ballooning (daN)
F4 = force on packer due to temperature effects (daN)
ΔLs = length change due to slack-off force (cm)
ΔLt = length change due to tension pulled into packer (cm)
ΔLtot = total length change of tubing string (cm)
ΔL1 = length change due to the piston effect (cm)
ΔL2 = length change due to ballooning (cm)
ΔL3 = length change due to buckling (cm)
ΔL4 = length change due to temperature effects (cm)
The individual effects may act in different directions. For instance, many applied forces are to
counter the effects of temperature and pressure. Subtract effects that act in opposite directions and
add ones that act in the same direction. If the equations are used to determine the effects, the signs
will indicate which direction the force or length change is in. It is always a good idea to write an
arrow beside the force to indicate its direction.
When determining the packer to tubing force, pay careful attention to the type of tubing to packer
hook-up. If the tubing is free to move, the piston force will affect the top joint tension. If the tubing is
not free to move, the piston force is absorbed by the packer and does not affect the top joint
tension. The end area force on the tubing string is found using:
Fa =
[(A − A )P ] − [(A − A )P ] [daN ]
p o ofinal p o ifinal
(5-18)
100
Equation 5-18 is very similar to that used to calculate the piston effect force (Equation 5-1). To
determine the piston force, the change in the tubing and annulus pressure are used. When
calculating the end area force on the tubing, the final pressure for the condition being analyzed is
used. One should be careful not to get the two forces confused. As in previous cases, the sign
indicates the direction the forces act. As always, the tubing to packer hook-up is important. If the
tubing is stung through the packer, there can be no packer to tubing force. If the tubing, is latched
there will always be a tubing to packer force, either tension or compression. Landed tubing will only
exert a compressive packer to tubing force, since tension can not be pulled into a landed or located
seal assembly. The top joint tension is found using the following formula:
Ftj = Wair + Fa − Fp [daN ] (5-19)
Where:
Ai = tubing inside area (cm2)
Ap = packer seal bore or valve area (cm2)
Ao = tubing outside area (cm2)
Fa = end area force (daN)
Ftj = top joint tension force (daN)
Fp = tubing piston force (daN)
Pofinal = final total annulus pressure @ packer TVD (kPa)
Pifinal = final total tubing pressure @ packer TVD (kPa)
Wair = tubing string linear weight in air (daN)
Tubing packer system should be checked for all possible movements, stresses or forces before
running in hole (matrix acidizing, hydraulic fracturing, production, full evacuation, long shut in, …). An
example of tubing movement/forces calculation is given in Appendix 5 K An example of tubing
movement, forces and stress calculation, by using an appropriate Excel spreadsheet.
Surface well equipment includes:
• Wellhead, consisting of a casing bowl (casing head housing), screwed on the surface
casing, then welded around.
• Two or even more casing heads, depending on the number of casings RIH. The simplest
casing designs incorporates three casings: surface casing, intermediate casing and
production casing.
• Tubing hanger flange, with a tubing hanger bowl in its upper part.
5.5.1 Wellhead
A wellhead should provide following:
• Each casing string support.

• Support of the BOP equipment for the next section of hole to be drilled support.
• Sealing off the various annuli from pressure control purposes.
• The completion string support.
• An X-mass tree support.
• Annulus pressure support.
Wellhead usually consists of the casing head housing (casing bowl), and as many casing heads as
number of casings RIH. A tubing hanger flange is a kind of connection between the wellhead and the
X-mass tree. It has got a tubing hanger bowl, where tubing hanger fits in. An appropriate X-mass tree
is usually installed either directly to the top tubing hanger flange or there is an appropriate adaptor
flange installed on the top tubing hanger flange as an X-over. A typical wellhead is shown in Figure
5-21.
Figure 5-21 A typical wellhead schematic
5.5.2 X-mas tree/Tubing hanger
A X-mass tree is an assembly of valves, all with specific functions, used to control flow from the well
and to provide well intervention access for well maintenance or reservoir monitoring. The X-mass
tree is usually connected directly to the tubing hanger spool that seats on the uppermost casing head
spool. In some cases an adaptor flange is necessary to be used between the upper tubing hanger
flange and X-mass tree. A X-mass tree may be composed of collection of valves , or in cases of HP/HT
wells or gas wells, constructed from a single block (Figure 5-22). Typically, from bottom to top, an X-
mass tree contains the following valves:
• Lower master gate valve (manually operated and used as a last resort to shut in the well),
• Upper master gate valve (usually hydraulically operated and also used to shut in the
well),
• Flow wing valve (manually operated to allow the passage of hydrocarbons to the
production choke),
• Kill wing valve (manually operated to allow entry of kill fluid into the tubing), and
• Swab valve (manually operated and used to allow vertical access into the tubing for a
well intervention work)
Figure 5-22 Typical „solid block” X-mass tree
The innermost hanger, the tubing hanger, usually has a profile for locating a Back Pressure Valve
(BPV) or Two Way Check Valve (TWCV). These valves perform the same function i.e., sealing off the
top of the well below the X-mas tree to allow the tree to be tested or repaired (Figure 5-24). These
well containment devices can be run into the tubing hanger with the well under pressure and used as
mechanical barriers required before removing a X-mas tree (BPV) or for pressure testing X-mass tree
after its final installation when the initial completion, workover or recompletion is done. BPV should
be used whenever BOP or X-mass tree is to be nippled down/up and a TWCV is to be used for
conducting an X-mass tree pressure test ONLY. These plugs are screwed into a threaded section of
the tubing hanger where they seal externally. They are run and pulled using a special lubricator
(Polished Rod Lubricator) that contains the wellbore pressure whist the valve is being run or pulled.
Different tubing hanger types are shown in Figure 5-23a and a typical tubing hanger flange or a
tubing head is shown in Figure 5-23b. An extended neck seal tubing hanger is usually used on gas
wells and HP/HT wells, providing an additional seal inside the X-mass tree flange (Figure 5-23, top
right tbg hanger). Off course, the lower X-mass tree flange should be designed to accommodate that
type of tubing hanger.
Figure 5-23 a) Different tbg hanger types; A typical THF or tubing head
OMV Petrom has currently got a valid contract with Cameron Romania for supplying wellheads and
X-mass trees.
Figure 5-24 BPV and TWCV valve schematic
Figure 5-25 A typical flanged type X-mass tree
5.6 Materials Selection for various well conditions
It is very important to appropriately select the downhole and surface (wellhead and X-mass tree)
equipment material (metal and elastomer/sealing material). Basically, there are two types of
downhole and surface equipment: sweet service and sour service equipment. Majority of OMV
Petrom gas and oil wells are sweet wells, but some gas wells drilled in Turburea Bibesti area, Mamu
area and a recently drilled exploration well 20 Adjud contain H2S and CO2.
5.6.1 Downhole Equipment Metallurgy Selection
OMV Petrom has got three areas in which produced reservoir hydrocarbons contain H2S and CO2.
Those areas are:
• Turburea Bibesti (H2S content of up to 5%, CO2 content up to 1%),
• Mamu (H2S content of up to 10 ppm, CO2 content up to ?%), and
• Adjud, where an exploration well had recently been drilled (H2S content of up to 8%,
CO2 content up to 25% - 20 Adjud well has been suspended waiting on purchasing
appropriate sour service downhole and surface equipment for re-entering the well).
Sour service wells require special attention in terms of protecting people and environment while
operate them. H2S and CO2 presence in the atmosphere should be permanently monitored during
well operations and all the people involved in operations should have appropriate safety training and
protective equipment, like personal electronic H2S and CO2 monitor. Well site should be equipped
with wind socks, self-containing breathing apparatuses and any other equipment necessary to fully
protect people and environment. Maximum allowable H2S concentration is 10 ppm for 8 hours
exposure time. If the H2S concentration is higher than that, people on the well site must ware SCBA
while working on the well site. Sour service wells need a special attention and all the operation
programs (drilling, initial completion, WO, re-completion) should contain appropriate emergency
response plans. Populated areas close to those well sites should be notified about the planned
operations, and the well sites should have visible signs informing people about the ongoing
operations.
Downhole and surface (wellhead and X-mass tree) equipment should be made of CRA according to
the NACE MR0175 standard. First indicators of a possible sour service environment existence are H2S
and CO2 partial pressures. If they are above the limit, the environment is considered as a sour one.
Few other parameters should be also taken into account like, chloride content, formation water PH
value, reservoir temperature, etc. An example of H2S and CO2 partial pressure calculation by using an
Excel spreadsheet is given in Figure 5-26.
Figure 5-26 H2S and CO2 partial pressure calculation
There is a wide range of metallic materials available for manufacturing well completion equipment.
Although there is an increasing trend towards reducing costs by using plastic or ceramic coatings,
particularly for water injection wells, metal materials are more reliable and will generally be required
for most components. A distinction must be made between material for components (e.g., the
SCSSSV) and tubular. This is because the material for tubular is manufactured in rolled pipe. The
material for components is manufactured out of a bar stock. Components will require machining and
possibly welding. Many of the materials used downhole have limited weld ability, as a result of either
heat treatment (quench + temper, precipitation hardening) or cold work to increase the strength. It is
recommended that the relevant specialist is contacted before undertaking any welding of these
materials or where the manufacture of downhole components involves welding.
The proper selection of material considering the real conditions in well, company police and
regulation is team work with service or material manufacturer company, as shown in Figure 5-27.
A simplified approach to material selection is to examine the partial pressure of H2S and CO2 and pick
the metallurgy accordingly.
Figure 5-27 General workflow for selecting metallic materials
CO2 corrosion, often termed as sweet corrosion, results from the reaction of steel with carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid is the dissolution product of CO2 into water, which lowers the pH. While CO2 is not
readily dissolved in water (and thus the resulting pH not strongly acidic), some metallic surfaces are
believed to catalyze the dissolution of CO2 in water, such that corrosion proceeds faster than is
indicated by a simple pH measurement. Chromium content is the most significant variable
influencing sweet gas corrosion among alloys, as shown in Table 5-1 and in Figure 5-28.
Table 5-1 CO2 corrosion rate for different materials
Figure 5-28 CO2 corrosion rate for different materials
The primary factors affecting CO2 corrosion are: partial pressure, temperature and chloride content.
Considering CO2 partial pressure (working pressure x mol% of CO2) as the key criteria, the following
rules can be applied to identify the possibility of corrosion (sweet corrosion):
If [Pp (CO2) > 2 bar (30 psi)] then corrosion is most likely
If [Pp (CO2) is between 0.5 bar (7 psi) and 2 bar (30 psi)] then corrosion is possible
If [Pp (CO2) < 0.5 bar (7 psi)] then there are not conditions for corrosion.
Knowing temperature and applying model developed by company Shell (De Waard and Milliams) the
corrosion rate equation is given as:
log (Vcor) = 5.8 - 1710/T + 0.67 log (pCO2) (5-20)
Where:
Vcor = corrosion rate in mm/yr
T = operating temperature in °K
pCO2 = CO2 partial pressure in bar
Criteria for corrosion rate evaluation and quick look about potential problem in wells in respect to
corrosion rate are shown in Table 5-2.
Table 5-2 CO2 corrosion rate evaluation
Chromium content is the most significant variable influencing sweet gas corrosion among alloys. Data
illustrating the trend is presented in Table 5-1 where corrosion rates are shown for a matrix of three
CO2 partial pressures, three chloride levels and two temperatures.
The NACE MR 0175 standard splits the sour service severity into three regions as shown in
Figure 5-29. The regions are defined as:
Region 0 [H2S partial pressure 0.035 bar (0.05 psia)].
This was, and still is, considered to be non-sour. Care is still required with very high-strength steels
(above 140 ksi); they can crack even in the absence of H2S.
Region 1 is of low partial pressure and relatively high pH, and is therefore considered mildly sour.
Proprietary-grade sour service low-alloys are suitable up to 110 ksi under certain conditions (e.g.,
maximum HRC 30).
Region 2 is considered moderately sour and covers some proprietary low-alloys up to 27 HRC.
Region 3 is highly sour, but includes API L80 and C90 pipe under certain conditions as well as some
proprietary metals.
Figure 5-29 NACE MR 0175 Sour service region definitions
If H2S is present in fluid stream then it could be the additional accelerating factor of corrosion (sour
corrosion).
The aggressiveness of H2S depends on its partial pressure, also and the following rules should be
used:
If [Pp (H2S) > 0.001 bar (0.015 psi)] then corrosion is most likely
If [Pp (H2S) is between 0.0001 bar (0.0015 psi) and 0.001 bar (0.015psi)] then corrosion is possible
If [Pp (H2S) < 0.0001 bars (0.0015 psi)] then there are no conditions for corrosion.
According to NACE MR 0175, if partial pressure of H2S is greater than 0.0034 bars (0.05 psi) then
Sulfide Stress Cracking corrosion (SSC) is most likely.
Figure 5-30 and Figure 5-31 are practical guidance (Material Selection First Pass Tool - MSFPT)
developed for selecting the proper material as a function of H2S and CO2 partial pressures.
Figure 5-30 Metallurgy selection guidance (MSFPT)
Figure 5-31 Partial pressure approach for metallurgy selection
5.6.2 Elastomers Selection
Various types of elastomers/seals are used as parts of downhole equipment. Elastomers are used in
most completion equipment where a resilient seal is required. Plastics and metal-to-metal seals are
used with closer tolerance seals and to help support elastomers. Elastomers are affected by
temperature (both high and low temperatures) and specific chemicals which may soften, harden or
swell the elastomer. The elastomer should be selected based on continuous service (e.g. hydrogen
sulphide in production fluids) and occasional exposure, for example acids, inhibitors and methanol.
The selection process should also account for the volume of elastomer used; some elastomers are
difficult or impossible to manufacture into large elastomer sections such ones required for a packer
element. Considering downhole conditions and type of application a decision tree has been
developed for elastomer selection respecting the recommendations of the leading manufacturing
companies end suppliers (Figure 5-32 and Table 5-3)
Table 5-3 Common oilfield elastomers and application conditions
Compound (1) Nitrile (6) Fluoro -Carbon (6) Aflas (4,6) Chemraz (3) EPDM (7) Kalrez (3)
Service Temperature 320 to 2750F 320 to 4000F 1000 to 4000F 400 to 4000F 400 to 5500F 1000 to 4000F
0
F ( 0C) (00 to 1350C) (00 to 2040C) (380 to 2040C) (40 to 2040C) (400 to 2880C) (380 to 2040C)
Pressure (2) 10000 9000 8000 6000 3000 6000

psi (MPa) (69) (62.1) (55.2) (41.4) (20.7) (41.4)
Environments
H2S NR A A A NR A
CO2 A B B A NR B
CH4 (Methane) B A A A NR B
Hydrocarbons (Sweet
A A A A NR A
Crude)
Xylene NR A B A NR A
Alcohols A C B A B A
Zinc Bromide NR A A A NT A
Inhibitors B(5) NR A A NT B
Salt Water A A A A A A
Steam NR NT B B A B
Diesel B A B A NR A
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) NR A A A NR A
A : Satisfactory; B: Little or No Effects; C: Swells; NR: Not Recommended; NT: Not Tested
Note: (1) These materials are mainly used as O - rings.
(2) All pressure tests were done using 6 mil (0.006 - in) gaps; larger radial gaps will reduce pressure rating.
(3) Back - up rings must be used above 2500F (121.10C) and 4000 psi (27.6 MPa).
(4) Back - up rings must be used above 3500F (176.70C) and 5000 psi (34.5 MPa).
(5) Water - soluble inhibitors only.
(6) Good for O -rings, packer elements and model seals.
(7) For packer element application - EPDM compound - y267.
Figure 5-32 Elastomer Selection Decision Tree
5.7 Recompletion Selection Workflow
A typical, most common re-completion workflow in OMV Petrom is shown in Figure 5-33. It
incorporates three major well groups: gas wells, oil wells and water injection wells (for reservoir
pressure support and water disposal).
Figure 5-33Typical re-completion work flow in OMV Petrom
5.8 Quality Assurance and Safety Requirements
Quality Control
The general industry WO/re-completion rules/practices implemented in OMV Petrom can be

summarized as follows:
• All the downhole equipment peaces should be always measured, tallied and drifted before
any run in hole.
• A detailed downhole schematic with all downhole equipment ID, OD, lengths, material type,
weight, should be prepared for all the BHA RIH,
• All the downhole equipment pieces should be checked upon arrival on the well site and
before running in the hole. Especially, ODs should be checked to ensure unrestricted RIH.
• A visual inspection of downhole equipment pulled out of hole, should be done and an
appropriate report with photos should be put together. The status of the downhole
equipment pulled out of the hole should be reported on the daily report.
• All downhole equipment which needs to be replaced, should be sent to appropriate suppliers
with associated visual inspection reports and requests for re-dressing or a full replacement
with a new equipment piece.
• Tubing hanger pulled out of hole should be thoroughly inspected by the WH & X-mass tree
supplier as well, and seals on it should be replaced if necessary
• Tubing hanger flange (7 1/16” OD in most of the cases) gasket should be thoroughly
inspected by the WH & X-mass tree supplier and replaced if necessary.
• All service companies supplying materials will review Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS’s) at
the meeting for all products supplied and ensure these MSDS’s are available for worker’s
examination on location in compliance with regulations
Well control and eventual H2S and CO2 content in reservoir hydrocarbons should be of the main
concerns while doing WO/re-completion (see Chapter 4-Well Control).
Safety requirements
All workers on the well site should wear protective equipment all the time (hard hats, hard toe boots,
non flammable coveralls, safety gloves, safety glasses and ear buds in case of excessive noise.
Safety meetings are to be held with all service company personnel prior to the start of each shift or
job. Wellsite supervisor must notify contractors of known hazards of which contractor(s) may be
unaware. Wellsite supervisor must ensure that workers are aware of their responsibilities and duties
under OH&S regulations and workers comply with regulations.
All applicable regulations, including, but not limited OMV Petrom OH&S regulations, are to be strictly
adhered. The list of HSE regulations (Government and OMV Petrom) is shown in Table 5-4.
Table 5-4 HSE Documents and Standards
HSE Documents and Standards
1. Law No. 319/2006 - Law on Safety and Health at Work
2. Government Decision No. 1425/2006 - rules for the application of safety and health law
3. GD 1408/2008 – Classification, packaging and labeling of hazardous substances

Government Decision no. 1146 / 2006 - Minimum safety and health for use in work
4.
equipment by workers at work
H.G. No. 493/12.04.2006 on the minimum safety requirements regarding the exposure of
5.
workers to risks arising from noise.
Government Decision No. 1050 of August 9, 2006 on minimum requirements for ensuring
6.
safety and health of workers in mining and drilling
Government Decision No. 1049 of August 9, 2006 on minimum requirements for ensuring
7.
safety and health of workers in surface or underground mining
8. Law No. 265/29.06.2006 for approving the Emergency Ordinance
9. Government No. 195/2005 on environmental protection.
10. Emergency Ordinance No. 78 of 16 June 2000 on waste

Regulation to prevent the rash drilling, commissioning and operation of production of oil and
11.
gas wells - ed. 1982.
12. WO-RO-06-14-00 –“Inspection and maintenance of hoisting equipment”
13. Technical book for well interventions and workover, OMV Petrom, 2011
EP-HSEQ-RO-06-21-00 – “Storage, Handling and Transportation of Hazardous Substances and
14.
Materials”
15. Standard Petrom EP – Standard for risk assessment at work HSEQ-RO-06-01”
16. Standard Petrom EP - 'HSEQ management of emergency situations - 10-01 -00
17. EP Petrom Policy - ,,Stop working; Individual responsibility HSEQ –RO –01 –02 -00
18. Standard Petrom EP - 'Plan to prevent and combat accidental pollution HSEQ-EN-06 -14-00 "
19. Petrom EP Standard – HSEQ and contractors HSEQ – RO -07 – 01 – 00 Edition in force
20. Standard Petrom EP - system of work permits - HSEQ - EN - 06 - 03 edition in force
21. Standard Petrom EP - Incident reporting HSEQ-RO - 09 - 01 edition in force

Standard Petrom EP - Hazard Identification and management of HSEQ-RO - 04 - 06 edition in
22.
force
23. Standard Petrom EP - Personal protective equipment HSEQ-RO - 06 - 11 edition in force
24. Work Instruction Petrom EP - Alcohol test HSEQ-RO - 04 - 07 edition in force in Petrom
Appendix 5 A Casing and Tubing Specifications
Standard items
DDP Petrom's DDP Petrom's Well
OCTG OD Steel RCT VMI Service
PPF END Pipeyard Site VMI Service
Type (inch) grade (months) [USD/m] (4)
[USD/m] (1) [USD/m] (3)
Casing 20 133 K55 TSH ER 4 n/a 659.29 22.78
Casing 20 106.5 K55 TSH ER 4 n/a 527.93 18.24
Casing 13 3/8 68 K55 TSH ER 4 n/a 187.28 11.65
Casing 13 3/8 68 L80 TSH ER 4 n/a 196.06 11.65
Casing 13 3/8 54.5 K55 TSH ER 4 n/a 150.10 9.34
Casing 9 5/8 47 P110 TSH Blue 5 n/a 172.28 8.05
Casing 9 5/8 47 P110 Buttress 4 n/a 136.58 8.05
Casing 9 5/8 47 L80 TSH Blue 5 n/a 159.64 8.05
Casing 9 5/8 47 L80 Buttress 4 n/a 129.44 8.05
Casing 9 5/8 40 L80 Buttress 4 n/a 110.17 6.85
Casing 9 5/8 36 K55 Buttress 4 n/a 94.50 6.17
Casing 7 29 L80 TSH Blue 5 n/a 101.90 4.97
Casing 7 29 L80 Buttress 4 n/a 76.88 4.97
Casing 7 23 L80 Buttress 4 n/a 60.97 3.94
Casing 7 23 K55 Buttress 4 n/a 58.11 3.94
Casing 4 1/2 13.5 L80 TSH Blue 3 n/a 49.34 2.31
Tubing 3 1/2 12.95 L80 EUE 2 36.97 39.56 2.22

Tubing 3 1/2 12.7 L80 ISH Blue 2.5 51.07 53.76 2.18
Tubing 3 1/2 9.3 J55 EUE 2 25.37 27.22 1.59
Tubing 3 1/2 9.3 L80 EUE 2 26.55 28.41 1.59
Tubing 3 1/2 9.2 L80 TSH Blue 2.5 37.00 38.95 1.58
Tubing 2 7/8 8.7 L80 EUE 2 26.08 27.83 1.49
Tubing 2 7/8 8.6 L80 TSH Blue 2.5 36.32 38.16 1.47
Tubing 2 7/8 6.5 J55 EUE 2 18.62 19.92 1.11
Tubing 2 7/8 6.5 L80 EUE 2 19.48 20.79 1.11
Tubing 2 3/8 5.95 L80 EUE 2 20.38 21.60 1.02
Tubing 2 3/8 5.8 L80 TSH Blue 2.5 27.99 29.26 0.99
Tubing 2 3/8 4.7 J55 EUE 2 15.39 16.35 0.81
Tubing 2 3/8 4.7 L80 EUE 2 16.10 17.07 0.81
Non - standard items
DDP Petrom's DDP Tenaris
OCTG OD Steel RCT VMI Service
PPF END Pipeyard Werehouse
Type (inch) grade (months) [USD/m] (4)
[USD/m] (1) [USD/m] (2)
Casing 7 32 L80 TSH 523 5 n/a 127.50 5.48
Casing 5 18 L80 TSH 513 6 n/a 76.44 3.08
Appendix 5 B Applied Packers in OMV Petrom Specifications
Figure 5-34 Schlumberger Possi Test Packer

Figure 5-35 Baker "Lock Set" Packer
Figure 5-36 Baker "R-3" Packer
Figure 5-37 Baker "FH" Packer
Figure 5-38 Weatherford "Black Cat " Permanent/Retrievable Packer
Figure 5-39 Baker "F-1" Permanent Packer
Appendix 5 C Typical OMV Petrom HP/HT Gas Well Completions
Figure 5-40 Typical OMV Petrom HP/HT Gas Well Completion
Appendix 5 D Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions, No GP

(PR <100 bar)
Figure 5-41 Typical OMV Petrom Gas well Completion, No GP (PR<100 Bar)
Appendix 5 E Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions, With GP

(PR <100 bar)
Figure 5-42 Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions, With GP (PR <100 bar)
Appendix 5 F Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions (PR >100 bar) -
No GP
Figure 5-43 Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions (PR >100 bar) - No GP
Appendix 5 G Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions (PR >100 bar)
- With GP
Figure 5-44 Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions (PR >100 bar) - With GP
Appendix 5 H Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions w/SRP
Figure 5-45 Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions w/SRP
Appendix 5 I Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions w/PCP
Figure 5-46 Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions w/PCP
Appendix 5 J Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions For Heavy Oil HZ
Wells (Suplac)
Figure 5-47 Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions For Heavy Oil HZ Wells (Suplac)
Appendix 5 K An example of tubing movement, forces and stress

calculation
Table 5-5 An example of tubing movement, forces and stress calculation
Table 5-6 An example of tubing movement, forces and stress calculation (Continuation)
Table 5-7 An example of tubing movement, forces and stress calculation (continuation)
List of Figures
Figure 5-1 Possible initial or existing equipment in the well to be recompleted,
Figure 5-2 a) Typical single string/single zone completion w/SS; b) Typical single string/multi zone
completion,
Figure 5-3 a) API EUE and NU tubing collars b) Tenaris Blue premium connection,
Figure 5-4 An example of a tubing drift OD calculation
Figure 5-5 a) SRSCSSSV b) TRSCSSSV, flapper closure type,
Figure 5-6 Over tubing collar protector,
Figure 5-7 An example of a SCSSSV maximum fail close depth and required surface SCSSSV opening
pressure calculation,
Figure 5-8 Production packer types,
Figure 5-9 Service packers and BPs,
Figure 5-10 Mule shoe and bell guide,
Figure 5-11 Otis type “X” landing and “XN” No-Go landing nipples,
Figure 5-12 Perforated pup joint,
Figure 5-13 a) Sliding Sleeve; b) Side Pocket mandrel,
Figure 5-14 a) Flow coupling; b) Blast joint,
Figure 5-15 Expansion joint,
Figure 5-16 Chemical injection mandrel,
Figure 5-17 Piston effect visualization,
Figure 5-18 Tbg string ballooning/reverse ballooning,
Figure 5-19 a) Straight tbg; b) bowed tbg,
Figure 5-20 Buckled tubing,
Figure 5-21 A typical wellhead schematic,
Figure 5-22 Typical „solid block” X-mass tree,
Figure 5-23 a) Different tbg hanger types; A typical THF or tubing head,
Figure 5-24 BPV and TWCV valve schematic,
Figure 5-25 A typical flanged type X-mass tree,
Figure 5-26 H2S and CO2 partial pressure calculation,
Figure 5-27 General workflow for selecting metallic materials,
Figure 5-28 CO2 corrosion rate for different materials,

Figure 5-29 NACE MR 0175 Sour service region definitions,
Figure 5-30 Metallurgy selection guidance (MSFPT),
Figure 5-31 Partial pressure approach for metallurgy selection,
Figure 5-32 Elastomer Selection Decision Tree,
Figure 5-33Typical re-completion work flow in OMV Petrom,
Figure 5-34 Schlumberger Possi Test Packer,
Figure 5-35 Baker "Lock Set" Packer,
Figure 5-36 Baker "R-3" Packer,
Figure 5-37 Baker "FH" Packer,
Figure 5-38 Weatherford "Black Cat " Permanent/Retrievable Packer,
Figure 5-39 Baker "F-1" Permanent Packer,
Figure 5-40 Typical OMV Petrom HP/HT Gas Well Completion,
Figure 5-41 Typical OMV Petrom Gas well Completion, No GP (PR<100 Bar),
Figure 5-42 Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions, With GP (PR <100 bar),
Figure 5-43 Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions (PR >100 bar) - No GP,
Figure 5-44 Typical OMV Petrom Gas Well Completions (PR >100 bar) - With GP,
Figure 5-45 Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions w/SRP,
Figure 5-46 Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions w/PCP, and
Figure 5-47 Typical OMV Petrom Oil Well Completions For Heavy Oil HZ Wells (Suplac).
List of Tables
Table 5-1 CO2 corrosion rate for different materials,
Table 5-2 CO2 corrosion rate evaluation,
Table 5-3 Common oilfield elastomers and application conditions,
Table 5-4 HSE Documents and Standards,
Table 5-5 An example of tubing movement, forces and stress calculation,
Table 5-6 An example of tubing movement, forces and stress calculation (Continuation),
Table 5-7 An example of tubing movement, forces and stress calculation (continuation).
References
1. Hammerlindl, D. T. 1977 . Movement, forces and stress associated with combination tubing
strings seal ed with packers. JPT ( Februa ry) .
2. Lubinski, A., W. S. Althouse, and T . L. Logan. 1962. Helical buckling of tubing sealed in
packers, JPT (June) .
3. Lubinski, A., and K. A. Blenkarn. 1962 . Buckling of tubing in pumping wells, i t s effects and
means for controlling it. SPE Reprint Series, No. 12.
4. National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE). 1977. Materials requirement for
sulphide stress cracking resistant metallic materials for oil field equipment , MR-01- 75.
5. Baker Oil Tool Division, Packer Calculations Handbook (1971).
6. Graves W. Gordon, Ott K. William & Woods D. Joe, Mature Oil & Gas Wells DH Remediation
Handbook - World Oil 2004
7. Ott K. William & Woods D. Joe, Modern Sandface Completion Practices Handbook - World Oil
2003
8. Sherwood Joe , Packer Completions Techniques, Dresser Industries INc. 1978
9. Renpu Wan, Advanced Well Completion Engineering, Third Edition, Elsevier Inc., 2011
10. Economides J. Michael, Watters T. Larry & Dunn-Norman Shari, Petroleum Well Construction,
John Willey & Sons, 1998
11. Bellarby Jonathan, Well Completion Design, Elsevier Inc. 2009
12. Allen O. Thomas & Roberts P. Alan, Production Operations 1, Fourth Edition-Fifth Printing,
March 2006
13. Allen O. Thomas & Roberts P. Alan, Production Operations 2, Fourth Edition, Fifth Printing
March 2006
14. Patton L. Douglas & A. Abbot A. William, Well Completions And Workovers - The System
Approach - 1985
15. Gabolde Gilles & Nguyen Jean-Paul, Editions Technip, Drilling Data Handbook, Eight Edition,
Paris, 2006
16. Perrin Dennis, Well Completion And Servicing, Editions Technip, Paris 1999
6. PERFORATING
6. PERFORATING
Contents

6. PERFORATING .................................................................................................................................. 6-3
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 6-3
6.1.1 The Fundamentals of Perforating ...................................................................................... 6-3
6.2 Perforating Techniques .......................................................................................................... 6-12
6.2.1 Factors that should be considered for an optimum perforating job ............................. 6-12
6.2.2 Perforation Technique Selection ................................................................................... 6-15
6.3 Perforating Technique Types ................................................................................................. 6-18
6.3.1 Special Perforating Techniques ..................................................................................... 6-20
6.3.2 Overview of Applied Perforating Techniques In OMV Petrom ..................................... 6-21
6.3.3 Different Gun Types And Performances ........................................................................ 6-21
6.4.1 Wellhead Pressure Control Assembly ........................................................................... 6-24
6.5 Materials for Perforating ....................................................................................................... 6-26
6.5.1 Explosives....................................................................................................................... 6-27
6.5.2 Perforating Fluids........................................................................................................... 6-28
6.6 OMV Petrom Current Perforating Best Practice Workflow ................................................... 6-29
6.7 Quality Assurance and Perforating Safety Requirements ..................................................... 6-32
6.7.1 Perforating Quality Control ........................................................................................... 6-32
Appendix 6-A Geodynamics Guns Specification Details ................................................................ 6-35
Appendix 6-B Perforating Skin Calculation .................................................................................... 6-38
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................... 6-40
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... 6-41
References .......................................................................................................................................... 6-42
6. PERFORATING
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 6. PERFORATING

Perforate underbalanced (differential pressure acts towards the wellbore) with clean,
1.
filtered brine (down to 2 microns) in the casing.
Carbonate formations may represent an exception if the perforating fluid is acid. It is
2. possible to obtain high well productivities by perforating in HCI or Acetic Acid with a small
differential pressure into the formation.
Use RDX charges for bottom-hole temperature up to 100oC, and use HMX charges for
3. bottom hole temperatures above 100oC. High temperature charges should be avoided
unless absolutely necessary.
RIH previously fired, non-charged swollen hollow carrier of a through tubing gun; check if it
4. will pass all tubing restrictions, before RIH charged through tubing gun for a through tubing
perforating job. (typically it’s about 6% of the gun OD).
Create an optimum drawdown before an underbalanced perforating job as per
5.
recommendations in Table 6-2.
6. Use 45° to 90° phased gun which provides the nearest approximation to radial flow.
Do perforating simulation runs with appropriate perforating simulation software to pick up
7.
the optimum gun for the perforating job.
8. Always use the main and a redundant firing head with a TCP gun.
9. Always use a grease injection head for HP/HT wells and sour wells.
Perform pressure test electric wireline BOP /lubricator on maximum expected wellhead
10.
pressure.
Clean perforations after perforating for sand control, by using perforation washing tool or
11.
perforation surging tool.
If intervals are vertical and short (less than 15 m/50 ft), and perforated in balanced or
overbalanced conditions, electric wireline perforating can usually be performed in several
12. hours and may be the most efficient method. Otherwise, a TCP gun system should be
considered as the best option, taking into account an economic evaluation of both options
as well.
6. PERFORATING
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 6. PERFORATING

To perforate overbalanced (differential pressure acts towards the formation to be
1.
perforated) with mud or solids-containing-fluid in the casing.
2. To use aluminum charges, when perforating in HCl acid.
3. To perforate with less than 12 spm (4 spf).
4. Any perforating work during bed weather conditions (storms, heavy rain/snow, flood, etc).
To do perforating job over night, unless the formation is well known and the light towers
5.
makes excellent light.
6. To use high temperature charges unless absolutely necessary.
To allow presence of non-essential personnel on the rig floor and keep anyone standing in
7.
the line of fire.
8. Make pressure tests the lubricator with gun inside.
6. PERFORATING
6. PERFORATING
6.1 Introduction
In the majority of completions, once the reservoir has been drilled, production casing or a liner is run
into the well and cemented in place. To provide the communication path between the reservoir and
the wellbore, it will be necessary to produce holes through the wall of the casing, the cement sheath
and penetrate into the formation. This is accomplished by a technique called perforating. The basic
operation requires that a series of explosive charges are lowered into the well either on an electric
conductor wireline cable, or on tubing or drillstring. When the charges are located at the required
depth, they are detonated to produce a series of perforations through the wall of the casing and the
cement sheath. Since the perforations will hopefully provide the only communication between the
reservoir and wellbore, it is necessary to design and execute the perforating operation carefully, to
provide the required degree of reservoir depletion control and maximise well productivity/injectivity.
Initially, the type of charges used in perforating guns were bullets, but with the development of
armour penetrating explosives during World War II, shaped charges or jet perforators are now used
almost exclusively.
There are several advantages of the cased and perforated completion over the open-hole
completion:
• Upfront selectivity in production and injection.

• Ability to shut-off water, gas or sand through relatively simple techniques such as plugs,
straddles or cement squeeze treatments.
• Excellent productivity – assuming well-designed and implemented perforating.
Drilling related formation damage can usually be bypassed.
• Ability to add zones at a later date. It is also possible to reperforate zones plugged by scales
and other deposits.
• Suitable for fracture stimulation, especially where fracture containment or multiple
fracturing is required.
• Reduced sanding potential through perforations being smaller than a wellbore, selective
perforating or oriented guns.
• Ease of application of chemical treatments – especially those treatments requiring diversion
such as scale squeezes, acidizing and other chemical dissolvers.
• Ease of use with smart completions or where isolation packers are used, for example with
sliding side doors (SSDs).
The main disadvantage is the increased costs, especially with respect to high angles or long intervals.
6.1.1 The Fundamentals of Perforating
After an oil, gas or injection well is completed, the wellbore is isolated from the surrounding
formation by casing and cement. Establishing fluid communication between the wellbore and
formation, for either production or injection, requires some perforating operation. Perforating is the
6. PERFORATING
process of creating holes in the casing that pass through the cement sheath and extend some depth
into the formation. The formation penetration can range from essentially zero to several inches,
depending on the perforator used and the mechanical and physical properties of the materials being
penetrated. The holes may be dispersed in an angular pattern around the interior of the wellbore;
this dispersion is called phasing. The number of shots per linear unit length (m/foot) can vary,
typically ranging from 12 to 24 SPM (or more if a zone is perforated several times); this number is
referred to as shot density.
The primary objective of the use of the modern perforating gun is to provide effective fluid flow
communication between a cased wellbore and a producing reservoir. To achieve that
communication, the gun perforator punches a geometrical pattern of perforations (called “carrots”)
through the casing and cement sheath and into the producing formation. Perforation tunnel
penetration into the formation depends on gun type and size, reservoir physical characteristics, and
formation stress conditions. Perforation tunnel penetration into the formation can vary from 0,15m
to 0,6 m, and even deeper.
Completions can be classified into four general types: open-hole, cased, cemented & perforated (in
further text natural), stimulated, and sand control. “Natural” completions can be defined as those
wells with sufficient reservoir permeability and formation competence to produce economical
hydrocarbon rates without stimulation. With natural completions, effective communication to the
undamaged formation becomes critical. The primary perforation factors are depth of penetration,
charge phasing, the effective shot density, percentage of the productive interval that is perforated,
and degree of underbalance pressure. The perforation diameter is generally unimportant if it is larger
than 6.35 mm (0.25 in).
Basically, all other completions other than open-hole are cased, cemented and perforated, no matter
if any stimulation or inside casing gravel pack is done. Exceptions are completions including running
in hole un-cemented slotted liners, liners with external casing packers with production and/or frac
ports between them, and stand alone sand screens. In those cases perforating is not a part of the
completion.
Good contact between the formation and the wellbore is of the extreme importance in cased hole
completions. The effectiveness of the communication path through the casing, cement and
extending beyond the near wellbore damaged formation is critical for the successful completion and
optimum well performance.
Perforation tunnels should enhance well productivity in several ways:
• They should create clear channels through the portion of the formation damaged during the
drilling process, and go beyond the damaged zone into the formation.
• They should provide uniform tunnels for hydraulic fracturing fluids and proppants, and
• They should make many large uniform holes for sand control (Gravel/Frack Pack) and later
hydrocarbon production, through perforation tunnels tightly packed with gravel.
Perforating operation can be carried out by devices called guns, a denomination due to the original
perforation method that involved the use of perforating bullets shot by short guns (Figure 6-1). The
guns have the function of guiding the bullet towards the cased hole so as to perforate it and reach
the pay rock, penetrating it in part. The speed reached by the bullets, about 1,000 m/s, is sufficient to
6. PERFORATING
perforate the tubing, the cement and the pay rock. This method is not very efficient when used in
resilient formations, or when particularly strong casing materials are used. Nowadays, this method is
only used when dealing with soft formations, or when it is important to obtain perfectly round holes
(when ball sealers are to be used).
Figure 6-1 “Bullet” gun perforator
Another perforation method uses high-pressure fluid jets containing either liquids or water-sand
mixtures. These devices make it possible to create holes or gashes in the casing, and, if necessary, to
produce a cut in the casing. The main advantage of this method is the possibility of creating very
clean cuts without damaging the formation. The main disadvantage is the slowness of the process,
and the elevated costs it involves; it can realistically be used only for carrying out perforations on
short intervals. Sand-Jet Perforator (SJP – Figure 6-2) is designed to perforate casing and cement
using abrasive-laden slurry and to extend a cavity into the reservoir. The tool can be used
independently to jet perforations or combined with a mechanical set packer to perform multiple
functions in a single trip. The SJP provides perforations with no skin effect or formation damage;
therefore, breakdown pressures for fracture initiation are reduced, leading to more effective
stimulation treatments. The SJP does not require explosives and is ideal for perforating operations
where well conditions prohibit the use of electric-line-conveyed guns. The tool can be run with
jointed pipe or coiled tubing and can be used on new oil and gas wells and in existing zones that
require re-perforation where the build-up of sediment caused by flowing oil decreases production.
The third perforation method is currently the most widely used, and is called jet perforating. This
method consists in using explosive charges often known as jet charges, which are collocated within a
support system called gun. The charges have a concave shape which, in the moment of expulsion,
promotes the formation of a primary expansion chamber for the gases produced and helps to aim in
the chosen direction. Jet perforation systems are composed of a series of elements that form the so
called explosive train. These elements are: a detonator that is used to activate the charges, a
detonating fuse to connect the detonator to the charges and the charges to each other, and the
charges themselves. The explosive train can be brought into the hole in different ways. A wireline
6. PERFORATING
system can be used before lowering the completion. Alternatively, coiled tubing or the production
string itself can be used, in order to carry out successive operations directly in the well.
Figure 6-2 Sand Jet Perforator
Once the shaped charge has been placed in a gun (Figure 6-4) and the gun positioned in a well, the
detonation begins at time t0 with the initiation of a detonator. This initiates an explosive wave front
travelling down the detonating cord at about 7000 m/sec with pressures about 15 to 20 GPa. The
detonating cord in close contact with the primer region of the shaped charge detonates the primer,
which initiates the main explosive charge. The charge detonation increases in speed and advances
spherically until it reaches terminal speed of about 8000 m/sec and pressures of 30 GPa. This occurs
just prior to the arrival of the wave front at the apex of the liner. At this point (t1) the case expands
radially about the symmetry axis of the charge while the liner is thrust inward. At the point of impact
on the axis near the apex of the liner, the pressures increase to more than 100 GPa. From this point
the liner parts into two axial streams: a faster, forward-moving stream forming the tip of the jet, and
a slow, forward-moving stream forming the tail. The jet tip travels at about 7000 m/sec while the tail
travels at about 500 m/sec, forming a velocity gradient responsible for the stretching of the jet
required for achieving casing and formation penetration (t2). The amount of the shaped charge
explosive is small – typically in the range of 6 to 32 g (0.2–1.1 oz), although smaller charges are
available for very small-diameter casing and larger charges can be used for big hole charges.
6. PERFORATING
Figure 6-3 Jet charge elements
Figure 6-4 Jet perforating sequence
Figure 6-5 shows what shape charge geometrical parameters need to be changed in order to increase
perforation tunnel penetration length, entrance hole ID or volume.
6. PERFORATING
Figure 6-5 Impact of different shape charge geometrical parameters on perforation tunnel penetration length, entrance
hole ID, and volume
It would be, therefore, expected the following parameters to influence the physical performance of
the shaped charge:
a) Gun size/explosive charge size
The size of the perforating gun will dictate the maximum explosive load which can be accommodated
in the charges. In general terms, both the penetration and the diameter of the entrance hole will
increase as the gun diameter and hence the size of explosive charge also increases as shown in
Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-6 Effect of gun size on entrance hole and depth of penetration
6. PERFORATING
b) Wellbore fluid pressure, temperature and density
It would be expected that if the fluid in the wellbore is very dense, then it could reduce the jet
velocity and impair its physical performance. However, in reality the thickness of the fluid film
through which the jet moves is normally small. If however the charge size is small or the gun
clearance is large, penetration could be reduced. Similarly well pressure has shown no observable
effect on charge performance. This is particularly important to use reduced hydrostatic pressure in
the wellbore whilst perforating in an underbalanced mode. The effect on flow performance is much
more important. However, elevated well temperatures can lead to significant degradation of the
charges with consequent poor performance. However, the effect is only serious in deep hot wells
where the gun contact time is large. In such situations, the protection of the explosive charges by
their inclusion in a hollow gun carrier is advisable.
c) Gun clearance
Since all perforating guns have a diameter which is substantially less than the casing inside diameter
it follows that the gun cannot be expected to be centralised. If the charges are loaded on a design
which calls for them to fire at different angular phasings then each charge will face a varying gap
between the gun outside diameter and the inside diameter of the casing. This gap is known as “gun
clearance”. The effect of gun clearance upon penetration and entrance hole size is shown in
Figure 6-7 for a simulated perforating configuration. It can be seen that maximum entrance hole size
is achieved with a gun clearance of 13 mm (1/2 inch) is normally provided as a defined standoff in the
gun, but in general both penetration and entrance hole size decrease with increasing clearance.
Figure 6-7 Typical result of perforation with 1 11/16” OD through tubing gun in a deviated casing
6. PERFORATING
The effect will be most serious when a very small diameter gun is used as is the case with electric
wireline conveyed through tubing guns where the gun size is selected to pass through the completion
string. In such cases it is recommended to place all the charges to fire in-line (zero phasing) and align
the gun in the casing using a positioning device, to provide minimum gun clearance.
d) Compressive strength of formation rock
It would seem logical for the compressive strength of the rock to have a large effect on the physical
performance of jet perforators. Although the effect is not clearly quantified, the perforation obtained
is inversely proportional to rock compressive strength as shown in Figure 6-8 . It will be necessary to
extrapolate test firing results obtained from a standard test material to specific reservoir rocks. In
most of the cases the formation strength is not known, so the plot in Figure 6-8 could be used as a
reference.
e) Strength of casing and radial support of cement sheath
If the casing to be perforated is constructed from high grade tensile steel, it will absorb more energy
whilst being perforated and hence reduce the overall length of the perforation. In reality, the effect is
relatively small. However, as the number of perforations shot into a casing increases, the structural
integrity of the casing is reduced and the possibility of splitting the casing cannot be discounted. This
will be a very serious consideration where the cement sheath is incomplete, as perforating a casing,
behind which no cement exists, could give rise to casing rupture.
Figure 6-8 Penetration reduction caused by high compressive strength of the formation rock
6. PERFORATING
In the preparation of a perforation gun, a number of charges are assembled on a carrier such that,
upon detonation, they will yield a series of perforations into the formation. The arrangement
provides for variation in the number of shots to be fired per unit interval, i.e. the shot density and
the direction in which all, or individual, charges will be shot, i.e. the shot phasing. The number of
shots installed in a perforating gun varies from low shot density, e.g. less than 4 spm (1 shot/ft), to
higher shot densities of up to 36 spm (12 shots/ft). Gun OD limits shut density. The lower shot
densities are normally adequate for production in reservoirs of moderate to high productivity or are
selected for specific injection operations where flow control is required. The higher shot densities
will provide improved inflow performance in all reservoirs, but may only be significantly beneficial in
reservoirs with a low vertical permeability or where severe local drawdown might give rise to
formation sand collapse.
The orientation of perforations defined as the angular phasing can be:
a. 0° or in-line firing which can provide the minimum clearance for all perforations if the gun is
positioned to fire on the low side of the hole.
b. 45° to 90° phasing which provides the nearest approximation to radial flow. Guns used by
OMV Petrom in most of the cases have 60O phasing.
c. 180° phasing in either of the two planar directions.
d. 120° phasing either with all 3 shots firing at 120° to each other or omitting 1 charge such that
the 2 shots fire at +60° and -60° angular phase.
The phase orientations are depicted in Figure 6-10. All perforation flow patterns are utilised. 90°
phasing which provides the best radial depletion can be very effective when conducted with high
shot densities. However, the selection of phasing will depend not only on shot densities but gun size,
gun clearance, formation isotropy or anisotropy with respect to permeability. It is clear that for each
shot density a number of options regarding phasing can exist, for example, 13 spm (4 shots/ft) can
normally be fired at 0°, 90° or 180° phasing (Figure 6-9).
Figure 6-9 Perforation shot example of 13 spm (4 spf) in line firing and 90o phasing
6. PERFORATING
Figure 6-10 Perforation shot pattern
6.2 Perforating Techniques
An appropriate perforating technique should be selected based on the formation geological

characteristics, length of interval(s) which are to be perforated, then formation fluid properties and
the types of oil and gas wells (vertical, directional, or horizontal well). Industry has adopted general
recommendations and guidelines for perforating technique selection adopted, but every well and
reservoir needs to be evaluated for an appropriate perforating technique application.
6.2.1 Factors that should be considered for an optimum perforating job
W.T. Bell has discussed gun selection parameters in several articles (1984, 1972) and concludes that
shot density and penetration are the most important parameters affecting completion performance.
To minimize impairment, perforations should extend at least 50 mm (2 inch) beyond any drilling
damage. But having met this criterion, shot density is more important than penetration, except for
limited entry stimulations. The minimum shot density should be 13 spm (4 spf) and preferably 24-36
spm (8 to 12 spf). In critical situations (e.g., tight sands, viscous oil, weak sand strengths) up to 72
spm (24 spf) may be used with a maximum of (20 spm (6 spf) in anyone plane. Typical perforating
geometry is shown in Figure 6-11.
6. PERFORATING
Figure 6-11 Typical perforating geometry
High density perforating requires much less penetration than low density perforating. Provided that
the casing is moderately well supported, there is little risk to casing collapse strength (typically less
than 10% reduction) unless very heavy (greater than 25 gm/shot) expendable charges are used, or
more than six 13 mm ( 0.5 inch) holes occur in a single plane over 0.3 m (1 foot)) interval.
Hole size and phasing are less important, although a spiral pattern will obviously give a lower skin
effect than linear perforations on only one side of the casing. Formation failure is not predominantly
a function of perforation hole size and therefore large entrance holes can and should be used to
increase the exposed sand face. However, hole size is critical for internal gravel packs and limited
entry fracturing. Internal gravel packs require large hole size perforations 19 to 25.4 mm (0.75 to
1.0 inch) to minimize linear flow resistance, but penetration is not a significant factor, since the
perforations will be washed. Limited entry fracturing requires smaller hole size perforations to
control fluid hydraulics, to ensure differential pressure development, and to facilitate effective ball-
off. Gun performance data is standardized in accordance with API RP-19 (replaced former API R-43 in
2000) and is available from the perforating company as tables. Despite the fact that API R-43 has
been replaced by API RP-19, some perforating companies still use API R-43 to present their gun
performance data.
API RP 19B is split into five sections:
1. Gun performance under ambient temperature and atmospheric test conditions into a
concrete target through water.
2. Gun performance in stressed Berea sandstone targets (simulated wellbore pressure
conditions).
3. The effect on performance of elevated temperature conditions.
4. Flow performance of a perforation under specific stressed test conditions.
6. PERFORATING
5. Quantification of the amount of debris that comes from a perforating gun during detonation.
In the API RP-19 section 1, the API sets out guidance on the preparation and size of the concrete
target, the testing of the compressive strength and the data collection. Data collection includes
penetration depth, the tubing/casing hole diameter and the inside burr height. Optional tests include
firing in air or through multiple casing strings. Section 1 tests are relatively straightforward to
undertake and frequently used to compare different gun systems. However, it is possible to optimise
a gun for shooting into concrete; such a gun may outperform a competing gun in the section 1 tests,
but under-perform under downhole conditions (Laws et al., 2007). Section 1 data cannot be reliably
used in any downhole productivity model without extensive correction. Concrete penetration is
typically 50% greater than Berea penetration. There are also widespread concerns that the API
concrete specifications allow too much variation and therefore target penetrations can be variable.
The API RP-19 section 2 test is more onerous. A Berea target is cut, dried and saturated with sodium
chloride brine and the porosity (but not strength) of the target measured. There is a reasonable
linear relationship of Berea porosity to strength. The gun is fired at 3000 psia within a closed system.
The recorded data is similar to section 1.
The API RP-19 section 3 is used to test guns at higher temperatures, but into steel targets. Pressure
is maintained at atmospheric conditions. The guns are maintained at the nominated temperature for
1 h for wireline guns and at least 100 h for tubing conveyed guns.
The API RP-19 section 4 discusses perhaps the most useful of the tests. It is a combination of a gun
shoot and flow test. However, the gun configuration is largely left open to the user. The target can be
a simulated reservoir rock, or even well core (assuming it is large enough). The test can be performed
under confining stress. The firing of the gun can be done with chosen pore pressure, wellbore
pressure and confining pressure. A core flow efficiency (CFE) is calculated from a radial flow test on
the sample post perforating. This efficiency is the measured flow rate compared to what would be
expected for the geometry of the perforation and target properties (including permeability and
geometry). The CFE can be useful in helping define properties such as the crushed zone permeability
(Roostapour and Yildiz, 2005) and thus assist with determining the skin factor.
The API RP-19 section 5 provides an opportunity to collect perforation gun debris. The debris can be
sieved for particle size. Both the API RP 43 and the API RP 19B tests can be plagued by difficulties in
selecting a representative target. The target should be similar to downhole rock, but ideally should
not have the same variability, and should be easy to source across the world. Steel is too hard,
concrete too soft. The API tests, particularly section 4, provide an opportunity to determine expected
perforation performance. However, due to the given difficulties in obtaining representative tests,
most predictions will rely on extrapolating test data to different downhole conditions. The
corrections are necessary for gun standoff, rock strength, effective stress, perforating fluid, casing
thickness and strength and, to a lesser extent, pressure and temperature.
A number of models are available to aid penetration prediction. Behrmann and Halleck (1988)
present a large amount of comparison data for penetration into different strength Berea and
concrete targets. The relationships are generally linear although it is known that Berea sandstone
does not come in either very weak or very strong varieties, care must be taken in extrapolation to
very strong or very weak rocks.
6. PERFORATING
The actual downhole performance of the guns is not as good as that shown in the API RP-19.
This is because:
• Penetration decreases with increasing effective rock stress, and plateaus at - 70% of the total
core penetration (TCP) at rock stresses => 34.5 MPa (5000 psi).
• Perforations are shorter and fatter under stress.
• Penetration varies with rock type. The stronger the rock the more powerful the charge
required. For lack of a better criterion, the rock's average compressive strength is often used,
but experimental data show that this is not the controlling criterion within a given rock type.
• There is significant reduction in penetration (-30%) with thicker casing and cement sheaths
than those used in the API tests.
• Gun clearance is critical with small guns. Through tubing guns must be properly de-
centralized.
Knowing all of these uncertainties, it is easy to see why the powerful tubing-conveyed perforators are
being used with increasing frequency, especially under difficult conditions (e.g., deep, hard rocks; low
permeabilities, gas).
In some cases it is necessary to perforate through two or even three casings, so a gun with deep
penetration should be used. Many old wells in OMV Petrom need to be perforated through two or
even three casing strings, so guns with extremely deep penetrations need to be used.
6.2.2 Perforation Technique Selection
Factors that need to be taken into account while selecting perforating technique include:
• Formation compressive strength and stress,

• Reservoir pressure and temperature,
• Zone thickness and lithology,
• Formation porosity and permeability,
• Formation anisotropy (expressed as relationship between horizontal and vertical
permeability. If not known there is an oil industry recommendation (accepted by OMV
Petrom) to use kH/kV = 10),
• Formation damage radius, and
• Fluid type gas, oil or water (for water source or water injection wells).
But, even before starting selecting an appropriate perforating technique, the perforating objectives
and operating conditions must be fully understood. These include the following:
• An understanding of the pressure environment in the well,

• A decision on whether or not the well will be stimulated and how,
• Whether or not the formation is known for sand production,
• Whether this is an original completion or a workover, and
• Whether the well is to be used for production or injection.
Pressure environment - What is the formation pressure? Is it normal or abnormal? If normal, is it low
enough to perforate and then run tubing? (This means not using heavy, expensive brines) If
6. PERFORATING
abnormally high, is the potential formation damage from perforating in heavy brines (bromides,
fromates) minimal? If so, there is a choice of:
1. Weight up well completion/servicing brine, perforate overbalanced with casing gun (could be
a TCP gun – “shoot & pull), then run final completion, or
2. Run the final completion in lighter fluid (underbalanced), then perforate with a through
tubing gun (could be one run on coil tubing on highly deviated or horizontal wells) with X-
mass tree installed, or
3. Run the final completion with a TCP gun, set packer, nipple down BOP, nipple up X-mass tree,
evacuate tubing fluid with a lighter one to establish an optimum drawdown, then perforate
underbalanced. So called “time delay fuses” need to be used to create an optimum
perforating drawdown on wells with depleted reservoir pressures. “Time delay fuses” delay
gun firing initiation, until the nitrogen, is bled off from the tubing.
If abnormally low, and the formation is susceptible to damage, following could be done:
• Swab down (casing or tubing) for underbalanced perforating and perforate with casing gun,
or
• Run tubing, swab down, and perforate underbalanced with a through tubing gun.
The well will be stimulated? - If the well is going to be stimulated, will the limited entry technique is
going to be used? This will depend upon whether:
1. The zones will be treated with different frac pressures (dual completions, eliminating packers
and bridge plugs), or
2. Several zones will be treated in one interval.
If there is either condition, limited entry stimulation should be considered. With limited entry, the
number and size of perforations should be selected based on the acceptable treating rate and
perforation friction pressure desired. If the well is not going to be stimulated, the perforating
technique will be dictated by considerations concerning the formation pressure discussed above.
If the formation is not easily damaged, the decision to run tubing before perforating is made based
on the next step in the completion program.
Completion for Sand Control? - Even if sand control methods are used, the same pressure
environment considerations mentioned above must be reviewed. What kind of control is to be used?
Rate control? Consolidation? Gravel/Frack pack? (see details in chapter 10) Briefly, however, rate
control is the least expensive and the simplest to use from an operational viewpoint. Consolidation
avoids the need for placing liners in the well bore. Consolidation also allows better fluid-injection
control during stimulation or secondary recovery. Workovers are easier. Gravel pack offers the only
practical control for long intervals. If using rate control, perforate large diameter holes,
19 to 25.4 mm (0.75 to 1 in), with 60o to 90° phasing, with high shot density 12 to 24 shots per meter
(four to eight shots per foot) to minimize pressure drop through perforation tunnels. Perforate in
clean, filtered well completion/servicing brine. If using sand chemical consolidation, or inside
gravel/frac pack, shoot with 60o to 90° phasing, and big hole 19 to 25.4 mm (0.75 to 1 inch).
However, perforating must be done in clean, filtered brines and perforations must be cleaned by
6. PERFORATING
washing or back surging before gravel packing or injecting resins for consolidation. If the perforating
inside pipe is to be done for testing purposes, the pressure (as discussed above) when perforating for
production without stimulation must be considered.
Reperforating during workover? - In general, there are three reasons for re-perforating:
• Cement squeezing,
• Remedial perforating (increasing perforation density), and
• After limited entry stimulation.
When it becomes necessary to squeeze, consider the environment. Are the existing perforations to
be squeezed? What was the original perforation phasing? If it was 0° phasing or if there are no
existing perforations, 90° phasing with 13 shots/m (4 jet shots/ft) should be implemented. 0.3 to 0.6
m (1 or 2 ft) at the most should be shot. When remedial perforating is undertaken, the objective is to
improve perforation productivity (or injectivity).
Two classic examples would be to re-perforate because:

• Perforations are plugged with scale, paraffins, asphaltenes, etc., or
• Insufficient perforation penetration, as in older wells.
In either case, shot phasing, density of the remedial perforations, and gun selection should follow the
same procedure as if these were new perforations for production or injection. However, the age and
probable condition of the casing, including shot density of existing perforations, must be considered.
The casing in some older wells could be relatively fragile, so original perforating /re-perforating
reports should be checked in order to find out the existing casing strength reduction before adding
more perforations and weaken it further.
Often, high-volume wells will require additional perforations following limited entry stimulation. The
low shot density required for limited entry creates a form of pseudo damage that can be alleviated
by additional perforating. Perforating technique/system can be designed using newer, sophisticated
perforating analysis software programs (like Schlumberger’s SPAN) which predict perforating
efficiency under downhole conditions.
OMV Petrom workover/completion engineers have used a customer copy of SPAN software for a
while for designing perforating jobs, due to courtesy of Schlumberger. But, another perforating
softwares are available, like “IPERF” (designed by Geodynamics) and could be available through
Weatherford perforating services. To help identify the appropriate gun systems for a specific
application, these programs combine modules that estimate downhole penetration, calculate
productivity and determine optimal underbalance. With all the tools and techniques that are
available to the completions/workover engineer, the best perforation designs are always based on
specific well requirements to optimize production.
A semianalytical perforation skin model was created by Karakas and Tariq (1991), by which a total
perforating skin (including a crushed zone around perforations skin) can be calculated. That would be
a good way for calculating total perforating skin created by different suppliers’ guns, in order to
compare created total perforating skins under the same conditions. The Excel spreadsheet presented
in Appendix 6-B Perforating Skin Calculation) can calculate the total perforating skin created by a
certain perforating gun. It’s been created based on the above mentioned Karakas and Tariq model
6. PERFORATING
and can be used as a “comparative” model, based on which a gun that creates the minimum total
perforating skin, under the same conditions, can be picked up as an optimum one.
Perforating simulations with appropriate software is strongly recommended when formation needs
to be penetrated, through more than one casing strings.
6.3 Perforating Technique Types
There are four basic perforating techniques, based on a differential between the reservoir pressure
and the well fluid hydrostatic column pressure, at the time of perforating:
• Overbalanced (well fluid column hydrostatic pressure greater than the reservoir pressure) –
Figure 6-12 a.
• Balanced (There is no pressure differential between the reservoir pressure and the well fluid
column hydrostatic pressure) – Figure 6-12 b.
• Underbalanced (reservoir pressure greater than the well fluid column hydrostatic pressure –
could be done with a through tubing gun or with a TCP gun) – Figure 6-12 c, and
• Extreme overbalanced pressure (well fluid column hydrostatic pressure is much higher than
the reservoir pressure, and can induce fractures at the moment of perforating) – Figure 6-13.
Figure 6-12 a) Overbalanced perforating w/through csg Gun; b) Underbalanced perforating w/through tbg gun; c)
Underbalanced Perforating w/ a TCP gun
Overbalanced (when the reservoir pressure is depleted even balanced and slightly underbalanced)
perforating technique can be done with a through casing run gun on an electric wireline.
Underbalanced perforating is generally superior to conventional overbalanced perforating for the
following reasons:
• All perforations will be exposed to a high differential pressure and have an opportunity to
immediately back flow into the wellbore.
6. PERFORATING
• Sensitive formations will not be exposed to the completion fluid.

• It facilitates faster and more effective cleanup.
• It establishes the productive potential of marginal zones.
• It minimizes the ambiguity of test results.
• It reduces the safety hazards involved with setting production equipment in a potentially live
well.
Figure 6-13 Extreme overbalanced perforating
Figure 6-14 shows how perforation tunnels look like after an overbalanced perforating followed by
flowing the reservoir fluid inflow and how perforation tunnels look like immediately after an
optimum underbalanced perforating.
Underbalanced perforating can be done with:
• Through tubing electric wireline or coil tubing conveyed gun, with final completion run in
hole and X-mass tree installed at surface.
• Through casing tubing conveyed gun, run in hole with a final completion and with X-mass
tree installed at surface. TCP gun firing head initiation could be done by using a drop bar
system, pressure initiation by either tubing pressure or differential pressure between
annulus and rat hole, or electrical initiation.
Extreme overbalanced perforating creates small fractures around opened perforation tunnels, which
improves communication between the well and the reservoir. The pressure in the well during
perforating should be higher than the formation fracturing pressure. The studies indicate that the
extreme overbalance pressure gradient should be sufficiently high in order to move out the debris
6. PERFORATING
created during perforating and is generally greater than 0.3 bar/m. Some industry sources
recommend that pressure gradient during extreme overbalance perforating sluld be even up
2.3 bar/m (1psi/ft). Usually way to create such pressure gradient is to have a nitrogen cushion inside
tubing and to apply appropriate surface pressure.
Figure 6-14 Difference between an overbalanced created, cleaned perforation tunnel and the underbalanced created
perforation tunnel
6.3.1 Special Perforating Techniques
Special perforating techniques are as follows:
• Tubing punchers,
• Stim guns (originally launched by Halliburton),
• Oriented guns,
• Slickline guns, and
• Dynamic underbalance guns (Schlumberger “PURE GUN”, creates a dynamic underbalance
just after the gun fires).
Tubing punchers are used to punch holes in a tubing string to establish pressure equalization or
circulation between the tubing and the annulus. Tubing punchers are selected for the thickness of
the inner tubing or casing string to avoid damage to the surrounding outer string. Tubing puncher is
used when for pressure equalization between tubing and annulus or for establishing a circulation
between tubing and annulus when sliding sleeve doesn’t exist or is not functional.
Almost all perforating companies claim to have so called stim guns, which allegedly create small
fractures during the perforating process, enabling better well performance then the standard guns.
Some oil and gas companies reported their successful use on some wells, but there are also reports
claiming that those kinds of guns have been used with mixed success.
6. PERFORATING
Dynamic underbalance guns, like Schlumberger “Pure” gun, generate a high dynamic underbalance
from a modest initial underbalance or overbalance. Like with implementing any other technology,
“Pure” gun is not a solution for every well. Schlumberger offers the PURE planning software, which
should be used together with Schlumberger SPAN software for evaluating wells for an eventual
implementation of this technology. But, it is important to point out that dynamic underbalanced
perforating does not replace matrix acidizing and chemical treatments to remove near wellbore
formation damage from drilling or completion fluid losses, organic deposits and mineral scale. This
gun type has never been used in OMV Petrom until now.
Oriented guns can be used to perforate wells for hydraulic fracturing in a certain direction, only in
cases when the orientations of the principal horizontal in situ stresses are known. Oriented
perforating in right direction can substantially reduce near well bore friction, caused by tortuosity
and multi fractures formation, which in turn can substantially reduce risk of early sand out during the
frac job.
Slickline perforating is a kind of recent perforating technique and hasn’t been widely accepted by the
industry so far.
6.3.2 Overview of Applied Perforating Techniques In OMV Petrom
Majority of the wells drilled in OMV Petrom are perforated through with casing guns (TCP
preferable), underbalanced whenever it’s possible. There are cases when reservoir pressures are so
low, and underbalanced perforating is basically not possible. In those cases wells are perforated
overbalanced in clean, filtered brine, compatible with the reservoir rock and reservoir fluids with
viscous pills covering the interval to be perforated in order to minimize fluid loss. TCP casing guns are
used on wells where long intervals are to be perforated (usually longer than 12 m/40 ft).
Underbalanced through tubing guns are used on HP/HT exploration and appraisal wells, with the
final completion run in hole and X-mass tree installed on surface. Packers on those wells are usually
set far above intervals to be perforated and tested. Perforated intervals which won’t be put on
production are usually isolated with through tubing inflatable bridge plugs before the shallower
interval(s) are to be perforated for a production test and further production. Underbalanced
perforating with through tubing CT conveyed gun, as well as extreme overbalanced perforating, have
never been done in OMV Petrom so far.
6.3.3 Different Gun Types And Performances
There are three basic types of guns:

• Casing guns,
• Expendable guns, and
• Through tubing guns.
The casing gun (Figure 6-15 a), which can be run into the well on an electric wireline or conveyed by
tubing (TCP gun), is available in a variety of diameters ranging from approximately 3.5 to 18 cm
(1.38” to 7”). The charges are contained in a steel tube protected from impact and from the well
fluids and are arranged so that they face radially outward from the vertical axis of the carrier. Some
of the advantages of this type of gun are that it is retrievable, thereby enabling inspection to verify
6. PERFORATING
firing of all charges, it contains much of the debris, and partially shields the casing from the force of
the charge. This is a highly reliable device, but it is largely constrained by two factors:
• The gun diameter must be less than the casing inside diameter. This allows a large diameter
gun to be used and hence large charges. Gun swelling after charges are fired should also be
taken into account. Perforating companies should provide gun swelling information, but
typically it’s about 6% of the gun OD.
• The length of gun is defined by either the weight which can safely be suspended by the
wireline or by the length of lubricator into which the gun will be retrieved after perforating in
underbalanced conditions.
It is possible to perforate underbalanced using a tubing-conveyed casing gun. The gun is placed on
the front end of a tubing string as it is run into the well. The tubing may be run in the well containing
whatever fluid that is required to maintain the desired differential between the fluid in the casing
(hydrostatic) and the formation. For example, the tubing-conveyed gun can be safely fired with high
differential pressure into the wellbore (underbalanced) to help flush the debris from the perforations
since a wellhead is in place at the surface. This is a highly desirable procedure which has resulted in
increased use of tubing-conveyed or through tubing jet guns.
If intervals are vertical and short (less than 15 m/50 ft), and perforated in balanced or overbalanced
conditions, electric wireline perforating usually can be performed in several hours and may be the
most efficient method. Otherwise, a TCP gun system should be considered as the best option, taking
into account an economic evaluation of both options as well.
The expendable through tubing/casing guns (Figure 6-15 b) are composed of die-cast aluminum,
ceramic, or glass charge cases with built-in links or arms hooked together. These materials are
designed to disintegrate into small particles and drop to the bottom of the well when the gun is fired.
The expendable gun is not used as much as the casing gun because there is no way to examine the
gun and verify firing, most of the energy from the charge detonation must be adsorbed by the casing
and fluid system which sometimes results in casing damage, and finally expendable guns are more
difficult to position. These guns do have the advantage of containing a greater explosive charge for a
fixed running diameter and are flexible enough to allow running through crooked casing or tubing.
Expendable-type guns should never be operated over 150o C (300o F).
6. PERFORATING
Figure 6-15 a) Wireline conveyed through casing hollow carrier perforating guns; b) Wireline conveyed expendable
perforating guns
Through tubing hollow carrier guns (Figure 6-16 a) are smaller in diameter than casing guns and,
therefore, they contain smaller charges, usually fixed so that all of the guns fire in the same direction
(0° phased), and may produce smaller entry holes and shorter perforations. Relatively new through
tubing, hollow carrier perforating guns can perforate at 60o phasing and at up to 24 shots/m
(6 shots/ft). However, because they can be run with tubing and packer in place, their poorer
performance is sometimes overlooked. The main impetus for their use stems from the advantages of
being able to perforate under conditions such that the pressure in the well is less than the reservoir
pressure (underbalanced). Gun swelling should be taken into account, before picking the optimum
gun OD for through tubing perforating. Usual practice is to RIH previously fired, swollen hollow
carrier of the same initial OD as the gun proposed for the job, to check if it will pass through tubing
and get out of it without problems.
Gun performance depends on:

• Gun standoff and clearance [bigger stand off (hollow carrier guns) and clearance, shorter
penetration] – as shown in Figure 6-16 b.
• Casing wall thickness and hardness.
• Penetrating through single, dual or even triple casing wall.
• Formation rock properties.
• Wellbore pressure.
6. PERFORATING
Figure 6-16 a) Wireline conveyed through tubing hollow carrier perforating guns; b) Charge Standoff and Gun Clearance
Visualizations
The majority of perforating operations are conducted under conditions of underbalanced pressure. In
the case of through tubing guns particularly, there will be a need to allow retrieval and removal of
the gun from the well on which there will exist a wellhead pressure after perforating. There will
therefore be a need to assemble a lubricator and wireline BOP in much the same manner as for the
conventional slick wireline. Normally both a hydraulically actuated and a manual BOP valve are
located at the base of the lubricator. In addition, since the gun will be lowered on a braided electrical
conductor cable, the sealing of pressure as the cable leaves the lubricator will be a serious problem.
In conventional slick line, a stuffing box can be reasonably effective on a single strand line. However,
when perforating, sealing is provided by grease injection through a port into a flow-tube through
which the cable passes.
6.4.1 Wellhead Pressure Control Assembly
The use of wellhead pressure equipment is standard practice in perforating wells, whether the
service is performed in casing or through tubing. When perforating with casing guns, a hydraulically
operated line pack-off is used at the top of the lubricator to seal off well pressure (if any should
develop) and to insure complete safety. Figure 6-17 shows a standard wellhead set up for perforating
or other electric wireline operations which are performed under pressure.
In thru-tubing work, when a small loss of fluid can be tolerated, flow tubes are used to allow well
entry and exit under pressure. The flow tube assembly is shown in Figure 6-17 a. The flow tube
orifices are just large enough to permit passage of the wireline. The internal arrangement of the flow
tube causes a pressure drop so that fluid passage is reduced to a minimum. The fluid that docs pass
through the flow tube is drained off to the reserve pit. When no loss of fluid can be tolerated the
6. PERFORATING
high pressure grease injection equipment is used as shown in Figure 6-17 b. Control fluid is injected
into the seal tubes under automatic pressure control to prevent the loss of any well bore fluid.
Figure 6-17 a) Flow Tube Assembly; b) Grease Injection Head; c) Electric wireline BOP and lubricator
Figure 6-18 Twin, hydraulically operated blowout preventer used with both the flow tube and grease injection
equipment.
Figure 6-18 shows a typical twin, hydraulically operated blowout preventer used with both the flow
tube and grease injection equipment
6. PERFORATING
6.5 Materials for Perforating
Detonator - The detonator or blasting cap, which initiates the firing sequence, can be activated by
heat or shock. In electric wireline guns heat is generated by passing current through safety resistors
to a filament. The hot filament ignites a match compound which detonates the primer charge, lead
acidize, which in turn detonates the booster section across an air gap. The resistors prevent
accidental firing due to stray currents. The gap interrupts the detonation sequence in case liquid
enters the hollow carrier gun through a leaking seal. (Firing a hollow carrier gun partially filled with
liquid could burst the gun.) In an exposed charge gun the detonator is pressure sealed and does not
contain an air gap. In tubing conveyed guns (TCP), firing can be initiated by several different
techniques. The detonator can be set off by a firing pin device activated by a drop bar, or pressure
increase, or combination of the two. Or, a wireline can be run from the surface inside the TCP string
to transmit electrical current through a wet connect hook-up. The latter system provides more
flexibility and safety. Obviously, a premature detonation from any source is a prime safety
consideration. Lead azide, one component used in detonators is a primary explosive and is very
sensitive to shock and temperature. A very important consideration is the downhole time-
temperature limits of the detonator. This is particularly true for TCP equipment. Detonators are
available that can be safely exposed to 246oC (475°F) for extended periods, but all conditions must be
carefully specified.
Detonating Cord-The detonating cord, activated by the detonator carries the high order shock wave
needed to detonate each shaped charge. Primacord contains a secondary explosive, which detonates
almost instantaneously [detonation rate > 6100 m/s (20,000 ft/sec)].
Shaped charge - The shaped charge, (Figure 6-3), consists of five principal components: the
detonating cord, the case, the primer charge, the main explosive and the cone-shaped liner. The case
contains the detonation force of the main charge long enough for the jet to form. It also restricts
interference with adjacent charges. It is commonly made of machined or cold formed steel, although
some through-tubing charge cases are die cast aluminium, or zinc, or ceramic. The explosive and the
liner are most important. The explosive is a secondary explosive, often similar to that in the
detonating cord and requires a high intensity shock from the primer to detonate. Usually, the primer
is a small amount (1 gm) of the same explosive as the main charge, except that it is un-waxed and
more finely granulated, and, therefore, more sensitive than the main charge. Upon detonation of the
main charge the tremendous created pressure causes the liner cone, starting at the apex, to collapse
or flow forming the focused high velocity jet stream. The inner portion of the liner flows toward the
apex and continuously feeds into the jet stream. The outer portion, perhaps 80% of the total volume
of the liner, follows the jet stream at a much lower velocity. These slower particles can coalesce into
a metallic slug, which can partially plug the perforation.
Both the sintered particle and the sheet copper alloy liners are used today. Premium charges usually
are sintered particle configurations. Some big hole charges use a wrapped copper liner. A wrapped
liner can cause a problem with focusing (discussed later). Other big hole charges contain a liner made
from a solid copper alloy sheet which is drawn into a hemispheric, parabolic or more complex shape.
Big hole charges must be designed so that the resulting slug is small compared to the diameter of the
hole produced in order to minimize plugging.
6. PERFORATING
6.5.1 Explosives
The family of high explosives can be subdivided into two categories:

• Primary, and
• Secondary.
Primary high explosives are used in initiators only; their sole purpose is to start the detonation
reaction with a small energy input (usually by electrical heating of a filament wire or by impact). They
are sensitive to energy inputs from heat, flame, friction, impact, and static discharge. Some primary
explosives are sensitive to energy inputs as low as a few ergs; this presupposes that they must be
used with great care. The oil industry still uses devices that contain primary explosives, but is rapidly
moving away from them because of their sensitive nature. Secondary high explosives are used in all
three components (detonators, detonating cord, and shaped charges) of the explosive train. The
secondary explosives are much less sensitive to external stimuli than are primary explosives, and
therefore are much safer to handle. Because of their insensitivity, they are somewhat difficult to
initiate, but once initiated they release tremendous amounts of chemical energy in microseconds.
Although TNT is a common secondary explosive, its relatively low thermal stability prevents it from
being a viable oilfield explosive. For oilfield use the most widely used secondary explosives are RDX,
HMX, HNS, and PYX. These four explosives differ in thermal stability and are necessary because of the
wide range of downhole temperatures encountered worldwide. Table 6-1 gives additional
information about these explosives.
As a general rule, high temperature charges should be avoided unless absolutely necessary. This
recommendation is based on the following:
• Most high temperature charges provide less penetration.
• High temperature powder is less sensitive resulting in increased misfires.
• High temperature charges are more expensive.
• There is much less choice in charge selection.
Table 6-1 – Characteristics of secondary explosives
Detonation
Chemical Density Detonation Speed
Explosive Pressure
Formula (kg/m3) (m/s)
(MPa)
RDX
C3H6N6O6 1800 8750 34500
Cyclotrimethylene
trinitramine
HMX
Cyclotrimethylene C4H8N8O8 1900 9150 39300
tetranitramine
HNS C14H6N6O12 1740 7400 24100
Hexanitrostilbene
PYX
C17H7N11O16 1770 7600 25500
Bis(picrylamino)-3,5-
dinitropyridin
When operating near the upper limit of low temperature charges these approaches may be used:
6. PERFORATING
1. Circulate to reduce wellbore temperature prior to perforating. This works effectively for
through tubing guns which can be run to bottom soon after fluid circulation has been
stopped.
2. If there is some question as to whether the temperature limit of the gun will be reached prior
to firing the gun, high temperature detonators may be used with conventional RDX explosive
in the shaped charges. This will prevent accidental perforating in the wrong interval due to
high temperature. Charges exposed to excessively high temperature deflagrate, or bum,
rather than explode to create an undesired perforation hole.
Figure 6-19 Explosive Temperature Rating For Hollow Carrier Guns
6.5.2 Perforating Fluids
Perforating overbalanced (differential pressure acts towards the formation to be perforated) with
mud or solids-containing-fluid in the casing, leaves every perforation filled with mud solids, charge
debris, and crushed formation rock. This is the worst possible scenario for well productivity, and is
not recommended to implement that scenario at all. The pressure differential needed to initiate flow
varies for each perforation. When a few perforations open up, flow through these perforations
makes it difficult to create the higher pressure draw down needed to open additional perforations.
Even though the well may produce fluid to the surface, most perforations are not contributing, and in
layered zones, effective reservoir drainage will not be achieved.
Carbonate formations may represent an exception if the perforating fluid is acid. It is possible to
obtain high well productivities by perforating in HCI or Acetic Acid with a small differential pressure
into the formation. The acid is slowly pumped into the formation below fracture pressure, if possible,
to react with the carbonate rock and create channels around the perforating debris. Because of the
slow reaction of Acetic Acid on limestone it is usually desirable to leave the acid in the formation for
several hours after perforating. When perforating in HCl acid, exposed aluminium charges should not
be used because of the solubility of aluminum in HCl acid. Acetic acid does not dissolve aluminum.
Underbalanced perforating (differential pressure acts towards the well bore) with no-solids clean and
filtered brine in the casing is the best scenario for sandstone formations and for most carbonates.
The amount of underbalance needed to maximize productivity depends on several factors, including:
• Formation type,
6. PERFORATING
• Reservoir fluid,
• Charge selection,
• Shot density, and
• Wellbore fluid.
Generally, there are not firm opinions on industrial recommendations regarding perforating
drawdown requirements, summarized in Table 6-2. However, it is generally agreed that it is much
harder to clean up gas sands and low permeability zones, and therefore higher drawdowns should be
used in such cases. Table 6-2 gives the commonly recommended drawdowns.
Table 6-2 Recommended perforating drawdowns
Formation Permeability Recommended Drawdown*

Formation Fluid
(mD) (bar) (psi)
>150 14 - 35 200 - 500
Oil 75 - 150 35 - 69 500 - 1000
<75 69 - 140 1000 - 2000
>100 35 – 69 500 – 1000
50 – 100 69 -140 1000 – 2000
Gas 10 - 50 140 – 210 2000 – 3000
2 - 10 210 - 280 3000 – 4000
<1 350 5000
*1. Subject to limits imposed by rock strength from the point of view of sand failure
2. Through tubing carrier guns require a finite bottom hole pressure to control swelling (250 psi in
liquid and 500 to 4500 psi in gas). The weight of the gun should also be designed to control lifting by
flow .
After perforating, the well should be flowed for a long enough period to clean most perforations.
That’s typically 24 hrs flow on clean up for gas wells, or naturally flowing oil wells, and recovering all
fluids lost in formation plus at least two well volumes at surface on oil wells with an artificial lift
system installed. If the well is shut in too quickly (to pull a TCP or through tubing perforator) many
perforations may remain plugged or become plugged due to setting of solids in the well during the
shut in period.
6.6 OMV Petrom Current Perforating Best Practice Workflow
Current OMV Petrom perforating best practice work flow is shown in Figure 6-20 and Figure 6-21.
6. PERFORATING
Figure 6-20 Perforating Best Practice workflow applied in OMV Petrom
6. PERFORATING
Figure 6-21 Perforating Best Practice workflow applied in OMV Petrom (continuation)
6. PERFORATING
6.7 Quality Assurance and Perforating Safety Requirements
Shaped charges are dangerous by nature and using them requires compliance with safety practices.
Electrical system check must be done before perforating. The aim of checking up the electrical
system is to prevent any risk of eddy currents (equipment is earthed, no welding allowed, no
improvised electric wiring, etc.).
Appropriate safety rules have to be implemented during perforated operations. Service companies as
well as oil and gas companies usually have their own safety guidelines which must be followed during
perforating operations, while service company safety guidelines must be in compliance with oil and
gas company safety guidelines.
Perforating operations are not to be performed in the following cases:
• During bed weather conditions (storms, heavy rain/snow, flood, etc).
• At night, except if the reservoir is already known and provided appropriate measures have
been planned (emergency evacuation procedure, adequate lighting, etc.).
• When the operation is carried out with overbalanced pressure before equipment installation,
well safety is ensured by:
• The completion fluid in the well,
• The appropriate BOPs, and
• A high-pressure pump connected to the well on stand-by.
In addition, the stability of the well is monitored each time the gun is fired and while pulling out of
hole. When the operation is performed with underbalanced pressure after equipment installation,
well safety is ensured by:
• The production wellhead along with a high-pressure. Pressure-tested lubricator with a
stuffing box and a BOP adapted for use with an electric cable.
• A high-pressure pump connected to the well on stand-by.
Additionally, the wellhead pressure is monitored each time the gun is fired and while pulling out of
hole. Further precautions when loading, starting to run in and concluding pull out, following
measures are also necessary:
• Cut off all radio broadcasting (radio silence), including mobile phones (notify the base and
logistics).
• Get non-essential personnel out of the rig floor
• Keep anyone from standing in the line of fire.
• Take extra care while pulling out, if there has been a misfire and follow the procedure and
guidelines for gun retrieval and lay down at surface in case of misfire from perforating
service company.
6.7.1 Perforating Quality Control
Quality control
Incorporates strictly following all adopted safety rules and regulations, checking if guns are loaded
and positioned on depth properly, and if all charges fired, which can be checked after pulling the gun
out of hole (hollow carrier through tubing and through casing guns). Unfortunately, expanded guns
can’t be checked if all charges fired, due to “losing” it in the hole after perforating.
6. PERFORATING
Depth Control
A wireline conveyed perforating system consists of a cable head, a correlation device, and one or
more guns. With through tubing perforators, a gun orienting device (usually magnetic) is needed to
turn properly the charges to fire directly into the casing to minimize gun to casing clearance. A
reference log, from which the intervals to be perforated are selected should be available at the well
site. The reference log can be an open-hole log, or a cased hole log, or a perforating depth control
log. If the plan is to use a selective firing head, never use it while correlating with e.g. GR during the
first run. There is a risk after the first shot that the GR might be damaged and is out of order. If a
perforation depth control log is not available, a correlation nuclear/collar log should be run across
the perforation interval and must include several casing collars. When the casing is run, positioning a
marker joint (casing joint much shorter than other joints); or a radioactive (RA) collar, near the
perforation interval permits positive collar identification. The nuclear/collar log must then be
correlated with the reference log, and if the nuclear/collar log is not "on depth" with the reference
log, the perforation intervals must be properly corrected using the difference. The gun is then
positioned for perforating using the collar locator (CCL), again correcting for the distance between
the CCL and the top perforating charge. Corrections must be made properly. It is not unusual to find
perforations 3 to 6 m “off” (10-20 feet), because a correction has been added rather than subtracted,
or vice versa.
Positioning tubing conveyed guns is often more time consuming and probably not as precise as with
electric wireline guns. Several techniques can be used:
• Tag a known reference point (preset bridge plug) and pick up to the appropriate depth.
• Set a packer on a wireline at an appropriate known depth, and sting into it with the guns and
completion string.
• Run the TCP to the approximate perforating depth. Then log a short section with a through
tubing GR/collar locator to locate a radioactive marker sub in the TCP string. Tie the RA
marker to open ole or (cased hole) logs using the through tubing GR for correlation. Move
the TCP string to properly position the guns, set the TCP packer, and recheck the positioning
with the GR/collar locator.
The last method, Figure 6-22, is the most commonly used of the three. If desired, a RA tagged casing
collar can be installed when the casing is run and tied into larger casing GRs. A RA tagged bullet
placed at a known point in the interval to be perforated is another option.
Typically a pair of geophones is used while perforating with a TCP gun for firing confirmation.
6. PERFORATING
Figure 6-22 Through tubing correlation log before packer setting/TCP perforating
6. PERFORATING
Appendix 6-A Geodynamics Guns Specification Details
Table 6-3 reactive Perforating System
6. PERFORATING
Table 6-4 Industry Leading Penetration
6. PERFORATING
Table 6-5 Conventional materials and technology
6. PERFORATING
Appendix 6-B Perforating Skin Calculation
Figure 6-23 Perforating Skin Calculator
6. PERFORATING
Figure 6-24 Perforating skin calculator (continuation)
6. PERFORATING
List of Figures
Figure 6-1 “Bullet” gun perforator,
Figure 6-2 Sand Jet Perforator,
Figure 6-3 Jet charge elements,
Figure 6-4 Jet perforating sequence,
Figure 6-5 Impact of different shape charge geometrical parameters on perforation tunnel
penetration length, entrance hole ID, and volume,
Figure 6-6 Effect of gun size on entrance hole and depth of penetration,
Figure 6-7 Typical result of perforation with 1 11/16” OD through tubing gun in a deviated casing,
Figure 6-8 Penetration reduction caused by high compressive strength of the formation rock,
Figure 6-9 Perforation shot example of 13 spm (4 spf) in line firing and 90o phasing,
Figure 6-10 Perforation shot pattern,,
Figure 6-11 Typical perforating geometry
Figure 6-12 a) Overbalanced perforating w/through csg Gun; b) Underbalanced perforating

w/through tbg gun; c) Underbalanced Perforating w/ a TCP gun,
Figure 6-13 Extreme overbalanced perforating,
Figure 6-14 Difference between an overbalanced created, cleaned perforation tunnel and the
underbalanced created perforation tunnel,
Figure 6-15 a) Wireline conveyed through casing hollow carrier perforating guns; b) Wireline
conveyed expendable perforating guns,
Figure 6-16 a) Wireline conveyed through tubing hollow carrier perforating guns; b) Charge Standoff
and Gun Clearance Visualizations,
Figure 6-17 a) Flow Tube Assembly; b) Grease Injection Head; c) Electric wireline BOP and lubricator,
Figure 6-18 Twin, hydraulically operated blowout preventer used with both the flow tube and grease
injection equipment.
Figure 6-20 Perforating Best Practice workflow applied in OMV Petrom,
Figure 6-21 Perforating Best Practice workflow applied in OMV Petrom (continuation),
Figure 6-22 Through tubing correlation log before packer setting/TCP perforating,
Figure 6-23 Perforating Skin Calculator,
Figure 6-24 Perforating skin calculator (continuation).
6. PERFORATING
List of Tables
Table 6-1 – Characteristics of secondary explosives,
Table 6-2 Recommended perforating drawdowns,
Table 6-3 reactive Perforating System,
Table 6-4 Industry Leading Penetration,
Table 6-5 Conventional materials and technology.
6. PERFORATING
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2000.
42. Walton, I. C., Johnson, A. B., Behrmann, L. A., et al., “Laboratory Experiments Provide New
Insights into Underbalanced Perforating”, SPE 71642, 2001.
Contents

7. TECHNOLOGICAL OPERATIONS ........................................................................................................ 7-3
7.1 Overview of Technology Operations in Wells (Slickline, Coiled Tubing, Nitrogen Unit,
Snubbing, Wireline and Production Logging) .......................................................................... 7-3
7.2 Slickline Operation ................................................................................................................... 7-3
7.1.1 Slickline Equipment and Tools .......................................................................................... 7-5
7.1.2 Slickline Job Planning and Preparation ........................................................................... 7-10
7.1.3 Rig-up and Rig-down....................................................................................................... 7-11
7.1.4 Type of Slickline Operations and Interventions.............................................................. 7-13
7.1.4.1 Gas Lift related (Side pocket mandrels and GL valves) ........................................... 7-13
7.1.4.2 Flow control devices operated by slick line............................................................. 7-14
7.1.4.3 Subsurface safety valve related............................................................................... 7-15
7.1.4.4 Tubing punching or perforating............................................................................... 7-15
7.1.4.5 Sick line well interventions ...................................................................................... 7-18
7.1.4.6 Intelligent or Digital Slickline Services ..................................................................... 7-20
7.3 Coiled Tubing Operation ........................................................................................................ 7-22
7.3.1 Coiled Tubing Main Parts ................................................................................................ 7-22
7.3.2 Rig-up and Rig-down for CT Operation........................................................................... 7-27
7.3.3 RIH and POOH with CT .................................................................................................... 7-27
7.3.4 Cementing with Coiled Tubing........................................................................................ 7-29
7.3.5 Acid stimulation with CT ................................................................................................. 7-33
7.3.6 Killing, Circulation and Clean-out the Well with CT ........................................................ 7-35
7.3.7 Drilling, milling and under reaming with CT ................................................................... 7-35
7.3.8 TCP under balanced perforation with use of CT............................................................. 7-38
7.3.9 PLT logging with CT ......................................................................................................... 7-39
7.3.10 Running plugs, retainers and packers with CT................................................................ 7-40
7.4 Nitrogen Operation ................................................................................................................ 7-40
7.4.1 Nitrogen Pumping Unit ................................................................................................... 7-41
7.4.2 Use of Nitrogen ............................................................................................................... 7-42
7.4.2.1 Well lifting and livening ........................................................................................... 7-42
7.4.2.2 Foam acid or foam cement operations.................................................................... 7-43

7.4.2.3 Underbalanced perforations.................................................................................... 7-43
7.4.2.4 Well protection or pressure testing......................................................................... 7-45
7.5 Snubbing Operation ............................................................................................................... 7-45
7.5.1 Rig-up and Rig-down for Snubbing Operation ................................................................ 7-53
7.6 Wireline Logging..................................................................................................................... 7-54
7.6.1 Rig-up and Rig-down ....................................................................................................... 7-55
7.6.2 Type of WL Operations and Interventions ...................................................................... 7-57
7.6.2.1 Logging (Wireline or TLC) ......................................................................................... 7-57
7.6.2.2 Running and Setting Permanent Packers ................................................................ 7-57
7.6.2.3 Perforating ............................................................................................................... 7-58
7.6.2.4 Tubing Punching or Cutting (Explosive or Chemical) ............................................... 7-58
7.6.2.5 Production logging tools (PLT) ................................................................................. 7-59
7.7 Operation in sour environment ............................................................................................. 7-59
Appendix 7-A Common WL Tool Combinations ............................................................................. 7-60
List of Figures.................................................................................................................................. 7-67
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... 7-69
References ...................................................................................................................................... 7-70
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 7. TECHNOLOGICAL OPERATIONS

Use double drum SL unit when performing complex, heavy S/L operations (for example
1.
swabbing, fishing…)
2. To collect all relevant well information before proceeding to S/L job planning and execution.
3. Before RIH with S/L tool calculate ZERO depth; adjustment to the original RKB depth.
Prior RIH with S/L plug or similar large OG tool, there is mandatory to perform the gauge
4. ring run. Perform nipple brushing operation in case having scale or paraffin in the area of
landing nipple.
If performing extensive S/L, W/L or CT operations across the TRSCSSV install a protection
5.
sleeve to protect the safety valve internal from wear and damage.
If running tubing swaging tools, run them always with up-stroke jar; it will prevent swaging
6.
tools to be stuck.
Always assure that S/L, W/L or CT material is compatible with actual well conditions
7.
(especially in sour environment).
Set up CT minimum weight indicator before RIH with CT; also perform necessary CT
8. calculations and set up the maximum pull on the system (80% of CT yield or of the safety
separation joint tension).
Before RIH CT, it is good practice to perform a drift run with S/L or W/L. Run pull test on
9. every 1000m while RIH with CT (or even more frequently). Compare weight indicator
readings with hydraulic pressure to verify the readings accuracy.
Isolate the zone of future interest, if performing cement operation above those; use high-
10.
viscosity pill, sand, silica etc. material.
Use fluid spacers before and after cement slurry; before cementing measure the CT volume
11.
by flushing it over with sponge.
For matrix stimulation by CT, keep the pressure across pay-zone below the formation
12.
fracturing pressure.
13. Before pumping acid into CT, it is good practice to pump some corrosion inhibitor (10-20lit).
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 7. TECHNOLOGICAL OPERATIONS

Never run in hole with S/L, W/L or CT made of standard carbon steel, if the well has H2S or
1.
CO2.
2. Never RIH with S/L or W/L without lubricator and BOP assembly installed.
Never pool out tubing with tandem plugs in place, without hot taping the space between
3.
the plugs; high pressure can be trapped between the plugs and may cause severe injury.
4. Never run LIB twice to TD; take imprint only ONCE!
CT welding on the well site is not recommended; it significantly reduces the CT tensile
5.
strength and thus should not be done.
Never space CT or N2 units on downwind direction from the well. Also never place them too
6.
close to the well.
Never hammer chicksans connections under pressure, if leak observed; first release the
7.
pressure, than tighten the connection.
Never run in hole CT with no BHA (without no-go!) at the end of the CT. If it must be done,
8. than get written approval from Company for it. Assure alternative methods for positive
indication when the end-of-CT is approaching stripper or stuffing box.
9. Never use stripper rubbers of non-certified suppliers or out of required specification.
Never minimize chain tension on the high pressure or snubbing operation mode. Keep
10.
tension in the chain(s) and avoid slipping.
Never perform CT cementing operation without obtaining firstly TD, Temp and ID data by
11.
wireline.
Never bullhead acid on producing oil or gas wells; rather use CT for spotting the acid
12.
downhole, as close as possible to the targeted zone.
Never fully close the X-mass tree adjustable choke when bleeding down high gas rates; keep
13. it minimum opened; use the wing valve or the manifold valve to seal off the flow. Note that
adjustable choke is not designed for keeping the pressure, but for regulating the flow.
Essential part of the WO operations is technological operation with aim of assisting and successfully
completing the WO job. Technological operations are reducing the cost of WO operation, improving
safety and efficiency.
7.1 Overview of Technology Operations in Wells (Slickline, Coiled Tubing,

Nitrogen Unit, Snubbing, Wireline and Production Logging)
The following technologies and techniques are considered as technological operations in WO and
well completion operations:
• Slick line operations,
• Coiled tubing operations,
• Nitrogen pumping operations,
• Wireline and production logging operations and
• Snubbing technology.
7.2 Slickline Operation
Slickline service is a mobile oil and gas industry service that offers an array of downhole tools to aid
in the manipulation of oil and gas wells; for a variety of services from routine oil well servicing to
emergency well control.
Slickline service uses a single solid-stranded non-electric (*with exemption of latest developments in
SL technology) cable, known as slickline. The slickline is secured to the slickline unit, passes through a
stuffing box and pressure control equipment mounted on the wellhead, as shown in Figure 7-1. The
slickline is used to run, set and control downhole equipment such as tools, recorders, plugs or flow-
control equipment. Appropriate and safe slickline service can maximize the potential of a well and
can increase safety for other third-party services.
Slick line operations are low cost operations, relatively fast moving slick line saves time and cost
during the WO operations. Due to the low load bearing capacity of the slick line, these operations are
limited in terms of weight of deployed tools and over-pulling forces on the line.
Slickline technology is mainly used for the following applications:

• Tagging the bottom of the well (the furthest depth possible to reach down the wellbore).
• Gauge ring runs (running a special sized downhole tool designed to prove the tubular internal
diameter).
• Broach tubing (a tubing broach looks like an aggressive, tubular file, available in different
diameters, used for removing burrs and crimps in the inside of tubing and casing in oil and
gas wells).
• Sand & debris bailing (sediments removal from the bottom of the well).
• Shifting sliding door sleeves (shift to open or shift to close).
• Setting or pulling downhole plugs and flow control devices.
• Locking open (temporary or permanently) tubing retrievable surface controlled subsurface

safety valves.
• Installing or pulling gas lift valves or dummies inside side pocket mandrels.
• Deployment of bottom hole pressure and temperature measuring gauges.
• Running production (memory mode) logging tool in flowing wells.
• Fishing operations (limited to ‘light fishing’).
• Paraffin or asphaltenes cutting (scrapping / cleaning the inner wall of the tubing).
• Chipping hydrates (ice) or scale deposits.
• Perforating holes in the tubing wall (tubing punching).
Figure 7-1 Slickline operation on wellsite
IRP 13 is a guideline intended for slickline service companies to develop an appropriate slickline
service program that promotes slickline worker safety on the job. IRP 13 includes pertinent
information about slickline safety, including the following: slickline service company responsibilities,
workers’ responsibilities, owner responsibilities, well control, operational procedures, equipment
maintenance and training. IRP 13 supplements existing standards and regulations, and provides
guidelines and recommendations where none previously existed.
7.1.1 Slickline Equipment and Tools
The slick line system is assembled from the following main components:
• Slick line units including drive unit, drum with slick line and operator’s commands.
The slick line unit can be of different type and construction; in most cases it is a light compact
unit which can be easily moved or transported. S/L unit allows for safe and accurate
manipulation of the S/L equipment and tools, data monitoring and protection from
elements. Picture below (Figure 7-2) is just illustration of a compact S/L unit.
Figure 7-2 Slickline unite
Slick line is the key component of the S/L technology; the link between surface unit and bottom hole
tools. Following tables summarize the diameter (Table 7-1), metallurgy and application areas (Table
7-3) for the most commonly used slick lines.
Table 7-1 Slickline diameters
Slickline Diameter
Inches Milimeters
0.660 1.676
0.720 1.829
0.920 2.336
0.108 2.743
0.125 3.175
0.140 3.556
0.150 3.81
0.160 4.064
0.188 4.775
Table 7-2 Recommended slicklines, materials and their breaking strengths (in lbs)
Materijal 0.066 0.072 0.082 0.092 0.105 0.108 0.125

Bright Steel (Brigth
steel (API Level 3
811 961 1239 1547 1966 2109 2822
or a Improved Plow
Carbon Steel Steel) 230ksi
Bright steel
(monitor AA or HI 958 1149 1460 1828 2329 2455 3190
strength) 260ksi
Austenitic
316 Stainless - - - 1363 1732 1786 2270
Stainless Steal
Super Austenitic
Sandvick Sanicro - - - 1445 1885 1995 2675
Stainless Steal
Avesta 254SMO - - - 1462 1818 1924 2454

6 Moly Stainless
Bridon Supa 75 - - - 1550 NA 2030 2560
Steel
Bridon Supa 80 - - - 1625 NA 2775 2775
Cobalt Base
MP35N - - - 1582 2009 2080 2724
Alloy
Table 7-3 Slickline metallurgy and applications
Wireline H2S C02 Chloride ZnBr2
May be used at low Not badly affected by

Satisfactory in low concentration, but Chlorides but must be
concentrations, inhibitors are not washed and oiled after
API9A Not suitable
inhibitors can be highly always effective. use to prevent
baneficial Better if water is not corrosion while on the
present reel
Not badly affected by
Poor even at low
Chlorides but must be
Hight Not recommended at concentrations.
washed and oiled after
strength any concentration, Inhibitors have a little Not suitable
use to prevent
Carbon even with inhibitors effect. Better if water
corrosion while on the
is not present
reel
Vulnerable in
Normally satisfactory at Normally satisfactory at
concentrations in
GD316SS concentrations up to concentrations up to
excess of 3%. Avoid
30% 30%
prolonged high loading
Not normally affected Not normally affected Not normally affected

GD31MO Not affected
at any concentration at any concentration at any concentration
For some special operations there is a braided line (wirerope) used instead of slick line; thus some
slick line units have double drums: one for slickline and one for braided line. Slick line interventions
where braided line is used are swabbing, bailing, fishing or similar.
• Wellcontrol system
For safe and reliable S/L operation well control is maintained by deployment of primary,
secondary (or even tertiary) mechanical pressure barriers. Primary barrier during the S/L
operation is the stuffing box on the top of the lubricator assembly, the secondary barrier are
blow out preventers (BOP’s), while the third barrier can be either additional BOP or valves of
the x-mass tree (master or swab valves). Well control barriers are operated by special
hydraulic operating system.
Figure 7-3 Stuffing Box and a Mono-Block slickline BOP stack
Figure 7-4 S/L BOP Operating system and Control Panel
• Depth & Weight Indicator
Since invention of the slick line technology many different systems have been designed for
accurate measurement of the slick line up & down movement, as well as to monitor and
control the slick line tension. Here below is a simply depth & weight mechanical indicator
shown; modern S/L units have fully digitalized, much more sophisticated systems for depth
and weight recording and controlling.
Figure 7-5 Slickline weight and depth indicators (mechanical)
• Data acquisition system
Modern S/L units are connected to laptops; thus full range of parameters are continuously
monitored and recorded in electronic form. This all improves the S/L operation efficiency and
reliability. This is especially important with deployment of modern, ‘smart’ slickline
technologies (like SLB ‘Digital Slick Line’, or ‘e-Slick Line’ technologies)
• Lubricator system with stuffing box and seal energizing system
Lubricator system is used for deployment of downhole tools on a live well or under pressure
conditions; lubricator is thus essential part of the well control system. Length of the
lubricator assembly is dependent on the length of the deployed downhole S/L tools.
Lubricator system is a combination of different tools and equipment spaced between the
stuffing box and S/L BOP stack. The complexity of the lubricator system depends on the type
of the S/L operation, pressure and working environment conditions, etc.
Figure 7-6 S/L Lubricator system packed for offshore loading
Figure 7-7 Illustration of wide variety of components used for S/L lubricator system
• Test Pump
As the S/L surface system is made of different components (made-up together), it is very
important to check the pressure integrity of those connections and itself the lubricator
bodies. Hydraulic pump (either hand or air driven) is used for S/L equipment pressure testing
purpose. Pressure testing data are recorded either on pressure recording charts or as
electronic logs.
• Slick line tool box or workshop container
Each S/L operation requires certain tools and equipment; some of those tools are possible to
plan or secure in advance, during planning phase of the S/L operation. But there may be
situations when S/L operation is diverted into direction which was not planned or forecasted;
even in these situations, some basic ‘emergency’ tools & equipment should be available on
the wellsite. Also there are lot of small repairs and adjustments needed to be performed
during the execution of S/L operation; for these purposes a special S/L workshop (container),
with necessary tools is set up and is part of the S/L package. Here below (Figure 7-8) is one of
these S/L workshop containers just as illustration.
Figure 7-8 Slickline tool box
7.1.2 Slickline Job Planning and Preparation
A safe and efficient S/L operation needs accurate and complete information for planning the job.
Slickline service provider has to collect specific data from customers at the time of the job request to
make appropriate equipment selections and provide operators information pertinent to a safe work
environment. It is recommended at a minimum the following data to be collected:
• Job task request,
• Customer contact information,
• Well location (L.S.D. well legal name),
• Directions to the jobsite,
• Well type (sweet or sour),
• Well head connection,
• Potential pressure,
• Downhole schematics,
• Downhole conditions,
• Billing information,
• Type of slickline unit(s) needed, and
• BHA profiles.
7.1.3 Rig-up and Rig-down
Only slickline personnel must rig up slickline equipment unless other services assisting in rig up are
informed of potential equipment and procedural hazards. The wellbore may be accessed through the
internal threads of the wellhead, drill pipe on the drilling rig, adaptor flange or rig BOPs. Rig up
procedures are company-specific, but should include the following activities:
• Spot the slickline truck or skid.

• Lay out surface pressure equipment.
• Inspect equipment for damage.
• Prepare slickline unit for work.
• Prepare downhole tools and accessories.
• Take surface pressure readings from the wellhead (casing and tubing).
• Assemble slickline downhole tools and surface pressure equipment.
• Prepare the wellhead for S/L operation.
• Assemble the slickline wellhead adaptor.
• Use lifting equipment to raise surface pressure equipment over the wellhead adaptor.
• Calculate elevations and zero the counter and tool string before entering the wellbore.
• Perform all necessary pressure testing operations prior to commencing the RIH with S/L.
Surface pressure is controlled through a series of specifically designed pressure-rated devices that
contain, direct or control the flow of pressure to allow it to be managed in a safe manner. Hand
unions are the most common way to connect surface pressure control equipment. They are sized,
pressure-rated and have an o-ring seal. Pressure control equipment can vary in pressure ratings.
Metallurgy can vary to accommodate sweet or sweet/sour applications. For slickline services surface
pressure control equipment starts with a wellhead adapter and works up the assembly depending on
the service needed downhole.
Pressure control equipment may be lifted with the aid of a crane or picker, by mechanical winch or
drilling/service rig lifting devices. During rig up operation all lifting related safety and personal
protection measures must be applied as per Company standards. Slickline service personnel must
also wear appropriate free-fall protection devices when climbing on lifting devices in use (e.g. the
‘ginpole’). A typical S/L rig up is illustrated on the slide below (Figure 7-9).
S/L ZERO depth adjustment and calculation: Before entering the wellbore, it is important to calculate
elevations and zero the S/L counter. Most downhole tubing and equipment elevations are shown on
well schematics as distance from Rotary Kelly Bushing (RKB depth). Slickline measuring system and
counter need to be adjusted for accuracy while at surface, before run in hole - commonly referred to
as 'zero depth'. To 'zero' the S/L counter, the bottom of the tool string is lowered to the casing
flange, or ground, and the measuring device is set to zero meters; as it is illustrated in the figure
below (Figure 7-10).
Figure 7-9 Slick line equipment rigged up and ready for deployment; note the three well control barriers in
green text
Figure 7-10 Calculation of RKB Vs CF or GL elevation

7.1.4 Type of Slickline Operations and Interventions
Slick line operations are most frequently categorized based on the downhole tools deployed during
execution of the S/L job. The following groups of slickline tools are available:
• Running tools, used for deployment and placement of special down hole tools and
equipment.
• Pulling tools, used for pulling and retrieving tools & equipment from the well.
• Shifting tools, used to shift open or close down hole flow control devices.
• Jars and accelerators, for intensifying the pulling/pushing force.
• Tubing punchers (establishing flow communication between tubing and casing annulus).
• Paraffin cutters and scrapers.
• Special service and surveying tools.
Here below is description of the most common slick line operations and best practices related to
those.
7.1.4.1 Gas Lift related (Side pocket mandrels and GL valves)
Side Pocket Mandrels provide a means of injecting gas from the casing-tubing annulus to the tubing.
They are installed in the completion string and act as receptacles for the following devices: gas lift
valves, dummy valves, chemical injection valves, circulating valves, differential dump/kill valves,
equalizing valves, etc.
Figure 7-11 a) CAMCO MMG side pocket mandrel, b) GL well completion and operation of the kick over tool
7.1.4.2 Flow control devices operated by slick line
Slickline technology can be used for operating or deployment of different flow control devices, such
as sliding sleeve doors, plugs, retainers or others. The most common use is shifting open/close the
sliding door on Otis, Baker, Camco, or other manufacturers SSD’s; see the drawing below (Figure
7-12).
Figure 7-12 Sliding sleeve door
Another wide range of application is installing bridge plugs, downhole plugs with prongs and check
valves by using slick line. To prevent downhole plug leaking use a gauge ring to ensure nipple depth
and tubing is clear of obstruction. When tubing is suspected of containing debris, a nipple brush may
need to be run through profiles. After isolation plug(s) are in place, it is recommended to pressure
test the plug in both directions; first bleed pressure off and observe the well to ensure downhole seal
integrity and no inflow through the plug; following it pressurize the tubing from above and observe a
stable pressure test. If there is a leak in the plug/seal, POOH and repair accordingly.
Downhole well conditions may in some cases determine the need for dual barriers. There are risks
associated with using dual barriers. In the situation where the dual barrier consists of two plugs and
the tubing containing the plugs has been brought to surface, pressure may be trapped within the
tubing, between the two plugs. This pressure must be released prior to handling the tubing on
surface, as this trapped pressure creates a potentially fatal hazard. One of the ways for pressure
release on surface in these cases may be hot tapping.
A slip stop may be used on top of a profile plug as a backup safety measure to prevent the profile
plug from moving up the tubing. The slip stop does not provide an additional barrier to trapped
pressure but simply prevents the profile plug from being ejected from the wellbore. It is not
recommended to use a slip stop on top of a bridge plug as jarring down to set a slip stop may cause
the bridge plug to dislodge and, if under enough pressure, come to surface. When setting the bridge
plug, it is suggested to follow manufacturer's specifications for backup safety measures.
The table below (Table 7-4) is the summary of downhole plugs requirements for different pressure
containing operations in/on the well.
Table 7-4 Downhole plugs requirements for different pressure containing operations in/on the well
Holds Holds Holds pressure

pressure pressure from both
from above from below directions
Repair surface equipment x x
Test tubing by bleedeng

x x
down
Test tubing by pressuring
x
up
Snubbing tubing in or out
x x
of well
Set hydraulic packer x
Circulate above with
x x
fluids
Zone separation in
x
selective completion
Fracturing selective
x x
completions
Kill well x
Move rig on or off
x x
location
Use as standing valve x
Packer test x
Acidizing on selective
x x
completion
Wellhead plugging on
x x
completions
Wellhead plugging on
x x
remedial work
7.1.4.3 Subsurface safety valve related
Slick line is used for assisting the subsurface safety valves installation or manipulation. Wireline
retrievable subsurface controlled safety valves (WRSSCSV) are set and pulled by use of slick line.
Tubing retrievable subsurface controlled safety valves (TRSSCSV) can be protected by sleeve or
locked out (temporary or permanently) by running & installing lock out sleeves using slickline.
7.1.4.4 Tubing punching or perforating
When the call is for a communication port between the production tubing and the annulus, the
fastest and most economical way to open a port in the tubing wall is to deploy some kind of tubing
punching by use of slick line. The slick line puncher (perforator) can be purely mechanical one, when
slick line jarring action is used for punching the hole in the tubing wall. Another type of the
perforation is to use mechanical puncher tool but this time to use a small capsule of propellant to
stroke a mechanical punch through the wall of the pipe; these tools are known as ‘Kinley’ tubing
perforators.
In both cases the punch creates a hole of desired diameter and the punching knife is by default
withdrawn back from the tubing wall, to allow for free pull out the tool to the surface. In either case,
there is no damage to the casing beyond the limited stroke of the punch action. On the slides below
are the two types of tubing puncher as illustration of these types of slickline tools.
Figure 7-13 Tubing punchers – propellant driven and mechanical ones
The electromechanical tubing puncher is conveyed into the well using a standard slickline tool string.
The downhole power unit (DHPU) has an onboard timer that is preset on surface prior to running
into the well. Once the slickline deployed electromechanical tubing puncher is at the target depth
where the tubing is to be punched, the tools are held static and the preset time is allowed to lapse.
As soon as the preset time has lapsed, the DHPU will activate. This action punches the hole with no
manipulation of the wire required. When the tool has completed the punching cycle, the tools are
recovered from the well with no jarring required. The tool is shown here below (Figure 7-14).
Figure 7-14 a) The electromechanical downhole power unit; b) The electromechanical tubing punch in the
“ready-to-run” position; c) The electromechanical tubing punch in the “blade-extended” position (max.
position extended, which cuts through the tubing wall and creates a hole in tubing); d) The
electromechanical tubing punch in “fully-retracted” position after the hole has been cut (The tool is ready to
travel back up the hole)
Tubing perforators & punchers are most commonly used in following cases:
• Circulate and kill a well.
• Install inexpensive gas lift or chemical injection.
• Circulate out annular sand bridges.
• Open injection point for retrievable pack-off gas lift valves.
• Operate plunger-lift installations.
• Open alternative zones when sliding sleeves cannot function.
• Drain tubing to prevent pulling wet string.
Kinley Sandline Cutter
The Sand Line Cutter is designed to allow the recovery of wireline, slickline and electric line when the
attached toolstring is stuck in the well and pulling out of the rope socket may not be possible. It will
cut any wireline up to 1-1/8" including control lines, drilling lines and power cables. It can be initiated
by a drop bar or an electronic timer. It assembles over the line and is recovered with the cut line.
Functionally, the line is cut mechanically by a cutting edge driven by a contained explosive force,
initiated by an electronic timer rather than a drop bar. With the timer, there is no more guessing
whether or not the drop bar has reached the firing pin. The tool is also designed to save a fishing trip
by crimping on to the end of the cut line, allowing the cutter to be recovered with the freed line as it
is pulled out of the hole.
Figure 7-15 Kinley sand line cutter
7.1.4.5 Sick line well interventions
Gauge Cutter Operation
Gauge cutters are run in hole before running sub surface equipment. Gauge cutters are used to check
if sub surface equipment can pass freely through tubing, that there are no obstructions and to locate
top of the landing nipple. The bottom of the gauge cutter is suitable to cut paraffin, scale and any
other obstacles in tubing, if found.
Blind Box Operations
Blind boxes are used when heavy downward jarring is required to dislodge a fish or push something
down the hole. Bottom surface of Blind Box is flat and hardened to reduce wear and damage to it.
Impression Block Operations
Lead impression blocks are used during fishing operations to check the shape / size of the top of the
fish and to determine tool appropriate for fishing operation. Lead is filled within body of impression
block and a pin is fixed thru body of impression block & lead, to secure the lead within body.
Magnet Runs Operations
Fishing magnets are used to remove small pieces of ferrous metals from top of tools and also to
retrieve metallic scales or particles after milling/wash-over operations.
Nipple Brush Operations
Tubing broach is used to clean the landing nipples and prepare those for accepting and landing in the
plugs. Tubing broach is also used to remove scale, rust etc, from tubing I.D.
Paraffin Scratcher
Paraffin Scratchers are used to clean the paraffin deposition on the ID of tubing, nipple profile etc.
Tubing End Locator
Tubing end locators are used to locate end of tubing during completions. With its spring loaded
finger, it can be run in various sizes of tubing.
Pressure and temperature measurement using memory gauges
Wide range of downhole pressure and temperature recording gauges can be deployed by use of slick
line. Memory gauges can be landed in landing nipple profiles and left there for certain period of time;
or just simply hanged gauge on slick line while measuring P/T (short measurements).
Bottom hole sampling operations
Weatherford’s Electronic Programmable Sampler Tool is used to obtain PVT quality samples from the
well bore. The tool is designed to have full flexibility in operations and is run in conjunction with
Weatherford’s Electronic Shut-In Tool and Electronic Gauges to provide an integration tool that
forms a complete programmable downhole production test system.
Tubing Swage Operations
Tubing Swages are used to remove large obstructions and restore light collapse in the tubing. This
allows smooth running of tool string in well bore. The OD of tubing swage should be equal to tubing
drift ID. It should be run with up stroke jar to enable operator to take it out of tubing if swage is
jammed
Bailer Operation
Sand pump bailers are used when a sand bridge is encountered during operations. The bailer pulls
sand into cylinder by slickline up-down action, carrying it to surface and thus removing sand bridge.
The pump bailer is used to remove the bulk of sand above the wireline tools / equipment or to clean
filters.
Another type of bailers are hydrostatic bailers, which consists of a chamber sealed at atmospheric
pressure. When the bailer reaches the top of the sand and is jarred down, a shear disk is ruptured
and the bottom hole pressure surging into the chamber sucks up the sand. A ball check in the bottom
serves to trap the sand in the chamber. Hydrostatic Bailer is used in situation where pump type
bailers are not effective.
Dump bailers are used to spot chemicals, such as acid, methanol, solvent etc, downhole. The tool
locates on top of a preset lock mandrel, downward jarring shears the retaining pins and allows for
release of the chemicals from the chamber.
Slickline Fishing Operations.
Fishing is the name given to the operation to retrieve items from the well which may be damaged,
stuck or have been dropped. Slickline fishing is relatively limited in terms of the pulling force you may
generate on the fish, but is fast and very economical way of ‘light’ fishing. Here is the list of tools
found in a standard slickline fishing toolbox:
• Wireline Clamp,
• Wireline Grab,
• Wireline Finder,
• LIBs to suit tubing sizes,
• Blind Boxes to suit tubing sizes,
• Heavy duty pulling tool,
• Wireline cutters,
• GO-Devils,
• Overshots,
• Bell Guides to suit tubing sizes,
• Power jars and
• Tubular jars.
7.1.4.6 Intelligent or Digital Slickline Services
Recent developments in materials, independent power sources (batteries), data transmission and
electronics have allowed evolution of standard slick line services into the direction of ‘intelligent’
slick line services.
Schlumberger’s ‘e-Fire’ slickline technology is based on pre-programmed hydraulic impulses to
initiate perforation. Standard wireline gun is attached to the ‘e-Fire’ tool and ran into the hole. When
at required depth, the toll is moved up & down as per pre-programmed schedule. Hydraulic impulses
generated with toll movement up & down in certain time intervals will armed and following it initiate
detonation of the gun. Shooting sequence can be stopped any time by simply deviating from the
predetermined pressure/time impulses. The ‘e-Fire’ perforating technology has it’s own advantages
compared to standard wireline perforating (cost, radio silence, overhead power lines, etc).
Schlumberger’s ‘Digital Live Slickline’ services are a platform based slickline technology which
enables well interventions with grater scope, control and certainty. Key feature of digital slickline is
that slickline itself becomes electrically insulated conduit by a special coating applied to standard
slickline. Platform is based on core equipment combined with five different modules; those are:
‘LIVE-Act’ – digital slickline mechanical services; example is mechanical jarring with fully controlled
jar action, or the digital controlled release tool.
‘LIVE-Seal’ – digital slickline sealing services; example is the ‘Geolock’ retrievable mono bore lock
mandrel with non-elastomeric seals.
‘LIVE-Set’ – digital slickline setting services; running and setting plugs and retainers on digital
slickline. The actuator uses hydraulic pressure from the battery powered hydraulic power unit.
‘LIVE-Perf’ – digital slickline perforation services; perforating, tubing punching, pipe cutting
operations.
‘LIVE-PL’ – digital slickline production logging services; deployment of high quality PLT sensors on
digital slickline and use of surface read outs to accommodate the PL operations according to
reservoir conditions.
Below (Figure 7-16) is the SLB ‘LIVE Digital Slickline Services’ platform schematic with basic tools.
Figure 7-16 Schlumberger ‘LIVE Digital Slickline Services’ platform
7.3 Coiled Tubing Operation
Coiled tubing (CT) technology deploys a long one-piece (coupling-less) tubular for performing
downhole operations and well interventions. CT technology is fast and effective way of well
intervention and downhole remediation during work over jobs. There are two basic groups of CT
operations; one group is when CT is used for circulation and pumping purposes, while another group
is when CT is used as a conveyance string for deployment of different downhole (working) tools. CT
technology can be deployed in any well type, regardless of the well depth, deviation and wellbore
geometry & size. Wide range of downhole CT equipment and tools are available for performing
different CT operations.
There are certain limitations and restrictions when deploying the CT technology, in regards of
pulling/pushing forces, pressure & temperature conditions and working (downhole) environment
parameters.
CT technology can be used as a standalone, but more often it is used in combination with standard
work over rig or drilling rig operation, or to enhance certain pumping and stimulation services.
Figure 7-17 Rigless and rig-assisted CT Operations
7.3.1 Coiled Tubing Main Parts
In the text below is the short description of CT technology main parts, illustrated with some photos
and sketches:
Coil (Coiled tubing)
The Coil is a seamless one-piece metal tubular, with given OD and ID, manufactured from different
steel alloys to suit working environment and withstand working pressures & loads. Thus on the
market are available coils in different outer diameter, wall thickness, mono size or tapered string,
different pipe yield strength, different metal choices and different length.
Diameter of the coil can be between ½” and 4-½”, but most commonly used sizes are 1- ¼”, 1-½”, 1-
¾” (often referred as CT workhorses). If the CT string is tapered, the taper is mainly on the I.D. The
taper can be butt-weld (junction weld is in flat strip) or bias-weld (junction is with offset well ends).
The weld can be factory or field made. The field welds are always to be butt-welds; this weld can
decrease the CT tensile strength by 50%, or even more. Thus, field welds should be avoided
whenever possible. For difference in butt- and bias-weld see Figure 7-18 .
Figure 7-18 Difference between in butt and bias weld
Coil material is available in different yield strengths, but modern coils used are with 100+K Psi values.
Material composition of CT coil depends on strength, ductility, corrosion resistance, service life and
cost requirements. Alloys used for manufacturing coil have different content of steel, Carbon,
Chromium, Nickel, Cooper, Molibdum, Cobalt or similar. Rockwell hardness of these alloys is
between 20 and 28 HRC. In general, high strength CT lasts longer and is more fatigue resistant, but
hard material is less usable in sour well environment (sulfide cracking & embrittlement). Always ask
for CT contractor’s confirmation that CT will suite the actual well conditions & environment. Here
below is a table with some CT records in terms of application areas and conditions.
Table 7-5 Some CT Records
World Wide CT Records

Largest CT in Use 3-1/2" 88.9 mm
Max Depth 24,000' 7315.2 m
Max Horisontal 17,000' (80deg)-Wytch BP 5181.6 m (80deg)
Longest BHA 1500' - perf guns -UK 457.2 m -perf guns- UK
23,000' of 2-3/8" 7010.4 m of 2-3/8"
Longest String
28,000' of 1-1/2" 8534.4 m of 1-1/2"
Max Wellhead Pressure 9800 psi 675.7 bar
Max Deployment Press 4500psi 310.2 bar
Max BH Temp 700F- Mex, 780F Japan 371.1C°-Mex, 415.5C°-Japan
Max Acid at Temp 28% at 280F in Dubai 28% at 137.7 in Dubai
75% in Greece 75% in Greece
CT in H2S 98% /300F- Gulf of Mexico 98% / 148C° Gulf of Mexico
(String used one time) (String used one time)
CT in CO2 15% (string ruined) 15% (string ruined)
CT Reel
The reel is used for spooling onto the coiled tubing and connecting it to the CT pumping manifold.
The reel is part of a special frame which can be skid-, track-, trailer or boat-mounted, for easier
transport and on/off-loading. For logging purposes there is a special CT logging reel with electrical
conduit inside the tubular and fitted with electrical swivel & collector. On the (Figure 7-19) is the
sketch of a CT frame and the coiled tubing connection to the pumping manifold (sketch and photo
from WF CT unit in Romania.
Figure 7-19 Coiled tubing connection to pumping manifold
Power Pack System
The power pack is a diesel engine driven set of hydraulic pumps generating necessary hydraulic
power to operate the CT unit and it’s components. Power pack is in most of cases a separate skid
mounted unit, as shown on the photo below.
Figure 7-20 Power pack system
Component Controls
There are three main component controls of the CT unit; those are coil spooling system, coil injector
head system and the well control system. Controls and instruments are all located on the CT control
panel, inside CT operator’s cabin. The principal gauges are wellhead pressure gauge (displays
pressure outside of the CT, at the BOP pressure port), circulating pressure gauge (displays pressure at
the reel-manifold pressure sensor), weight indicator (displays weight exerted by the CT tubing on the
injector head) and the depth indicator (displays the depth of the CT (BHA) end relative to the
reference (zero) depth. The control panel looks as shown on the photo below (Figure 7-21).
Figure 7-21 Control Panel
Injector Head
The CT injector head is made from two sub-systems: the principal components and the support
system. Parts of the principal components are drive & brake system, chain assembly, traction and
tension system and the injector guide arch assembly. Secondary (or support) system is made of
weight indicator, depth sensor mounts and the stripper mount.
The injector drive system is made of two or four hydraulic motors, the gear system, chain sprockets
and control valves. Some motors may have high/low gear options, for enhanced efficiency of the CT
injector. CT brake system is a fail-safe braking system (hydraulic pressure is required to release the
brake).
Well Control Equipment
Well control equipment are used for well control purposes. CT unit has it’s own blow out preventer
stack assembled as a one-piece device for easier rig up and rig down. WO or drilling rig BOP system
could be used as additional well control system to make easier well operation. Here below is a typical
CT BOP configuration with CT and Rig BOP systems.
Figure 7-22 Typical CT BOP configuration
Table 7-6 CT Primary well control system
PRIMARY WELL CONTROL SYSTEM is defined as folows:

External Well Internal Well
Equipment
Control Control
Coiled tubing
Dual stripper X
Coiled tubing body (string) X
End connector X
One dual chack valve in BHA X
Alternatively- plugged end of coiled tubing X
Table 7-7 CT Secondary well control system
SECONDARY WELL CONTROL SYSTEM is defined as folows:

Equipment
Control Control
Coiled tubing
One combined shear/seal ram X
One pipe ram X
One slip ram X
Minimum one kill line inlet X
Minimum one manual gate valve and/or
plug valve on the kill line and minimum
one remote hydraulic operated gate and/or
X
plug valve. Alternatively remote valve can
be replaced with one manual valve and
chack valve.
7.3.2 Rig-up and Rig-down for CT Operation
Rig-up a CT unit is a procedure of putting together, pressure and functional testing of all components
and preparing the CT unit for safe operation on the wellsite location. Rig-down is disassembling and
demobilization of the CT unit from wellsite location. Company policy, safety regulations, sound
engineering practices and common sense must be exercised in the execution of all procedures while
R/U or R/D. These operations involve lot of heavy lifting and high pressure testing what makes
personnel protection and safety crucial in every moment of R/U or R/D operations.
CT unit can be rigged up as a standalone unit on the top of the x-mass tree, or as part of the WO
operation (rig assisted CT). Of course it all can be done onshore (land) or offshore (platform).
CT unit and all auxiliary equipment should be placed upwind or crosswind from the well. Distance
from the well to the CT reel must be sufficient to allow proper angle between CT section s upstream
and downstream of injector head & gooseneck. Connect all hydraulic lines to the coiled tubing reel,
power pack, control cabin, BOP and injector head. Rig up treating iron from the pump unit to the
coiled tubing reel, with securing the line where necessary and pressure test the line against the reel
valve as per maximum expected pressure. All pressure tests must be recorded and saved in hard
copy (pen-charts) or in electronic form.
After completing the rig up proceed with BOP system testing as per CT service provider and per
Company policy & standards.
Figure 7-23 Proper rig-up of the CT reel and injector head
7.3.3 RIH and POOH with CT
Most coiled tubing operational failures can occur when running coiled tubing in the hole. The most
likely failure is due to buckling when the tubing hits some object or catches on a change of diameter.
The potential for buckling is a function of the coiled tubing diameter, wall thickness, fluid flow, BHA
size, and the ID of the tubing or casing that the coiled tubing is being run into. It could be set up a
minimum weight indicator reading allowable while running in the hole using hand calculations or
special CT software up.
The maximum running speed in hole for normal operation shall be 30 meters per minute (100
feet/minute). The maximum running speed is to be reduced to 3 meters per minute (10 feet/minute)
when running through restrictions and when entering into a liquid. This reduced running speed shall
be applied for 15 meters (50 feet) before and 15 meters (50 feet) after the position of the downhole
restriction or the liquid level to allow for any discrepancies in depth readings.
Pulling out of hole speed is not as critical, but shall be limited to a maximum of 30 meters per minute
(100 feet/minute). The same speed reductions are to be applied when pulling through restrictions.
Pulling out of hole speed shall be reduced to 10 meters per minute (30 feet/minute) when within 100
meters (300 feet) of the wellhead or BOP, 5 meters per minute (15 feet/minute) when within 50
meters (150 feet), and 2.5 meters per minute (8 feet/minute) when within 25 meters (75 feet) until
the end connector contacts the stuffing box
Prior to running coiled tubing in the hole, the supervisor will have the following information
available:
• Wellbore profile or completion diagram.
• Casing flange and RKB (rotary Kelly bushing) elevation
• Deviation profile of wellbore.
• Cerberus operating limit predictions (if required).
• In the absence of Cerberus operating limit prediction, the maximum allowable pressure
rating of the tubing and the maximum allowable pull.
• Fishing diagram of BHA.
• Details of any wireline drift run prior to coiled tubing operations.
• Pipe taper chart.
• Inside chain tension pressure vs. pull table.
• In and out hole hydraulic pressure vs. pull table.
Prior to running in the hole, permission must be obtained from the operating company
representative.
Perform pull tests approximately every 1,000 meters (3,000 feet) or less if circumstances require and
ensure that the pickup weight does not exceed the operating limit. When approaching or passing
tubing ID restrictions the pull test should be done more frequently (follow CT procedures).
While running in the hole, the maximum instantaneous weight loss must not exceed 880 daN (2,000
lb) less than the running-in weight. While pulling out of the hole, the maximum pull must not exceed
the lesser of 80% of the coiled tubing yield load or the setting of any overpull safety joint contained
in the BHA. At all times, comparisons between weight readings and the hydraulic pressures required
to obtain these readings should be made to verify the accuracy of the load cell or weight indicator.
There are applications where the installation of a no-go on the end of the coiled tubing is not
possible (i.e. slimhole completions with small downhole restrictions). Running without a standard
BHA must be appraised and written approval obtained from management prior to commencement of
the job. The main cause for concern here is the coiled tubing coming out of the stuffing box if the
counter is not 100% accurate. In this case, the tubing must be marked in a manner allowing the
operator to recognize when the tubing is nearing surface. There are tools available (i.e. magnetic end
of coil detector) that can be run in the rig-up. These tools give a positive indication of the end of the
coiled tubing as it passes through them.
Correlate depth to a specific point at surface before running into a well. This point in most cases is
defined as kelly bushing (KB). Most measurements downhole use the kelly bushing in the depth
reference. Assure the original KB depth and distances are available for CT depth correlation
In ZERO or low pressure CT applications (pipe-heavy operations), standard operating practice is to

minimize chain tension to maximize chain and injector life. In a high-pressure (snub or pipe-light)
application, the primary consideration is to maintain the tension in the chains at all times and
prevent from chain slack developing. During pipe-heavy operation, the minimum chain tension
pressure shall be 400 psi. During snubbing operations (pipe light), the chain tension pressure shall be
set in accordance with the Chain Tension Pressure vs. Snubbing Force Chart (Figure 7-24).
Figure 7-24 Chain Tension Pressure vs. Snubbing Force Chart
The injector can drive the tubing into the hole (snubbing) with the same force as pulling force. If high
snubbing conditions exist, the drive pressure should be reduced to avoid buckling the tubing under
the chains.
Stripper rubbers have a significant effect on apparent coiled tubing weight; thus only strippers
supplied by approved vendors must be used at all times. Correct lubricating oil should be used as
required to reduce stripper friction further in high pressure dry conditions.
7.3.4 Cementing with Coiled Tubing
Cementing with coiled tubing involves pumping the cement slurry through the coiled tubing. Thus
using CT for cementing is fast and economic way of cementing; it has minimum volume of
contaminated cement and allows for good control of cementing process. There are two main
cementing job types performed with coiled tubing:
Plugging, where a certain cement volume or plug of a calculated length is placed across a selected
interval of open hole or perforated casing.
Squeezing is the process of applying hydraulic pressure to place a cement slurry into a desired
location (voids), then force the filtrate from the cement slurry to create a filter cake that will remain
in place and harden, thus providing the necessary seal / isolation.
Several types of CT cement plugs are used, with different purpose of placement. Here below are
some most common applications.
Zonal Isolation
Zonal isolation is mainly referring to four cementing practices:

• Setting a cement plug to isolate a possible zone of interest in open hole.
• Placing a plug to seal below the casing seat.
• Shutting off a water- or gas-producing zone.
• Protecting a low pressure zone before squeezing another (high pressure) zone.
Recompletions
When an already exploited zone (or perforations) is no more needed for production purpose, the
best is to plug it by cement. Following it is possible to recomplete the well for another, different zone
of interest. The new zone can be located either above or below the previously plugged zone. If the
new zone of interest is below the plugged zone, some kind of zone protection is applied (high-vis pill,
sand plug, bridge plug,…).
Lost Circulation
A cement plug is placed opposite a zone of lost circulation in an effort to penetrate the fractures or
voids where LCM fluids are being lost and thus stop further fluid losses.
Abandonment
Good operating practices and regulatory requirements dictate the abandonment of wells in such a
manner that fluid-bearing formations are properly sealed, protected and any further communication
with other zones in the wellbore is no more possible. Cement plugs are commonly used to
accomplish this.
Here below (Figure 7-25) are the sketches with CT cement plug placement for different plugging
purposes.
Figure 7-25 a) Zonal Isolation; b) Recompletion; c) Lost Circulation; d) Abandonment
Coiled Tubing Cement Plug Placing Best Practices
The primary reasons for a cement plug failing include the following:
Contamination of the cement slurry before it has been placed in the desired location/place; it can
happen through dilution or interaction between fluids in the wellbore and the cement being placed
into it. Another reason for unsuccessful cement plug can be not proper pre-job preparation. Finally
improper application of general cementing practices can also lead to job failure.
It is critical that fluid spacers and rubber plugs are pumped prior to and directly after the cement
slurry to prevent contamination of the plug. Any cement blend for use with coiled tubing shall be
tested in the laboratory to determine the appropriate thickening time and slurry rheology for the
planned operation. Wherever possible, a sample of the actual cement and water to be used should
be tested. It is imperative that all laboratory cement tests for coiled tubing operations are to be
carried out at bottomhole static temperature.
Prior to rigging up coiled tubing, a wireline run should be carried out to establish bottomhole
temperature, hold-up depth and caliper of the area to be cemented.
Batch mixing of the cement is recommended.
Volume and hydrostatic calculations must be accurate to place the plug in the correct position in the
well. If setting the cement plug anywhere above TD, the plug will require a solid base to set on. The
‘cement base’ must prevent tendency of the cement gravity segregation (a heavier fluid to drop
through lighter fluid). Sand, calcium carbonate, high viscosity gel or mechanical plugs have all worked
successfully in the past as ‘cement bases”.
Some form of depth correlation on the coiled tubing must be run as surface depth measurement is
not accurate enough. It is generally recommended that a mechanical tubing-end locator or downhole
nipple locator to be used in a conventional coiled tubing string.
Pig the coiled tubing reel to determine the total reel volume accurately. Measure volume on a flow
meter, a barrel counter and from the displacement tanks, if possible. Ensure that the plug (pig) is in
good condition after passing through the reel. If not, determine if there is a problem with the reel.
A cementing duty-sequence valve should be considered, especially in underbalanced situations
during the cementing operation. This will prevent the uncontrolled falling of cement due to
hydrostatic differences and allow better placement control. It will also assist in preventing the
collapse of the coiled tubing when operating in high wellhead pressure wells. In these circumstances,
if the cement is allowed to ‘free fall’, internal coiled tubing pressure will fall to zero and a collapse
condition may arise.
CT Cement Squeezing
Squeezing is the process of applying hydraulic pressure to place the cement slurry into a desired
location, than squeeze the filtrate from the slurry to create a filter (cement) cake that will remain in
place and harden, thus providing adequate seal. Reasons for performing a squeeze include the
following:
• Remedial of a faulty or inadequate primary cement job.
• Shut off unwanted water or gas.
• Isolation of a zone prior to perforating or production.
• Abandon an unproductive zone.
• Seal off or lost circulation zones during drilling.

• Repair casing leaks.
NOTE: It is important to remember, that by cement squeeze you do NOT squeeze the cement itself
into the pore space, but only the water filtrates into the rock voids; this is called cement dehydration.
Average class G cement grain size is 25microns what is much more than majority of the sedimentary
rocks pore diameters; the rule of thumb is whenever the pumped particle diameter is equal or bigger
than 1/3 of the pore size, particles will bridge on the entrance of the void and prevent further
migration into pore space reservoir).
Coiled Tubing Cement Squeeze Best Practices
The well data and production & work-over history must be available with all relevant data which may
affect the slurry properties during the squeeze. Since pump rates through the coiled tubing are low,
the static temperature of the zone should be used in the design of the cement slurry.
Temperature is probably the single most important variable in determining the hydration time of the
cement slurry. Thus, accurate bottomhole temperature information is must for job design.
Adequate spacers must be pumped before and after the cement slurry to prevent contamination of
the cement.
Plugs of adequate weight or viscosity must be spaced in below the area to be squeezed to prevent
the cement from dropping through the fluid below the zone being squeezed and being diluted or
contaminated. Other options are inflatable packers, bridge plugs, sand, calcium carbonate, etc.
Here below (Figure 7-26) is the sketch of a remedial primary casing cement job performed by CT.
Figure 7-26 CT cement squeeze (primary casing cement remedy)
7.3.5 Acid stimulation with CT
Coiled tubing acidizing operations involve the pumping of acids and additives through the coiled
tubing. There are two types of acid treatments with CT:
• Wellbore acidizing (acid is pumped only inside the wellbore or maximum into perforation
tunnels).
• Matrix acidizing (acid is forced to flow through the pore space of the reservoir rock).
Wellbore acidizing
Wellbore acidizing by use of coiled tubing is beneficial because:

• Coiled tubing jetting of acids or other treatment fluids can dissolve and break up scale
allowing it to be circulated to surface; tools like SLB’s ‘Jet Blaster’ are effective tools for
cleaning the tubular internal area or perforation tunnels even. Some scales are not soluble in
acid and even hard to be broken by jet; thus the use of rotary or impact drills run on coiled
tubing may be required in those situations.
• Use of coil makes possible spotting of the treatment fluid across the entire interval, by freely
moving CT up/down as required. Pumping rates and CT moving velocity can be easily
adjusted for the best acid efficiency.
• CT small diameter permits entering restricted areas for spotting the acid in places like GP
filters, slim size liners etc.
• Wellbore acidizing by use of CT allows for the well to be worked on live, eliminating the need
to kill the well with potentially damaging kill fluids.
Matrix Acidizing
Matrix jobs are designed to restore permeability to the formation by pumping treating fluids into the
formation at below the fracture pressure. The use of coiled tubing for this type of stimulation:
• Protects the customer's wellhead and tubular and expensive completions from exposure to
the corrosive effects of the treatment fluids and high pressure.
• Avoids bull heading the contents of the wellbore into the formation.
• Reduces volumes of acid required and with the use of effective diverting agents, puts the
acid directly at the targeted perforations or zone of interest.
• Allows the use of specially designed tools such as RTTS (‘resetable test & treat straddle
packers’) and other isolation systems for effective treatment of long (or even long-
horizontal) intervals.
• Reduces the amount of steel the acid contacts prior to entering the formation.
• Allows for treatment on live wells, without killing the well.
• CT can be used for lifting the well and initiating inflow from the reservoir following the acid
stimulation. In some cases time to complete the removal of the spent acid from the wellbore
is essential; Nitrogen lifting combined with CT is one of the best ways for well cleaning after
acid stimulation.
The matrix acid stimulation is performed with closed well, while pumped acid is directed into the
reservoir pores. It is imperative to keep the treatment pressure below the fractured pressure, thus
uniformly spreading the acid across the treated interval/zone/volume. If applied pressure will cause
unwanted fracture of formation, in this case entire treatment acid volume will escape into the
fracture and it will result in failed matrix acid stimulation.
Frictional pressure losses are much higher when deploying CT due to the smaller tubular size of CT;
this may be very important if surface pumping system has low pressure limitations. Thus is very
important to calculate/model the pressure profile for an acid job with CT.
CT Acid Stimulation Best Practices
Prior to commencement of the job a laboratory testing must be carried out on the build up or scale
to determine the correct choice of treatment fluid. Further, fluid compatibility tests must be
performed to ensure that any contact with the formation by the treatment fluids will cause no
further damage to the formation; the same for the reservoir fluids compatibility with acid(s) – so
called ‘sludge & emulsion test’. Necessary samples must be obtained from the client for completing
above laboratory tests.
For CT acid stimulation design a complete wellbore geometry must be obtained from the client
showing the location and size of any downhole restrictions and deviations. CT design software (for
ex. Cerberus) must be run to determine the correct size of tubing to be used, the maximum rates
required to carry solids and a complete tubing force analysis must be performed.
When working through scale the operator must be aware of two possibilities:
• There is pressure trapped behind the scale; thus maintain enough pressure on top of the
scale to protect the coiled tubing from a kick.
• No pressure behind the scale and all the broken scale circulated above nozzle falls back into
the well. Don’t lift too much fill at one time. Take small bites pulling back into previously
cleaned areas of tubing, allowing returns to clean up.
Consideration must be given to the disposal of the treatment fluids returned to surface.
All acids pumped through coiled tubing must be properly inhibited to protect the tanks, pumps, lines,
coiled tubing and well tubular. The inhibitor concentration should be chosen with consideration to
the duration of the operation and the downhole temperature.
It is good practice to pump 10 to 20 liters (2 to 4 gallons) of inhibitor ahead of the acid.
Fast moving, partially spent acid and gas can severally corrode the coiled tubing; thus keep fluid
velocities to the minimum rate required to lift fluids and clean the well.
NOTE: Do not allow the acid to enter the formation as the loosened debris might plug the perforation
tunnels.
Special safety precautions should be taken prior to commencement of any acid or chemical
operations:
• All personnel are aware of acid hazards and fully equipped with the correct protective
equipment and clothing for chemical operations as per Company standards.
• Wash-down hoses are available and charged prior to any acid handling taking place.
• Eye baths are available at suitable locations.
• There should be an adequate supply of CaCo3 (Calcium Carbonate) available during the
entire operation to neutralize acid in the event of spillage. Soda-ash is used for neutralizing
the coiled tubing after the acidizing operation.
• Chemical hazard data sheets must be available for each chemical that is being used. Copies
of these should be given to the medic and the safety officer.
• All personnel involved with the operation should be made aware of the correct mixing
procedure for the chemical. For acid mixing, the acid should be added to the water after any
other chemicals.
• All equipment containing or contacted by the chemical/acid must be flushed out and
neutralized after use.
NOTE: More details regarding matrix acid stimulation is available in the section of acid stimulation; all
those rules and best practices apply too when using CT for acid deployment.
7.3.6 Killing, Circulation and Clean-out the Well with CT
Killing, circulating or cleaning out a well involves pumping fluids like oil, water, brine, mud, foam or
even Nitrogen. Pumped fluid replaces the liquid or gas existing in the wellbore, assuring required
hydrostatic head for well control, removal of debris, stimulation or cleaning tubular inner walls or
others. This process could also refer to pumping lost circulation materials and sand plugs.
Deployment of CT may be beneficial and cost effective way of killing or circulating the well in many
cases.
CT Design Considerations and Best Practices
Generally there are two widely used methods for well killing operation: first is the ‘weight and wait’
method and the second one is ‘driller's’ method. Coiled tubing uses primarily the ‘weight and wait’
method, where the well is shut in and an appropriately weighted fluid is prepared and pumped into
the well through the coiled tubing string. The ‘driller's’ method involves continuous circulation of
fluid as the weight is gradually built up to the density required to kill the well.
The bottomhole pressure must be known to enable mixing of the correct density of kill fluid.
Sufficient fluid should be mixed to displace the coiled tubing and entire well volumes as required.
The kill fluid or clean out fluid should be pumped with the coil at the lowest possible circulation point
in the well.
The pump must be capable of sustaining an appropriate rate and pressure throughout the entire
well-kill operation. The weighted fluid should be pumped through the coiled tubing with minimum
frictional pressure losses; friction reducer chemicals are often added with this purpose.
Back pressure should be maintained as the fluid is circulated into the well and returns should match
injection volumes, which is accomplished through the use of a choke on the return line and close
monitoring of the rig tank levels.
7.3.7 Drilling, milling and under reaming with CT
CT can be used for drilling or milling purposes as well. However there are several limitations when it
comes to use the CT for these kind of ‘heavy load’ well interventions. These limitations are mainly
due to low pumping capacity, restricted weight-on-bit load and requirements for special motors and
tools for drilling/milling. Thus CT milling and drilling is applied only in some special cases and under
specific considerations; working the bit/mill on relatively short distances, under light work
conditions.
Motor Type
The basic equipment in CT drilling and milling is the downhole CT motor; a positive displacement or a
turbine motor. Weatherford offers three different types of downhole CT motors, namely:
• Weatherford CTD® Motor, the standard elastomeric work over motor.
• Weatherford eCTD® Motor, the even-wall work over motor (with uniform elastomer wall
thickness).
• MacDrill® Motor with a Gear Box installed, for use in harsh well conditions.
Other CT service providers have similar CT motors, with their own brand-names. Different
drilling/milling applications will require different type of motors, to suit the working conditions and
assure necessary prates of penetration and job success.
Motors are available in different sizes, torques and horse-power ranges. CT torsion yield should be at
least twice the maximum output torque of the motor being used. This is especially important when
running larger motors with higher torque ratings. The overwhelming majority of all coiled tubing
strings are rated within the safe zone for use with Weatherford motors.
RPM ranges should be in the 250 – 600 range dependent on motor size and type used.
WOB capability should be between 5Klbs and 25Klbs, depending upon motor size and application.
Generally, drilling soft formations will require low WOB, while high WOB may be required to
complete the milling operation.
Mill Type
Weatherford offers 3- or 5-blade Clear Cut Mills. Mills are dressed with custom cut TM octagon
milling inserts and medium to large crushed carbide rock. The mill is available in either concave or
convex configuration; the concave design is slightly more aggressive and produces slightly larger
cuttings than the convex design. The concave therefore would be recommended for those operations
involving the removal of a limited amount of material while the convex is recommended for
operations calling for the removal of larger volumes.
Recommended mill OD is equal or just below the drift diameter of casing or tubing. The mill shall
have a minimum shank length of 4” and be of a fishable diameter within the tubing in which it is
being used.
Pumping flow rate while milling should be between 30 and 160 gallon per minute, depending upon
motor size and fluid properties. Pump rates should be sufficient to maintain fluid velocities capable
of effectively carrying the cuttings and clean the well-bore.
Special attention should be paid when using commingled drilling fluids with nitrogen and/or air.
Weatherford’s Mac-Flow program can assist in determining the appropriate flow rates for the various
motors and gas/liquid ratios.
Larger diameter CT will generate less friction loss, allowing higher pump rate capacity for a given
pressure. It will also reduce the annular flow area, which will increase the annular velocity to assist in
hole cleaning. In general, the larger the CT - the better it is for drilling/milling.
CT Operating pressure limitations should be considered during pre-job modeling to ensure sufficient
hydraulic capacity is available to achieve desired flow rates and that sufficient pressure is available to
allow a minimum of 1,000-PSI beyond straight circulating pressures with which to operate the motor.
Pre-Job modeling discussions should ensure that the CT can access the milling target zone and be
retrieved from the well without exceeding its strength limits.
Periodic weight checks should be conducted throughout the operation.
Ensure pumping medium is as free of solids as possible. Down hole and surface filtering is
recommended for all motor operations.
Hold Safetly & Operational Pre – Job M/U CT Connector

Meeting & Pull Test
NO
Good
Test
YES
Complete Post
M/U BHA Job Operational
& Pressure Test Summary in
Database
NO
Perform post
Good operation motor
Test care procedures
YES
POOH Circulating
RIH at maximum flow
rate available
Tag
Drop ball &

activate
P/U 3' and Circulation Sub
Increase pump
rate to optimum
Mill Plug
Note Pressure
Drops at
respective NO
flow rates
YES
Stall
Motor?
RIH Slowly and tag plug
Increase WOB for optimum

Note pressure increase ROP
NO
Exercise patience
Shut down pump & while cutting Stall
bleed off pressure pattern is Motor?
developed
YES
Figure 7-27 Weatherford’s CT milling flow process chart
7.3.8 TCP under balanced perforation with use of CT
Tubing conveyed perforation is deployed on vertical wells which require long perforation intervals
(where multiple W/L runs are not economical), or on deviated or horizontal wells (where W/L
conveyed perforation is not possible). When the TCP guns are in place and production packer has
been set, there are two methods for creating the under balance conditions: the method when
production tubing string has a Sliding Sleeve Door (SSD) installed; in this case the SSD is used to
displace the tubing volume to Nitrogen, for creating the under balance condition. If there is no SSD
built into the production string, the only method for creation of under balance conditions is to use
CT. In the text below case with use of CT is described.
The well is completed for production, with packer set, TCP guns in place, TH landed, BOP removed
and production x-mas tree installed. CT is rigged up on the top of the x-mas tree and testing manifold
is hooked up to the wing side if the x-mas tree. CT is run to desired depth and liquid from the tubing
is displaced by N2; fluid displacement can be done in one or in multiple steps. After displacement the
CT is POOH and rigged down. Well is left filled with N2 under pressure. Wellhead pressure of N2 is
now bled down through test manifold to required level, for creation of the designed under balanced
conditions. TCP perforation is initiated by dropping the bar and firing the mechanical firing head.
Production is initiated immediately following the perforation guns have fired, simply by opening the
choke on the test manifold.
Nitrogen is in most cases bled down to the vent (or flare stack), while liquid phase in captured in the
surface tanks; or in the surface testing facilities, if rigged up on well site. If the well is tied in to a
production park, the stabilized flow from the well is directed to the flowline and park.
Always use test manifold choke(s) for bleeding off the N2! Use of x-mas tree adjustable choke to
bleed off large volumes of gas can damage the choke seat or stem (if any solids are present the flow
stream); this requires expensive repair and additional services.
Figure 7-28 Well test manifold with one fixed and one adjustable choke assemblies
7.3.9 PLT logging with CT
Production logging of deviated or horizontal wells is not possible with simple deployment of wireline
PLT tools. The alternative method is to use the standard CT with memory PLT tool string; or the CT
with electric line inside the coil and standard W/L PLT tool string. Lubricator pipe of necessary length
is installed on the top of the production x-mas tree. The PLT tool string is assembled on the surface
and lowered into the lubricator.
NOTE: A special ‘C’ plate has to be used for supporting the PLT tool string hanging on the top of
lubricator pipe.
CT is now rigged up, lifted by a crane or rig above the ‘C’ plate. CT bottom is connected to the PLT
tool string and the CT injector head with CT BOP is made up to the top of the lubricator.
NOTE: For some long PLT tool strings there is a special frame needed for supporting the WH PLT and
CT equipment. Slide below (Figure 7-29) is an example from field for long PLT tool string and
lubricator.
Figure 7-29 Long PLT tool string and lubricator
PLT tool string is RIH on CT until it reaches the targeted production zone. Flow is now initiated either
by opening the well production wing valve or by use of some artificial lift methods (gas lifting or ESP
pump with ‘Y’ sub). While well is producing, the CT is worked through the producing zone up and
down at desired speeds and as per PLT program. Data have been recorded in the memory of the PLT
tool string or real time on the surface in the case of CT with electric line fed through CT.
NOTE: If the length of the horizontal section is too long and CT is exposed to high frictional resistance
to move towards the TD, the CT will start to buckle and it may be not possible to reach the TD or
move the PLT tool string with desired dynamics. In such cases use of additional CT rollers is advised,
to reduce the friction between the CT and hole inner wall.
When PLT logging is completed, the CT is POOH and complete well head service equipment are
rigged down from the x-mas tree. PLT memory recorded data are downloaded and PLT test
interpretation can be done accordingly.
7.3.10Running plugs, retainers and packers with CT
With recent developments in through-tubing technology the CT is often used for deployment of
different type of plugging devices landed inside tubing string or in casing. This is especially needed on
those wells where wellbore geometry does not allow use of standard slick line or wire line services.
Figure 7-30 CT used for deployment of different types of plugging devices
7.4 Nitrogen Operation
Nitrogen is inert gas widely used in oil and gas industry. There are several areas where N2 is used,
among others well services and work over. Nitrogen has relative density of 0.967 (air=1.0), boiling
temperature of -195.8°C (-320.45°F) @atmospheric pressure; is colorless and odorless. Nitrogen is
not toxic, but can replace the Oxygen from the air and thus be very dangerous for personnel. As
Nitrogen is transported to the wellsite in liquid phase, cooled to -160°C and in pressurized special
tanks, working with it requires special attention and safety measures.
On wellsite Nitrogen is stored at -160°C in double skinned tanks insulated by an evacuation and an
additional perlite or foil layer. Despite excellent thermo insulation N2 losses are still present; these
losses can be as much as 2% by volume per day during transportation (when the tanks are subject to
excessive vibration and agitation), or 0.5 - 1.0% by volume per day for normal static wellsite storage.
1.0 liter of liquid Nitrogen will form 0.7m3 of Nitrogen gas under standard P/T conditions. For 1kg of
liquid Nitrogen the equivalent amount of N2 gas is 0.88m3.
Figure 7-31 Physical properties of liquid and gaseous nitrogen
7.4.1 Nitrogen Pumping Unit
Nitrogen pumping unit usually comprises of:

• Cryogenic pump - capable of pumping 120 m3/minute at pressures of up to 690 bar (when
using coil tubing, maximum pressure should be kept to or below 310 bar).
• Heater - Indirect diesel fired type with a capacity of up to 5 MMBTU/Hr, capable of raising
the nitrogen to an operating temperature between 20°C and 95°C.
• Diesel Engine and control panel.
• Surface piping system (chicksans).
Liquid nitrogen is rapidly vaporized in a pressure-raising coil to build-up and maintain storage tank
pressure. It is this pressure which drives the liquid Nitrogen to the cryogenic pump. The pump then
forces the liquid Nitrogen to flow through a vaporizer where it is gasified to the required delivery
temperature and then passed to the wellhead or coiled tubing by chicksans pipe system at a
controlled rate and pressure.
Figure 7-32 Nitrogen tank with Nitrogen pumping unit (red) working with CT unit (yellow) on 4338 Mamu
well
7.4.2 Use of Nitrogen
Nitrogen in work over services is used either to form different types of foams and benefit from
physical properties of foams (low density, two phase flow, high flow resistance, etc), or is used a
gaseous Nitrogen. There are three different types of foams, depending on the ratio between
Nitrogen and base fluid (liquid) – so called foam quality. Example: foam quality 75% means 75% N2
and 25% liquid.
Energized fluid is the foam where Nitrogen ratio in the work fluid is below52%. Energized fluids are
used for acid stimulations, well flow back or well cleaning operations. Nitrogen content is 100-
1,500SCF/bbl. Energized fluids have better leak-off control in the reservoir due to increased friction
losses of the two-phase flow.
Foamed fluid is the foam quality between 53% and 95%. Foamed fluids are used for acid stimulation,
fracturing or well cleaning operations. Nitrogen content is 500-5,000 SCF/bbl. Foamed fluids have
improved rheology, lower density, expanded volume, need for less liquid phase.
Atomized fluid is the foam with Nitrogen content above 96%. Atomized fluids are used for acidizing,
scale or corrosion inhibition. These fluids have better penetration rates, greater coverage of the
treated zone, less hydrostatic pressure.
Nitrogen as a gas is used either as gas cushion of for liquid lifting purposes. It can be pumped directly
to the wellhead or by use of CT to desired depth in the well.
7.4.2.1 Well lifting and livening
Well lifting or livening with Nitrogen can be done on three possible ways:
Bullheading the liquid from tubing /well into the formation by pumping N2 to the wellhead (x-mas
tree). When the certain volume of the tubing is displaced to N2, the WH pressure is bled down,
hydrostatic head onto formation is lowered and this way flow is initiated.
Another way of lifting with Nitrogen is to use the circulation device built into the tubing string; it is in
most of cases the sliding sleeve door (SSD). SSD is shifted in open position by use of slick line or CT.
Fluid from the tubing is displaced by Nitrogen through the SSD into the casing annulus. Excess fluid
from the casing is flowed to surface tanks. With Nitrogen WH pressure kept, the SSD is closed by use
of S/L. Than the pressure on WH is bled down and thus flow is initiated.
The third method of lifting with Nitrogen is to use the coiled tubing (CT) for displacing the fluid from
the tubing/well. CT is RIH to certain depth and N2 is than pumped to the CT depth. After exiting the
CT the Nitrogen is rising up-hole pushing the liquid above it towards the surface.
NOTE: It is not advised to lower the CT too deep (3-4 thousand meters) into the liquid phase, as it will
require higher N2 pressure for lifting fluid, and may also create strong & fast pressure drawdown
onto the formation. Better proceed in steps (1-2 thousand meters) when unloading a well.
7.4.2.2 Foam acid or foam cement operations
Foam acid or foam cement has it’s advantages over liquid acid or cement due to the physical
properties of foams. First of all the hydrostatic head of a foam column in the well is much less than
the liquid one. Long casing intervals with low reservoir pressure to be cemented are good candidates
for foam cement application; it may save operator from performing the two-stage cement job. Foam
cement can also perform better filling of the space behind the casing while using less water in the
cement slurry.
Foamed acids have also low density. At the contact with formation, the two phase flow (gas & liquid)
creates extra pressure losses thus allowing better leak off control during acid stimulation. Fluid losses
are reduced by use of foam acid. If the treated formation is fractured carbonate reservoir, the foam
acid will penetrate deeper into the fractures and there developing carbonate dilution by acid behind
the near wellbore zone.
Foam acid treatment also has the advantage of storing the Nitrogen compressed energy when
pumped into the reservoir. That energy can be used to produce the well and quickly flow back the
products of the acid reaction with formation. This is especially applicable in low permeability
reservoirs; in cases where the reservoir pressure is low and permeability is high, the Nitrogen
pressure will rapidly dissipate into the reservoir, quickly escaping away from the wellbore.
Stabilization of foams is enhanced by use of foam stabilizers. This way the life of the foam can be
extended as per stimulation design requirements.
Here is an example of foam hydrostatic head for different foam qualities (Figure 7-33).
7.4.2.3 Underbalanced perforations
Underbalanced perforation is done with purpose of minimizing the perforation induced SKIN factor.
The hydrostatic pressure in front of the reservoir is kept below the actual reservoir pressure in the
moment of firing the guns. Thus all the material created as a product of gun fire and explosion is
immediately flown back from perforations as soon as the instant explosion pressure disappears (in
thousands of second). For creating the required under balance pressure one of the way is to use the
Nitrogen cushion. Pressure of the Nitrogen inside the well (tubing) can be easily adjusted to meet the
UB perforation design requirements. Additional benefit of using Nitrogen for UB perforation is the
ability to initiate the flow and flow back the well. Nitrogen pressures can be red from tables for
various wellsite conditions; here below is one example of those tables.
Figure 7-33 Hydrostatic head of foam with different foam qualities
Figure 7-34 Hydrostatic head of the gaseous Nitrogen column as the function of depth and WH pressure
7.4.2.4 Well protection or pressure testing
Nitrogen is inert gas thus is used for protection of the completion equipment or wellhead and x-mas
tree equipment. Nitrogen can be used to fill the well if the well has to be kept under pressure, but
the reservoir fluid is sour or corrosive, while the completion equipment are not for sour service.
If mixture of hydrocarbon gases and air has minimum 30% of Nitrogen, that mixture is no more
dangerous from explosion point of view. Thus Nitrogen can be used as additive to air if airlifting of
the well has to be performed.
Nitrogen is widely used for pressure testing the equipment, especially in work over and completion
of gas wells.
7.5 Snubbing Operation
Snubbing WO operation is the way of performing work over on life well, with positive well head
pressure; during snubbing WO operation the well is not killed and circulated to WO fluid; the WO
fluid is the original well fluid.
The snubbing equipment with associated systems shall be capable of handling the workstring, well
conditions and other work parameters specified by the work program. In the following text there is
minimum functional requirements for snubbing equipment. The snubbing well intervention (work
over!) system will normally consist of the following main items:
• Snubbing units/snubbing units with derrick/mast type structures,
• Pipe handling system,
• Jack/pulling unit,
• Work window,
• Slips tong post/tongs,
• Winch package,
• Gin pole,
• Workbasket and operator cabin,
• Circulating system,
• Control system,
• Data acquisition system,
• Hydraulic power pack,
• Well control system and
• Workstring and BHA.
The snubbing system shall be designed to and be capable of efficiently handling tubular such as, but
not limited to:
• Drill and workstrings
• Casing and tubing strings
• High pressure risers and associated equipment (optional)
• BOP stacks and x-mass trees (optional)
Requirement for modularization shall be specified.
The system design shall allow for performing Wireline work and electric logging operations within the
workbasket/snubbing unit working platform area, considering space, height, equipment handling,
access to the equipment and weather protection. The equipment should be equipped with a four
point lifting arrangement for both horizontal and vertical handling of modules where applicable.
Figure 7-35 Dafora snubbing unit, WO rig assisted (Romgas, Romania)
Snubbing units / snubbing units with derrick/mast type structures
The derrick, mast or hoisting structure shall be designed to withstand the loads and forces imposed
by the relevant operational and environmental loads. In addition, the structure can be used for
support of pipe handling equipment, and support for racked tubular on setback areas if applicable.
Access in connection with operation and maintenance of equipment shall be catered for by suitable
and safe access from deck or installed work platforms. From current practice it follows that the
various work platforms in structures (including platform for installation of casings) shall be
adequately equipped with safety devices, lifts, stairs or ladders for safe access. Lubrication points
with difficult access in the workover area, such as sheaves, shall be routed to a readily accessible
area. Sufficient number of hang off points of required capacity for travelling assembly, manual rig
tongs and work winches shall be installed. All hang off points and/or pad-eyes shall be properly
marked with safe working load, and the design shall ensure that safe working load does not exceed
20% of the breaking load.
The snubbing unit working platform area shall in relevant areas be designed for dropped object
protection, i.e. to withstand the impact from the heaviest expected tubular falling from a height of
1.5 m. All permanently manned working areas shall be weather protected. The primary work area
shall be covered with a non-skid material.
The substructure shall be designed to form an adequate foundation for the structure/mast or
hoisting structure and the snubbing unit working platform area, and provide required elevations and
handling space for BOPs and optional x-mas trees etc. The substructure shall be designed to
withstand all combined loads from, mast or hoisting structure and snubbing unit working platform
area with full loading, BOP handling loads, if applicable, as well as equipment installed in the
substructure itself. The complete design shall be considered for lubrication (space out) of applicable
BHA such as running and pulling perforating and gravelpack assemblies when rigged up on a live well.
Figure 7-36 Snubbing unit (stand alone) and the key elements of a SU
Pipe handling system
The snubbing unit shall be equipped with a remote pipe handling system to include
• Vertical pipe handling system;

• Horizontal pipe handling system;
• Horizontal to vertical pipe handling system.
The workbasket/snubbing unit work platform area shall be unmanned and equipment remotely
operated in normal “drilling” and tripping operations. The horizontal transportation system and the
horizontal to vertical transportation system shall be remote operated with the possibility for
stowage, make up, break out and suspension of workstring, collars, casings and tubing in the rotary
table. Transport of workstring, casing, collars etc. to and from storage location in front of “ V- door “
to the snubbing unit working platform area. The complete string of tubular shall be stored on a
location where it require no platform crane handling between the storage location to the snubbing
unit workbasket/working platform area (drillfloor). An anti collision system should be installed to
prevent collision between the main hoisting equipment, the pipehandling equipment and structures.
Jack/pulling unit
The snubbing unit shall have a pulling and pushing (snub) capacity to the maximum expected and
anticipated load for the operation. Rotary head or top drive shall be protected. The hydraulic hoses
to the unit shall have sufficient lengths to position the hydraulic support system at the required
distance from the well area. All hoses in suspension from a connection shall be equipped with quick
disconnect complete with locking feature including dust plug and cap. The unit shall be equipped
with an anti buckling guide tube system to support the workstring and the inside diameter to suit
actual workstring.
Figure 7-37 Pulling & pushing slips and the spherical BOP of a SU
Work window
The unit shall contain a work window assembly and the height shall be according to the requirements
in the work program. Window shall be designed with load rating equivalent to the jack and/or pulling
unit with feature for hanging off the workstring. There shall be a work platform at the work window
level.
Slips
The slips design rating shall be equivalent to at least the maximum thrust of the jack/pulling unit
system and shall be remote operated. Unit shall be equipped with dual redundant stationary snub
slips. The slips shall be equipped with a cross port relief valve system to prevent hydraulic and
mechanical damage in the event of forced opening of equivalent function.
Tong post/tongs
Tongs shall be remote operated. If an old system with conventional tongs are used the following
applies: the height from the tong post arm to the workbasket handrail shall be adequate to
accommodate the power tong and with a suspension and trolley arrangement to allow swinging of
tong away from the centre line. Further, tong suspension arrangement should allow the introduction
of a spring to prevent overload of tong arm during make-up of tubular joints. Tong suspension should
also incorporate tong backup attachment eye, rated at the maximum horizontal force resulting from
the maximum tong torque capacity. One set of tubing tongs with slide heads for both tong and back-
up to fit the tube and upset connection of the workstring.
Winch package
The dual type counterbalance winch package shall if used be skid mounted with drip pan.
The winch package shall contain an automatic fail-safe brake in the event of hydraulic failure and the
safe working load on the winch shall be determined by the work program. Winch package can be
voided if design of unit do not require such system.
Gin pole
Where a gin pole system is required, it shall be able to extend to such a height that the distance from
the bottom of the gin pole sheaves to the workbasket (handrail) is sufficient to accommodate the
pipe length (Range II or III) plus safety valve, circulation swivel, swivel with tackle including a reserve
air gap of minimum 1,0 m (3 ft). The system shall contain a hydraulic arrangement for raising and
lowering of the gin pole.
Figure 7-38 The BOP configuration of a SU; the ‘gin’ pole and work platform
Workbasket and operator cabin

If the jack and pulling unit is designed with a workbasket, the travelling head area shall be equipped
with removable internal handrail to guard against the rotating workstring. Personnel safety and
working environment shall be given due consideration. The workbasket shall have two independent
escape exits and be equipped with wind walls for weather protection, and a workstring mark board
in the workbasket area for operator quick reference of workstring depth. The layout of the operator
cabin shall ensure full operational control and view from the operator’s position to the various parts
of the work floor area. The control cabin shall have an ergonomic layout and shall be equipped with
laminated glass, oil resistant wiper or cleaner and a suitable mechanical ventilation system. The
control cabin shall facilitate all necessary controls and monitoring equipment to operate the
complete snubbing unit and well control equipment as defined here.
Control cabins shall satisfy the following requirements:
• The roof and windows shall have adequate strengthening or protection against falling
objects.
• Due consideration to be given to visibility on control system visual display unit screens.
• Jack "snub" and "heavy" force limitation shall be pre-set at power pack manifold local
adjustments in workbasket and cabin shall not override the pre-set value.
• There shall be individual hydraulic circuits for jack, pipe-handling system, BOP and auxiliary
system. Each circuit shall have an adjustable pressure safety relief and pressure indicator
Interlock shall be provided to prevent inadvertent opening of the stationary and the
travelling heavy slips simultaneously. It shall be possible to manually over ride this interlock.
The controls and monitoring equipment shall as a minimum include the following:
• Torque control for rotary or top drive,
• Rotary/top drive speed adjustment,
• Rotary/top drive direction control,
• Power package speed control,
• Power package shut down,
• Power package ESD,
• Selector for operating jack by two of four cylinders (option),
• Jack direction control lever,
• Slip bowl control levers,
• Slip pressure regulator,
• Weight indicator (heavy and snub force),
• Wellhead pressure and
• Circulating pressure.
Figure 7-39 Operator console and the big stand alone SU with working platforms
Data acquisition system

The snubbing unit shall be equipped with a data acquisition system to display and record operational
parameters. The data-sampling rate shall be sufficient to record relevant variations in the displayed
and recorded parameters. A system for analyzing the recorded data shall be available at the location.
The snubbing unit shall be equipped with a data acquisition system to monitor and record the
following parameters:
• Time and date,
• Workstring weight, positive and negative (heavy and snub),
• Jack hydraulic system pressure,
• Wellhead pressure,
• Workstring pressure,
• Workstring depth,
• Rig and slip hydraulic pressure,
• Rotary torque and rpm,
• Workstring connection torque,
• Optional: volume control and
• Optional: pump speed.
In addition, there shall be a back-up system, which records:

• Workstring weight (positive and negative),
• Wellhead pressure and
• Workstring pressure.
Figure 7-40 Rotary device for SU
Power package
Two independent power packages are required at the work site. Minimum one unit shall be diesel
driven and capable of supplying sufficient power to operate all operating systems of the snubbing
unit on a continuous basis and at peak demand. The power package shall be designed and sound
proofed in accordance with NPD Regulations. Provisions shall be made for a manual ESD system that
is operated locally and remotely from the workbasket/control cabin.
The power package shall be certified for operating in Zone II areas and in accordance with Company’s
HSSE standards. Provisions shall be available for remote and local control. Individual adjustment and
presetting of the operating limits for maximum pull and push forces to the snubbing unit shall be
possible. These shall be protected from adjustment during normal operating conditions. If the power
package is used for charging the accumulator system for the well control equipment, the hydraulic
circuit from the well control accumulators shall be separate from the other hydraulic circuits. Only
the well control system shall be able to take hydraulic pressure from the dedicated accumulators.
Circulating system
The circulating swivel and circulating hose working pressure to comply with operational requirement.
The integral 90° gooseneck with lift eye shall if used be compatible with counterbalance winch. Pin
connection on swivel shall be compatible with the safety valve requirements. Minimum circulating
hose length shall be equal to one single joint and end connection equipped with safety clamps and
chain.
Well control system
Well control system to be according to the below table:
Table 7-8 Snubbing primary well control system

Equipment
Control Control
Snubbing
Stripper bowl or active stripper X
Two stripper rams X
Equalising loop system X
One annular preventer if used
Workstring X
Two back pressure valves in BHA X
Table 7-9 Snubbing secondary well control system

Equipment
Control Control
Snubbing
One combined blind/shear ram X
Two pipe rams (fixed or variable) X
One annular preventer X
Minimum one choke line outlet X
Minimum one kill line inlet X
Minimum one manual gate and/or plug
valve on each choke and kill line and
minimum one remote hydraulic operated
X
gate and/or plug valve. Alternatively the
remote valve in kill line can be replaced
with one manual valve and a chack valve.
One nipple profile in the BHA X
One stabbing valve X
Workstring and BHA
The workstring shall meet the operational requirements with respect to maximum anticipated
pressure, temperature, torque, tension and compression. The workstring shall be inspected and a
verification report shall be issued stating approved and found suitable for operation as a minimum.
The tubing shall have documented traceability. A pipe tracking system may provide documented
traceability. During operations the workstring limitation for over pull shall be set to 80% of
manufacture's tensional yield/torsional yield of the workstring. For live well interventions, the type
of connection for use in the workstring above the BPVs (check valves) to meet the requirement of
minimum two independent gas tight metal to metal seals. The seals must withstand internal and
external pressure. Drifts (2 each size), stabbing guides (2 each size), necessary x-overs and overshots
for fishing the workstring components shall be included.
Back pressure valve (BPV)
The BPVs prevents well fluids from entering into the workstring. The BPV is a barrier element and
shall have a working pressure rating equal to the expected wellbore pressure. The BPVs shall be
provided with seals in the bore towards the BHA and provide internal and external seal. Provisions
shall be made for pumping balls through the BPVs.
Others
All other equipment or tools in the BHA shall be qualified and designed to withstand all expected
down hole forces and conditions.
7.5.1 Rig-up and Rig-down for Snubbing Operation
Figure 7-41 Snubbing unit BOP equipment rig up options

7.6 Wireline Logging
Wireline logging are services and tools for evaluation of reservoir and well properties, as:
• Resistivity tools:
o Induction: AIT, and
o Laterolog: HALS, HRLA.
• Spontaneous potential:
o BSP (flexible bridle for HALS),
o Stiff bridle,
o SP sensor in the AIT bottom nose, and
o SPA-A separate tool.
• Temperature and tension:
o LEH-QT (logging head with downhole tension sensor and max temperature
measurement).
• Gamma Ray:
o SGTN,
o EDTC (telemetry cartridge, normally used when a separate tool is not necessary), and
o HGNS.
• Spectroscopy:
o HNGS, combined with Platform Express tools.
• Sonic:
o Sonic Scanner (aka MSIP or MAST) which can be run in 2 configurations:
o DSLT.
• Caliper:
o PPC – 4 arm powered caliper, can also be run for centering the string when
necessary, and
o TLD caliper – 2 arm caliper
• Inclinometry:
o GPIT, and
o FMI also includes full inclinometry.
• Neutron porosity:
o HGNS (part of the PEx – Platform Express).
• Litho-density:
o TLD (part of the PEx – Platform Express).
• Microresistivity :
o MCFL (part of the PEx – Platform Express).
o Cement evaluation (hole size from) :
o Basic configuration Sonic Scanner (aka MSIP or MAST), and
o DSLT.
• Casing and cement evaluation:
o USIT.
• CCL:
o CAL-Y.
• Formation Micro Imaging:
o FMI and
o OBMI.
• Pressure Points:
o MDT (PSLD_Probe-HY- PC).
• Fluid Identification and Sampling:
o MDT (PSLD_Probe-HY-POStandard_DU-LFA-SC-SC-PC).
Common WL tool combinations are shown in Appendix 7-A.
7.6.1 Rig-up and Rig-down
A Safety meeting will always be held prior to starting the operations and all personnel involved in the
operation must attend it. It is usual procedure that two OMV Petrom workers (the driller and the
tagger line operator) will assist a service company to rig up and rig down WL equipment and tools.
The time spent for rig up or rig down depends on the crew number; it usually takes between one and
two hours to run in hole. One should never be in a rush whenever heavy lifting or pinching points are
involved. The service company engineer is completely responsible for all operations at hand,
therefore he should closely supervise and be involved in all rig up/rig down procedures. While
running in hole there are certain speeds that should be followed and used while maneuvering the
winch. These speeds have been implemented in the system in order to prevent any unfortunate
accidents from happening, like unintentional pull outs, damage of tools and most important injury to
the people involved in the operation. It is required that operating speeds, which are part of depth
control procedure and Pull-Off prevention, are maximum 1m cable slack / 1000m well depth. In case
the tool string gets stuck, the decision to start fishing operations belongs to the OMV Petrom. Speed
in the top 100m of the well can be increased to 30m/min only if running the same tool string
configuration in the same trip to the well (“continuous operation”). The usual speed limits are shown
in Figure 7-42.
Figure 7-42 Speed limits
Table 7-10 Wireline logging operations
Western Atlas
Service Company Log Schlumberger
Generic Name Feet/Min
Name
ft/min m/sec ft/min m/sec

Phased induction PI or DPIL 60 0.3 60 0.3
Special Induction AIT or HDIL 60 0.3 60 0.3
Azimuthal Resistivity Image ARI 60 0.3 60 0.3
Dual Laterolog DLL 60 0.3 60 0.3
Compensated Density LDL or ZDL 30 0.15 25 0.13
Compensated Neutron CNL ot CN 30 0.15 30 0.15
Dipmeter HDT or HDIP 30 0.15 60 0.3
Gamma-Ray (Evaluation) GR 30 0.15 30 0.15
Gamma-Ray (Correlation) GR 60 0.3 30 0.15
Spectroscopic Gamma-Ray NGS or SL 15 0.15 30 0.15
Microsphericaly Focused Log MSFL 30 0.15 60 0.3
Microlaterolog MLL 30 0.15 60 0.3
Formation Imager FMI or STAR 30 0.15 30 0.15
Acoustic Imager DSI or MAC 30-60 0.15-0.3 30 0.15
Combinable Seismic Imager CSI Stations Stations Stations Stations
Borehole Imager UBI or CBIL 30 0.15 15 0.15
Borehole Compensatated Sonic BHC Sonic or BHC Acoustic 60 0.3 60 0.3
Platform Express AIT/TDD/CNL/GR/MCFL 60 0.3 - -
Wellcontrol barriers in wireline operations:

Table 7-11 Wireline Primary well control system
Equipment
Control Control
Wireline
Slickline operations
Stuffing box for solid wireline X
Braided cable
Grease injection head with relevant sized
X
flowtubes
Openhole operations
Hydraulic line wiper and stuffing box, if applicable X
Primary well control system for wireline

operations is dependant on type and size of line
and is located above the secondary well control
system
Table 7-12 Wireline secondary well control system

Internal Well
Equipment External Well Control
Control
Braided or
Wireline Slickline
electric line
One wireline ram X X
One wireline ram (inverted) X
A double valved kill inlet connection shall be
included in the rig up during a live well X X
intervention
One combined shear/seal ram X X
7.6.2 Type of WL Operations and Interventions
In the case of H2S presence during the wireline operation, here below is the table with required
actions:
Table 7-13 Wireline operation in sour environment
7.6.2.1 Logging (Wireline or TLC)
WL logging operations are complex operations related to evaluation of drilled through zones.
Deployed tools are working on principles of resistivity, radioactivity, acoustic, temperature or other
phenomena. This WO BP chapter is not dealing with description of logging operations. WL tools used
for logging operations are mentioned in the section WL tools and equipment (Appendix 7-A). Further
details and information are available from WL service providers or other sources and literature.
7.6.2.2 Running and Setting Permanent Packers
LOGGING VERSUS DRILLER DEPTH

The following procedures should be followed when reporting Electric Logging and Perforating
depths:
• All casing, tubing and associated equipment, such as packers, SSSVs, etc. will be reported as
Driller’s Depth (DD) and measured in feet from DF, Derrick Floor.
• All depths associated with electric line operations, such as logging, perforating, setting
packers, setting plugs, etc. during drilling of a well, should be reported as Logged Depth or
Loggers Depth (LD) and referenced to the DF.
• All measurements that have both a DD and LD should be properly labelled to differentiate
between them. As an example, a packer is set on electric line at a particular depth and is
tagged when landing the tubing at a different depth. It is therefore imperative for all reports,
such as Daily Drilling reports, Well Completion Reports, etc., to contain the proper depth
labelling to eliminate possible confusion.
7.6.2.3 Perforating
Perforation technology is described in the Chapter 6. PERFORATING.
7.6.2.4 Tubing Punching or Cutting (Explosive or Chemical)
Wireline tubular punchers are used to create a hole or orifice in tubulars to establish communication
between the inside and outside. Punchers are often used to punch holes in tubing or drill pipe to
establish circulation, in casing to squeeze cement behind pipe, and other uses. Mechanical and
explosive tubing punchers are currently available in OMV Petrom.
Explosive Type Puncher
A one-foot section of tubular is usually perforated with 4 or 6 shots per foot of explosive charges as
desired. The important criteria for explosive punching is creating holes large enough and with the
desired penetration objective (i.e. between one and four casing strings) to .be able to pump fluid or
cement through them with ease.
Mechanical Type Puncher
A mechanical puncher or perforator which can be used with wireline, under pressure, to perforate
both standard and heavyweight tubing. Wireline service suppliers provide this service to the rigs
when called upon.
Suppliers & Specifications
Schlumberger and Weatherford are the two Petrom suppliers of explosive tubular punchers. When
requesting Tubing Puncher service, the same requirements apply as perforating service.
General Comments
There is a concern that a second outer pipe (usually casing) can get penetrated or deformed if
excessive explosive charges are used and the pipes are in contact with each other at the perforating
location.
Safety Concerns and Precautions
Since explosive charges are used to punch holes in tubulars, the same safety concerns are applicable
as for perforating.
Most commonly used wireline tubing perforation services are:
• Freepoint Indicator,
• String Shot,
• Chemical Cutter, and
• Jet Cutter.
7.6.2.5 Production logging tools (PLT)
Production logging is operation related to evaluation of fluid influx from different zones in vertical or
horizontal wellbore. PLT tools are combinations of different types of pressure, temperature,
resistivity or radioactive and flow measuring devices. Modern & sophisticated PLT tools are available
on the market under different trade-mark names, like the Schlumberger’s FSI (Flow Scan Imager).
Evaluation of PLT measurement data will provide understanding of influx of oil, water or gas, may
explain the cross-flow between zones, source of unwanted water production, etc.
PLT tools are deployed either on wireline or CT. Standard way is the WL deployment, but limitation is
the well deviation & angle. For highly deviated or horizontal wells, the use of WL is possible only be
deployment of WL tractors; these are devices which are basically pulling (towing) the WL PLT tool to
the TD of the wellbore. When CT is deployed for the PLT operation, in most of cases the PLT tool is a
memory mode type; the data are recorded and after CT and PLT tool are pulled to surface, those
data are downloaded and interpreted. Of course in memory PLT mode, there is no real time
monitoring, thus no possibility for changing the program or logging schedule based on actual
developments in the wellbore.
PLT operation may be executed on either producer or injector wells. For producer wells the
production must be maintained on required (by PLT program) rate. If the well is naturally flowing,
PLT operation is relatively simply. In the case well requires some AL method, the operation becomes
more complex; the AL modes which allow PLT operation are gas lifting, jet pumps or ESP pumping
(here is a special ‘Y’ tool needed, as part of the production ESP string). All other AL methods, where is
a ‘work string’ (like sucker rod, plunger, cable) installed inside the tubing, the PLT operation is not
executable. In special cases CT can be used as a PLT tool deployment string, and at the same time
Nitrogen can be injected through CT for lifting (producing) the well (Nitrogen lift).
7.7 Operation in sour environment
Table 7-14 H2S concentration alert levels
Alert level H2S Concentration [H2S] Comments

Level 0: [H2 S] = 0 ppm Normal operations
Normal operations, but increasec
Level 1: 0 ppm < [H2 S] < 10 ppm alertness, prepering for next level.
Restricted acess to affected areas.
Restricted acces and breathing apparatus
required in affected arreas [H2 S] > 10ppm.
10 ppm < [H2 S] < 100 ppm
Level 2: Non-essentional personal removed from
(but not on drill floor)
rig package. Immediate action taken to
reduce mud H2 S levels.
10 ppm < [H2S] < 100 ppm Approaching an emergency situation.

Level 3:
(on the drill floor) First alarm at 10 ppm, high alarm at 20 ppm
Action taken to reduce H2 S concentrations

have failed and an emergency situation
[H2 S]
[H2S] > 100 ppm has been reached. This is not necessarily
Emergency
an uncontrolled release but would include
uncontrolled releases
Appendix 7-A Common WL Tool Combinations
List of Figures
Figure 7-1 Slickline operation on wellsite,
Figure 7-2 Slickline unite,
Figure 7-3 Stuffing Box and a Mono-Block slickline BOP stack,
Figure 7-4 S/L BOP Operating system and Control Panel,
Figure 7-5 Slickline weight and depth indicators (mechanical),
Figure 7-6 S/L Lubricator system packed for offshore loading,
Figure 7-7 Illustration of wide variety of components used for S/L lubricator system,
Figure 7-8 Slickline tool box,
Figure 7-9 Slick line equipment rigged up and ready for deployment; note the three well control
barriers in green text,
Figure 7-10 Calculation of RKB Vs CF or GL elevation,
Figure 7-11 a) CAMCO MMG side pocket mandrel, b) GL well completion and operation of the kick
over tool,
Figure 7-12 Sliding sleeve door,
Figure 7-13 Tubing punchers – propellant driven and mechanical ones,
Figure 7-14 a) The electromechanical downhole power unit; b) The electromechanical tubing punch
in the “ready-to-run” position; c) The electromechanical tubing punch in the “blade-extended”
position (max. position extended, which cuts through the tubing wall and creates a hole in tubing); d)
The electromechanical tubing punch in “fully-retracted” position after the hole has been cut (The
tool is ready to travel back up the hole),
Figure 7-15 Kinley sand line cutter,
Figure 7-16 Schlumberger ‘LIVE Digital Slickline Services’ platform,
Figure 7-17 Rigless and rig-assisted CT Operations,
Figure 7-18,
Figure 7-19 Coiled tubing connection to pumping manifold,
Figure 7-20 Power pack system,
Figure 7-21 Control Panel,
Figure 7-22 Typical CT BOP configuration,
Figure 7-23 Proper rig-up of the CT reel and injector head,
Figure 7-24 Chain Tension Pressure vs. Snubbing Force Chart,
Figure 7-25 a) Zonal Isolation; b) Recompletion; c) Lost Circulation; d) Abandonment,
Figure 7-26 CT cement squeeze (primary casing cement remedy),
Figure 7-27 Weatherford’s CT milling flow process chart,
Figure 7-28 Well test manifold with one fixed and one adjustable choke assemblies,
Figure 7-29 Long PLT tool string and lubricator,
Figure 7-30 CT used for deployment of different types of plugging devices,
Figure 7-31 Physical properties of liquid and gaseous nitrogen,
Figure 7-32 Nitrogen tank with Nitrogen pumping unit (red) working with CT unit (yellow) on 4338
Mamu well,
Figure 7-33 Hydrostatic head of foam with different foam qualities,
Figure 7-34 Hydrostatic head of the gaseous Nitrogen column as the function of depth and WH
pressure,
Figure 7-35 Dafora snubbing unit, WO rig assisted (Romgas, Romania),
Figure 7-36 Snubbing unit (stand alone) and the key elements of a SU,
Figure 7-37 Pulling & pushing slips and the spherical BOP of a SU,
Figure 7-38 The BOP configuration of a SU; the ‘gin’ pole and work platform,
Figure 7-39 Operator console and the big stand alone SU with working platforms,
Figure 7-40 Rotary device for SU,
Figure 7-41 Snubbing unit BOP equipment rig up options,
Figure 7-42 Speed limits.
List of Tables
Table 7-1 Slickline diameters,
Table 7-2 Recommended slicklines, materials and their breaking strengths (in lbs),
Table 7-3 Slickline metallurgy and applications,
Table 7-4 Downhole plugs requirements for different pressure containing operations in/on the well,
Table 7-5 Some CT Records,
Table 7-6 CT Primary well control system,
Table 7-7 CT Secondary well control system,
Table 7-8 Snubbing primary well control system,
Table 7-9 Snubbing secondary well control system,
Table 7-10 Wireline logging operations,
Table 7-11 Wireline Primary well control system,
Table 7-12 Wireline secondary well control system,
Table 7-13 Wireline operation in sour environment,
Table 7-14 H2S concentration alert levels.
References
Well Completion Best Practices Reports (programming, execution, HO, etc.) Wells: 4316 and 4320
Mamu; Petrom, Romania
Technology and Technics for performing various WO operations (cementing, acidizing, milling, fishing
etc) by using CT; Weatherford, International
DRAFT Petrom Slickline Operations; Petrom DA, Romania
Cementing with Coil Tubing SOP; Weatherford, International
Coil Tubing Acidizing SOP; Weatherford, International
Coil Tubing Circulation SOP; Weatherford, International
Coil Tubing Rig Up and Pressure Testing Procedure; Weatherford, International
Coiled Tubing Surface Equipment; Weatherford, International
Composite Plug Milling Using CT; Weatherford, International
Fill Clean-out SOP; Weatherford, International
Run In and Pull Out Hole Procedure with W/L; Schlumberger, International
Tubing Cutter Procedure by CT; Weatherford, International
Wireline SOP PETROM_V4 0; Schlumberger, International
Slickline Wire Quality (Adjud 20 well testing operation); Petroserve, Canada
Horizon ATEX 180K Nitrogen Pumping Unit; Weatherford, International
HETS Internal Casing Patch; HETS, USA
Eni Agip Drilling and Workover Manual; ENI-AGIP, Italy
ENFORM Slick Line Operations IRP; ENFORM Forum, Canada
DOWELL Nitrogen Services Manual; Schlumberger, International
Saudi Aramco Workover Manual; Saudi Aramco, Saudi
NORSOK Well Intervention Standards; NORSOK, Norway
Workover Handbook
MOBIL Completion Handbook; Mobil-Texaco, USA
Petroleum Engineering Handbook; PenWell, USA
8. WELL REPAIR
8. WELL REPAIR
Contents

8. WELL REPAIR .................................................................................................................................... 8-3
8.1 Introduction to Well Repair ..................................................................................................... 8-3
8.2 Preparation for Fishing ............................................................................................................ 8-4
8.2.1 Casing Repairing Tools: Swages and Casing Rollers.......................................................... 8-7
8.2.2 Casing Scrapers ................................................................................................................. 8-7
8.2.3 Fishing Magnets ................................................................................................................ 8-7
8.2.4 Junk Subs and Junk Baskets .............................................................................................. 8-8
8.3 Milling Tools ........................................................................................................................... 8-10
8.3.1 Mills ................................................................................................................................ 8-12
8.3.2 Milling & Rotary Shoes ................................................................................................... 8-15
8.4 Fishing Tools and Accessories ................................................................................................ 8-19
8.4.1 Lead Impression Blocks................................................................................................... 8-19
8.4.2 Releasing Overshot ......................................................................................................... 8-20
8.4.3 Die Collars ....................................................................................................................... 8-22
8.4.4 Releasing Spear............................................................................................................... 8-23
8.4.5 Taper Tap ........................................................................................................................ 8-24
8.4.6 Drill Pipe Safety Joint ...................................................................................................... 8-25
8.4.7 Washover Safety Joint .................................................................................................... 8-26
8.4.8 Fishing Bumper Sub ........................................................................................................ 8-27
8.4.9 Hydraulic Fishing Jars ...................................................................................................... 8-29
8.4.10 Jar Intensifier .................................................................................................................. 8-29
8.4.11 Surface Jars ..................................................................................................................... 8-30
8.4.12 Wireline Spears ............................................................................................................... 8-30
8.4.13 Free Point Instrument and Pipe Back-off ....................................................................... 8-32
8.5 Cutters.................................................................................................................................... 8-33
8.5.1 Jet Cut ............................................................................................................................. 8-33
8.5.2 Chemical Cut ................................................................................................................... 8-33
8.5.3 Mechanical Cut ............................................................................................................... 8-33
8.6 Fishing Tools Configuration ................................................................................................... 8-37
8. WELL REPAIR
8.7 Fishing Technology Workflow ................................................................................................ 8-39

8.8 Casing Patches........................................................................................................................ 8-40
8.8.1 Hole Preparation for Casing Patching ............................................................................. 8-42
8.8.2 Running and Setting the Casing Patch ............................................................................ 8-43
8.9 Scab Liner ............................................................................................................................... 8-45
8.10 Liner Tie Back to Surface ........................................................................................................ 8-45
8.11 Cemented Tubing Completions.............................................................................................. 8-45
8.12 Casing Repair Technology Workflow...................................................................................... 8-47
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... 8-48
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... 8-49
References .......................................................................................................................................... 8-50
8. WELL REPAIR
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 8. WELL REPAIR

Only specially trained, skilled and dedicated technical personnel should have leading role in
1. well repair operations. Well site supervision should be also performed by dedicated
specialist.
Only certified and checked equipment and tools should be deployed for well repair
2. operations. Certifications are in the range from in-house Petrom up to internationally
recognized standards.
Before starting fishing operation a detailed fishing diagram must be prepared. Fishing plan
3. and list of needed fishing tools. Minimum content ‘fishing basket’ must be always available
for WO operation.
4. Always run jars with casing swages or casing rollers; they may become stuck easily.
Use packer retrieving milling shoes to mill away the slips of a production packer without
damage to the casing; the remainder of the packer can be retrieved easily. When planning
5.
packer milling, specific information about packer size, packer type, casing size and weight
must be known.
Washover or milling operations should begin at a moderate speed and low weight,
increasing both until the desired or optimum penetration rate is attained. Never mill faster
6.
than it is possible to remove cuttings. If bird nesting occurs, pull up and circulate until
proper cutting return is achieved.
Properly engage an overshot on a fish, slowly rotate the overshot as it is lowered onto the
fish. A pump may be engaged to help cleaning the fish and also to indicate when the
7.
overshot goes over the object; pump pressure change should also indicate engagement onto
the fish.
When used in fishing operations the fishing jar should be installed immediately below the
8. drill collars string. For maximum effectiveness of jarring, a Jar Intensifier should be installed
about four drill collars above the jar.
The wireline center spear, the two-pronged wire grab or the crank shaft spears are used to
9. remove parted wireline from the wellbore. When the tools are used in casing a guide should
be run above the tool to prevent the wire from getting above the spear from a fish.
When patching split casing it is recommended that the patch is of sufficient length to cover
10.
the split plus 6-8 feet (1.8-2.5m) overlap on each end.
A casing scraper run is mandatory recommended before setting a patch to ensure the area is
11.
clean.
8. WELL REPAIR
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 8. WELL REPAIR

Never go for well repair, if the cost of repair is higher than sidetracking or drilling a new well.
1. When fishing, it means: if the [cost of fish + cost of sidetrack] is less than [cost of fishing +
cost of eqmt repair after fishing], do not proceed with fishing.
Never start well repair operation without having full well history and current well status
2.
gathered, evaluated and determined route cause for the damage.
Never run steel milling operation without having magnets and junksubs for catching and
3.
removing the milled metal particles from the WO fluid.
Avoid milling of the fish with use of oil based WO fluid. Drill collars must be part of milling
4. BHA, to secure the necessary weight on mill for good penetration and long life of the mill.
Apply as high as possible fluid flow rates while milling. Keep RPM between 60 & 170.
Never allow a piece of junk to lodge next to the mill. Force it down by spudding the mill. A
5.
noticeable increase in torque will indicate that junk is alongside.
Limit the use of die collars; the disadvantage of a die collar lies in the fact that it cannot be
disengaged from the fish in the event that it proves impossible to pull the fish. Furthermore,
6. it is difficult to gauge the amount of torque required for its operation. Insufficient torque
results in an insecure hold; too much torque can result in distortion of the fish and damage
the tool to such an extent that engagement is lost.
Never operate the chemical cutter in dry pipe; it requires at least thirty meters of fluid
7.
above the tool when a cut is made.
Avoid surging of pump pressure when starting external cut. Pressure surging causes the
string length to contract and expand, moving the cutter up and down. This motion prevents
8.
the knives from remaining in one position when starting a cut. A rough chattering action
followed by the smoothing of the rotary will signal the completion of the cut.
8. WELL REPAIR
8. WELL REPAIR
8.1 Introduction to Well Repair
A damaged producer or injector well is no further safe for operation in most of the cases and some
kind of well repair or subsurface intervention is there required. The damage of the well occurs mainly
due to corrosion or due to some induced forces. Result is losing the well pressure integrity or/and
restricted access to the bottom of the well.
Another type of a damaged well is the well with some undesirable object (called ‘fish’) left in the
well; situation when the fish is actually preventing / limiting further production or access to the
reservoir.
Corrosion is the most common type of a damaged well, where production tubing and casing, or the
wellhead looses it’s sealing capability and the entire well pressure integrity is lost. The most common
indication of this type of well damage is sudden pressure increase on some of the casing annuluses.
Corrosion may be either from the produced fluids (internal) or from the external, corrosive water
layers surrounding the well. In some cases the entire tubing or casing string can be severely
corroded.
Damage of the well due to induced forces may be from the well itself, due to temperature or
pressure generated forces in the tubular or annular spaces during life of the well. This cases are
cooling effect and excess tension in tubular during stimulation jobs, heat generated extra pressures
in annulus spaces filled with liquid during steam injection process, improper space out of a latched
completion string to the packer, and some others.
In some cases forces detrimental to the well are induced from surface, by applying excess pressure or
tension during well operations. Examples of this kind of well damages are pressure testing of the
casing annulus, frac jobs, perforation, setting the packers with extra over-pull, drilling or milling
inside the casing with not appropriate tools, and some more.
Well Preparation for Well Repair Services
Well repair is very complex, risky and time and money consuming WO operation. It requires skilled
personnel and special tools and equipment. Well repair operation generally should proceed only if
the cost of the well repair operation – with all risks being accounted! – is less than the cost of a
sidetrack or drilling a new well.
First and most important step in the well repair operation is to assess the actual situation in the well,
get clear understanding of the problem, it’s route cause and severity of the damage.
As many as possible details should be collected regarding the damaged well, equipment installed (or
left in hole), surrounding formations (rocks and fluids), and other data.
8. WELL REPAIR
After proper assessment of the situation in the well a plan is being prepared for well repair
operation. Based on equipment, techniques, tools, personnel requirements it is possible to work out
the cost estimate of the well repair operation. Only after comparing the estimated repair cost Vs
alternative options a decision for proceeding further with well repair should be made.
Well Repair Tools Used in Petrom OMV
In OMV-Petrom there is a wide variety of tools, equipment and accessories used for well repair
operations. Some operations are managed entirely by Petrom, while in some cases there is
involvement of an external service provider(s).
OMV-Petrom tools are in some cases not up to the latest technical standards and requirements. Also
there are no dedicated well repair specialists available in house for some more complex well repair
operations. A direct consequence of these is low efficiency and poor profitability of OMV-Petrom
well repair operations and services.
8.2 Preparation for Fishing
The word ‘fish’ describes any undesirable object in the well bore that must be removed. The
equipment required to clean out the hole or to remove an unwanted object is called a fishing tool.
When a need for fishing job develops, all WO progress ceases and tools and procedures must be
utilized to remove the fish. Failure to recover the fish can require sidetracking or even abandoning
the well. In general fishing is always the direct consequence or the combination of:
• deficiency in equipment,
• human error or human negligence during operation,
• not properly adapted / aligned program,
• unforeseen wellbore conditions, and
• poor well design (covering the entire well life).
The costs and inherent risks when fishing make it imperative that the operations and engineering
personnel involved communicate freely. Predicted additional cost and risk in certain types of fishing
operations can make it necessary to change the entire WO job plan and WO objective(s).
Factors that should be considered when planning a fishing job are:
• The mechanical condition of the wellbore tubular and the fluids or solids that they
contain.
• Knowledge of the size, amount and type of the fish (all dimensions are important; the
best is to prepare a detailed fishing diagram); the reliability of the information provided
for fishing is essential.
• Location of the fish (depth, inclination, available free space around the fish, fish free to
move/rotate…); an accurate and detailed well schematic is essential.
• Availability and disposability of fishing tools and equipment.
• Involvement of knowledgeable and skilled fishing specialists and workers.
• Estimated fishing WO cost, probability for success and risk of failure.
8. WELL REPAIR
The rough calculation for decision to fish could be summarized as:
A = Cost of the fish (equipment) left in hole or cost of the deferred CH production
B = Cost of the side track operation (or drilling a new well)
C = Estimate internal (in-house) cost spent for fishing operation
D = Cost of Fishing Service Companies (rental of equipment, services)
E = Cost of equipment to be repaired after fishing (if plans for it)
Evaluating above categories may result in:
If: A+B > C+D+E → fishing is advised and/or can continue
If: A+B = C+D+E → fishing is not advised (or further evaluation is needed)
If: A+B < C+D+E → fishing is not advised or must be stopped
Advise: If there are no required equipment on the well site or in the base, do not hesitate to eliminate
fishing solution; proceed to alternative options immediately (side-track). Remember that Fishing is
always a great consumer of materials. Do not improvise! Fishing operations must be realised under
control of a competent and experienced engineer with required tools and equipment.
One of the most common types of fishing jobs is created when the work string, tubing or sucker rod
string parts or is twisted in two. By carefully measuring the string that has been removed from the
hole, the operator knows the depth at which he must engage the fish. By carefully examining the end
piece brought from the hole, the operator can determine the type of the fish (drill collar, drill pipe,
tubing, tool joint, coupling, external upset section or plain pipe, packer, etc). Although the outside
diameters are generally known, it is good practice to caliper the work string at the nearest tool joint
to the fish, if string had been worn to a smaller size than their original outside diameter.
The size of the hole or casing at the depth of the fish will provide information regarding the amount
of room that is available to accommodate the required fishing tool or equipment. The first
requirement will be to select a suitable tool to engage the fish. If there is sufficient operating
clearance, the fishing tool selected should be one that will engage the fish externally. If there is not
sufficient clearance to externally catch the tool an internal catching tool should be selected.
For relatively simple, straightforward fishing jobs such as the recovery of pipe inadvertently dropped
or left in the hole, an overshot can be used for fast, inexpensive recovery. For more complicated jobs
- such as recovery of stuck, cemented or plasticized pipe, or recovery of several wire line tools with
the wire line on top of them, or removal of permanent packers - some special fishing tools and skills
will be required. When cases such as these arise, an experienced fishing-tool operator should be
considered.
Reliability of the information available is essential. Before and during fishing operations, collected
and reported information must be exact and accurate, detailed as much as possible. Time criteria
must be seriously considered (especially when deploying 3rd party WO rig); it is in the cost
parameters named "C" above.
8. WELL REPAIR
In all cases, before fishing operation commencement the following information should be prepared:
• Dimensional sketch of the hole with geological stage and casing shoe depth.
• Dimensional sketch of the string in hole (length, OD, ID ...).
• Detailed fishing diagram (with all dimensions and other details of the fish).
• Circulating volume, string volume, casing annulus volume in details.
• Elastic limit and torsion limit of work string and it’s elements.
• Last value of Shoe Bond Test or the casing Leak-Off test
• Problems encountered during previous drilling or WO.
• The fish cost details (in detail for each section)
• List of fishing tools and equipment available on rig site; and possibility to obtain more
equipment (and their possible sources).
Categories of Fishing Tools
All fishing tools can be categorized based on the working principle or on the type of the fish for what
these tools are used. Here bellow is the list of fishing tool categories:
• Well Integrity Repairing Tools,

• Junk Fishing Tools,
• Milling Tools,
• Washover Tools,
• External Catching Tools,
• Internal Catching Tools,
• Safety (Separation) Joints,
• Jarring System (Fishing Jars, Jar Accelerators, Bumper Subs),
• Internal Pipe Cutting Tools,
• External Pipe Cutting Tools,
• Cable Fishing Tools, and
• Back-Off Tools.
Below is the list of minimum recommended fishing equipment required on a WO rig prior conducting
the fishing operations (the so called ‘fishing basket’):
• Millings tools,
• Magnets,
• Junk subs,
• Junk baskets or reverses circulating junk baskets,
• Overshot,
• Taper tapes ,
• Hydraulic fishing jar,
• Bumper sub, and
• Safety joint.
In the text bellow is given the short description and area of application and use of different fishing
tools.
8. WELL REPAIR
8.2.1 Casing Repairing Tools: Swages and Casing Rollers
Before proceeding to this type of well repair it is essential to assess the casing damage; a multi-finger
caliper log or a drift run will provide necessary information for planning the job.
Casing swages are heavily tapered cones which can be driven through the collapsed casing and jarred
back out. It is usually necessary to run several sizes in sequences, as the pipe must be swaged out in
small increments, sometimes as little as ¼ inch (6.4mm). Most collapsed casing can be swaged out to
approximately 1/8 inch (3.2mm) below the drift diameter.
Casing rollers were first made as adaptations of the swage mandrel by merely adding a series of
rollers. It is a simple tool for restoring buckled, collapsed or dented casing to its normal diameter and
roundness. The tool is rotated slowly and lowered gradually through the casing until the damaged
area is located. Upon contact with the collapsed casing, the rotary speed is increased to between 50
and 75 rpm, circulation is established and the roller lowered slowly. The operation of swaging or
rolling is rather severe. One should always run the jars and drill collars in either procedure since they
can become wedged in the collapsed pipe and must be jarred loose. Once the casing is opened
sufficiently, it is usually squeeze cemented or an inner liner run to support the weak casing section.
8.2.2 Casing Scrapers
Casing Scrapers are used for all types of scraping operations. They will remove cement, mud cakes
and asphaltens, as well as perforation burrs and similar obstructions from the casing inner wall. The
Scraper is a simple and rugged tool. It employs hardened steel blades set in a pattern, which provides
360 degrees of coverage three times, in its working length. No springs, screws or other small parts
are used in these tools which could get damage or lost during operations. The tool may be either
rotated during operation or spud up or down with equal effectiveness. Full circulation may be
maintained at all times through the tool, although circulation is not required for it’s operation. The
tool allows it to easily enter liners down-hole or re-enter the bottom of the liner, should it pass
through the bottom.
The most commonly used casing scrapper is the Bowen type casing scraper (as seen on the picture
bellow) or some of similar variations of this tool.
Casing scrapers are often combined with junk subs positioned straight above the scraper, for
collecting heavy debris from scrapping.
8.2.3 Fishing Magnets
Fishing magnets (Figure 8-3a) are either permanent magnets fitted into a body with circulating ports
or electromagnets which are run on a conductor line. Permanent magnets, as shown, have circulating
ports around the outer edge so that fill and cuttings can be washed away and contact made with the
fish. Ordinarily the magnetic core is fitted with a brass sleeve between it and the outer body so that
all of the magnetic field is contained and there is no drag on the pipe or casing. Permanent magnets
have the advantage of the circulation washing away any fill so that the junk is exposed. Ordinarily, by
rotation, one can detect when contact is made with the fish. The operator should then thoroughly
circulate the hole, shut the pump off, and retrieve the fish without rotation.
Magnet (run on workstring or wireline) is used for retrieving small as well as oddly shaped junk with
magnet attraction from a well bore.
8. WELL REPAIR
Figure 8-1a) Casing Swages; b) Casing Roller; c) Bowen Casing Scraper)
8.2.4 Junk Subs and Junk Baskets
These tools (Figure 8-3b) are used in work over during drilling or milling operations to catch small
objects and pieces of junk. Normally run just above the drill bit or the mill, have a cup for catching
objects too heavy to be completely circulated out of the hole. This is particularly advantageous in
junk milling operations. By running a Junk Sub above the scraper, operators can get quicker, cleaner
scraping jobs. Junk Subs are constructed from high quality steel, completely stress-relieved after cup
and rib guides have been welded to the main body. Rib guides prevent the Cup from becoming
crushed and help guide the tool through tight places upon withdrawal from the hole.
There are three main types of junk subs, as follows:
8. WELL REPAIR
Boot Type Junk Sub normally run just above the drill bit or mill, utilizing a cup for catching objects
too heavy to be completely circulated out of the hole such as cuttings from milling operations. The
boot basket is available in a complete range of sizes with API Regular connections.
Finger Type Junk Sub utilizes free-spinning finger type catchers to retrieve all types of small objects
in the wellbore. Manly are used with a variety of mill shoes to mill over and retrieve objects.
Ditch Magnets are used on surface to catch all steel particles before flowing to the sieves or pump
intake. Ditch magnets are available in a wide variety of sizes and types.
Figure 8-2 Ditch Magnets
Core-Type Junk Basket
The Core-Type Junk Basket, as shown (Figure 8-3c), was the old stand-by for years for fishing bit
cones and similar junk from the well. It consists of the top sub, a barrel, a shoe, and usually two sets
of finger-type catchers. This tool is still used quite often; it is made to circulate out the fill and even
to cut a core in the formation. The two sets of fingers help to break the core off and retrieve it. Any
junk that is in the bottom of the hole is retrieved on top of the core.
Figure 8-3a) Fishing Magnet; b) Junk Subs; c) Core Type Junk Basket
8. WELL REPAIR
Reverse Circulation Junk Basket
The reversing action is extremely helpful in lifting junk into the barrel and catcher that might
otherwise be held away from the catcher by fluid flow. The reverse circulation junk basket design
incorporates an inner barrel with the fluid flow between the outer and inner barrels when a ball is
dropped and closes off the centre flow through the seat. With this design, when the ball is circulated
down, the flow is diverted between the two barrels and reverse circulation flow is created back up
the inside of the junk catcher with the fluid exiting into the annulus through the upper ports near the
top of the barrel (see bellow sketch). Reverse Circulation Junk Basket (Figure 8-4) is used to retrieve
various kind of oddly shaped junk from a well bore such items as slips, hand tools, bit roller balls,
rock bit cones, packer slip pieces, rubber element pieces, etc. with help of circulation to collect the
junk. Several types of catchers can be utilized in some cases, to increase the catching effectiveness.
a b
Figure 8-4 a) Reverse circulation junk basket; b) Reverse Circulating Junk Basket with Replaceable Junk Catchers (two)
8.3 Milling Tools
These tools are used for milling away a junk or a fish which cannot be removed by conventional
fishing tools. Milling means to cut, grind, pulverize or break down metal into smaller particles. These
particles are then circulated up the annulus. Mills are used to cut objects that either fall into the hole
or get stuck and require removal from the hole or can mill away entire casing sections. Mills are
normally built with high quality tungsten carbide called hard-facing. Hardfacing material is composed
of crushed sintered tungsten carbide particles compounded with a matrix of nickel-silver alloy, and
hardfacing is applied with oxygen acetylene welding equipment.
8. WELL REPAIR
During milling operations, when a hardfaced tool is lowered and rotated against an object, a fish,
formation or cement, small tungsten carbide particles imbed themselves into the object. Each
tungsten carbide particle creates a small chip along the edge as it is moved along the object, cutting
the object. As a particle’s cutting edge becomes dulled, pressures and strains increase causing the
particle to fracture and fall off. Such fractures then create a new cutting structure. Once the particle
falls off, a new particle in the matrix takes its place as the cutting edge. This process continues until
all the hardfacing is exhausted. The hardness of tungsten carbide is almost that of diamonds. It
retains its hardness at high temperatures and is not affected by the heat generated by cutting
operations. The resilient nickel-silver alloy matrix securely holds the tungsten carbide particles
together and in place and cushions the particles against impact forces. Hardfacing is made in two
types, cutting type and wear type.
Cutting type tungsten carbide hardfacing is used as the cutting surface in mill shoes, rotary shoes,
junk mills, and milling stabilizer construction. Tools dressed with hardfacing are used to mill away all
kinds of junk including drill pipe, drill collars, bit cones, casing, liners, and liner hangers. Wear type is
used for wear resistance on stabilizers, roller reamer bodies and hole opener saddles and bodies.
Use of Milling Tools
Most milling tools are simple to operate. Relatively fast rotary speeds should be available as well as
drill pipe and drill collars. Rotary speeds may vary from 60 to 175 RPM. Higher rotary speeds are used
with smaller diameter mills and slower RPM with larger mills. Rotary speeds are best determined in
the field during operations, being dependent on the size and the type of mill, hole conditions and
depth, and the material to be milled. For maximum results, the mill should be run beneath a string of
drill collars weighing anywhere between 10,000 and 15,000 lbs., depending on the size of the mill.
Weight and RPM applied to the mill during operation will vary due to the size and type of mill, hole
condition and depth and material to be milled. The volume and characteristics of the cutting should
be checked frequently since they will provide a great deal of information about the milling progress.
Best results are achieved with high volume pumps since high circulation rates will both flush and cool
the milling surfaces and circulate the metal cuttings more efficiently to the surface. Annular velocity
should be maintained at 80 - 120ft. (25-37m) per minute. The mud weight and viscosity should be
adequate to lift the metal cuttings to the surface. Oil base mud should be avoided whenever
possible. Ordinarily, no difficulty is encountered in circulating drilled cuttings under normal drilling
practices. Milled cuttings are much heavier than normal drilled formation cuttings, therefore a ratio
of plastic viscosity to yield point (PV/YP) as close to 1.0 is ideal for steel cutting removal. If the ratio is
higher than 1.5, a common remedy is to add LCM to the mud. This will help to sweep the hole and
aid in carrying the cuttings up the annulus and out of the well. Polymer mud is the best for milling
operations, with clay based mud being a second choice and oil base mud being the last one. A ditch
magnet or other method of surface metal cutting removal should be considered to prevent damage
to surface equipment when the metal cuttings become excessive. If the cutting cannot be brought to
the surface with the circulating system being used, then boot or junk baskets should be run just
above the mill or drill collars to catch the cuttings. Application and running parameters for some mills
are given here in the table below (Table 8-1):
8. WELL REPAIR
Table 8-1 Application and running parameters for some mills
Table speed Weight on tool

Mill Application
Rpm Lbs
Rock bit cones, general
Junk mill 100 4000-10000
junk
Tubular fish, cleaning of
Pilot mill 125 6000-10000
top of fish
Economill Packer, retainer, Cement 100 2000-8000
Casing collapses,
Taper mill Cleaning of whipstock 50-80 2000-4000
window
Washing over pipe, Drill
Rotary shoe collars, Stabilisers, 50-100 2000-6000
Packer
8.3.1 Mills
Junk mill (Figure 8-5) is used to mill away metal objects in the
hole that cannot be retrieved with grappling tools or junk
baskets. These mills are the toughest mills and referred to as
workhorses of downhole milling operations. The blade forms of
all junk mills are designed so that they continuously cut, rather
than sweeping the junk ahead of the blades. The junk mills
selected should be 1/8 to ¼ in. (3-6mm) less than the minimum
inside diameter of the casing or open-hole through which it is
to be run. Run a junk sub directly above the mill. Have a
minimum of 10,000 lbs. of drill collar weight available. Frequent
spudding may be required to break up loose junk; this action
will pound the junk down into the bottom, positioning it better
for effective milling. Never allow a piece of junk to lodge next
to the mill. Force it down by spudding the mill. A noticeable
increase in torque will indicate that junk is alongside.
Weatherford have designed an 8 bladed junk mill with a 3-deg.

lay back on the cutters and a ½ in. offset nose from the centre.
This mill has proven very reliable when milling up drillpipe. It
can be used with a skirt on the outside to protect the casing Figure 8-5 Junk mills with fishing neck
when milling drill pipe inside casing.
Flat bottom mills (Figure 8-6a) are used to mill bits cones and other pieces of junk if they cannot be
recovered by other means of recovery. Flat bottom mills normally have a concave face on the bottom
to keep the junk centered under the mill.
Round nose (Figure 8-6b) mills are used primarily to mill out the bottom of liners or casing which
have been set with a bull plug during original completion. Round nose mills cut on the leading edge
or nose, along the taper but not full circumference of the mill.
8. WELL REPAIR
Taper mills (Figure 8-6c) are used primarily to mill collapsed pipe, to restore elliptical pipe to full
bore, and to remove restrictions from the inside diameter such as landing seats, bushings, and other
metal objects that might restrict the well bore. Taper mills have cutting structures along the taper.
Often taper mills are used for establishing gage diameter, milling collapsed casing, preparing a fish
for internal engagement or cleaning of whipstock window.
a b c
Figure 8-6 a) Flat bottom mills; b) Round nose, c) Taper mills)
Watermelon mills (Figure 8-7a) or string mills are used to open up tight spots in pipe, to enlarge and
clean up a window cut in casing, or in some circumstances to run in collapsed casing that has been
partially opened up. With a guide below the mill, it will not go outside as is possible with a tapered
mill.
Piranha mills (Figure 8-7b) are used solely for the removal of downhole casing strings. The effecting
milling weight has been found to be 5,000-10,000 lbs. with Piranha mills. Stabilization is necessary
with this mill. A sleeve type stabilizer is included in the tool’s design. The OD and stabilizer diameter
is sized to prevent damage to the outer casing strings. Refer to the mill handbook for further details.
Pilot mills (Figure 8-7c) are used primarily to mill up wash pipe, safety joints, crossover swages, drill
pipe, casing, liners and washover shoes in the hole. The stinger can be equipped with a retrieving
tool on the bottom. In selecting a pilot mill, the blade OD should be about 1/4 in. larger than the OD
of the tool joint or coupling to be milled. The pilot OD should be
Economill (Bowen) (Figure 8-7d) is commonly used to mill packer, retainer or cement. Economill may
be used stand alone or with shielded mill tool to cover and redress the head of the fish (if
‘damaged’).
8. WELL REPAIR
a b c d
Figure 8-7 a) Watermelon mills; b) Piranha mill; c) Pilot mill; d) Bowen economill)
Section Mills or K-Mills (Figure 8-8) are hydraulically actuated tools that are used to
mill a section of casing or tubing. Circulation through the tool creates a pressure drop
across the piston. This forces a cam down, expanding the knives into contact with the
casing. Cut out knives firstly part the casing and then all knives are used to mill it.
When circulation is stopped, the piston spring will lift the piston, withdrawing the
cam from between the knives. The knives are now free to collapse back into the body
and the tool can be retrieved.
It is important to insure that the mill completely cuts through the casing (cutting out)
so the blades can be firmly seated on casing while milling. If you experience a sudden
drop in penetration rate of the mill, this may be attributed to a loose ring of steel
from the casing coupling. This ring will rotate with the section mill. Lightly spudding
the section mill should break up the ring.
Pump rates for the K-Mill are pre-determined and depend on the tool size; refer to
manufacturer handbook for the required flow rates for different K-Mill sizes. The
correct pumping rate must be selected to produce the desired pressure drop through
the K-Mill providing efficient tool operation. The most common cause of difficulty in
cutting out is insufficient pressure at the tool. Approximately 300 psi (21bar) is
required at tool to keep the cutting knives open and part the casing.
Figure 8-8 section

K-mill
8. WELL REPAIR
8.3.2 Milling & Rotary Shoes
Milling shoes are used to mill over and free stuck packers, spears, GP filters, stabilizers, string
reamers, rock bits or any metal objects which cannot be removed from the well by conventional
fishing methods. Milling shoes and rotary shoes are used primarily to dress a fish so that grappling or
a retrieving tool may engage the fish. Rotary shoes are excellent for washing over stuck pipe to cut
away shale, clay, sand salt or limestone, cement, anhydrite, red beds and other formations, or over
GP filters and pipes before removal from the well.
Prior to milling always inspect the ID of subs to insure they are full-bore. While milling, the
penetration rate is affected by hole conditions, the rotary speed, the weight of the drill string upon
the milling shoe, the weight and viscosity of the drilling fluid, the dimensional size of the milling shoe,
and finally the size and hardness of the material to be milled. Based on all of these variables, the
optimum weight and RPM cannot be stated to obtain the most efficient penetration rate. Therefore
the most efficient weight and RPM must be determined by actual operating conditions. Revolutions
may vary from 75 to 150 RPM. Washover or milling operations should begin at a moderate speed and
low weight, increasing both until the desired or optimum penetration rate is attained.
Start with lowering the washover string into the well until the mill shoe is a few feet above the top of
the fish. Start the pumps and circulate the hole until the top of the fish is clean. Either conventional
or reverse circulation can be used. Reverse circulation is often desired because the velocity of the
returns is greater and less settling of cuttings will take place. Normal pump pressures are
recommended with the mud weight and viscosity being sufficient to circulate the cuttings out of the
hole. If many metal cuttings are anticipated, a ditch magnet or other method of surface cutting
removal should be considered to prevent damage to surface equipment like pumps. The volume and
characteristics of the returned cuttings should be checked frequently since they will provide valuable
information on what is being cut and on the washover procedure itself.
In the event that penetration rate declines, it is advisable to change the weight or the rotary speed
and in some cases spud on the fish might become necessary to re-establish the desired rate of
progress.
Milling tools are designed to mill away a stuck fish that cannot be retrieved by conventional fishing
methods. Since milling is usually a follow-up operation (after several fishing attempts), the fish to be
milled should be familiar to the operator and therefore the selection of the milling tool should be
relatively easy to determine, since the dimensional restrictions of the well should be known. The
milling tool selected should provide maximum exposure of the milling edge to the material to be
milled, maximum replacement of the milling edge as wear occurs and maximum circulation to
remove the cuttings.
Milling operations begin by lowering the drill string down to within a few feet of the object to be
milled. Start the pumps and circulate to remove any debris that might have fallen on top of the fish.
Rotate at a moderate speed and slowly lower the drill string until the mill makes contact with the
object to be milled. The first 30 minutes should determine how fast the penetration rate will be. The
first 4 to 5 ft (1.2-1.5m) of a milling job is extremely critical, especially during section milling. Cuttings
tend to accumulate at the cutting knife. This can cause bird nesting. Slowly increase the RPM and
gradually increase the weight until an optimum penetration rate is achieved. Too much weight will
merely grind down the carbide and matrix and prematurely dull the mill. Never mill faster than it is
8. WELL REPAIR
possible to remove cuttings. If bird nesting occurs, pull up and circulate until proper cutting return is
achieved.
Washover Pipe and Accessories
Very often it is not enough merely to catch hold of the fish and pull. In those cases, wash pipe and a
rotary shoe can be used to rotate over the fish to remove annular material that may be causing it to
stick and free up a section of stuck pipe so that it may be retrieved. The outside diameter of the wash
pipe must be small enough to run inside the casing, and its inside diameter must be large enough to
fit over the fish. Wash pipe is therefore thin walled and the length of it run in the well must normally
be limited to a few hundred feet. The rotary shoe is placed on the end of the wash pipe to drill-up
and circulate out any material around the fish.
Hardfaced Milling and Rotary Shoes
Milling shoes and rotary shoes can be designed in various sizes and styles to meet various conditions
encountered in well fishing and washover operations. Following are examples of mill shoes and
rotary shoes (type A through K), with a brief explanation of their intended applications.
NOTE: Different fishing manuals (Bowen, Servco, Smith, etc.) describe types of rotary shoes (A, B, C,
etc.) differently; thus be sure and specify which model is required and which reference the source
originated.
Overshot milling shoes (Figure 8-9a) are used to mill away jagged metal from the top of fish so that
the fish will pass easily into an overshot bowl.
Packer retrieving milling shoes (Figure 8-9b) are used to mill away the slips of a production packer
without damage to the casing so that the remainder of the packer can be retrieved. When planning
packer milling, specific information must be known concerning packer size, packer type, casing size
and weight.
Junk basket milling shoes (Figure 8-9c) are used to capture and trap junk too heavy to circulate and
mill away jagged edges from small junk or bit cones so that the junk will pass into the basket and be
retrieved, or for formation cutting to cut small cores.
a b c
Figure 8-9 a) Overshot milling shoes; b) Packer retrieving milling shoes; c)Junk basket milling shoes
8. WELL REPAIR
Type A rotary shoes (Figure 8-10a) are used to cut metal on the fish without cutting casing. It cuts
only on the inside diameter (I.D.) and the bottom, does not cut on the outside diameter (O.D.). It can
be used with wash pipe when washing over drillpipe and tubing.
Type B rotary shoes (Figure 8-10b) are used for washing over a fish and metal and formation in the
open-hole. It cuts only on the outside diameter (O.D.) and the bottom, and does not cut on the inside
diameter (I.D.).
Type C rotary shoes (Figure 8-10c) are used for washing over and cutting metal, formation or
cement. It cuts freely only on the inside diameter (I.D.) on the outside diameter and on the bottom.
Type D rotary shoes (Figure 8-10d) are used to cut metal on the fish without cutting the casing where
clearances are limited. It cuts only on the inside diameter (I.D.) and the bottom, and does not cut on
the outside diameter (O.D.).
a b c d
Figure 8-10a)Type A rotary shoes; b) Type B rotary shoes; c)Type C rotary shoes; d)Type D rotary shoes
Type E rotary shoes (Figure 8-11a) are used for washing over a fish and cutting metal, formation or
cement in the open-hole or casing where clearances are limited. It cuts only on the outside diameter
(O.D.) and the bottom, and does not cut on the inside diameter (I.D.).
Type F rotary shoes (Figure 8-11b) are used to size and dress the top of a fish inside the casing. It
makes a tapered cut on the inside diameter (I.D.) and cuts on the bottom, and does not cut on the
outside diameter (O.D.).
Type G rotary shoes (Figure 8-11c) are used for washing over and cutting metal, formation or cement
in the open-hole or casing with limited inside clearances. It cuts on the outside diameter (O.D.), the
bottom, and on the inside diameter (I.D.).
Type H rotary shoes (Figure 8-11d) are used for washing over and cutting metal in the open-hole or
casing where clearances are limited. It cuts on the outside diameter (O.D.), the inside diameter (I.D.)
and on the bottom.
8. WELL REPAIR
a b c d
Figure 8-11 a) Type E rotary shoes; b) Type F rotary shoes; d) Type G rotary shoes; d) Type H rotary shoes)
Type I rotary shoes (Figure 8-12a) are used for washing over and cutting formation only. Saw
toothed design permits maximum circulation. It cuts on the bottom only. Does not cut on the outside
diameter (O.D.) or the inside diameter (I.D.).
Type J rotary shoes (Figure 8-12b) are used for washing over and cutting formation only. Saw
toothed design permits maximum circulation. It cuts on the bottom and on the outside diameter
(O.D.). Does not cut the inside diameter (I.D.).
Type K rotary shoes (Figure 8-12c) are used for washing over and cutting on the bottom face only.
Does not cut on the outside diameter (O.D.) or the inside diameter (I.D.).
a b c
Figure 8-12 a) Type I rotary shoes; b) Type J rotary shoes; c) TypeK rotary shoes
8. WELL REPAIR
Recommended Weights and Speeds for Wash Over Operations
Usually the most efficient rotary speeds are obtained by running the rotary at 80 to 100 RPM. Milling
with washover shoes is an exception, they are usually more efficient when run at 60 to 80 RPM. High
speed can burn or damage the tungsten carbide, which is critical to milling steel. Tungsten carbide
cuts steel best at 3000 to 4000 in./minute surface velocity. The following formula determines the
recommended rule of thumb minimum and maximum milling RPM’s, MIN/MAX RPM = Surface
Speed/(Tool OD x 3.14). For example, for a 12 in. mill, Min RPM = 3,000/(12 x 3.14) = 80 RPM, Max
RPM = 4,000/(12 x 3.14) = 106 RPM For optimum penetration rates, it will be necessary to try
different rotary speeds, weights, and pump pressures. When the penetration rate slows down
varying one or more of the above variables might be required to attain the desired penetration rate.
Occasionally spudding on the fish might help. If the penetration rate cannot be increased to what it
should be by varying some of the above mentioned variables or by light spudding, the mill might
need to be pulled out of the hole because the hardfacing might be worn off.
Cuttings
Ideally cuttings should be 1/32 to 1/16 in. (0.8-1.6mm) thick ands 1” to 2” (25-51mm) long. If cuttings
are long thin stringers, increase the milling weight. If fish scale type cuttings are being returned when
pilot or section milling, the penetration rates will improve by decreasing weight and increasing RPM.
Mill Stability and Rough Operation
A mill that moves eccentrically does a poor job. Stabilize above the mill at 60 ft. or 90 ft. intervals.
The stabilizer OD should not exceed the dressed OD of the mill. Section and pilot mills should also be
stabilized to the drift diameter of the casing. When rough running and bouncing occurs, decrease
weight, than slowly increase speed and weight until an acceptable Raugh Oeration (ROP) is obtained.
If rough running reoccurs, once again decrease and then gradually increase to a maximum ROP.
8.4 Fishing Tools and Accessories
As already mentioned there are several pre-conditions to be satisfied before commencement of any
fishing operation. But before any fishing tool is selected or run into the well there must be clear
understanding of the neck of the fish to be retrieved; the point where the fish retrieving toll shall be
engaged to the fish. The most common way of getting the fish’s picture’ is to run a Lead Impression
Block (LIB). Recently downhole video cameras are also frequently utilised to get the picture of the
fish top.
8.4.1 Lead Impression Blocks
Impression Blocks (Figure 8-13), which consist of a soft lead insert in the lower end of a steel housing,
are used in fishing operations. They are designed to enable the operator to determine the
configuration of the top of the fish and to locate its position in the well bore. Its use enables the
operator to more precisely assess the fishing conditions and to more accurately select the proper
tool or tools needed to successfully complete the fishing operations. The impression block is lowered
into the well on the lower end of a fishing string of pipe. After the block contacts the upper end of
the fish, the weight of the string is further lowered straight down (never rotate!) against the fish
8. WELL REPAIR
which indents into the soft lead lower end of the block. When the fishing string is withdrawn from
the well, the impression in the lead will reveal the condition of the fish.
Figure 8-13 Lead Impression Blocks with Different Indents
8.4.2 Releasing Overshot
The Releasing Overshot is used to externally engage and retrieve all sizes of tubing, drill pipe, and
casing. The overshot is designed to assure positive external engagement over a large area of the fish
and is ruggedly built to withstand severe jarring and pulling strains without damage or distortion to
either tool or fish. Most overshots consist of a bowl, top sub, guide and the grapple or slip, a control,
and packoff.
The overshot bowl is turned with a taper on a helical spiral internally and then the grapple, which is
turned with an identical spiral and taper, is fitted to it. Overshots are very versatile and may be fitted
for a variety of problems. Mill controls may be used to dress the area that the grapple will catch in
order to remove burrs and splinters on the pipe. When the pipe has been "shot off" or parted in such
a way to heavily damage it, it may be necessary to fit a mill extension, or mill guide, to the overshot
bowl so that extensive milling can be accomplished for the catch to be made on the same trip in the
hole. These extensions, or guides, are "dressed" inside with tungsten carbide and can mill off a
substantial amount of material so that the "fish" is trimmed down to the grapple size. Controls may
also be designed with a pack-off, or packer, that seals off around the fish and allows the circulating
fluid to be pumped through the fish to aid in freeing the stuck fish.
To properly engage an overshot on a fish, slowly rotate the overshot as it is lowered onto the fish.
The pump may be engaged to help clean the fish and also to indicate when the overshot goes over
the object. Once this has been indicated by an increase in pump pressure, stop the pump, as there
may be a tendency to kick the overshot off the fish. Set the grapple with gradually increasing light
upward blows. An excessively hard upward impact may strip the grapple off the fish and cause the
wickers to be dulled, resulting in a miss run and trip to replace the grapple. To release overshots, it is
first necessary to free the two tapered surfaces, bowl, and grapple, from each other. This freeing of
8. WELL REPAIR
the grapple or "shucking" can be accomplished by jarring down with the fishing string. Usually a
bumper sub is run just above the overshot and is used for this purpose. After bumping down on the
overshot the grapple is usually free and the overshot can be rotated to the right and released from
the fish. If a large amount of the fish has been swallowed, it may be necessary to free or "shuck" the
grapple more than once.
Figure 8-14 Overshots with Bowl and Spiral Grapples
Bowen Series 150 Circulating and Releasing Overshot (long neck) is the strongest tool available to
externally engage, pack off and pull a fish. It can be used with jarring assemblies, in back-off
operations, in retrieving parted pipe, drill collars or GP filters with long fish neck (Figure 8-15a).
Bowen Series 70 Short Catch Overshots (short neck) is used in cases when the fish neck is short
(Figure 8-15b).
Bowen Series 20 Sucker Rod Fishing Overshot are short-catch sucker rod overshots witch provide
means for engaging the exposed portion of a fish too short to be engaged with conventional catch
overshot (Figure 8-15c).
8. WELL REPAIR
a b c
Figure 8-15 a) Bowen Series 150 Circulating and Releasing Overshot (long neck); b) Bowen Series 70 Short Catch
Overshots (short neck); c) Bowen Series 20 Sucker Rod Fishing Overshot
8.4.3 Die Collars
Rotary Die Collars are the most economical external catch tools for freeing stuck fish. The hollow
tapered, hardened teeth provide excellent engagement. Die Collars are available with plain or lipped
bottom or threaded bottom for attaching a lipped guide. The principal advantage of a die collar is
that it is inexpensive and that it requires virtually no maintenance. The disadvantage of a Die Collar
lies in the fact that it cannot be disengaged from the fish in the event that it proves impossible to pull
the fish. Furthermore, it is difficult to gauge the amount of torque required for its operation.
Insufficient torque results in an insecure hold; too much torque can result in distortion of the fish and
damage the tool to such an extent that engagement is lost. The basic operating procedure for using a
die collar is: tag the fish and pick up approximately 2 feet (half meter). Rotate slowly while lowering
the pipe; rotate to the LEFT for left-hand taper tap or die collar; rotate to the RIGHT for right-hand
taper tap or die collar. When rotary torque indicates that fish has been engaged, release the torque
slowly. Do not allow the pipe to spin freely or fishing tool may back off and disengage from fish.
Proceed with recovery operations.
Die Collars are used to externally engage and retrieve a tubular fish. Particularly useful in back-off
operations where permitting the passage of wireline tools. There are two basic types of die collars:
Type-A with plain (Figure 8-16a) end and Type-B with threaded end (Figure 8-16b).
Entrance port of both types of die collars can be configured in several ways, like: plain type, with
standard or oversized lip or with teeth; just as it is shown here bellow (Figure 8-16c).
8. WELL REPAIR
a b c
Figure 8-16 a) Type A Die Collar; b)Type B die Collar With Lipped Guide; c)Entrance port of both types of die collars
8.4.4 Releasing Spear
The Releasing Spear (Figure 8-17a) is used to internally engage and to retrieve all sizes of tubing, drill
pipe, and casing as opposed to overshots which catch on the outside. It is designed to assure positive
internal engagement with the fish and is ruggedly built to withstand severe jarring and pulling strains
without distorting the fish. Usually a spear is not the first choice, as the spear will have a smaller
internal bore than an overshot which limits running of some tools and instruments through it for
cutting, free-pointing, and in some cases, backing-off. Spears, however, are popular for use in pulling
liners, picking up parted or stuck casing, or fishing any pipe that has become enlarged when parted
due to explosive shots, fatigue, or splintering. The most popular spears in use today are built on the
same principles as overshots with a tapered helix on the mandrel and a matching surface on the
inside of the grapple. The slip or gripping surface is on the outside surface of the spear so that it will
catch and grip the inside of the pipe that is being fished. Due to the design with the small bore in the
mandrel, spears are usually very strong.
The spear is run inside the fish and positioned. The slips are released by action of the J-slot by using
left-hand torque, moving the drill string down a short distance, and then picking it back up slowly.
This action releases the slips so they can slide up over a taper on the body of the spear, as the spear
is moved uphole. The slips move outward engaging the inner wall of the fish. In order to release a
spear, it is rotated to the right. If the grapple is frozen to the mandrel, it may be necessary to bump
down to free or 'shuck' the grapple. Usually a bumper sub is run just above the spear and this can be
used to effectively jar down and free the grapple. The spear is a very versatile tool, in that it can be
run in the string above an internal cutting tool if desired or in combination with other tools. Milling
tools may be run below the spear to open up the pipe so that the spear can enter and catch the fish.
8. WELL REPAIR
Spears are available in wide variety of sizes and configurations from 1.660” up to 9-5/8”.
Bowen L&L Releasing Spear (Figure 8-17b) is used to internally engage and retrieve all sizes drill
pipe, casing and tubing. It is further used In back-off operations, in setting liners and in holding casing
strings while a nipple for permanent landing is being cut. Bowen Full Circle Releasing Spear is used to
internally engage and retrieve drill pipe, casing and tubing, provides a large contact area between
fish and slip segments and can be used with jarring assemblies.
a b
Figure 8-17 a) Bowen releasing spear; b) Bowen L-L Releasing Spear
Packer Retriever Tools are internal engaging fishing tools designed to retrieve all types of “drillable”
production packers in a single run. They are used in an assembly which consists of a retriever, stinger,
mill shoe and bushing. On request packer manufacturers or fishing tool manufacturers will provide
the necessary tool for each type of packer to be retrieved.
8.4.5 Taper Tap
The Taper Tap is used to engage a tubular fish internally. This tool screws into the fish and cuts
threads as it goes. Cutting new threads is a more positive engagement than attempting simply to
screw on or into existing threads on a fish that may be damaged, misaligned or incomplete. New
threads can also be cut on blank pipe. Frequently, the Taper Tap is used to retrieve a production
packer after the slip segments and packer elements have been milled with conventional mills.
8. WELL REPAIR
Taper Tap is used to internally engage and retrieve a tubular fish which is restrained from rotation. It
is particularly useful in its left hand version where it is used in back-off operations. Rotary Taper Tap
with removable Skirt and Guide Kick Taper Tap.
a b
Figure 8-18 a) Bowen Simplex Packer Retriever; b) Taper Tap, with Guide, ’Kick-Off’ type
8.4.6 Drill Pipe Safety Joint
The Safety Joint is a two-piece special connection that can be located at any desired point in a string
of pipe. It will withstand all of the normal operation of the string, transmit full torque in either
direction or, at the will of the operator, it can be easily released to salvage all of that portions of the
string above it. Made up at any desired point in a drilling, fishing, testing, wash-over or tubing string,
the Safety Joint operates as a unit unaffected by vibration, inertia of the bit or drill collars, or while
rotating out of the well. No movement can occur between the two sections of the Safety joint nor
can it be released without a specific mechanical procedure. When the need arises, it is simple to
release and to reengage. A Safety joint is used in a drilling, fishing, testing, wash-over or tubing string
8. WELL REPAIR
whenever and wherever a releasing safety connection is considered to be desirable. In Drilling

Strings, the Safety Joint is usually located far enough above the drill collars to prevent compression
loading and to avoid sticky or heaving formation. Drill pipe Safety Joints have drill pipe box and pin
connections with the O.D. and I.D. corresponding to the drill pipe tool joints.
The Safety Joint consists of an upper Pin Section, a lower Box Section and two Packers. The upper Pin
Section has a box connection up for connecting to the tool joint and abroad helical male thread down
for connection to the Box Section. The Box Section has a broad helical female thread matching the
male thread of the Pin Section and has a tool joint pin connection down for connecting to the pipe.
The broad helical matching threads of the Pin and Box Sections allow speed and ease of engagement
since they are relatively free of contact as the two sections are made up. However when the Safety
Joint is made up tightly, the reversely pitched surfaces of the joining shoulders grip each other
securely, pulling the mating helical surfaces into complete contact and therefore form the Safety
Joint into a rigid unit. The Pin Section is grooved at the top and bottom to accommodate the “O” ring
type Top and Bottom Packers which seal the Safety joint from both internal and external fluid
pressures. Both Packers are rated for high pressure operation, capable of withstanding in excess of
10,000 psi in continuous service.
The Coarse Thread Safety Joint is used in drilling, work over, fishing, testing, washover or tubing
string whenever and wherever a releasing safety connection is needed.
In drilling string the safety joint is usually located far enough above the drill collars to prevent
compression and to avoid sticky or heaving formations. Connections and OD/ID of the safety joints
are in line with the DP tool joints.
In fishing string the safety joint is usually located immediately above the grappling of fishing tool, and
bellow any accessories as jars, accelerators or bumper subs.
In wash over string the safety joint is usually located between the drill pipe (work string) and wash
over string. The connection of the safety joint on top is box (for drill pipe or work string) and pin
bottom (for the wash over string). Diameters conform to the wash over pipe/string.
The safety joint in the tubing string is usually located immediately above the tubing catcher or
production packer. Tubing safety joints have tubing box and pin connections with OD corresponding
to the tubing couplings and ID corresponding to the tubing ID.
8.4.7 Washover Safety Joint
The washover safety joint is used in connecting drill pipe to your washover string. It provides a
dependable means of releasing the drill pipe from the washover pipe if the washover string becomes
stuck.
The lower half of the washover safety joint remains with the washpipe when parted and is full bore
to match the washpipe, making subsequent re-entry of other tools possible. A coarse pitch safety
thread, in combination with the friction ring, assures proper release when required. Washover safety
joints are made from heat -treated alloy steel and are stronger than the pipe that they are designed
to run on. The safety joint should be made up properly in the string. This is done by making up the
lower half into the washpipe. Make up the top half into the lower half with the same torque as
8. WELL REPAIR
applied to the washpipe connections. To release the safety joint, bump down sharply on the safety
joint with drill string while holding a safe, left hand torque. Raise the string slowly while maintaining
torque. The upper half will unscrew from the lower half, and the friction ring will remain with the
retrieved upper half. To re-engage the joint, carefully feel for contact with the lower half, then apply
a small amount of weight. Make one revolution to the left, then turn slowly to the right, while
maintaining the small amount of weight. An increase in torque will signify that the joint has made up.
Baash-Ross Safety Joint is particularly well suited to washover operations. The fingers transmit the
torque. By reverse rotation a limited amount of torque can be transmitted through the tilted fingers
before the connection breaks.
a b
Figure 8-19 a) Bowen Coarse Thread Safety Joint; b) Washover Safety Joint
8.4.8 Fishing Bumper Sub
To make up a proper fishing string, it is very important that a Bumper Sub (Figure 8-20a) be included
as one of the components. There are numerous other applications where a Bumper Sub is a required
item, such as when drilling in sticking or heaving formations. In these cases the ability to deliver
downward blows is necessary to keep the string from sticking.
To make up a proper fishing string, it is very important that a Bumper Sub be included as one of the
components. There are numerous other applications where a Bumper Sub is a required item, such as
when drilling in sticking or heaving formations. In these cases the ability to deliver downward blows
is necessary to keep the string from sticking. The Fishing Bumper Sub is an inexpensive device
designed primarily for use in a fishing string. Under normal conditions, its use is not prolonged over a
considerable period of time. Fishing Bumper Subs are installed on fishing strings immediately above
8. WELL REPAIR
the fishing tool or safety joint. Its presence in the string assures the operator of the ability to release
the fishing tool in the event it becomes impossible to pull the fish. This device will deliver the sharp
downward blow and transmit the torque that is required to break the fishing tool’s engagement and
releases it from the fish.
Whenever a releasing type fishing tool is to be used, a properly made up Bowen lubricated fishing
bumper sub should be included in the fishing string. It is generally inserted in the fishing string
immediately above the fishing tool safety joint or unlatching joint. It ensures that the operator has
the means available to release the fishing tool if and when it becomes impossible to pull the fish.
The Bowen lubricated fishing bumper sub will deliver the sharp downward blow and transmit the
torque required to break the fishing tool engagement to release it from the fish.
Likewise, the Bowen lubricated fishing bumper sub can be used to great advantage to release a
fishing tool from a recovered fish at the top of the hole, once recovered. It simplifies the operation
and eliminates the necessity to resort to awkward measures such as dropping the elevators or
bumping down with the hook.
a b
Figure 8-20 a) Fishing Bumper Subs; b) Hydraulic Fishing Jar
8. WELL REPAIR
8.4.9 Hydraulic Fishing Jars
Jars are impact tools used to strike heavy blows either up or down upon a fish that is stuck. Jars fall
into two categories as to use: drilling jars and fishing jars. Jars can further be classified as to the basic
principle of operation; either hydraulic (Figure 8-20b) or mechanical. Most jarring strings used in
conjunction with fishing operations consist of hydraulic "Oil" jars. Oil jars are very effective in freeing
stuck fish as the energy stored in the stretched drill pipe or tubing is converted to an impact force,
which can be varied according to the pull exerted on the string. The oil jar is designed to strike a blow
upward only, while an additional tool; the bumper sub is designed to strike a blow downward on the
fish. The oil jar consists of a mandrel and piston operating within a hydraulic cylinder. When the oil
jar is in the closed position, the piston is in the down position in the cylinder where it provides a very
tight fit and restricts the movement of the piston within the cylinder. The piston is fitted with a set of
packing which slows the passage of oil from the upper chamber to the lower chamber of the cylinder
when the mandrel is pulled by picking up on the work string at surface. About half way through the
stroke, the piston reaches an enlarged section of the cylinder and is no longer restricted so the piston
moves up very quickly and strikes the mandrel body. The intensity of this impact can be varied by the
amount of strain taken on the work string. This variable impact is the main advantage of the oil jar
over the mechanical jar for fishing.
8.4.10Jar Intensifier
The Jar Intensifier (Figure 8-21a) is perhaps one of the most outstanding devices designed to aid in
the successful completion of difficult fishing jobs. The tool is designed to become a component part
of a fishing string and to work in conjunction with a Hydraulic Jar to positively insure that the jarring
blows are concentrated at the stuck point. The restraining mechanism in a hydraulic jar (an
expansion joint with a limited longitudinal stroke) permits the buildup of extreme energy in the drill
pipe and the ability to suddenly release the energy to drive a mass of weight upwardly to strike a
heavy jarring blow. The mass of weight is composed of those drill collars which are installed above
the Jar. The energy which has been built up in the stretched drill pipe is often partially dissipated by
hole friction, crooked holes, etc. If the tremendous energy stored in the drill pipe can be
concentrated at a point close to where the fish is stuck and released in a forceful manner at that
point, the net result of the jarring effort is greatly increased. Therefore, the Jar Intensifier is installed
immediately above the drill collars. The design of an effective tool of this type is possible because of
the development of a good compressible fluid and the unique and extremely effective Seal Ring
Assembly similar to that used in the hydraulic rotary jar. The Intensifier is essential in shallow holes
when there is insufficient pipe to achieve the necessary stretch to strike a blow.
Jar accelerator is used in conjunction with a jar to provide additional strain in the jarring string.
Cushioning effect is when the string rebounds following the impact. This reduces the shock loads on
drill string as well as rig. jar accelerator transmits full torque in either direction. Bumper sub
telescoping slack joint enables to strike blows up as well down used in a drilling or fishing string.
8. WELL REPAIR
8.4.11Surface Jars
Jars are tools designed to deliver frequent and hammer-like blows to drive a fish toward the surface.
The Surface Jar (Figure 8-21b) is designed to deliver a heavy downward blow against a stuck fish. The
tool performs outstanding service in areas where key seating is a problem. It is virtually impossible to
pull large diameter drill collars up through key seats; therefore, the solution lies in being able to drive
them back down into the open-hole. The tool is unusual in that to strike downward blows, the
operator actually pulls upward against the tool. The surface jars, in fact, reverses the direction of
force that is obtained from a Rotary Jar used in a down hole jarring operation. A point of difference
between the surface jar and a conventional rotary jar lies in the fact that the surface jar has a long
48” stroke. In a jarring operation, when the tool trips, the energy that has been built up and stored in
the drill pipe creates a force that travels away from the point of release. Since a Surface Jar is
installed at the surface, the drill pipe below is stretched and when the Jar trips, the stretched drill
pipe will move rapidly to regain its original length. Because the stretched drill pipe is below the Jar,
the force will travel in a downward direction, resulting in the weight of the drill pipe being hammered
downward against the stuck fish. In this reverse action, it is not necessary that two striking surfaces
meet and ordinarily this would never occur unless there was a very great length of pipe between the
surface and the stuck point. The purpose of the 48” stroke in a surface jar is to permit the drill string
to fall heavily against the stuck point. The short stroke in a conventional rotary jar makes it
ineffective in a surface jar application.
The tripping tonnage of the surface jar is adjustable, but it should be set so that the pull necessary to
trip it does not exceed the weight of the drill pipe between the surface and the stuck point. This is
necessary to avoid pulling a stuck drill collar further into a key seat. Repeating the jarring operations
several times normally knocks the drill collars out of the key seat. Also, a single blow usually is ample
to cause the release of a fishing tool when the surface jar is used to provide the downward blow
required to cause effective disengagement from the fish.
When used in fishing operations the Bowen super fishing jar should be installed immediately below
the drill collars string. For maximum effectiveness of jarring, a Bowen jar intensifier should be
installed about four drill collars above the jar.
8.4.12Wireline Spears
One of the most challenging of fishing operations may be the recovery of wireline (means here slick
line or wire) and the tools or instruments run with it. It happens often that wireline has been parted
due to over pull, corrosion, wear or other reasons. When it occurs, wireline slumps down the hole in
a coil. The wireline centre spear, the two-pronged wire grab or the crank shaft spear (Figure 8-22) are
used frequently to remove parted wireline from the wellbore. When the tools are used in casing, a
guide should be run above the tool to prevent the wire from getting above the spear from a fish.
Rope or Electric (Wireline) Cable Spear is used to retrieve a broken rope or cable from a well bore. It
may have different shape & types of barbs, collapsible barbs or serrated barbs.
8. WELL REPAIR
a b
Figure 8-21a) Bowen Jar Intensifier; b) Bowen Surface Bumper Jar

8. WELL REPAIR
8.4.13Free Point Instrument and Pipe Back-off
The most common method of parting a downhole assembly is backing it off. The procedure includes
the following steps:
1) Running a free-point indicator to determine the free point.
2) Placing left hand torque in the drill pipe downhole assembly and working it down to the point to
be baked off.
3) Running a string shot (small amount of explosive) across the depth to be backed off and
detonating.
4) Rotating the pipe until it is backed off and pulled out of hole.
H-E Reversing Tool is used in cased wells to back off stuck pipe with right hand connections while still
employing a right hand running string. It eliminates thus the need for a complete string of left hand
pipe. It’s major application is found in workover operations It is also used for retrieving stuck drill
strings.
a b
Figure 8-22a) Different Wireline Spear Types; b) Reverse Rotation Back-off Tool
8. WELL REPAIR
8.5 Cutters
8.5.1 Jet Cut
A cut made by an explosive shaped with a concave face and formed in a circle. It is also run and fired
on an electric line.
8.5.2 Chemical Cut
Chemical Cutter is an electric wireline tool which uses a propellant and a chemical - Halogen Fluoride
- to burn a series of holes in the pipe thereby weakening it so that it easily pulls apart with a slight
pull. This method of cutting pipe is the most recent innovation. It was patented and for years was an
exclusive process of one wireline company. Today it is available through most electric wireline
service companies for practically all sizes of tubing and drill pipe and most popular sizes of casing. All
wireline chemical cuts are generally economical because rig time is reduced to a minimum. The big
advantage of the chemical cut is that there is no flare, burr, or swelling of the pipe that is cut.
Therefore, no dressing of the cut is necessary in order to catch it on the outside with an overshot or
on the inside with a spear. The chemical cutting tool consists of a body having a series of chemical
flow jets spaced around the lower part of the tool. The tool contains a propellant which forces the
chemical reactant through the jets under high pressure and at high temperature to react with the
metal of the pipe. Electric current ignites the propellant which forces the chemical, Halogen Fluoride
or Bromide Tri-Fluoride, through the reaction section which heats the chemical and forces it out the
jets. The tool also contains pressure-actuated slips to prevent a vertical movement of the tool up the
hole and insure a successful cut.
The chemical cutting tool may also be explained as producing a series of perforations around the
periphery of the pipe. The reaction of the chemical produces harmless salts which do not damage
adjacent casing. The products of the chemical reaction are harmless and are rapidly dissipated in the
well fluid. The chemical cutter will not operate successfully in dry pipe and requires at least one
hundred feet of fluid above the tool when a cut is made. Since it is not necessary to apply torque to
the pipe when chemically cutting as compared with the string shot back-off, it is a safer process for
rig personnel.
8.5.3 Mechanical Cut
The K-Mill is a hydraulically actuated tool used to mill a section in casing or tubing. The K-Mill is a
simple design, easy to operate, and has an outstanding reputation for milling performance. The
milling knives are dressed with tungsten carbide. The mill is effective for milling casing, which is
poorly cemented, split or corroded. Upon circulation through the tool, a pressure drop is created
across the piston. This forces the cam down and expands the cutter knives into contact with the
casing. Cut-out knives part the casing then all the knives participate in milling. When circulation is
stopped, the piston spring will lift the piston, making the cam withdraw from between the knives.
The knives are now free to collapse back into the body and the tool can be retrieved. The tool’s
cutting action is very effective with 100’ sections possible with one set of knives.
8. WELL REPAIR
Figure 8-23 Mechanical Cut
Internal Casing Cutter
Stuck casing can be cut internally with a casing cutter for sizes 1-1/2” up to 20-3/4”. They may be run
on macaroni strings, tubing or drill pipe. The internal cutter consists of: - Wiper block or drag spring
assembly to accomplish setting the tool in the pipe that is to be cut.
- Slips and cone assembly to anchor the tool.

- Main spring to assist in maintaining uniform feed to the knives.
- Wedge-like knife blocks to drive the knives upward and outward into contact with
the pipe.
- Hardened and ground knives for easy and efficient cutting.
An outstanding feature of the internal cutter is the automatic bottom. This feature permits the
operator to set the cutter at any desired depth, without coming out of the hole. When the cutter
reaches a point were a cut is to be made, lowering and rotation to the right unscrews the mandrel
from the grip jaw while friction is maintained by the wiper blocks against the inside of the pipe. With
a wedging action, the cone expands the slips to engage the knife blocks then force the knives
outward, continuing until the cut has been completed. When the string is raised, the slips are
disengaged, the knives retract, and the cutter returns automatically to its run-in position.
External Pipe Cutter
The hydraulic external cutters (Figure 8-25a, b) are hydraulically actuated mechanical tubing and drill
pipe cutters. The cutters are fast, smooth and efficient tools. The cutter knives are fed entirely by
pump pressure, thus giving the operator sensitive control.
8. WELL REPAIR
To operate, assemble the cutter using the proper size and type of piston assembly. Run the cutter
into the hole to cutting depth. When cutting depth is reached, open the fill-up and standpipe valves
just enough to shear the shear pins. Begin slow rotation, 15 to 25 RPM. Slowly close the bypass valve
again to pump fluid down the working string. This will begin feeding the knives to start the cut. The
amount of pressure and gallons per minute required depends on the size cutter and piston assembly
being used. Use extreme caution to avoid surging or pump pressure when starting a cut. Pressure
surging causes the string length to contract and expand, moving the cutter up and down. This motion
prevents the knives from remaining in one position when starting a cut. A rough chattering action
followed by the smoothing of the rotary will signal the completion of the cut.
a b
Figure 8-24 a) Internal Casing Cutters; b) internal Pipe Cutter
Keyseat Wiper or Reamer
One of the major causes of fishing is keyseating. A keyseat is a section of hole where a smaller hole is
cut into the wall of the well bore by the movement of the downhole drilling assembly. It usually
occurs where the hole changes direction. A section of the downhole drilling assembly can get
wedged into the keyseat. Keyseats almost always can be detected in time to take preventive action
8. WELL REPAIR
before the pipe sticks. Proper prevention means observing the signs that a keyseat is developing and
immediately eliminate it.
The keyseat wiper or reamer (Figure 8-25c), which consists of a mandrel and sleeve with spiralling
tungsten carbide strips, is located in the string immediately above the drill collars. The sleeve is
slightly larger in diameter than the drill collars. After locating the keyseat, the wiper or reamer is
raised to engage it. The tool is then rotated causing the tungsten carbide strips to cut clearance for
the drill collars. During drilling operations, the sleeve remains engaged with the positive clutch and
rotates with the drill pipe. Should the sleeve become stuck and impossible to rotate, an overriding
clutch at the upper end will produce a downward blow to assist in dislodging the sleeve.
a b c
Figure 8-25 c) Bowen Hydraulic External Cutters; b) External Pipe cutter; c) Keyet Wiper (Reamer)
8. WELL REPAIR
8.6 Fishing Tools Configuration
For the configuration of different BHA’s in fishing and milling operations pls look the following
schematics:
• BHA for milling operation,
• BHA for washover operation,
• BHA for releasing spear operation,
• BHA with mechanical jar,
• BHA with hydraulic jar,
• BHA with hydraulic jar and accelerator, and
• BHA with reversing tool.
Figure 8-26 BHA for Milling and Washover Operations
Figure 8-27 BHA for Releasing Spear Operation and BHA with Mechanical Jar
8. WELL REPAIR
Figure 8-28 BHA with Hydraulic Jar and BOH with Hydraulic jar & Accelerator
Figure 8-29 BHA with Reversing Tool; Fishing Magnet
8. WELL REPAIR
8.7 Fishing Technology Workflow
Figure 8-30 Fishing Operation Technology flow Diagram
8. WELL REPAIR
8.8 Casing Patches
Introduction
A casing patch is a thin walled steel liner, which tightly

conforms against the inside of the casing, with the
intent of permanently sealing off any type of leak. The
standard patch restricts the I.D. of the casing by 0.3
inches (8mm). A heavier patch is also available in
casing sizes 7” (177.8mm) and larger with a 0.480 in
(12mm) I.D. restriction.
The standard patch arrives on location in a corrugated

form (the cross section is star shaped) with fiberglass
cloth on the outside. The fiberglass cloth, along with
the epoxy, acts as a gasket when set. Once in position,
pulling a specially designed expander tool through it
expands the patch. Once expanded, or formed against
the casing I.D., it is permanently held in place by radial
compression.
The following are examples of where a casing patch

could be used to remedy a given casing integrity
problem:
Figure 8-31 Installing a Casing Patch

Collar Leaks
A casing patch can seal off a collar leak. No other special preparation is required other than a scraper
and drift run prior to running of the patch.
Perforations
Undesired perforations can be sealed off by using an internal steel casing patch. The size of the
perforations will determine the pressure rating of the patch. Corrosion and erosion of the
perforations will increase their size and reduce the internal and external pressure rating of the patch.
Patches can be milled out or perforated to re-open a zone.
Split Casing
When patching split casing it is recommended that the patch is of sufficient length to cover the split
plus 6-8 feet (1.8-2.5m) over lap on each end. This is because the split will have the tendency to
spread or grow over time or while setting the patch. If the split was caused by excessive pressure, it
is important to consider future pressure requirements of the patch.
8. WELL REPAIR
Corrosion
Both ends of the patch must be set in good non-corroded pipe when patching corroded casing.
Therefore when dealing with long corroded zones (in excess of 60 ft.(18 m)), an extended length
patch might be required. The extended length patch will come in two or more pieces that will require
welding on the rig floor while running. Patches as long as 200 ft (60 m) have been run utilizing this
method. When welding the patch sections together at the rig floor, the well is open to the
atmosphere. If there is any chance of well control problems, extended length patches are not
recommended.
If corrosion of the patch is of concern, then a corrosion resistant patch material, Incoloy 825, can be
used. Typically these patches require more force or hydraulic pressure to be set.
Milled Windows or Wear in Doglegs
Milled windows or wear holes in doglegs are often quite large and their size and shape are difficult to
determine. A milled window might have a rolled-in edge at the bottom. If this edge is large enough it
could interfere with the setting of the patch, possible resulting in it becoming stuck in the hole, with
the patch being partially set. Therefore it is extremely important to make an API drift run prior to
running the patch. If the drift won’t pass, a tapered mill or string mill should be run to remove the
restriction. Afterwards re-run the drift to insure the restriction is gone.
Doglegs pose similar problems, severe doglegs may not allow the passing of the rigid unset patch to
pass. It is strongly recommended that a trip be made with flush joint wash pipe or drill collars longer
than the patch assembly and with an O.D. larger than the unset patch to assure the patch and setting
equipment will pass through the dogleg.
Figure 8-32 Elements of Casing and Patch System
8. WELL REPAIR
A casing scraper run is normally recommended before setting a patch to clean the area. However if
the window or dogleg wear is very large there may be some concern about sticking the scraper. Not
making a scraper run has its own risks as well. Foreign material on the casing wall could prevent
setting the full length of patch resulting in a fishing job. Therefore it is a good idea to run the drift or
mill as described above.
Casing Patch Specification
Currently there are in use casing patches for different casing sizes. Man supplier for casing patches
for OMV Petrom in this moment is Weatherford; but several other service providers are offering their
equipment & services.
8.8.1 Hole Preparation for Casing Patching
Locating and Identifying the Leak
A wide variety of methods and equipment can be used to locate leaks, such as bridge plug and
packer, RTTS (Re-settable Test & Treat System) tool, wireline logs, MFC (Multi-Finger Calliper) logs or
Downhole Video cameras. Correlating or positioning the patch is very critical. If the position of the
patch is off by several feet, a slow leak may result. To assure proper placement, a gamma ray log in
conjunction with a radioactive sub or a pup joint in the string may be used for exact measurement
determination.
Casing Scraper Run
A casing scraper run is normally recommended before setting a patch to ensure the area is clean.
Pipe scale or other debris on the casing wall could prevent setting the full length of patch resulting in
a fishing job.
API Drift and/or Gauge Run
As previously mentioned, it is extremely important to make an API drift or gauge run prior to running
the patch into the well. If the pipe won’t drift, a tapered mill or string mill should be run to remove
the restriction.
In a deviated hole it is recommended to run a gauge run with flush pipe larger in diameter than the
patch setting equipment and 25 ft (7.6 m) longer than the patch. This will assure the patch and
setting equipment will pass through any of the doglegs without getting hung up and becoming stuck.
Well Cleaning / Circulation
Circulating clean completion fluid through the well until all the returns come back clean ensures that
all the debris that the gauge ring, casing scraper or tapered mill might have dislodged is removed
prior to running the patch.
Sand can get in behind the patch preventing a good seal. Thus if any sand may enter above the casing
patch depth, that sand source has to be eliminated/shut off.
8. WELL REPAIR
8.8.2 Running and Setting the Casing Patch
The following is a brief summary of running and setting the patch. Different well conditions could
necessitate the modifying of this procedure. For a more detailed procedure, see Operating
Instructions by casing patch manufacturers and service providers.
- The setting tool is assembled and the patch is sized to the casing. The expander assembly,
extensions and casing patch are placed on the lower piston rod. After the steel liner is coated with
epoxy resin, the tool is run in the hole on the work string. The liner is positioned across the leak.
- The tubing is picked up to close the circulating valve.
- If a hydraulic hold down is run, hydraulic pressure is applied to force out the buttons. This anchors
the cylinder firmly and isolates the work string from all tensile loads caused by the setting
operations.
- Pressure on the underside of the piston pulls the expander assembly back up through the bottom of
the corrugated patch. As pressure increases, the expander assembly is forced further into the patch,
expanding it against the inside of the casing. Five feet of patch can be expanded in one stroke. The
circulating valve is opened by lowering the work string, thereby telescoping the slide valve. The work
string is raised again to pull up the cylinders in relation to the pistons held down by the expander
assembly. The expanded section of the patch is held in place on the casing wall by friction caused by
compressive hoop stresses. Hydraulic pressure is again applied to the work string after closing the
circulating valve, once again expanding the hydraulic hold down buttons.
- The expander assembly is again forced through the corrugated patch, expanding it against the
inside of the casing. This procedure is continued until the entire patch is set. The epoxy resin is
extruded into any leaks or cavities in the casing wall and acts as a gasket and additional setting agent.
Setting time normally requires less than 30 minutes for a 20-ft. patch. The tool is then removed from
the well.
- It is recommended to allow the patch to be set for 24 hrs. prior to pressure testing the patch. The
test pressure should not exceed the approximate internal pressure ratings given in the Specifications
tables on the previous pages.
8. WELL REPAIR
Casing Patch Stuck in the Hole
If the patch becomes stuck or the hydraulic

setting equipment does not function, the patch
can still be set mechanically or released from
the safety sub. If after the first hydraulic stroke
of the setting tool, it can no longer hold
pressure, the patch can be completed with a
straight pull by the rig. Therefore a good work
string is required on which the patch is to be
run. If the patch cannot be set with a straight
pull by the rig, the tool can be released by
applying upward strain and 8 to 10 rounds of
right-hand torque, which releases a safety joint
just above the expander assembly, allowing the
retrieval of the tool.
Removing a Set Casing Patch
If it becomes necessary to remove a patch, it

can be milled out with mills or rotary shoes.
The O.D. of the mill or shoe should be between
the drift diameter and 1/16-in. over drift if the
patch is set or the drift diameter if stuck.
NOTE:
As mentioned before, the standard patch
restricts the I.D. of the casing by 0.3 in (8 mm).
A heavier patch is also available in casing sizes
7 in (177.8 mm) and larger with a 0.480 in (12
mm) I.D. restriction. Therefore, prior to
running anything through a patch, ensure that
the O.D. of the tool to be run is small enough
to pass through the inner diameter of the Figure 8-33 Casing Patch Service Assembly
patch.
8. WELL REPAIR
8.9 Scab Liner
The Scab Liner Packer (SLP) is an economical alternative to cement squeezing casing leaks or to
isolate perforations. The system (Figure 8-34a) consists of an upper and lower packer with liner
attached between them. Since the SLP uses packer-type sections it has proven to be much more
durable than cup-type scab liners. The ID’s through the system are generally limited by the liner and
frequently allow injection or production tubing to be run through the system and attached to existing
tools below the SLP.
The packers and liner are carried in the hole with tubing or drill pipe, 1/4 turn rotationally set and
mechanically packed off with pipe weight. After setting, pack off forces are retained by body lock
rings in both packers. The SLP does not remain connected to the tubing string and is not effected by
production or injection tubing movement. Tubing can be pulled and re-run without disturbing the
SLP. The SLP can be retrieved with the running tool if desired.
8.10 Liner Tie Back to Surface
In the case when the production casing above the production liner is severely damaged and casing
repair is not possible or not economic by cement squeeze, scab liners or casing patching, in those
cases is necessary to tie a liner back into an existing liner and extend it to the surface. There are
several liner tie-back products available on the market.
A tie-back seal stem is fitted with molyglass seals and creates an effective seal with the liner-top
PBR. Applications for tie-back seal stems include temporary tie-back liners (drilling tie-backs), scab
liners, cemented tie-back liners, and tie-back packers that use top-set liner-top packers. Some seal
stems feature cementing ports between two of the seal stacks so that the tieback string can be
cemented in place.
A tie-back packer (Figure 8-34b) features a seal stem, a packing element, holddown slips, and a liner-
top PBR. It is run as a second-trip packer when a liner that was run with a setting sleeve requires
liner-top isolation. It is also run as a backup in case the original liner-top packer leaks. In most cases a
tie-back packer is a reliable and cost-effective alternative to an expensive liner-top squeeze.
8.11 Cemented Tubing Completions
In the case when casing repair is not possible with other methods due to lack of room inside the
production casing (slim hole monobore completions for example) the ultimate solution for casing
leak repair is cementing the production tubing (Figure 8-34c). The so called cemented completion
concept is a fundamentally simple one. The well is prepared for completion; the production tubing
string is ran and landed in the wellhead. Following it the completion tubing is cemented back inside
the previous casing. The Christmas tree is then installed and the well perforated in the normal
manner. Tubing can be cemented to the surface or just partially (in the bottom section).
8. WELL REPAIR
a b c
Figure 8-34 a) Scab Liner Completion; b) Tie Back Packer; c) Cemented Tubing Completion
8. WELL REPAIR
8.12 Casing Repair Technology Workflow
Figure 8-35 Casing Repair Flow Diagram
8. WELL REPAIR
List of Figures
Figure 8-1a) Casing Swages; b) Casing Roller; c) Bowen Casing Scraper),
Figure 8-2 Ditch Magnets,
Figure 8-3a) Fishing Magnet; b) Junk Subs; c) Core Type Junk Basket,
Figure 8-4 a) Reverse circulation junk basket; b) Reverse Circulating Junk Basket with Replaceable
Junk Catchers (two),
Figure 8-5 Junk mills with fishing neck,
Figure 8-6 a) Flat bottom mills; b) Round nose, c) Taper mills),
Figure 8-7 a) Watermelon mills; b) Piranha mill; c) Pilot mill; d) Bowen economill),
Figure 8-9 a) Overshot milling shoes; b) Packer retrieving milling shoes; c)Junk basket milling shoes,
Figure 8-10a)Type A rotary shoes; b) Type B rotary shoes; c)Type C rotary shoes; d)Type D rotary
shoes,
Figure 8-11 a) Type E rotary shoes; b) Type F rotary shoes; d) Type G rotary shoes; d) Type H rotary
shoes),
Figure 8-12 a) Type I rotary shoes; b) Type J rotary shoes; c) TypeK rotary shoes,
Figure 8-13 Lead Impression Blocks with Different Indents,
Figure 8-14 Overshots with Bowl and Spiral Grapples,
Figure 8-15 a) Bowen Series 150 Circulating and Releasing Overshot (long neck); b) Bowen Series 70
Short Catch Overshots (short neck); c) Bowen Series 20 Sucker Rod Fishing Overshot,
Figure 8-16 a) Type A Die Collar; b)Type B die Collar With Lipped Guide; c)Entrance port of both types
of die collars,
Figure 8-17 a) Bowen releasing spear; b) Bowen L-L Releasing Spear,
Figure 8-18 a) Bowen Simplex Packer Retriever; b) Taper Tap, with Guide, ’Kick-Off’ type,
Figure 8-19 a) Bowen Coarse Thread Safety Joint; b) Washover Safety Joint,
Figure 8-20 a) Fishing Bumper Subs; b) Hydraulic Fishing Jar,
Figure 8-21a) Bowen Jar Intensifier; b) Bowen Surface Bumper Jar,
Figure 8-22a) Different Wireline Spear Types; b) Reverse Rotation Back-off Tool,
Figure 8-23 Mechanical Cut,
Figure 8-24 a) Internal Casing Cutters; b) internal Pipe Cutter,
Figure 8-25 c) Bowen Hydraulic External Cutters; b) External Pipe cutter; c) Keyet Wiper (Reamer),
8. WELL REPAIR
Figure 8-26 BHA for Milling and Washover Operations,
Figure 8-27 BHA for Releasing Spear Operation and BHA with Mechanical Jar,
Figure 8-28 BHA with Hydraulic Jar and BOH with Hydraulic jar & Accelerator,
Figure 8-29 BHA with Reversing Tool; Fishing Magnet,
Figure 8-30 Fishing Operation Technology flow Diagram,
Figure 8-31 Installing a Casing Patch,
Figure 8-32 Elements of Casing and Patch System,
Figure 8-33 Casing Patch Service Assembly,
Figure 8-34 a) Scab Liner Completion; b) Tie Back Packer; c) Cemented Tubing Completion,
Figure 8-35 Casing Repair Flow Diagram.
List of Tables
Table 8-1 Application and running parameters for some mills.
8. WELL REPAIR
References
1. Well/Casing Repair WO Best practices in OMV Petrom/WO Program 346 Ciuresti S

2. Fishing General Presentation, NExT (Network of Excellence in Training)
3. Well Completion Best Practices Reports (programming, execution, HO, etc.) Wells:
Mamu4316 and 4320; Petrom, RO
4. Technology and Technics for performing various WO operations (cementing, acidizing,
milling, fishing etc.) by using CT; Weatherford, International
5. Cementing with Coil Tubing SOP; Weatherford, International
6. Composite Plug Milling Using CT; Weatherford, International
7. Tubing Cutter Procedure; Weatherford, International
8. HETS Internal Casing Patch; HETS
9. EniAgip Drilling And Workover Manual; ENI, International
10. WEATHERFORD Fishing Technical Manual; Weatherford, International
11. National Oilwell FISHING TOOLS; Varco, International
12. Saudi Aramco WorkOver Manual; Saudi Aramco, SA
13. NORSOK Well Intervention Standards; Norwegian North Sea sector, Norway
14. Workover Handbook; Petrom RO
15. MOBIL Completion Handbook; Exxon-Mobil, International
16. Petroleum Engineering Handbook
Contents

9. STIMULATION BY ACIDIZING ............................................................................................................ 9-3
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 9-3
9.1.1 Objectives of Well Stimulation by Acidizing ...................................................................... 9-4
9.2 Well Acidizing Stimulation Technology.................................................................................... 9-4
9.2.1 Total Skin factor and its use in OMV Petrom for Making Decision for Acidizing .............. 9-5
9.2.2 Best Candidate Selection Process for Acidizing ................................................................. 9-7
9.2.3 Review of the Most Frequent Damages in OMV Petrom and General Selection of
Treatment .......................................................................................................................... 9-7
9.3 Well Acidizing Methods Applied in OMV Petrom .................................................................. 9-10
9.3.1 Sandstone ........................................................................................................................ 9-13
9.3.2 Carbonate ........................................................................................................................ 9-15
9.4 Technology Workflow of Best Practices for Fluid Selection, Treatment Design and Job
Execution ............................................................................................................................... 9-18
9.4.1 Sandstone Matrix Acidizing Treatment ........................................................................... 9-18
9.4.2 Applied Sandstone Design Procedure ............................................................................. 9-29
9.4.3 Carbonate Acidizing Best Practices.................................................................................. 9-36
9.4.4 Planning and Job , Execution of Acidizing Treatment...................................................... 9-45
9.4.5 Job Evaluation and Control .............................................................................................. 9-48
9.5 Configuration of Surface Equipment for Acidizing............................................................... 9-52
9.6 Fluids and Materials Used for Acidizing ................................................................................. 9-53
9.6.1 Additives (corrosion inhibitors, Iron-Control Agents, Clay Stabilizers etc)...................... 9-53
9.7 Quality and Safety Requirements for Acidizing ..................................................................... 9-54
9.7.1 Quality Control................................................................................................................. 9-54
9.7.2 Health, Safety and Environmental Aspects of Acidizing .................................................. 9-57
9.7.3 Personnel (Training, Supervision) .................................................................................... 9-59
Appendix 9-A Commercially Available Acid Systems Specification Details.................................... 9-60
Appendix 9-B Commercially Available Additives and Solvent Specifications ................................ 9-66
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 9-70
List of Tables................................................................................................................................... 9-72
References ...................................................................................................................................... 9-74

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 9. STIMULATION BY ACIDIZING

Review the well logs, reservoir characteristics and previous workovers to identify shortlist
candidates with damage to the wellbore, in the perforations and / or within the formations.
1.
Clarify the factors causing skin damage on shortlist candidates and determine which near
wellbore flow restrictions can be removed by acid treatment.
Involve careful consideration of fluid selection, the pumping schedule, acid placement
2.
techniques and on-site treatment monitoring.
Use developed workflows (Figure 9-10 to Figure 9-16) for proper fluid selection required for
sandstone acidizing.
Mineral Composition > 100 mD 20-100 mD < 20 mD
3. <10% Silt and < 10 % Clay 15% HCl 10% HCl 7.5% HCl
>10% Silt and >10 % Clay
>10% Silt and < 10 % Clay 10% HCl 7.5% HCl 5% HCl
>10% Silt and > 10 % Clay
Reduce the concentration of the HCl if the formation is partially or totally dolomite and
4. should be lowered wherever silicate content of the dolomite is high in order to avoid
precipitation. Follow selection workflow in Figure 9-20.
In case of high bottomhole temperatures use slower reacting weak organic acids. Special
5. attention should be paid to the concentrations of formic acid to avoid precipitation of
calcium formate.
Use retarded HCl (by gelling or emulsifying the acid), or organic acids if bottomhole
6.
temperature is high (>120 oC).
The cleanliness of all tanks that will hold water or acid should be verified and the acid tank
7.
must be circulated before pumping.
8. Mix chemicals in recommended sequences.
9. Always keep foam quality above 70%.
10. Carry out acid pickling of tubing string for all important (costly) jobs.
11. Put the well into production immediately (no reaction break) in high temperature wells.
12. Use nitrogen displacement for gas wells.
13. Use diverting for long (> 25 m) perforated intervals.
Use HBF4 when problems with migrating fines exist, what is often case in the maturated
14.
wells completed with gravel pack.
Verify availability and specifications of all fluids (additives, acid, surfactants, diverters)
15.
required to complete the stimulation job
The injection rate and pressure is to be monitored and the pressure kept below predefined
16.
levels (especially breakdown pressure in sandstone).
Fluids pumped during the stimulation job are to be sampled and analysed for post-
17.
treatment review.
Real-time formation response to stimulation fluids should be recorded in a Field-Acid-
18. Response-Curve (FARC) to enable swift corrective action to be undertaken during the
treatment job.
Use standardized treatment report which describes fluid QC data, pump rates, tubing and
annular pressure measurements, types and volumes of fluids and diverters, deviations from
19.
the program, pumping interruptions and any other problems which influenced the execution
of the treatment job.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 9. STIMULATION BY ACIDIZING

1. To exceed frac pressure during treatment operation.
2. To use HF + KCl or formation brine.

If doing foam injection frac pressure is reached do not decrease foam quality, just stop
3.
nitrogen.
To start treatment if all fluids which are pre-blended at the service company facility are not
4.
subjected to quality checks.
5. To use diverting for short (< 25 m) perforated intervals.
6. To use mud acid to treat formations if HCL solubility is > 20%.
7. To start acidizing treatment if sufficient injectivity is not obtained.
8. To use of HCl preflush after dry tests in exploratory/wildcat wells.

To continue the treatment if the surface pressure rises sharply or rises continuously for
9.
certain volume of acid (0.5-1m3).
To delay the well shut-in time after acidizing treatment in order to minimize precipitation
10.
of reaction product.
To use NaCl, KCl, or CaCl2 brines in any HF treatment stages or in any stage immediately
11.
preceding or following HF stages.
9.1 Introduction
There are two basic stimulation methods which can be used to eliminate formation damage and
increase well productivity: matrix acidizing and fracturing (hydraulic and acid).
Matrix stimulation by acidizing is injecting an acid/solvent at below the fracturing pressure of the
formation in order to dissolve/disperse materials that impair well production in sandstone reservoirs
or to create new unimpaired flow channels in carbonate reservoirs.
In the case of injecting acid below the fracturing pressure the injected acid dissolve some of minerals
present, and hence, reestablish or increase the permeability inner-wellbore vicinity (not deeper than
0.1 to 0.3m in sandstone reservoir and 1 to 3 m in carbonate reservoirs). Matrix acidizing can
significantly enhance the productivity of a well when near-wellbore formation damage is present,
and conversely, is of little benefit in an undamaged well. Thus, matrix acidizing should generally be
applied only when a well has a high skin effect that cannot be attributed to partial penetration,
perforation efficiency, or other mechanical aspects of the completion.
The most common acids used in OMV Petrom are hydrochloric acid (HCl), used primarily to dissolve
carbonate minerals, and mixtures of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids (HF/HCl), for attacking
silicate minerals such as clays and feldspars. Other acid formulations, particularly some weak organic
acids, are used in special applications.
Acid fracturing, resulting from the injection of fluids at pressures above the formation
fracture/parting pressure, is intended to create a path of high conductivity by dissolving the walls of
the created fracture in a non-uniform way. Acid fracturing is sometimes used to overcome formation
damage in relatively high-permeability formations. However, carbonate reservoirs of relatively low
permeability may also be candidates for acid fracturing. In acid fracturing, the reservoir is
hydraulically fractured and then the fracture faces are etched with acid to provide linear flow
channels to the wellbore.
Acid fracturing of relatively homogenous carbonates will produce smooth fracture faces that will
retain little fracture flow capacity when treating pressure is released. Acid fracturing of
heterogeneous carbonates can develop non-uniform etching of the fracture face. The area that is not
etched acts as a support for the etched areas, thus providing flow channels in the fracture and
significant increases in well productivity. It is suggested that laboratory tests be conducted on cores
to determine the etching characteristics of the rock before treating a well. In some instances, the
non-etched area of a heterogeneous carbonate will be softened by acid and will not support the
fracture when treating pressure is released. The only alternative would be hydraulic fracturing and
propping with sand. Two other problems can exist in acid fracturing: (1) Un-dissolved fines can
significantly reduce fracture flow capacity if not removed with spent acid and suspending agents,
usually surfactants or polymers will materially aid in the removal of these fines (2) Emulsions can
block the etched fracture. API RP 42 tests should be performed to select an emulsion preventing
surfactant for the acid treatment.
Acid fracturing is rarely used in the treatment of sandstones, because acid, even hydrofluoric acid
(HF), does not adequately etch these fracture faces. However, treatments have been successful in
some sandstone formations containing carbonate-filled natural fractures. Removal of these
carbonate deposits often results in sufficient conductivity to yield excellent treatment results.
The results of field studies in Sotanga Meoţian, Targoviste Răsvad Gura Ocnitei Meoţian III, Calinesti
Dacian, Moreni, Gura Ocnitei and South Dacian, which are in an maturated/advanced stage of
production consisting mostly of high permeability sand layers with high variation of stability (good to
poor ) have been used in formulating the stimulation acidizing best practices in OMV Petrom.
9.1.1 Objectives of Well Stimulation by Acidizing
The key objectives of well acidizing in OMV Petrom are to:

• Remove near wellbore formation damage and decrease skin factor
• Restore damaged matrix permeability in near well-bore reservoir area
• Improve matrix permeability in near well-bore reservoir area
• Maximize well productivity
• Remove deposits from well tubular/wellbore cleanout.
The improvement in productivity of wells that can be realized with matrix stimulation as shown in
Figure 9-1 The plot shows that acidizing is more effective in restoring the original permeability by
removing formation damage, than in increasing permeability over its original value. This is used as
principal guidance in the company for selecting the best well candidate for application of stimulation
by acidizing.
9.2 Well Acidizing Stimulation Technology
In sandstone formations, acid treatments aim to remove near-wellbore flow restrictions and
formation damage. The goal of these treatments is to return the near-wellbore area to its natural
condition. In carbonates, dissolving matrix is one of the objectives, but bypassing a damage of the
nearwellbore by creating new channels is the primary target.
Usually, wellbore damage is caused by drilling or completion operations, fines migration, clay
swelling or polymer plugging. To select an optimized fluid system for effective stimulation, the type
of damage and the formation mineralogy must be known. The structured process of the design of a
well acidizing stimulation job the following main phases:
1. Candidate selection and proper diagnosis of damage type - The best candidate well for a
stimulation treatment is selected, regardless of the type of stimulation/remediation needed.
Candidates are wells with damage to the wellbore, in the perforations and / or within the formations
which is acid-removable. If the damage is not acid-removable, then it should not be acidized and is
not a candidate. During this phase, the best treatment for the type of damage must be determined
by assessing and, ideally, measuring the skin. The economically most attractive candidate is then
selected based upon expected production gains.
2. Fluid selection - The appropriate fluids, acid types, concentration, treatment volumes and
additives are selected. Careful thought should be given to the determination of appropriate
additives and combinations for each case.
3. Pumping schedule and execution sequences - The number of stages and how much to pump in
each stage (volumes, rates and time) are determined.
4. Acid placement and techniques - detailed simulation of the acidization process using the planned
pumping schedule should be undertaken, including diversion. A major reason for unsuccessful acid
treatments is that the acid does not go where it needs to go. Determination of the proper fluid
placement method is thus a key factor in acid treatment design in both carbonates and sandstones.
5. Treatment monitoring, quality control and on site evaluation -The actual skin changes resulting
from the stimulation treatment are compared to the predicted results. Quality control steps (during
rig-up, before pumping, during pumping and flowback) should be implemented.
9.2.1 Total Skin factor and its use in OMV Petrom for Making Decision for Acidizing
The skin is an important factor to decide whether or not to stimulate a well and what generic type of
treatment would be most suitable. Since it represents the total additional pressure drop as compared
to ideal conditions, in the near-wellbore region, its value is the combined effect of several
parameters, including formation damage. To properly interpret the skin and therefore determine the
appropriate remedial action, field engineers must analyze the contribution of each factor. This
analysis should involve identifying skin damage which could be removed by stimulation and may
result in additional opportunities for production improvement such as re-perforating. Candidate
identification therefore requires an understanding of the various skins and recognizing skin damage.
The production of newly completed well or worked-over well may be lower than expected, due to
wellbore damage from the drilling/completion/workover process, or by mechanical difficulties in the
overall completion process. All of these problems will result in an additional pressure drop near the
wellbore, and thus affect the skin factor. Therefore, the key to candidate selection lies in the analysis
of the various skin components. In Table 9-1 these skin component characteristics are summarized.
Table 9-1 Summarized skin components
Skin Components Characteristics

S Total skin factor (Horner skin)
Skin caused by formation damage (positive). It is the component that needs
Sdam to be removed with the matrix treatment.
Skin caused by limited perforation height (positive). It results from the well
not being perforated over the complete reservoir height, such as to minimise
Spart gas or water coning.
Skin caused by wellbore deviation (negative). At high deviation angles, the
increased effective length of the reservoir section open to inflow increases
Sdev the natural well productivity.
Skin caused by the presence of small perforations (positive or negative). The
Sperf skin depends on the perforation size and phasing.
Skin caused by reduced crushed-zone permeability around perforations
(positive). Difficult to estimate due to many parameters that cannot be
estimated reliably, like permeability of crushed zone, actual depth of
Sd,perf penetration.
Skin caused by gravel packing (usually positive). Theoretically, it may have a
negative value in underreamed, open hole, gravel packed wells because of
Sperf the increased effective wellbore radius.
Skin caused by turbulent (non-Darcy) flow, mainly applicable to gas
(positive). It is often caused by flow convergence because of inadequate
Sturb dimensions and an inadequate number of perforations.
Figure 9-1 illustrates how the skin factor varies with the damage ratio, kd/k, and damage zone radius,
rd, for a vertical well with a radius of 0.0762 m. These variables determine the magnitude of the skin
factor and control the well productivity. For instance, a reduction in permeability to less than one
tenth of the initial value within 0.6 m of the wellbore axis results in a skin factor of approximately
18.7.
Figure 9-1 Skin factor as a function of damage radius and damage ration (kd/k)
The skin effect is a composite variable. The following sources of the nonideal flow should consider:
• Formation damage,
• Limited entry completions effects,
• Perforation effects,
• Saturation blockage near the wellbore, and
• Gravel-pack completion effects.
The composite skin factor can be calculated from well test data. It is very important to separate the
observed skin factor into its components and to establish which near-wellbore flow restrictions can
be removed by stimulation treatment and which require workover or recompletion. For good
understanding of the skin related concepts it is enough to consider pseudo-steady flow only.
Figure 9-2 Pressure profile of damaged and undamaged well
Skin, S, is the composite of all non-ideal conditions affecting flow into the wellbore, and may
generally be written, with its main components, as:
𝑆 = 𝑆𝑑𝑎𝑚 + 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 + 𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑣 + 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓 ++𝑆𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 + ∑ 𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 (9-1)
The last term in the above expression represents an array of pseudoskin factors. These pseudoskin
effects are generally mechanical, resulting from obstructions to flow or because of turbulence effect
and additional pressure drop. The real skin due to formation damage is that portion of the total skin
that can be removed by matrix treatments. Sdam describes the permeability of the damaged to
undamaged zones and the damaged radius, as shown on Figure 9-2.
9.2.2 Best Candidate Selection Process for Acidizing
Despite the extensive research efforts done by the industry on the root cause of formation
impairment and its remediation by matrix treatment, the failure rate of matrix acidizing treatments
today is estimated at 60 to 70%. Worldwide, this failure rate represents a loss of millions of dollars in
wasted stimulation expenditure and missed production. The primary causes for failed treatments
have been poor candidate selection and poor treatment design with respect to fluid selection and
placement. Another reason for the high failure rate of matrix acidizing treatments is the lack of
proper technology transfer to the field. Because the industry often sees matrix treatments as low-
technology treatments, little attention is given to design.
Many candidates are normally selected by each Asset and they are sending for evaluation. The
process of candidate selection applied in Assets includes:
• Prepare list of candidate wells,
• Review of well logs/records, reservoir characteristics and information on the
completion/previous workovers,
• Map the productivity of each well,
• Establish reasonable upper production potential for matrix stimulation techniques,
• Evaluate potential mechanical problems, and
• Focus on wells with the highest reward and lowest risk.
The candidate wells are then analyzed by Stimulation Team in Production Engineering according
to the following six criteria:
1. PVT matching in order to select the best PVT correlation to simulate well behavior when
acid is injected.
2. Verification of the remaining reserves and the current water saturation.
3. Evaluation of an approximate damage type from history well data and skin factor using
an analytical model (Resestim 7 in house made software or licensed software Prosper
for integrated system analysis).
4. Predict well productivity index (PI) increase after stimulation job based on new skin.
5. Make production forecast using material balance equation for oil and gas wells.
6. Estimate NPV and Cash Flow based on production forecast.
All economically feasible wells are candidates. The design of the stimulation is made for the
economically most attractive candidates. A system for the selection of the acid should be used and
the calculation of the other design parameters is based on models/algorithms that will be explained
later.
9.2.3 Review of the Most Frequent Damages in OMV Petrom and General Selection of
Treatment
Once damage has been characterized in a well, its origin must be ascertained to help determine the
correct remedial action. Various types of damage can exist since almost every operation performed
on the well is a potential source of damage. The physical characteristics of the damage are an
essential parameter since this determines the desired characteristics of the treating fluid. The
physical characteristics of the damage are the main criterion adopted to categorize the various types
of damage indicated in Figure 9-3 (seven basic types of damages).
Emulsions
The intermixing of oil- and water-base fluids in the formation often results in the formation of
emulsions. Emulsions can have high viscosity, particularly water-in-oil emulsions. Typically, they are
formed due to invasion of drilling/completion filtrate or treatment fluids into the formation. High pH
filtrates from mud or cement slurry or low pH filtrate from acidizing can emulsify some formation
oils. Similarly, hydrocarbon filtrates from oil-based drilling or stimulation fluid can form emulsions
with some formation brines. Emulsions are stabilized by surface active materials (surfactants) and by
fines, which are either present in the "treating" fluids or are generated through the fluid/rock
interaction. Generally, mutual solvents with or without demulsifiers are used for treating such
problems.
Figure 9-3 Formation damage types
Wettability Change
Partially or totally oil wetting a formation reduces the relative permeability to oil. This may occur due
to adsorption of surface active materials from oil-based drilling, workover or completion fluids on the
rock. This type of damage is removed by the injection of mutual solvents to remove the oil wetting
hydrocarbon phase, followed by the injection of strongly water-wetting surfactants.
Water Block
A water block caused by an increase in the water saturation near the wellbore decreases the relative
permeability to hydrocarbons. Waterblock can form either during drilling and completion operations
through invasion of water-base filtrate, or during production through fingering or coning of
formation water. The formation of a water block is favored by the presence of pore lining clays such
as illite. The hairy shape and large surface area of these clays increase the adsorption of water on the
pore wells.
A water block is usually treated by reducing the surface tension between water and oil (HF acids).
Nonaqueous acids (such as alcoholic acid) are particularly suitable in (gas) wells where a water block
problem is suspected because they also increase the vapor pressure and reduce the surface tension
between water and gas.
Scales
Scales are precipitated mineral deposits. They can precipitate in the tubing, perforations and/or
formation. Scale deposition occurs during production because of the lower temperatures and
pressures encountered in or near the wellbore. Scales can also form by mixing of incompatible
waters: formation water and either fluid filtrate or injection water. Various solvents can be used to
dissolve scales, depending on their mineralogy. The most common types of scales encountered in a
well are:
• Carbonate scale (CaCO3 and FeCO3): CaCO3, is the most common scale, occurring in
reservoirs rich in calcium and carbonate and/or bicarbonate ions. Hydrochloric acid will radial
dissolve all carbonate scales.
• Sulphate scales occurring mainly as gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) or anhydrite (CaSO4). The less
common barytine (BaSO4) or strontianite (SrSO4) is much more difficult to remove but, their
occurrence is more predictable. EDTA will dissolve calcium sulphate. Barium and strontium
sulphates can also be dissolved with EDTA provided the temperature is high enough and the
contact times sufficiently long (typically 24 hr soaking period is required for a 4000m well
with a BHST of about 100oC
• Chloride scales such as sodium chloride: These are easily dissolved with fresh water or very
weak acidic (HCl, acetic) solutions.
• Iron scales such as sulphide (FeS) or oxide (Fe2O3): Hydrochloric acid with reducing agents
and sequestrant will dissolve such scales and prevent the reprecipitation of by-products such
as iron hydroxides and elemental sulphur.
• Silica scales: Generally occurring as very finely crystallized deposits of opal or chalcedony.
Hydrofluoric acid can dissolve silica scales.
• Hydroxide scales such as magnesium (Mg[OH]2) or calcium (Ca[OH]2) hydroxides:
Hydrochloric acid or any acid that can sufficiently lower the pH and not precipitate calcium or
magnesium salts can be used to remove such deposits.
Contact time is a very important factor to consider in the design of a scale removal treatment. The
major problem when treating scale deposits is to allow sufficient contact time for the acid to reach
and effectively dissolve the bulk of the scale material. The treating fluid must contact and effectively
dissolve most of the scale in order for the treatment to be successful.
Organic Deposits
Organic deposits are precipitated heavy hydrocarbons (paraffin or asphaltenes). They are typically
located in the tubing, perforations and/or the formation. Although the mechanisms of creation of
organic deposits are numerous and complex, the principal mechanism is a change in temperature or
pressure near the wellbore during production. The heavy hydrocarbon fractions do not remain
dissolved in the oil and begin to crystallize. Cooling down the wellbore or injecting of cold treatment
fluids has the same overall effect as a temperature drop during production.
The deposits are usually re-dissolved by organic solvents. Blends of solvents can be tailored to a
particular problem, but an aromatic solvents is an efficient, general purpose solvent, particularly for
paraffins. The addition of a small amount of alcohols is often beneficial when dissolving asphaltenes.
Organic deposits must not be confused with another type of deposit called sludge. This deposit is a
reaction product between certain crude oils and strong inorganic acids. Once formed, sludge cannot
be dissolved.
Mixed Deposits
Mixed organic/inorganic deposits are a blend of organic compounds and either scales or silts and
clays. When migrating fines associated with an increase in water production in a sandstone reservoir
become oil-wet, they act as a nucleation site for organic deposits. This type of combined deposits
requires the use of a mixed solvent.
Silts and Clays
Damage due to silts and clays includes the invasion of the reservoir permeability by drilling mud, the
swelling and/or migration of reservoir clays. Clays or other solids from the drilling, completion or
workover fluids can invade the formation. When the differential pressure is sufficiently large and the
size of the particles is smaller than the pore throat openings, they are forced into the pore network
and tend to plug the network, resulting in damage.
When water-based filtrate from drilling, completion, workover or treating fluids invades the porosity
of the reservoir, it can disturb the equilibrium between the clays and formation water. This is
normally due to a change in salinity, which creates imbalances in the forces between clays. Smectite
clays can swell and drastically reduce permeability. Flocculated aggregates of kaolinite can be
dispersed, and subsequently block pore throats. This disturbance of native clays is the most common
and, probably the most important cause of damage.
During production, particles can become dislodged and migrate with the produced fluids. The
particles can bridge near the wellbore resulting in reduced productivity. When the damaging
particles come from the reservoir rock, they are usually referred to as "fines". This is a generic term
that includes clays (phyllosilicates with a size of typically less than 4 micrometers) and silts (silicates
or aluminosilicates with a size between 4 and 64 micrometers). These particles are soluble in
hydrofluoric acid mixtures.
Damage due to fines is located in the near wellbore area within a 0.9 m to 1.2m radius. Damage may
also occur in a gravel pack in sandstones it is removed by treatment with an acid containing HF: Mud
Acids of various strengths or Clay Acid systems. An HCl system is normally used to remove fines
damage in a carbonate formation. Since the fines are not dissolved, yet are dispersed in the natural
fractures or in the wormholes just created, nitrogen is normally recommended when the well has low
bottom pressure. The nitrogen will enhance fines removal.
Due to the complexity of the fines problem and its impact on treatment design this manual contains,
in the following two chapters, detailed information on the removal of fines damage in sandstones
and carbonates respectively.
9.3 Well Acidizing Methods Applied in OMV Petrom
There are two principal matrix acidizing treatment methods used in OMV Petrom in which applied
treatment pressure at the bottom is lover than formation fracturing pressure are:
1. Sandstone acidizing, and

2. Carbonate Acidizing
Matrix acidizing of sandstones with mud acid is directed at silt and clay damage removal. A treatment
may also be designed to remove other types of damage, such as: emulsion, wettability change,
water block, organic deposits, and mixed deposits. Samples of the formation, produced fluids, and
possibly even tubing, are important to ascertain formation damage type and well condition. The
sensitivity of the formation to a treating fluid may result in deconsolidation due to dissolution of the
cementing material. Precipitates may form from Fe, Na, K dissolved by mud acid. Fines released
during HCl or Mud Acid stages may create damage. Low permeability wells are very susceptible to
this damage mechanism.
The primary objective of matrix acidizing in carbonates is to dissolve the matrix, but most of all, to
bypass damage, by creating wormholes and thus to increase the effective wellbore radius and its
average effective permeability. The formation is therefore actually stimulated (unlike in sandstone
reservoirs), and the skin value is decreased, often to negative values.
Considering the main types of potential damages the general best practice workflow of well
stimulation by acidizing is shown on Figure 9-4.
Figure 9-4 Formation damage types and treatment selection
The final fluid selection for treatment
The first step in planning to acidize any type of formation (sandstone and/or carbonate) is to use key
reservoir characteristics like gross lithology, mineralogy composition and temperature for fluid
selection. The general workflow applied in OMV Petrom for basic fluid selection is shown in Figure
9-5.
Figure 9-5 Basic Fluid Selection for Well Acidizing
9.3.1 Sandstone
Treatment fluid selection in sandstone formations is highly dependent on the mineralogy of the rock
as well as the damage mechanism. Hydrofluoric (HF) acid is typically used to dissolve the damaging
silicate particles (Figure 9-6). Nonacid systems are sometimes used to disperse whole mud and allow
it to be produced with the treating fluid. The criteria for selecting the treating fluid for any treatment
stage are mineralogy (solubility of minerals in acid, clays/silt, iron and zeolites content and other
lithology criteria such as chlorite and glauconite content), petrophysical properties (permeability)
and well conditions (temperature, formation damage mechanism).
Figure 9-6 Constituents of sandstone which are soluble in HCl/HF acid systems
HF Reactions in Sandstones
The reaction of HF acid with the damaged matrix occurs in three steps. Live HF reacts with sand,
feldspar and clays, which results in silicon fluorides and some aluminum fluorides as reaction
products. The HF acid provides the greatest dissolving power during this phase, while only a small
amount of HCl is consumed. The depth of invasion of the live HF acid is normally 5-15 cm from the
wellbore. The primary stage is the stage that removes skin damage. The reaction of hydrofluoric acid
(HF) on the pure quartz component of sandstone described by the equations 9-2 and 9-3 results in
silicon tetrafluorid (SiF4) and water:
4HF + SiO 2 ⇔ SiF 4 + 2 H 2 O (9-2)
SiF4 + 2HF ⇔ H2 SiF6 (9-3)
The stoichiometry of this reaction shows that 4 moles of HF are needed to consume one mole of
SiO2. However, the produced SiO4 may react with HF to form fluosilicic acid (H2SiF6) resulting in the
silicon hexafluoride anion SiF62-.
If the reaction goes to completion, 6 moles of HF, rather than 4, will be consumed to dissolve 1 mole
of quartz. A complication is that the fluosilicate may exist in various forms, so that the total amount
of HF required to dissolve a given amount of quartz depends on the solution concentration.
The most common primary reactions involved in acidizing are summarized in Table 9-2.
Table 9-2 Primary chemical reaction in acidizing
HYDROFLORIC ACID - HF
Quartz:
4HF + SiO2 ↔ SiF4(silicon tetrafluoride) + 2H2O
SiF4 + 2HF ↔H2SiF6 (fluosilicic acid) or SiF4 + 2F- ↔SiF62- (Silicon hexafluoride anion)
Albite (sodium feldspar):
Na AlSi3 + 14HF + 2H+ → Na+ + AlF2+ + 3SiF4 + 8H2O
Orthoclase (potassium feldspar):
KAlSi3O8 + 14HF + 2H+ → K+ + AlF2+ + 3SiF4 + 8H2O
Kaolinite:
Al4Si4O10(OH)8 + 24HF + 4H+ → 4AlF2+4SiF4 + 18H2O
Montmorillonite:
Al4Si8O20(OH)4 + 40HF + 4H+ → 4AlF2+ + 8SiF4 + 24H2O
Calcite:
2HF+ CaCO3→CaF2 + CO2 + H2O Note: CaF2 is very low soluble
FLUOBORIC ACID – HBF4
HBF4 + H2O → HF +HBF3OH rapid response
HBF3OH + HF + H2O →HBF4 slow reaction
Fluoboric acid-based solution (Clay Acid)
One of the key problems that can occur after acidizing is migration of fine particles in both,
unconsolidated and consolidated sandstones causing the blockage of the pores, and in some cases
increasing the tendency of forming viscous stabilized emulsions. Migration of fine particles after
reaction with HF is primarily related to the concentration of HF and its reaction speed. To avoid
undesirable precipitations of secondary products of reaction, rock deconsolidation and migration of
fine particles, some special acids compositions have developed that can help in avoiding a problems.
The most frequent used is Fluoboric acid (HBF4)
Fluoboric acid (HBF4) is used to produce HF through the hydrolysis according to the chemical reaction
shown in Table 9-2. At any time there is only a limited amount of HF acid available and the
probability of forming precipitates of fluosilicates, fluoalumintes or silica is decreased significantly..
The acid is consumed by reaction on clay surface minerals followed by hydrolysis to produce more
HF. Because of this, HBF4 is considered as acid with delayed reaction (“retarded acid”). If the
temperature is higher than 95 oC, the kinetic of the hydrolysis is rapid. The reaction of fluoroboric
acid with silica is approximately 10 times lower if temperature is less than 65 oC. A major advantage
of HBF4 is its ability to inhibit the migration of fines present in sandstone by coating the initial surface
with borosilicate as a product of reaction during treatment. Experimental results showed that when
the cores containing pore lining illite have been treated by HBF4, the poorly crystallized precipitate of
KBF4 has been observed at the outlet of cell and it does not have a damaging effect. The positive
effects of using HBF4 and major advantages of its application are:
• The dissolving potential of clay acid is still high (for example, 8% of HBF4 is approximately
equal to 2%HF).
• The borosilicate coating stabilizes fines and makes them less sensitive.
Because of these HBF4 is recommended always when problems with migrating fines exist, what is
often case in the maturated wells completed with gravel pack.
Precipitation of reaction product
When the live HF has been consumed, the secondary reaction proceeds as the reaction of dissolved
silicon fluorides on clay and feldspar. This reaction releases a large amount of aluminum and other
cations into solution, consumes a large amount of HCl, and forms silicon precipitates and sodium and
potassium fluosilicates, which can precipitate if the selected HF concentration is too high relative to
the minerals that contain sodium and potassium. The reaction is complete when the silicon fluorides
are no longer present, which is normally within 1.2 m from the wellbore. The precipitation of
fluosilicates can be very damaging, and is one of the main causes of HF treatment failures,
particularly in formations containing large amounts of K-feldspar. However, it is not really a problem
if the fluid is kept in motion. If live HF is shut in during an acid job, severe and permanent damage to
the matrix permeability can result from silica gel precipitation.
Reaction with feldspar, chert, mica and clay components of sandstones also results in SiF62-anion,
but, in addition, produces a range of aluminum complexes: AlF2+, AlF+2, AlF3, AlF4-, AlF52- and AlF63s-.
The concentration of each aluminum complex depends on the concentration of free fluoride ions in
the dissolving solution. Some of these products combine with free sodium, potassium, and calcium
ions to produce four compounds with varying degrees of solubility in the spending acid:
• Sodium fluosilicate ( Na2SiF6),
• Sodium fluoaluminate (Na3AlF6),
• Potassium fluosilicate ( K2SiF6), and
• Calcium fluosilicate ( CaSiF6).
Matrix treatments are always designed to prevent the formation of these compounds in order to
remove any risk of precipitation.
The tertiary reaction proceeds as the reaction of dissolved aluminum fluorides on clay and feldspar.
The tertiary reaction is slower than the secondary reaction and it is much faster on clays than on
feldspars. However, it is an important reaction that must be considered, because it causes further
reduction in the HCl content of the spent HF. Once the acid is consumed, alumino-silicate scaling
occurs, within a distance of 1.2 m to 1.8 m from the wellbore.
There are many precipitation reactions that take place during an HF sandstone acidizing job. These
reactions are unavoidable, but their effect on stimulation response can be minimized with proper
fluid selection and treatment design
In Table 9-3 damaging HF reactions in sandstones resulting in precipitation are summarized.
Table 9-3 Damaging HF reactions in sandstones
Reaction Precipitate(s)
HF + carbonates (calcite, dolomite) Calcium and magnesium fluoride (CaF2, MgF2)
HF + clays, silicates Amorphous silica (orthosilicic acid) (H4SiO4)
HF + feldspars Sodium and potassium fluosilicate (Na2SiF6, K2SiF6)
HF + clays, feldspars Aluminum fluorides (AlFn3-n) Aluminum hydroxides
HF + illite clay Na2SiF6, K2SiF6
Spent HF + formation brine, seawater Na2SiF6, K2SiF6
HCl-HF + iron oxides and iron minerals Iron compounds
HF + calcite (calcium carbonate) Calcium fluosilicate
9.3.2 Carbonate
There are two basic types of acid treatments applicable to carbonates in OMV Petrom. They are
characterized by injection rates and pressures. Acid treatments with injection rates below formation
fracturing pressure, called matrix acidizing and acid treatment with injection rates above fracturing
pressure (called acid fracturing, see Chapter 11). Matrix acidizing is applicable only to formation
exhibiting formation damage. In the case of naturally fractured formations acidizing at matrix rates
even in an undamaged carbonate formation may result in an acceptable stimulation response.
Whereas the purpose of sandstone acidizing is to dissolve the damage, the primary objective of
matrix acidizing in carbonates is to dissolve the matrix, but most of all, to bypass damage, by creating
new channels and thus to increase the effective wellbore radius and its average effective
permeability. The dissolution of carbonate rocks by acid results in rapid generation of irregularly
shaped and empty channels called wormholes, as shown in Figure 9-7. Because of the randomness of
porous media, it had been shown that during dissolution two neighboring pores can coalesce if
sufficiently enlarged. It is difficult to model or predict the development of wormhole formation in a
real rock as the mineralogy will never be 100% carbonate.
Figure 9-7 Various Wormhole structures
The formation is therefore actually stimulated (unlike in sandstone reservoirs), and the skin value is
decreased, often to negative values.
Acids used in carbonate acidizing and chemistry of reactions

Commonly used acids to stimulate carbonate formation are:
• Hydrochloric (HCl),
• Acetic (CH3COOH)/ week organic acid, and
• Formic (HCOOH)/week organic acid.
Carbonate acidizing solely with HCl, is not complicated by a tendency for precipitates to form, as is
the case for sandstone acidizing. The reaction products CaCl2, MgCl2 (dolomites) and CO2 are readily
soluble in water. Therefore, the formation of a precipitate or a separate CO2-rich phase is generally
not a problem.
Under comparable conditions weak organic acids react more slowly than hydrochloric acid and they
can be used instead of HCl when high bottomhole temperatures (above 200oC) prevent efficient
protection against corrosion. Acetic acid is easier to inhibit than formic acid and is used more often.
Table 9-4 illustrates the maximum protection times with corrosion inhibitors at various temperatures
and acid concentrations.
Table 9-4 Maximum protection time for different acids and temperatures
The following factors affect the spending rate of acid in carbonate formations: temperature,
pressure, acid type, acid concentration, acid velocity, reaction product and formation composition
(structure and mineralogy). Acetic and formic acids react with CaCO3 to form calcium acetate and
formate.
The formic acid concentration must be limited to about 10% as calcium formate precipitates above
that level. Acetic acid can be used at higher concentrations, as calcium acetate remains soluble, but
best practice is to use not more than 10% acetic acid. None of the organic acids react appreciably
with SiO2. They react with iron compounds or minerals containing iron. Acetic acid forms a complex
with iron in solution and helps prevent iron precipitation up to 60oC. In reservoirs with high iron
content, it is necessary to cut back on HCl concentration or substitute part or all the HCl with acetic
acid.
Chelating agents, such EDTA (ethylendiaminetetraacetic acid), are even weaker acids than acetic and
formic acids. For example, 9% disodium EDTA solution has the approximate dissolving power of 2.2%
HCl. It is not common to use chelating acid in matrix acidizing because of their cost relative to the
common acids (HCl, acetic and formic acid) and lower dissolving power.
The summarized chemical reactions of HCl and organic acids with carbonate are shown in Table 9-5.
Table 9-5 The reaction of HCl with carbonates
HYDROCHLORI AClD
Calcium carbonate :
2HCl + CaCO3↔CaCl2 + CO2↑ + H2O
Dolomite:
4HCl + CaMg(CO3)2 ↔ CaCl2 + MgCl2 + 2CO2↑+ 2H2O
Siderite:
2HCl+ FeCO3 ↔ FeCl2 + CO2 + H2O
Organic Acids
Calcium carbonate and Acetic Acid :
2CH3COOH + CaCO3↔Ca(CH3CO2)2 + CO2↑+ H2O
Dolomite and Acetic Acid:
4CH3COOH + CaMg(CO3)2↔Ca(CH3CO2)2 + Mg(CH3CO2)2 +2 CO2↑+ H2O
Calcium carbonate and Formic Acid :
2HCOOH + CaCO3↔Ca(HCO2)2 + CO2↑+ H2O
Dolomite and Formic Acid:
4HCOOH + CaMg(CO3)2↔Ca(HCO2)2 + Mg(CH3CO2)2 + 2CO2↑+ H2O
However, despite the simplified chemistry, HCl acidizing of carbonates is a difficult process to model.
The reason for this is the high rate at which the reactions take place as compared with that of HF
with the various minerals prevalent in sandstones.
Wormhole growth depends on the acid injection rate, the diffusion rate and the formation’s surface
reaction rate. Wormholes will only form if the diffusion rate determines the overall spending rate,
which happens if the acid/rock reaction rate is high. The diffusion rate determines the rate at which
acid travels from the bulk of the fluid to the rock surface as shown on Figure 9-8.
The treatment objective is to form the longest and deepest penetrating wormholes as possible.
Wormholing efficiency under expected downhole and surface treating conditions is a major criterion
in fluid selection.
Images shown in Figure 9-9 are neutron radiographs of cores acidized under different conditions.
Experiments have shown that the quantity of rock dissolved, i.e., the acid penetration depends on
acid velocity. One advantage of wormhole formation is that the near-wellbore damage can be
bypassed and the “effective” treated zone becomes much larger than in sandstone acidizing (for the
same amount of rock dissolved) or in matrix acidizing of carbonates using slow reacting acids when
the kinetics is limited by surface reactions. In addition, problems of deconsolidation in the near-
wellbore area are less severe.
Figure 9-8 Wormholing controlled by diffusion
Major wormhole structure possibilities can be categorized, as a function of injection rate and
acid/rock reactivity, as follows:
• Face dissolution (no Wormholing),
• Conical (single channel with limiting branching),
• Dominant wormholes (primary channels with some branching),
• Ramified wormholes (extensive branching), and
• Uniform dissolution.
Figure 9-9 Various Wormhole structures (Fredd and Fogler, SPEJ, 1998, 1999; Hoefner and Fogler, AlChEJ, 1998)
9.4 Technology Workflow of Best Practices for Fluid Selection, Treatment

Design and Job Execution
9.4.1 Sandstone Matrix Acidizing Treatment
Fluid Selection for Acidizing Treatment
Fluid selection for each stage of the treatment must take account of all of the parameters previously
discussed: dissolution of damage, compatibility with rock minerals and reservoir fluids and potential
damaging reaction products. Since silts and clays are the component minerals that react with HF acid
to cause potentially damaging precipitates, the higher the silt and clay content, the greater the risk of
precipitation. Increasing the HCl:HF ratio is one way to retard precipitation. HCl increases the
dissolving power of the HF and low-HF content reduces the precipitation of silica. Therefore, as the
silt and clay content of the formation increases, the recommended HCl: HF ratio also increases. The
presence of HCl sensitive clays will also affect the type of acid chosen. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis
is the most common test used to determine formation mineralogy.
In OMV Petrom two different models for acidizing fluid selection are in use:
• Model 1: Use mineralogy composition and rock/reservoir permeability.
• Model 2- Use mineralogy composition and temperature.
Formation solubility in both HCl and HCl: HF can be used to approximate the total silt and clay
content. The difference in these solubilities correlates well to silt and clay content by XRD analysis as
seen in Table 9-6. Solubility information, however, does not indicate the type of clay present.
Table 9-6 Solubility of Common Minerals in Acid
*Insoluble (IS), High (H), Moderate (M), Low (L), Very Low (VL),
Model 1-Sandstone Acidizing Workflow
Model 1- Preflush/Overflush stage Fluid Selection
Using mineralogy composition and reservoir permeability workflow for selecting the best fluid for
pre-flush treatment is shown in Figure 9-10 and summarized Table 9-7 if the content of carbonate is
less than 20%, HCl is used as a preflush to an HF acid. Normally the greater the permeability, the
lower the chance of creating fines migration damage during the HCl preflush.
Since clay and silt type materials may react with HCl to produce mobile fines, the HCl concentration
decreases with increased fines content. The clay content is the dominating species due to its large
surface area and cation exchange capacity (CEC).
Figure 9-10 Model 1 Preflush/Overflush Fluid Selection
Table 9-7Model 1 Preflush Fluid Selection

<10% Silt and < 10 % Clay 15% HCl 10% HCl 7.5% HCl
>10% Silt and >10 % Clay
>10% Silt and < 10 % Clay 10% HCl 7.5% HCl 5% HCl
At the presence of HCl sensitive minerals, like chlorite, glauconite and zeolites it is advisable to keep
the pH low to so all reaction products dissolved and the selected fluid for preflush should be
corrected according to the following practices shown in Table 9-8.
Table 9-8 Model 1 Preflush /Overflush fluid selection including presence of HCl sensitive minerals
Lithology Criteria (%)

Zeolites Chlorite+Galuconite Silt and Clay Permeability (mD) Acid Concentration (%)
>2 Any Any Any 10% Acetic
>=2 >6 Any Any 10% Acetic
<=2 3-6 >10% Silt and >10 % Clay Any 5%HCl+5%Acetic
<=2 3-6 <10% Silt and < 10 % Clay Any 7.5%HCl+5%Acetic
0-2 <=3 >10% Silt and >10 % Clay >100 10%HCl+5%Acetic
0-2 <=3 <10% Silt and < 10 % Clay >100 15%HCl+5%Acetic
0-2 <=3 >10% Silt and >10 % Clay 20-100 7.5%HCl+5%Acetic
0-2 <=3 <10% Silt and < 10 % Clay 20-100 10%HCl+5%Acetic
0-2 <=3 >10% Silt and >10 % Clay <=20 5%HCl+5%Acetic
0-2 <=3 <10% Silt and < 10 % Clay <=20 7.5%HCl+5%Acetic
0 <=3 >10% Silt and >10 % Clay >100 10%HCl
0 <=3 <10% Silt and < 10 % Clay >100 15%HCl
0 <=3 >10% Silt and >10 % Clay 20-100 7.5%HCl
0 <=3 <10% Silt and < 10 % Clay 20-100 10%HCl
0 <=3 >10% Silt and >10 % Clay <=20 5%HCl
0 <=3 <10% Silt and < 10 % Clay <=20 7.5%HCl
Summarizing the previous table, the following rules/best practices have been using:
If 4-6% chlorite/glauconite then use <20md Guidelines with 5% Acetic Acid
If 6-8% chlorite/glauconite then use only 10% Acetic Acid preflush to Mud Acid
If <2% Zeolite then use 5% Acetic Acid in all HCl systems
If 2-5% Zeolite then use only 10% Acetic Acid preflush
Model 1 Main Treatment Fluid Selection

Silt and clay content and permeability are used as selection criteria. Silt and clay percentages are
calculated internally from the input lithology. The total of mica and feldspars are considered to be
silts. The total of kaolinite, mixed layer, illite, smectite, glauconite, chlorite, and zeolites are added
for clays.
The permeability of the formation influences the selection of the treating fluid in two ways. First,
permeability affects the type and extent of damage. A highly permeable formation can easily be
penetrated by foreign solid particles of fluids, and the depth of the damage can be large. On the
other hand, low permeability sandstone will merely be damaged by invasion of foreign particles.
However, this type of formation can be more sensitive to the invasion of foreign fluids because the
small pores often contain a large quantity of clays that have a high reactivity toward fluids. The
permeability also influences the amount of damage caused by precipitates. A low permeability
formation is more severely damaged by precipitates than a formation of high permeability. The
same is true for damage resulting from water block. In some cases, the type of produced fluids
precludes the use of some treating fluids. This applies to gas wells, where it is preferable to minimize
the use of purely water based fluids. Agents that lower surface tension (surfactants, alcohols) and/or
gases (foams) are recommended. In other cases, adverse reactions between acids and formation oils
or formation waters dictate the use of only specific acid formulations. Figure 9-11 and Table 9-9
show mud acid fluid selection best practice workflow for sandstone acidizing treatment.
Figure 9-11 Model 1 Main/Base Treatment Fluid Selection
Table 9-9 Model 1 Main/Base Treatment Fluid Selection

<10% Silt and < 10 % Clay 12% HCl +3%HF 8% HCl +2%HF 6% HCl +1.5%HF
>10% Silt and >10 % Clay 13.5% HCl +1.5%H9% HCl +1%HF 4.5% HCl +1%HF
>10% Silt and < 10 % Clay
12% HCl +2%HF 9% HCl +1.5%HF 6% HCl +1%HF
If 4-6% chlorite/glauconite then use <20md Guidelines with 5% Acetic Acid

If 6-8% chlorite/glauconite then use 10% Acetic Acid preflush to Mud Acid plus 5% acetic acid
If chlorite/glauconite > 8%, then use 10% acetic acid and organic mud acid
If <2% Zeolite then use 5% Acetic Acid in all HCl systems
If 2-5% Zeolite then use 10% Acetic Acid preflush and overflush to mud acid containing 10% acetic
acid
If > 5% Zeolite then use 10% Acetic Acid preflush and overflush to 10% citric acid / HF.
Formations with more than 2% zeolites are considered sensitive and use the above flowchart for acid
selection.
For moderate zeoloite compositions, acetic acid is used as the acid preflush and overflush and is
added to the conventional mud acid formulations with the HCl. The organic acid is to keep the pH
low, acting like a buffer in these acid solutions. Reaction products are more soluble in low pH.
For higher zeolite compositions, acetic is also used for the preflush and overflush, but organic mud
acids made with citric acid are recommended.
The workflow (Figure 9-12, Figure 9-13 and Figure 9-14) and Table 9-10 lists the recommendations
based on these parameters.
Figure 9-12 Main Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays and Zeolites
Figure 9-13 Main Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays, Chlorite and Glauconite
Figure 9-14 Model 1 Main/Base Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays, Zeolites and
Glauconite
Table 9-10 Model 1 Main/Base Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays, Zeolites and
Glauconite
Model 2-Sandstone Acidizing Workflow
Model 2- Preflush/Overflush stage Fluid Selection
The formation temperature is an important factor because it influences the efficiency of corrosion
inhibitors and the reaction rates. Several treating fluids decrease reaction rates at high temperatures
and provide deeper live-acid penetration. The workflows shown in Figure 9-15 and Figure 9-16 as
well as in Table 9-10 and Table 9-11 can be used as guidance for fluid selection for Preflush/Overflush
and Main treatment.
Figure 9-15 Model 2 Preflush/Overflush Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays, Zeolites and
Glauconite
Table 9-11 Preflush /Overflush fluid selection including presence of HCl sensitive minerals and temperature
Model 2 Main Treatment Fluid Selection
Figure 9-16 Model 2 Main Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays and reservoir
temperature
Table 9-12 Main Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of HCl sensitive minerals and temperature
9.4.2 Applied Sandstone Design Procedure
A sandstone acidizing design procedure in OMV Petrom consists of the following distinct stages:
1. Tubing pickling stage/wellbore cleanup
Wellbore cleanup is commonly used to remove scale, paraffin, bacteria or other materials from the
tubing, casing or gravel-pack screen. The injection string (production tubing, drill pipe or coiled
tubing) should be cleaned (pickled) prior to pumping the acid treatment. The pickling process may be
multiple stages, consisting of solvent and acid stages. An acid pickling job of tubing/casing can be
done by simply spotting around 2.4 bbl/1000 feet (1.2 lit/m) of 3-20% HCl down the tubing and up
the annulus. A typical pickling solution is a 7.5% HCl solution containing an iron control agent and
corrosion inhibitor. Often the same acid mixed for use in the HCL preflush may be used as the
pickling solution.
2. Preflush
Non-Acid
A water displacement stage, consisting of 3-5% NH4Cl solution, depends on concentration of
smectite, illite, kaolinite, chlorite and feldspar, according to:
Concentration%=3+(%smectite*0.3+%illite*0.12+%kaolinite*0.08+ %chlorite*0.12+%feldspar*0.05)
This is considered to displace formation water containing bicarbonate and sulfate ions. Typical
volumes are 500 to 1000 l/m (40 to 80 gal/ft)
Acid preflush
The main purpose of the standard preflush with 5%-15% HCl is to dissolve carbonate constituents of
the reservoir. This is to prevent the possibility of forming CaF2 as a mud acid precipitation product.
Numerous acidizing jobs in OMV Petrom have proved that the best practices is to execute pre-flush
with at least 50% of the volume of acid fluid for base/main treatment.
Typical volumes are 620 to 1240 l/m (50 to 100 gal/ft) and it is preferable that the preflush
penetrates the same distance as the HCl/HF mixture.
Organic acids, such as acetic and formic, should be used in conjunction with, or instead of, HCl in
sensitive formations the. Although they will dissolve the carbonate, they work more slowly and are
especially applicable for high temperature conditions. When pumping organic acids as stand-alone
fluids, they should be mixed in ammonium chloride rather than fresh water. Organic acids also act as
a low-pH buffer and chelating agent that helps minimize the tendency of iron compounds to
precipitate as the acid spends. However, they do not dissolve iron scale or prevent clay swelling.
If iron and carbonate contents are high, both an acetic acid and HCl preflush can be used. If
carbonate content is not high (less than 5%), then the organic acid can be applied only, without using
HCl preflush. The best practice in OMV Petrom is to use 10% acetic acid contain 5% NH4Cl.
Ammonium chloride is added for clay stability as use of acid without the addition of NH4Cl could
cause clays swelling.
3. Main Treatment
The main acid phase is commonly a mixture of HCl/HF. Volumes may range from 120-3000 l/m (10-
250 gal/ft) and more common volumes used in OMV Petrom are in the range 120 to 240 l/m (10 to
20 gal/ft). Volume is somewhat arbitrary, but should have a logical dependence on formation
permeability, acid sensitivity, type and severity of damage and length of the treated interval. Risks
associated with acidizing-such as fines migration, precipitation of reaction products, and rock
deconsolidation-normally can be controlled (if not minimized or eliminated) by use of proper
volumes and concentrations of acids.
Mud Acid should not be used in formations with > 20% HCl solubility. Pore lining clays will be
dissolved by mud acid. Thus, an abundance of chlorite in the pore throats may result in iron control
problems. High permeability formations may experience deep invasion of particulates (drilling mud,
barite, etc.).Low permeability formations will not experience severe particle invasion but will be
more sensitive to damage by precipitates. Sludge or emulsion tendency of crude will dictate the use
of a specific acid system. Treatments in gas wells include mutual solvents or alcohols. High
temperature decreases live acid penetration and increases corrosion rates. Wells with low bottom
hole static pressure (BHSP) should be treated with energized/foamed fluids.
The well shut-in time after treatment should be minimized to reduce precipitation of reaction
product. It is mandatory to avoid using NaCl, KCl, or CaCl2 brines in any HF treatment stages or in any
stage immediately proceeding or following HF stages.
4. Overflush/Aterflush
Overflush (or afterflush) is an important part of a successful acidizing treatment. The purposes of the
overflush are:
• Displace nonreacted mud acid into the formation,
• Displace mud acid reaction products away from the wellbore,
• Remove oil-wet relative permeability problems caused by some corrosion inhibitors,
• Redissolve HF precipitates, if an acidic afterflush is used.
Typical overflushes for mud acid treatments are:

• Water containing 3 to 8% ammonium chloride,
• Weak acid (3 to 10% HCl) in the cases when HCl is used as preflush fluid.
• Acetic acid in the same concentration as HCl if formation mineralogy and temperature do not
allow application of HCL. Alternatively, 3-8% of NH4Cl solution can be used.
• Nitrogen (gas wells only and only following a water or weak acid overflush).
Usually, the Overflush/Afterflush treatment can be performed with the same fluid concentration as
used in the preflush. The typical volumes of 360 to 1200 l/m (25-100 gal/ft) are also very similar to
those used in the preflush. The same fluid and concentration can be used in most cases. In gas wells,
and sometimes in extremely water-sensitive formations, nitrogen is an effective overflush. The
afterflush should occur immediately after the main acid injection in order have the most beneficial
effect and to minimize precipitation of Si (OH)4.
Wells should be put on production immediately after the treatment. In such case, the afterflush
volume should be at least the same as the main HCl/HF volume. In cases when wells have to stay
closed in for some time (which is to be avoided), the afterflush volume should be at least twice the
HCl/HF volume in order to displace the reaction products to a distance where their influence is
negligible (1 to 1.5m radial penetration).
Certain chemicals (additives, inhibitors, iron complexing agents) may be used in addition to the basic
solution of acid or NH4Cl in order to reduce problems with emulsion and sludge formation or prevent
corrosion and scale precipitation.
A large overflush is necessary to prevent the near-wellbore precipitation of amorphous silica. At
formation temperatures of 95 °C or higher, amorphous silica precipitation occurs when the mud acid
is pumped into the formation. The precipitate is somewhat mobile at first, but may set as a gel after
the flow stops. It may be diluted and dispersed far enough from the wellbore to reduce its harmful
influence if it is kept moving by the overflush.
Diversion techniques
One of the main reasons that acid treatments fail is that the injected acid is not correctly placed and
does not have full contact with the damage. Selection of the proper fluid placement method is a key
success factor in acid treatment design in both sandstones and carbonates and acid diversion is a
challenge that has to be faced in either lithology.
As acid is pumped, it flows preferentially along the most permeable path into the formation. The
treated zone is commonly not adequately converged by the injected acid due to significant zone
heterogeneities caused by big variations in zone properties. The acid opens high permeable zones
even more, and less permeable, damaged zones are almost guaranteed not to receive adequate
treatment. Some technique to divert the treatment fluid toward more damaged formation or
damaged perforations is therefore mandatory. To approach full damage removal, acid must be
diverted to the sections that accept acid the least – that is, those are most damaged
There is a variety of diversion techniques, but there are three basic methods of acid placement
(diversion techniques) as shown in workflows (Figure 9-17 and Figure 9-18 ):
• Mechanical placement
o Packer isolation system ,
o Ball sealers (Not used in OMV Petrom)
o Coiled tubing
• Chemical diversion
o Bridging and plugging agents (inert materials in the of large sized particles from 10-
100 mesh, such as silica sand, water soluble agents like rock salt and benzoic acid,
oil-soluble agents such as resins etc.)
o Particulate diverters (small particle size, commonly below 0.1 mm and those can be
water-fine grade of benzoic acid and oil soluble- blends of hydrocarbon resins)
• Foam Diversion (The most useful in gas well acidizing, in gravel pack completions and
generally more effective in higher-permeability formations with deeper damage)
• Gels (more reliable than foam, but could be damaging, because higher concentration, gels
will stay unbroken and therefore will not be completely cleaned up causing. This will damage
the perforations. Commonly used is Hydroxyethylcellulose-HEC).
Figure 9-17 General Workflow for choosing a diversion method for matrix acidizing
Treatment fluid can be directed exclusively toward a low-permeability zone using injection string
(tubing, drillpipe or coiled tubing equipped with mechanical packers). Flow can be blocked at
individual perforations taking most of the treatment fluid by injecting ball sealers that seat on the
perforations. In sandstone, microscopic agents such as oil-soluble resins can create a filter cake on
the sand face. Chemical diverters such as viscous gels and foams created with nitrogen are used to
block high –permeability pathways within the matrix. The requirements on any diverting agent are
stringent. The agent must have limited solubility in the carrying fluid, so it reaches the bottom of the
hole intact, it must not react adversely with formation fluids, it must divert acid. Also, the used
diverter agent must be able to cleaned up rapidly and thereby avoid harming production. Ball sealers
drop into the rathole as soon as injection halts or, if they are of the buoyant variety, they are caught
in ball catchers at the source. Benzoic acid flakes dissolve in hydrocarbons. Oil-soluble resins are
expelled or dissolved during the ensuing hydrocarbon production. Gels and foams break down with
time.
In practice, acid and diverting agents are pumped in alternating stages: first acid, then diverter, then
acid, then diverter, and so on. The number of stages depends on the length of the zone being
treated. Typically, one acid diverter stage combination is planned for every 5-8 m of formation.
The current diverter technologies work sporadically and many times do more harm than good.
Recent work shown that even when a diversion technique such as ball sealers is applied properly,
over one third of the perforation become permanently blocked because the balls become lodged in
the perforation. Chemical diverters often misused or do not meet expectations – rock salt is
sometimes used by mistake with HF acid producing plugging precipitates, and so-called oil-soluble
resins are infrequently only partially soluble in oil. It is necessary to choose properly the non-
damaging diversion techniques whose effectiveness can be proved and documented. Foam and the
use of inflatable packers on coiled tubing are viable techniques for positive diversion.
Figure 9-18 Diversion selection workflow
Injection pressure and rate strategy- Design model
Additional reservoir parameters (fracture gradient, porosity, height, etc.) are required to
calculate/estimate injection pressure and rate constraints for the acid.
The acid use for the main treatment stage should be injected at a pressure that will not cause
fracturing of the formation. In cases of very severe damage, the pressure may need to be increased
above the fracturing pressure for a short period of time, but should be returned below fracturing
pressure as quickly as possible. Application of this injection strategy during any treatment stage will
allow removing damage more successfully. Maximum allowable injection pressure at the surface to
avoid formation breakdown is defined by Eq. 9-4.
Pinj max = ( FG H mp ) - Ph + P fr(i, j,k) - FS

(9-4)
And maximum required hydraulic power of pump (Eq. 9-5) unit for performing acid treatment job is:
P = 1.67 ⋅ Qi max ⋅ Pinj max (kW) (9-5)
Where:
FG- Formation fracture gradient (bar/m)
Hmp- Mid perforation depth (m)
Ph – Hydrostatic pressure of fluid treatment column (bar)
Pfr – Pressure drop due to friction (bar)
FS- Engineering design safety factor, usually can be taken in the range 20-30 bar
Pi - Injection pressure (bar)
P – Pumping unit required power (kW)
The mMaximum injection rate that could be achieved, according to the Paccaloni model is defined by
Eq.9-6.
�3.72×10−5 𝐾𝐻𝑚𝑝 ×�𝐹𝐺∙𝐻𝑚𝑝 −𝐹𝑆−𝑃𝑟 ��
𝑄𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥= 𝑟 (9-6)
𝜇𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑓𝑙 ∙𝑙𝑛� 𝑏 �
𝑟𝑤
Where:
Qimax – maximum injection rate of acid (m3/min)

K – reservoir permeability (mD)
Hmp – average well depth (m)
μinjfl – viscosity of injection fluid (mPas)
rb – radius of injected fluid bank* (m)
rw – well radius (m)
Radius of injected fluid bank can be roughly calculated from the amount of stimulating fluid injected
and the available pore space, using the following equation (Eq.9-7):
𝑉𝑓 = 𝜋 ∙ ∅ ∙ (1 − 𝑆𝑜, 𝑔𝑟 − 𝑆𝑤𝑐) ∙ �𝑟𝑏2 − 𝑟𝑤2 � (9-7)
Where:
Φ – porosity (frac)
So,g r- residual saturation of oil or gas (frac)
Sowc – connate water saturation (frac)
Normally, the volume of treatment fluid pumped during matrix acidizing is not large and it is
sufficient if the fluid penetrates the formation about 1-1.4 m, for which can assumed that rb changes
only slightly. From numerous acidizing jobs it was found that for practical and quick estimation, an
arbitrary rb =1.2 m (assuming that acid penetration will be under steady-state flowing conditions)
Acid treatment volume and rate guidelines

Table 9-13 Acid treatment guideline
Table 9-14 Recommended volume of treatment fluid
Additives
Additives are added to the different stages of a treatment to prevent excessive corrosion, sludging
and/or emulsions, provide a uniform fluid distribution, improve clean-up and prevent precipitation of
reaction products. Additives are used not only for the main treatment but also, in pre-flushes and
over-flushes to stabilize clays, disperse paraffin or asphaltenes and inhibit scale or organic
deposition. Additive selection is primarily dependent on the treating fluid, the type of well, type of
damages, bottomhole conditions, the type of tubular and the placement technique.
Since there is a large number of an additive available, which vary between contractors, the choice of
additives can be rather difficult. Additives are always required, but it is important that only necessary
additives be used. Of all these additives, a corrosion inhibitor is the only one that should always be
applied. Also, a sequestering agent, for the prevention of iron hydroxide precipitation is often
required.
Although proper fluid selection is critical to the success of a matrix treatment, the treatment may be
a failure if the proper additives are not used.
The most frequent additives used in OMV Petrom are:

• Corrosion Inhibitors,
• Surfactants (Emulsifiers, Deemulsifiers, Nonemulsifiers),
• Clay Control/Stabilizers,
• Fines-Fixing Agent (FFA),
• Mutual Solvents,
• Iron Control Agents,
• Alcohols,
• Anti-sludge Agents,
• Friction Reducers,
• Non-Emulsifiers, and
• Foaming Agents.
9.4.3 Carbonate Acidizing Best Practices
Fluid Selection for Carbonate Acidizing
As the physics of carbonate matrix acidizing is complex and considering the complex nature of
wormhole formation, a proper selection of the acidizing system and concentration is very important
in the first step in designing carbonate acidizing. There is an optimum combination of acid (or
reactive fluid) injection rate and degree of reactivity (or retardation) for each formation. The key
criteria for proper acid system selection for carbonate acidizing are temperature, mineralogy and
petrophysics/reservoir properties. The goal of proper acid system selection is to optimize of acid
penetration and the structure of the newly created channels.
Temperature strongly influences inhibition of the acid. At high temperature (150 oC), organic acid are
preferred because they are less corrosive than HCl.
Mineralogy refers to whether the carbonate formation is pure limestone or partially (or totally)
dolomite. Greater than 20 % HCl must be avoided in dolomites due to the potential precipitation of
by-product. In case where silicates (quartz, feldspars or clays) content in the dolomite is high (up to
50%, as shown in Figure 9-19 then the HCl should be inhibited with HF.
Figure 9-19 Impure dolomite: Quartz grains (white crystals) scattered in the dolomitic matrix (brown crystals of dolomite)
When the insoluble minerals are class or fines, dissolution of the rock matrix will result in the release
of insoluble fines and a special blend of 7.5% - 15% inhibited acid special clay dispersing, suspending
and chelating agents should be applied. In dolomite carbonate formations containing anhydrate
(anhydrous calcium sulfate), anhydrite will first dissolve in HCl but gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate)
will quickly reprecipitate because of its low solubility. In such formations, the best practice is to use
an acid system with good chelating properties in order to minimize problems (inhibited blend of HCl
with good chelating properties or non-acid system with chelating and clay suspending agents).
Diversion is required to improve fluid placement. Apart from small treatments to remove near-
wellbore damage, for which neat HCl acid (with necessary additives) can be used, (lightly) gelled acid
is used in most carbonate matrix treatments. This is done to improve zonal coverage of the acid, to
retard the acid reaction rate, or to improve its fines-suspending properties. Some relevant aspects of
the various acid systems are discussed below.
Petrophysics/Reservoir Properties such as distribution, type of porosity and reservoir permeability

have a strong influence on the extent of the damage and on penetration of acid. Reservoirs with high
permeability (K>50 mD) can be severely damaged by the invasion of solid particles and inhibited HCl
with HF intensifier or emulsified HCl acid (70% of HCl and 30% of oil/diesel) can be used to remove
damage. In naturally fractured carbonate formations, damage by solid particles occurs in the
fracture. A proper acid treatment fluid enlarges the fractures and allows clean-up of the fracture
network. An inhibited blend of HCl with good chelating properties could be an appropriate solution
for this application due to its good suspending properties.
Lightly gelled acids – various strengths of HCl with low concentrations of gellant (< 0.5%) for friction
reduction. Gelling provides a viscosity of 1-3 cp at ambient temperatures. These systems are
applicable for high-rate matrix treatments.
Gelled acid systems – various strengths of HCl with higher concentrations of acid gelling agents (2-
3%) to provide higher viscosity. These might range from 30 to 40 cp at ambient temperatures,
resulting in an enhanced zonal coverage and reduced fluid loss. Systems that contain HCl, a gelling
agent and a pH-sensitive crosslinker are called “in-situ crosslinked acid”. These are marketed as Zonal
Coverage Acid (ZCA) by Halliburton and Self-Gelling Acid Diverter (SGAD), by Schlumberger. After
crosslinking at a pH of 2-3, the gel will break upon further spending of the acid at pH values above 4.
The systems can be built to work in HCl acid at strengths from 5-28% acid. The self-gelling acid
system is particularly suited for treatments in horizontal wells.
Emulsified acid systems – oil outside phase acid systems have been successfully used in situations
where a retarded reaction rate is needed to create deeper acid penetration and wormholes. Because
of their retarded nature, they can be pumped at low rates, which is beneficial in heterogeneous
formations. Also their high viscosities result in better zonal coverage.
Energized and foamed acid systems – in reservoirs where the reservoir energy is low, some form of
additional energy may assist in the unloading of the fluids introduced into the formation.
The physics of matrix carbonate acidizing is more complicated than in sandstone because of the
wormholing phenomena. Development of a simplified workflow that could cover all possible
variations is difficult and the proposed workflow is intended as an initial guide. Best practice is that
fluid selection for carbonate acidizing is be made for each individual treatment. In general, the fluid
that gives the deepest penetration for the expected pumping and reservoir conditions is the fluid
that should be used.
Selection of a base acid in an integrated approach requires consideration of some of the key
parameters (permeability, type of carbonate ,Fe content, bottomhole temperature in relation to
corrosion and reactivity of the formation) influencing on physics and chemistry of carbonate matrix
acidizing, as shown on Figure 9-20.
Carbonate Acidizing Fluid Selection Workflow
Figure 9-20 Fluid selection workflow for carbonate acidizing
Design procedure for Carbonate Acidizing

For a carbonate matrix stimulation treatment to be successful, it is important to acidize under
conditions that will lead to the formation of deep penetrating wormholes that bypass formation
damage, whilst using minimal acid volumes at optimal injection rates. Results from studies on
efficient wormhole formation indicate that the injection rate should be increased, or the overall
dissolution rate decreased (by changing the fluid type) as the depth of penetration increases. If such
detailed planning is not feasible, then it is recommended to pump acid at the highest possible rate
and pressure, whilst staying below fracturing conditions. Table 9-15 shows a schematic of dissolution
as a function of surface reaction and diffusion rate as well as of acid injection rate.
Table 9-15 Wormhole structure
Common sequences for performing carbonate matrix acidizing are:

1. Pickling of the injection string,
2. Preflush,
3. Main Treatment, and
4. Overflush.
Pickling
The injection string usually should be picked prior to pumping of acid. The best practice for pickling
injection string in OMV Petrom is to use acid of 5-15% HCl containing an iron control agent and a
corrosion inhibitor. If there are some organic deposits in the injection string then pickling of injection
string can be done with acid and an aromatic solvent and surfactant.
Preflush
If there are organic deposits (such as paraffins and asphaltenes with high molecular weight) in the
wellbore tubular and near-wellbore zone then a carbonate preflush with an solvents (xylene or
another) should be applied to remove organic deposits. In a limited number of cases in OMV Petrom,
the preflush also served to displace oil from the near-wellbore and to prevent the formation of
emulsion or sludge. Mutual solvents such as EGMBE (ethyleneglycol monobutylether) or others that
are in liquid state and are water-and oil-miscible should be used. The common practice in the gas
wells is to use various surfactants (anionic, cationic, nonionic, amphoteric) up to a maximum
concentration of 1.5% in order to reduce the surface tension between acid solution and gas.
Main Treatment
The main treatment stage is commonly performed with 15% - 28% HCl. Selection of the treatment
volumes depends upon the anticipated depth of damage and reservoir porosity. The recommended
volume of treatment fluid varies within a broad range (120—3700 lit/m) whereas most treatments
involve volumes is in the range of 310-1850 lit/m. The radius of acid penetration can be estimated
using formation porosity and the injected volume of acid. The penetration of acid in carbonate
formations is not uniform due to the heterogeneous nature of the depth of acid penetration and the
required fluid volume has to be estimated by matching numerical model and laboratory test results.
Overflush
The purpose of the overflush is to displace the acid. Fresh water (additivated with NH4Cl) is the most
common overflush fluid. Filtered crude oil and diesel may also be used in oil wells but are not
preferable because of possible incompatibilities with acid. Nitrogen gas is an effective overflush,
especially in gas wells.
Diversion Techniques for carbonate acidizing
Successful matrix treatments require uniform vertical distribution of the treating fluid. Improper
placement exacerbates heterogeneity, as shown in Figure 9-21. Good placement is particularly
difficult in carbonates because acid can bypass damage relatively easily. This damage bypass can
result in negative skins, thus any pathway that preferentially attracts acid to begin with (such as
natural fractures, high permeability thief zones, or depleted zones) will become an even stronger sink
for acid as that zone becomes highly stimulated. Moreover, in wells with long openhole intervals,
spending of acid along the wellbore will partially spend the acid that reaches the extremes of the
openhole section, thus, jeopardizing the objective of achieving good zone coverage with acid.
Figure 9-21 Improper acid placement in carbonate formation
In carbonate reservoirs, in principle, two main diversion techniques (mechanical and chemical) can
be used to improve fluid placement.
• Mechanical
 Packers,
 Ballsealers (Not used in OMV Petrom),
 Coiled tubing.
• Chemical
 Chemical diverters (insoluble in acid but soluble in oil, in powder state-benzoic acid,
rock salt, polymer systems, … ).
 Foam diversion (foam agent with acid foamed with nitrogen).
 Self-diverting acid (chemicals which transform into gel in the consumed acid solution,
thus preventing the channeling of acid in layers with maximum permeability).
 In situ-crosslinked acid (Not used in OMV Petrom)
The technique is often applied in conjunction with coiled tubing and specific for carbonate
formations. It consists of bullheading stages of HCl acid alternated with in-situ crosslinked
diverter stages. During such treatments, pump rates should be kept at a maximum, but below
fracturing values. The combination of CT, for accurate placement, and in-situ crosslinked acid,
for diversion, has also been successfully applied in carbonate formations.
 Retarded HCl (by gelling or emulsifying the acid), or organic acids (At high
bottomhole temperatures).
Problems during and after acidizing in sandstone and carbonate
The use of acid in sandstones and carbonates could result in various potential problems. The results
of statistical analysis (Paccaloni) of more than 650 stimulation jobs in various type of formation
(sandstone, poorly consolidated sands and carbonates) performed in wild cat, appraisal,
development and injection wells (water and gas) are summarized in Table 9-16.
Table 9-16 Statistical analysis of well-documented matrix stimulation treatments
Apparent
Matrix Documented
Well Status Formation success ratio
stimulation failure
(%)
Sandstone 56 10 82
Wildcat Limestone and
140 13 91
dolomite
Poorly
consolidated 32 7 78
Appraisal and sand
development Sandstone 120 18 85
Limestone and
216 21 91
dolomite
Poorly
consolidated 15 3 80
Water injection sand
wells Sandstone 50 8 82
Limestone and
33 3 91
dolomite
Total: 662 82 88
Table 9-17 shows the main reasons for the failures. The table shows that 73% of the failures were
due to incorrect field stimulation procedures, whereas 27% were attributed to poor selection of
stimulation-fluid types, volumes, additives, and sequences. This means that priority must be given to
improved job supervision, real-time evaluation, and on-site quality control.
Table 9-17 Main Reasons for failures
Reason Failures Failure %
Incorrect field procedures 60 73
Wrong stimulation fluid 22 27
Total: 82 100
Table 9-18 gives the reasons for failure for wildcat, development, and water (or gas) injection wells in
sandstones, carbonates and corrective actions done to improve poor results of the 1st acidizing job.
In the most cases, the second successful stimulations were designed and supervised by stimulation
experts.
Bullheading the Stimulation Fluids

Bullheading the stimulation fluids, often leaving mud below the packer, was the most common
reason for failures. The use of coiled tubing for downhole cleaning and circulation of the acid mixture
to cover all perforations resulted in success in wildcat wells, development wells and water injection
wells. The use of coiled tubing in conjunction with matrix stimulations is recommended whenever
technically feasible. To avoid pump-rate limitations owing to fluid friction pressure, the fluid could be
pumped down simultaneously through the tubing/CT annulus and the coiled tubing, joined at surface
with a Y-connection.
Table 9-18 Reasons for failures and corrective actions
Reasons (R) for Failure of Matrix Acidizing Treatment Poorly

Sandstone Carbonate Consolidated
and
Sand
Corrective Actions (CA) Done to Eliminate Poor
WC DEV/ INJ WC DEV/ INJ DEV/ INJ
Results of 1st Acidizing AP AP AP
R Bullheading of stimulation fluids; mud left below packer X X X X
R Bullheading of stimulation fluids X X
CA Wellbore cleaned with coiled tubing X X
CA Stimulation fluids circulated to cover all perforation and X X X X X
correct acid placement
R 15% HCl preflush used X X
CA Preflush avoided; 12% HCl/3%HF used X X
R Injection pressure and rate too low X X X
CA Maximum Δp, maximum i (m3/s) technique used X X X
R Insufficient acid volumes used X X
CA Corrected acid volumes used X X
R Perforation breakdown not attempted; injectivity never X
obtained X
CA Formation initially fractured, then matrix conditions
restored
R Injection pressure too high (fracturing conditions) X X X X
CA Job performed in matrix conditions X X X X
R Use of wrong or not properly selected stimulation fluids X X X X
CA Use correct stimulation fluids and fluid selection guide X X X X
R Injection tests with heavy mud; injectivity with acid X
couldn’t obtained
CA Formation was reperforated before the second acid job X
R Wrong sequence of stimulation fluids X
CA Redesigned sequence of stimulation fluids X
R Old strings not cleaned previously X
CA Pre-job cleaning with 15% HCl/Tubing Pickling X
R Coiled tubing not properly positioned X
CA Coiled tubing properly positioned X
R Circulation of stimulation fluids through tailpipe not X
properly performed
CA Efficient acid contact with unstimulated zone X
R Ineffective chemical diverting agents X
CA Maximum Δp, maximum i (m3/s) technique used X
WC– Wild Cat DEV/AP - Development / Apprasial Wells INJ- Injection wells (water and gas)
The second stimulations were successful because:

(1) The postjob inflow either was significantly improved or was very close to ideal;
(2) Postjob skin factors were remarkably reduced, most often down to 0 to 5 in sandstones and -
2 to -5 in limestones; and
(3) Dry tests in exploratory wells become continuously flowing tests. Because of these
indications both the technical and economic objectives were achieved.
Use of 15% HCl Preflush
The use of 15% HCl preflush after dry tests in wildcats and in severely damaged development wells
resulted in failures caused by total, permanent block of injectivity. The preflush subsequently was
circulated out of the well, and the most efficient stimulation fluid (3% to 4% HF acid) was spotted
directly in front of the perforations. The dry wildcat wells became discoveries, and the development
wells had low final skin factors. The success rate of acidizing jobs have increased considerably by
simply avoiding the use of HCl preflush after dry tests in wildcat wells. The mistake of using an HCl
preflush in severely damaged wildcat wells is very common and has led to frequent erroneous
statements of low (or no) production potential for the formations thus treated. The economic
implications of such incorrect evaluations in exploratory wells are severe.
The success rate can be increased by applying the following best practices with dry or partially
flowing exploratory wells.
1. Avoid the use of HCL preflush.
2. Select the most effective stimulation fluid for the expected damage type (3% HF in most
cases).
3. Design the simplest stimulation procedure; avoid stage treatments, diverting agents,
chemical retarders, etc.; and include only corrosion inhibitors and an effective mutual
solvent.
4. Establish a target injectivity index in matrix conditions. Once it is reached, flow the well back
immediately.
5. Stop injection upon reaching the productivity target.
As far as development wells are concerned, the severely damaged sandstones containing 5% to 15%
carbonates first are treated with 0.124 to 0.248 m3/m of 3% HF solution to reduce the skin factor
and to guarantee sufficient injectivity. The regular sequence (HCL preflush, HF treatment, and then
overflush) follows immediately only if the target injectivity index (directly related to the target PI)
was not reached.
Insufficient Injection Pressure and Rate
Insufficient bottomhole injection pressure (BHIP) caused several failures in thick, multilayered
reservoirs whereby only a small part of the exposed pay was stimulated. Comparison of pre- and
postjob pressure-buildup analyzes indicated a slight decrease in damage. Less than 20% to 40% of
the total pay was producing after the stimulations, even in the two cases where chemical diverting
agents were used. Accurate postjob evaluation indicated that only 150 to 373 kW was used instead
of the required 1492 to 2238 kW.
The stimulations (all in development wells) were repeated with the same stimulation fluids, but the
"maximum Δp, maximum i" technique was used. The concept supporting this technique is that, at the
maximum allowed BHIP (in matrix conditions), it is always possible to calculate a maximum injection
rate resulting in the complete removal of damage (s=0) across the whole exposed pay.
In the all analyzed cases, flow-meter surveys, combined with pressure-buildup analyzes, validated
the effectiveness of the ”maximum Δp, maximum I” technique. The producing pay was 70% to 85% of
the total perforated pay. Although diverting agents were never used, the final skin factors decreased
from the initial 59 to 112 range to as low as 4 to 7. The total production increase obtained from
second stimulations was 1908 m3/d oil; as compared with 143 m3/d oil after the first stimulations.
The maximum injection rate (in matrix conditions) reached during the second stimulations was 2.86
m3/min, which is significantly higher than 0.3 m3/min used during the first stimulations.
The real challenge in the stimulation of carbonate rocks is to remove/bypass damage from both
primary and secondary porosity efficiently. The presence of natural fractures in the exposed pay
causes a very high permeability contrast and insufficient injection pressure and rates cause very
small portions of the exposed pay to produce or to take fluid. Using chemical diverters (benzoic acid)
did not improve these results.
Perforation Breakdown Not Attempted
Several stimulations after dry tests in wildcat wells failed because a perforation breakdown was not
attempted. The jobs were over after 1 or 2 hours of no injectivity, with 3% HF in front of the
perforations. The previous dry drillstem tests were justified by a lack of permeability rather than
severe formation damage. Because of the importance of the exploratory target, the two jobs were
repeated and the fracture pressure was exceeded to clean the perforations and to obtain injectivity.
Matrix conditions were then restored and damage was effectively removed. As a result, two
important discoveries were claimed.
Fracture Pressure Exceeded
Failures also resulted from poor job supervision whereby the jobs were carried out in fracturing
conditions until the end. No improvement in the production/injection inflow performance was
observed in some cases while a deterioration of the production parameters (with postjob skin factors
higher than pre-stimulation ones) was detected by pressure-buildup in the remaining two cases. The
same fluids pumped in matrix conditions resulted in complete success when the stimulations were
repeated (final skin factor ranging from one to four).
Use Incorrect Stimulation Fluids.
The wrong choice of stimulation fluids caused several documented failures. In one case, acetic acid,
selected on the basis of laboratory tests on cores, caused the initial skin factor (+35) to double
towards the end of the job. The stimulation was repeated with 3% HF, and the final skin was less
than five.
Another well initially produced 350 m3/d oil, but production declined over 6 months to only 64 m3/d
oil. Production increased to 318 m3/d oil after reperforation, but declined with the some trend. An
HF job was attempted, which again improved production for only a few months. This behavior
suggested that formation damage was probably caused by migratory fines, and a different acid
formulation, fluoboric acid (HBF4), that had been studied especially for stabilizing shaly fines was
used. This well produced 302m3/d oil for 5 years after the HBF4 job.
A water injection well was stimulated with an HCl preflush followed by HF to increase the very poor
injectivity observed a few days after the well’s transformation from produced to injector. No
improvement was obtained, and the skin factor remained as high as 62. A second stimulation was
designed including a massive cushion of aromatic solvents as the first step in the same sequence of
fluids used previously. This treatment removed the damage very efficiently; the final skin factor was
2.7, derived from pressure-falloff test interpretation.
One-half of the recorded failures (5 out of 10) in poorly consolidated sands pertain to use of
improperly tailored stimulation fluids, such as HCL/HF at various low concentrations (7.5% to 1.5%;
7.5% to 0.5%) or just 7% to 15% HCL. A careful laboratory investigations suggested the use of low-
power acids, such as EDTA (two cases) or formic acid (three cases). Matrix stimulations with these
fluids allowed efficient damage removed, while fluids in previous jobs tended to cause more damage.
Wrong Sequence of Stimulation Fluids
Table 9-18 indicates that some failures of acidizing jobs in development wells were caused by
incorrect type or sequence of stimulation fluids. The reservoirs were not over pressured and the
formation fluids were heavy crudes, forming sludge and strong emulsions with HCL. Additives for
preventing or minimizing these problems were used, but the jobs failed. The jobs were repeated,
adding Steps 1 through 3 to the sequence and doubling the volume in Step 4.
1. Aromatic solvent was added to remove any damage caused by precipitated asphaltenes
2. Nitrogen was added
3. Diesel commingled with nitrogen was added.
4. Diesel (twice the acid volume) was added.
5. 28% HCl was added containing anti-sludge additives.
6. Diesel was added (twice the string capacity).
7. Nitrogen (string capacity) was added.
The described procedure was successful where previous stimulations failed, and it has since been
adopted for stimulating heavy oils in carbonate reservoir that are not overpressured. Obviously, Step
1 can be omitted if asphaltene deposits do not form part of the damage. A blend of alcohols has been
used instead of diesel when some diesel/crude-oil incompatibility is detected.
Incorrectly Positioned Coiled Tubing
The documented failures in wildcat wells were caused by incorrect positioning of coiled tubing
(above the top of the perforations rather than at the bottom, as planned). Both jobs with 28% HCl
resulted in negligible improvement, yet surface production was not obtained. The importance of the
exploratory targets made further attempts advisable. The stimulations were repeated with the same
fluids, but more attention was given to the correct circulation of 28% HCl and the coiled tubing was
positioned below the bottom perforations. Both wildcat wells produced spontaneously at
economically significant production rates after the second stimulation.
Incorrect Acid Circulation
A tailpipe was sometimes used to circulate HCl in front of the perforation pay in deep wells with a
high bottomhole static temperature (150oC). Before stimulation, the well produced around 50 m3/d
oil with very high skin (s>200). Stimulation results were below expectations, and a residual skin factor
of 45 was detected from a pressure-buildup interpretation. Careful analysis showed that circulation
had been stopped prematurely and that the acid mixture did not come out of the tailpipe. This led to
the conclusion that only the lower part of the perforated interval was contributing to production. The
tailpipe was released mechanically and dropped into the rathole. A 28% HCl was then bullheaded to
stimulate the upper part of the perforations. A second pressure-buildup interpretation provided a
zero skin factor and production was almost ten times higher.
9.4.4 Planning and Job , Execution of Acidizing Treatment
Matrix Acidizing Planning and Scheduling
Planning, execution and evaluation of a stimulation treatment requires a significant amount of time,
even in the case of routine jobs. Proper planning is the only way to achieve optimum results and
structured improvements in job results (in case of field wide campaigns). Therefore, when starting
stimulation campaigns, it is suggested to treat the first wells as one-off treatments and adjust
subsequent treatments based on proper evaluation of these initial treatments (“pilot campaigns”).
Planning should not only look at the execution (to be discussed in the next chapter), but should
include sufficient time for design and evaluation. A time table for planning different phases of matrix
acidizing stimulation is given below in Table 9-19 and shown in Figure 9-22.
Table 9-19 Matrix Acidizing Planning Schedule
Figure 9-22 Matrix Acidizing Planning Schedule
The above table and chart have been made with a number of assumptions:
• Direct availability of stimulation contractors, specifically in the case of one-off jobs.

• All times indicated refer to the time required for an individual well. Proper planning for a
field campaign may require up to one year including laboratory testing, depending on the
situation. Usually, tendering is done for a complete campaign, hence the time per well can be
very short.
• One or more stimulation contractors are active in the area; otherwise considerably longer
time for arranging equipment and materials is required.
Once the contractor has been selected, work should start to determine logistics and to finalize
designs. Finalisation of designs can be completed once all laboratory testing is completed and the
well parameters are known. In practice, it is rarely possible to determine the exact design until a very
short time before the treatment is carried out. As soon as the contract has been awarded, a meeting
should be held with the contractor to outline the location, the timing, the well configuration, the
fluid pumping schedule, the on-site quality control and other operational aspects or problems that
may exist. Any special or unusual aspects should be discussed the onset to allow the contractor
sufficient time to prepare for the treatment. The more time that is allowed for preparation, the more
it will be ensured that all specifications of fluids and equipment can be met to successfully perform
the treatment. One Petrom OMV representative is assigned as project coordinator, who will have the
authority to liaise both technically and operationally with the contractor. The contractor should also
appoint a project coordinator who will liaise with the operator and will act as coordinator within the
contractor’s organization to ensure that the specifications of the treatment are met. The more lead
time available to the contractor, the more thoroughly the contractor will be able to consider all
possibilities regarding the stimulation treatment.
Site preparation
Just prior to the treatment, the wellsite needs to be prepared for the treatment. The equipment of
the stimulation company has to be rigged up. In many cases, “third party” equipment also needs to
be on location, such as logging tools, wireline rig, coiled tubing unit, etc. The various stimulation
equipment should be rigged up such that other equipment can easily be installed as required. If a
service rig is on location, equipment should be spotted out of the fall line of the rig mast. Care should
also be taken to the placement of the high-pressure pumping equipment, where personnel will not
be exposed to the fluid end of the pump. If equipment for N2 or CO2 is on location, it should be
spotted at least 20 m from other equipment and the wellhead.
Matrix Acidizing Job Execution
Successful job execution depends on good planning, preparation, supervision, and attention to
details, quality control, and communication. It is well worth the cost to select well-trained, dedicated
personnel, well-maintained equipment, well organized crew and good-quality materials. A lack of
one of these prerequisites will often result in an unsatisfactory stimulation job and therefore a lower
return on investment, even though the costs of a poorly executed treatment may be substantially
lower.
The most common process in matrix treatments is for the fluids to be preblended at the service
company facility, and then transported to the location. This allows blending small volumes
accurately, controlling environmental hazards. The fluids are then pumped with little effort or quality
risk. The operator should carry out regular quality control checks at the service company facility.
Wellbore preparation is especially critical for acid treatments. When key steps of preparing the
wellbore for the acidizing process are left out (e.g. not pickling the tubing, not removing the gas lift
valves, not removing the rods or an electrical submersible pump), the prospects for ultimate success
are reduced. Injection of tubular debris into the formation can be disastrous and rust and mill scale
must be removed, even with new pipe. In this connection the best practice always involves an acid
pickling job of tubing prior to carrying out the acid stimulation job. This can be done by simply
spotting 15-20% HCl down the tubing and up the annulus.
When executing a mud acid treatment in sandstones, significant changes in the flow distribution of
the injected fluids may occur during the treatment as pore-plugging materials are dissolved. Because
the acid does not follow the ideal mode, adjustments to the injection volumes must then often be
made. Significant changes in the fluid can also occur in the tubulars, before the fluid reaches the
formation. The dilution of stage composition and spending are just some of the complications that
must be addressed by the designer. The use of smaller tubulars, such as coiled tubing, especially
during acid treatments in horizontal wells, can contribute to a better acid job by facilitating the
maintenance of stage integrity and reducing displacement volumes. Mechanical limitations
associated with artificial lift (e.g. gas lift) are more easily overcome by the use of coiled tubing. The
risks of leaking valves, undiluted acid remaining in the mandrels and acid leaking into the
tubing/casing annulus are thus avoided. The limited injection rate coincidentally controls the contact
time. However, the pump rate and extraction out of the tanks holding the acid can create a
bottleneck during execution. A complete understanding of these operational aspects is necessary for
proper execution.
At the end of a matrix treatment in carbonate formations, the acid should be flushed into the
formation with water (or KCl or NH4Cl brine if the formation contains swellable clays), and the well
can be immediately returned to production. For sandstones, where HF systems have been used, to
minimize the impact of precipitation, it is mandatory that an afterflush be employed and that the
well is returned to production immediately. The afterflush can be diesel oil, nitrogen, HCl, or
ammonium chloride brine, and its use will tend to ensure that precipitation from spent acid solutions
is prevented, or will occur away from the critical region very near to the wellbore.
The additives used in acid systems, such as corrosion inhibitors, mutual solvents, clay stabilizers, etc.,
are water soluble or at least water dispersible. This characteristic maximizes the efficiency of the
acid. However, since consumption of these additives in the formation cannot be quantified
accurately, many of the additives are added in excess, to assure an adequate concentration is
present in the formation to function effectively. Consequently, a significant amount of the additives
that are injected, are produced back with the water phase and they show up in the oil/water
separation system, where they can cause system upsets (i.e. emulsions) and often result in downtime
for the individual well, as well as the entire production installation. Delays in returning the stimulated
well to production have reduced the stimulation effectiveness. Furthermore, environmental
compliance on permitted produced water overboard discharge locations, has been difficult to attain
in such cases. Preventing disturbance in the functioning of the system requires optimizing the fluid
design to minimize or eliminate the formation of precipitates or micro emulsions. The evaluation of
the optimal demulsifier is critical due to the potential for emulsion formation by the aqueous phase
of the acid stimulation and is described in API RP 42 (1977). Apart from proper demulsifier selection
and use of acid additives, separate facilities for isolating flow returns from the normal dehydration
train could also be used for minimizing facility processing disturbances, as well as filtration of the
produced fluids through specially designed media.
9.4.5 Job Evaluation and Control
The Company Assigned Representative (CAR) prepares the matrix acidizing stimulation activity
reports, to be communicated to the appropriate office, including the treatment report. To facilitate a
proper evaluation and ensure the proper feedback into subsequent treatments, it is absolutely
essential to produce high quality stimulation treatment reports. The treatment report must
incorporate fluid QC data, pump rates, tubing and annular pressure measurements and clearly
identify which fluid or diverter was pumped, together with cumulative volumes. It is essential that
the report also identifies all deviations from the program, pumping interruptions and equipment
problems which influenced, directly or indirectly, the treatment operation.
Matrix Acidizing Control
Real Time Skin Evaluation
In recent years, technology to determine real-time skin effect evolution during a treatment has been
developed. Although this technology is not practiced routinely, it can be a useful diagnostic tool. For
example, if the skin effect is decreasing during an HCl stage, an acid-soluble species (e.g. calcium
carbonate/oxide, iron carbonate/oxide) created the damage. This information should be
complemented by the well history and laboratory testing to improve the understanding of the causes
of the present problem and assist future work.
The use of reliable methods for real-time control, and post-stimulation evaluation allowed
stimulation specialists to recognize the failed jobs, to identify the reasons for the failures, to optimize
the stimulation design, and to achieve a very high success rate.
The evaluation method used to record formation response to stimulation fluids is the Field --Acid -
Response Curve (FARC) proposed by Paccaloni (ref). The developed technique is based on the use of
a steady-state equation of radial flow. The model has proved to be easy, fast, and simple enough to
be used and appreciated by field personnel. Field supervisors can make better decisions on how to
manage treatment jobs by using FARC during these jobs. Real time management of acidizing jobs
depends heavily on an accurate knowledge of reservoir parameters. The absence of such data during
matrix stimulation jobs, makes injectivity tests before treatment necessary in order to estimate
starting reservoir permeability and skin factor. The linear nature of the „Pacalloni“ curves in the
prediction diagram shown in Figure 9-23 can be used for this purpose. These curves illustrate the
relationship between injection pressure and rate for various skin factors and an assumed
permeability (K) and reservoir thickness (h).
The apparent skin is then plotted on the type curves at several injection rates below the fracturing
pressure, i.e. within Darcy low radial flow regime. The calculated skin values, S(t) using Eq.9-8 at
various injection rates are then compared, and Kh is changed until a reasonable fit is achieved
(marked in red ( ), as shown in Figure 9-23. If fit gives low skin factor, then the well is a poor
stimulation candidate. In the example shown in the Figure below, the estimated skin factor after
matching with injection data is 90.8. This value is used further for calculating Field Acid Response
Curve (FARC), i.e., change of skin factor during acidizing job.
( pi( t ) - p R + p h - p fr ) k w h
S(t ) = - ln r b (9-8)
26879.6 i( t ) µ w rw
Figure 9-23 Evaluation of matrix stimulation using prediction diagram and injection test
The obtained fit also gives a starting point for tracking the skin values over time according to
equation 9-8, using acid injection data marked in green in Figure 9-23( ) which essentially represent
FARC, as shown in Figure 9-24.
To obtain FARC it is required to know the bottom hole pressure (BHP) which can be calculated by
using algorithms for calculating pressure drop due to friction and the properties of the acid (density).
The supervisor of an acidizing treatment job, having FARC curve, as shown on figure above, could
make decision to stop injection before the planned volume of treatment fluid was injected.
Figure 9-24 Field Acid Response Curve
In another case (Figure 9-25 – Acid Injection Data vs. time and Figure 9-26 FARC), the formation
clearly did not respond to the treatment as expected. The initial skin factor value of 20 increased as
the acid was injected to the value of 70 at the end of the job. The wrong acid recipe was used and a
2nd job must be performed with another type of treatment fluid.
Figure 9-25 Injection rate and pressure during job in Well 2
Figure 9-26 Field Acid Response Curve
The general workflow for real time monitoring and control of matrix acidizing is shown in Figure 9-27.
Figure 9-27 Workflow of matrix acidizing control in real time
Post-treatment Data Evaluation and Control
Careful recording should be made while bringing a well on production following stimulation. Early
indications of success can be found in the ease of initiating production and higher flow rates and
flowing tubing head pressures. Early production problems may indicate an incompatibility between
treating fluids and the produced oil. Flowback fluid samples should be acquired, regardless of the
volume of the treatment. These samples should be marked, with the date and time, total volume
recovered to that point and other pertinent data, such as choke size, flowing tubing pressure, water
cut and produced quantities. The analysis of water samples may indicate problems with the treating
fluid selection (e.g. precipitation problems with HF acidizing). Monitoring the ionic content of
returned fluids following acidizing treatments can provide insight into the actual chemical acid-
spending processes downhole. The mass balance of the injected and returned fluids and the relative
percentage of silicate reprecipitation allow the determination of relative spending levels of various
acids on the formation and well scale. Stimulated wells should be subjected to pressure buildup and
pressure transient analysis following a treatment. These data are the basis for a quantitative
assessment of the well and reservoir characteristics. Comparison of these results to pre-treatment
buildups can provide the best assessment of the success of the stimulation treatment. Ultimately, a
treatment should be evaluated on the basis of the well performance and economic parameters to
justify the treatment.
9.5 Configuration of Surface Equipment for Acidizing
The equipment needed for matrix treatments is, in general, relatively simple. The main items
required are:
• Storage vessels for acids, solvents, etc.
• Low-pressure suction lines and manifold.
• Blending equipment for “on-the-fly” addition of additives, such as surfactants, use of
high-pressure pump units, at least one more unit than is strictly required for the
treatment (based on horsepower requirements).
• High-pressure line to the wellhead.
• Adequate measurement and control equipment, such as pressure sensors, flow
meters, densitometers, recording equipment, etc.
• Waste disposal tank(s) or similar facilities (see also chapter 9.8.2 with environmental
aspects).
Figure 9-28 is a schematic for typical equipment layout for a matrix acidizing stimulation treatment
Figure 9-28 Typical Surface Equipment Layout for Standard Matrix Acidizing without using foam
In case the acidizing job will be performed with foamed acid (with N2 or CO2) the equipment which
has been utilized in OMV Petrom is shown in Figure 9-29.
The main component that needs to be added as compared with the typical equipment layout is a
nitrogen converter.
Figure 9-29 Typical Surface Equipment Layout for Matrix Acidizing with Foamed Acid
9.6 Fluids and Materials Used for Acidizing
9.6.1 Additives (corrosion inhibitors, Iron-Control Agents, Clay Stabilizers etc)
Corrosion Inhibitors
Acid corrosion inhibitors reduce the corrosion of well tubulars by acids. They adsorb on the surface of
the pipes to form a protective film, thus reducing the reaction rate of acid with steel.
As with any chemical reaction, the corrosion rate increases rapidly with temperature: each 10 °C
increase in temperature will increase the corrosion rate by a factor 2 to 3. Moreover, corrosion
inhibitors lose their effectiveness at higher temperatures, causing an extra increase in corrosion rate
above 100 to 150 °C. Corrosion inhibitors can give adequate protection to temperatures up to
approximately 100 °C and Table 9-20 shows the temperature limits for efficient application of some
corrosion inhibitors.
For protection at higher temperatures, as shown in Table 9-20 below, salts with reducing properties
(cupro-iodide/sulfate, potassium iodide, etc.) are added as intensifiers.
Table 9-20 Temperature limits for corrosion inhibitors
The main factors affecting corrosion are metallurgy, acid type and concentration, agitation,
temperature, pressure, inhibitor solubility and concentration— i.e. the ratio of metal area to acid
volume — contact time, presence of inhibitor aids and the influence of other additives. Chemical
providers gives recommendations for their particular product, as shown in Appendix 9-B.
Surfactants
Surfactants, or surface active agents, are chemical containing both oil and water soluble groups, as
shown in Figure 9-30, with the ability to alter liquid-liquid or gas-liquid interfacial properties.
The reasons for using surfactants in acidizing are to:
• Reduce surface and /or interfacial tension and capillary forces,
• Alter and/control wettability,
• Break undesirable emulsions,
• Speed cleanup,
• Disperse additives,
• Disperse/suspend fines
• Prevent sludge formation, and
• Prevent/break water blocks.
The use of surfactants requires careful selection of an appropriate molecule. Remarkably, in the
design of most well treatments, surfactants are selected with little or no laboratory data to support
the choice and sometimes without full knowledge of their properties at the conditions where they
will be applied.
Figure 9-30 Dipolar surfactant composition
9.7 Quality and Safety Requirements for Acidizing
9.7.1 Quality Control
Incorporation of Quality Control (QC) measures during all aspects of an acid job can make the
difference between success and failure. QC is the process of ensuring that the materials and
equipment meet specifications and are delivered in proper condition to the well-site.
The execution of matrix acidizing must be performed as specified in the treatment schedule or by the
operator on location. During this process, QC and data collection is important. The operational
objective is defined by the design.
Quality control monitoring only during the actual pumping of the treatment is not sufficient. In
addition, quality control steps must be planned and executed during rig-up of equipment, before
pumping, and after pumping.
Laboratory check
The laboratory testing is to be carried out in the field prior to, and during the treatment. Although
perhaps more difficult because of poorer working conditions, it is most important to ensure that the
fluids prepared on location and pumped into the well, have similar properties to the fluids selected
on the basis of the initial laboratory tests and to the parameters used in the design. Failure to carry
out those quality control checks will almost certainly result in the treatment not being pumped
exactly as designed. These tests should be performed on samples of the chemicals supplied to the
field. This will initially certify that each individual material meets the specifications laid down and will
pass the final quality control check. After each material has been tested individually, they should
then be tested as acollective fluid using location water. Field testing will identify any incompatibilities
due to contamination.
For matrix stimulation operations, useful QC measures include:
• During rig-up of equipment:

o It is mandatory to inspect all tanks that will be used to hold acid or water. The tanks
must be clean. Small amounts of dirt, mud, or other debris can easily ruin an acid job.
o Make sure the service company has the equipment to circulate the acid tank prior to
pumping.
o The line to the pit or tank should be laid and ready to connect to the wellhead so the
acid can be back-flowed immediately after the end of the overftush.
o Calibration of all measuring devices, such as transducers and flowmeters, should be a
regular part of maintenance procedures. Calibration conditions should mimic
operating conditions to the extent required to properly calibrate the equipment.
Sufficient inventories of spare parts should be available to make maintenance repairs
quickly. Calibration tests should be conducted routinely and the results documented.
• Quality control before pumping

o Check the service company tickets to be sure all additives for the job an on location.
It is important to make sure that additives included in the treatment design are
included among the chemical components delivered for on-site mixture and use. Not
only do additives once in a while fail to show up, sometimes an incorrect additive, or
at least an unacceptable substitute, may be delivered instead of what had been
requested or specified.
o Circulate the acid storage tank(s) just before the acid is injected into the well. It is
known that certain additives, particularly corrosion inhibitor, can settle to the top of
the acid tank, leaving the body of acid inadequately inhibited. It is important to mix
acid on delivery—and if possible, continuously, up to injection. If that is not possible,
then acid should be mixed immediately prior to injection.
o On-site titration of acids to verify the concentration.
o Verification that surface-active agents are supplied in the specified concentration. It
is important to stay below the maximum surface pressure during injection, for
consideration of equipment safety limits. Also, in sandstones, it is necessary to stay
below fracturing pressure. It may be that changes need to be made as the treatment
is being pumped. If any changes are in order, they must be well understood by all
personnel beforehand and during treatment, while they are made.
o Regular QC testing of each batch or lot of corrosion inhibitor by the service company
o On-site testing of gel viscosity for diverters (carbonates)
o Make sure the service company personnel know the maximum surface pressure and
stay below that pressure.
o Check the pressure-time recorder or any other on-site treatment monitoring or
evaluation mechanism, to ensure proper operation.
o Acid-clean (pickle) the tubing. If the tubing is not pickled, debris, iron scale, pipe
dope, and other solids can be injected into the formation at the very beginning of an
acid treatment. This can irreparably damage the near-wellbore formation, ruining an
otherwise well-designed treatment. If possible, always include a pickling
pretreatment.
• Quality control during pumping

o Control injection rate, maintain surface annulus pressure at or below certain level
(30-35 bars) during treatment and monitor the pressure response when acid reaches
the formation. The surface pressure should slowly decrease if the rate is held
constant, indicating skin removal. If the surface pressure rises sharply or rises
continuously for certain volume of acid (0.5-1m3), the acid may not be removing the
damage or maybe damaging the formation. Acid injection should be stopped, and
the well should be flowed back immediately, no matter what objections there may
be. Samples of the back-flowed acid should be sent to the service company
laboratory for analysis
o Sampling of fluids pumped during the stimulation treatment, with samples retained
until the treatment has been evaluated.
o Regular testing of particle size and solubility of particulate diverters
o Note the pressure response when the diverting agent reaches the formation. The
surface pressure should rise slightly, if there is no diverter response, more diverter or
a different diverter may be needed in the future. If diverter response is not noted,
the injection rate may be increased, if the pressure limit permits, to enhance zone
coverage. This should be considered only if it does not compromise other aspects of
the design.
o Never exceed the breakdown pressure of the formation in a sandstone acidizing
treatment, unless absolutely necessary initially to break down the perforations (with
a perforation -wash tool) or to bypass severe damage to initiate inactivity. Once
fracture pressure was exceeded, injection pressure remained virtually unchanged,
suggesting an absence of effective diversion and zone coverage.
o In the final flush, make sure acid is displaced from the wellbore. The full overflush
should be pumped as designed. Spent acid, especially in sandstone, must be
sufficiently displaced from the wellbore to reduce the damaging effects of
precipitation of acid reaction products. In carbonate stimulation, it is desirable for
acid to be fully spent before it flows back, to avoid possible corrosion problems on
flowback of return fluids.
• Quality control after pumping

o Do not shut the well in after acid injection. Flow the well back to the tank or pit as
soon as the flow line is connected. Flowback immediately following acidizing is not
normal production, and if care is not taken, severe damage can be caused during this
initial period. Three of the most common problems during flowback are:
 Fines migration (to avoid potentially damaging effects, the flow rate should
be set low at first. Then, after spent acid is produced back, the flow rate
should be gradually stepped up to planned production conditions).
 Re-precipitation of acid reaction products (In sandstone acidizing, the only
way to minimize the problem once the acid treatment has been pumped is
to return the well to production as soon as possible. The process of flowing
spent acid back must be initiated immediately. Shutting the well in an HF

treatment is the worst course of action, with respect to damage caused by
reprecipitation of HF reaction products).
 Back-production and processing of additives (most additives included in acid
mixtures are produced back after treatment. They can cause upsets to
production equipment and facilities. Depending on the circumstances, spent
acid must be collected and properly disposed of).
o Collect at least three one-quart samples of back-flowed acid for analysis. Sample the
acid back-flow at the beginning, middle, and near the end of the flow. If on swab, get
a sample from every other swab run. This information can indicate the nature of acid
spending, whether overtreatment or undertreatment occurred, and whether iron
and potential precipitation of reaction products are a concern. It also can indicate if
acid mixtures injected might have been incompatible with formation fluids. It is
imperative to patiently evaluate return samples before drawing any potentially
incorrect conclusions about the treatment pumped. If possible, get a laboratory
analysis for the following:
 Amount, size, and type of solids,
 Strength of returned acid,
 Total iron content,
 Presence of emulsions and/or sludges, and
 Formation of any precipitates (besides iron).
o A complete analysis of acid returns, using spectroscopic methods can be performed

by specialized laboratories. Concentrations of the following ions should be
determined: Aluminum (Al3+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Chloride (Cl-), Barium (Ba2+),
Potassium (K+),Fluoride ion (F-), Calcium (Ca 2+), Sodium (Na+), Iron (Fe2+, Fe3+) and
Silicon (Si2+, Si4+). Spectroscopic analysis can indicate on what the acid stages spent
themselves and whether the spent acid stages produced back in the expected and
desired manner. This information can be important for designing future treatments
in the same field. For example, perhaps spent HF returns in a sandstone acidizing
treatment showed high Ca2+content. This might indicate the need for a larger acid
(HCl) preflush. Alternatively, it might indicate the need to back off on the HF stage.
High Si/Al ratios suggest reprecipitation of aluminum fluoride salts, indicating that
the designed HCl/HF ratio should be modified. Other potential modifications include
lowering the HF concentration and using a special HF system designed to minimize
the reprecipitation of such reaction products.
o Take the treatment report and the pressure charts to the office for evaluation and
placement into the well file. Both the operator and the service company must make
an effort to exchange and discuss all relevant treatment information, to give each
other the best chance for future success.
9.7.2 Health, Safety and Environmental Aspects of Acidizing
In any well operation, including acid stimulation, safety must be designated as a crucial quality
control measure and job safety is of utmost importance. Awareness of the importance of health,
safety and environmental, (HSE), issues has become more and more central to the thinking of the
E&P industry and regulators in the last decades. The implementation of HSE management systems
(HSE-MS) of Petrom OMV and Service providers to control these aspects in acidizing operations are
no exception.
Accomplishing successful well acidizing is of high importance, but, all is greatly diminished in
importance when compared to safety concerns.
HSE Aspects of Acidizing
The pre-job safety meeting is the most important part of the treatment. In this meeting, all safety
considerations should be discussed in detail. The main purpose of the meeting is to ensure that each
individual present at the job site knows his or her responsibility and what to do at all time during the
job. The following topics should at least be covered during this meeting:
• Job details and contingency procedures (sudden leaks, etc.).

• Chemical hazards, i.e. actions required if hazardous contact occurs.
• Required protective clothing, goggles, gloves, etc. for working with the chemicals on location.
• Applicable smoking, drinking and food limitations.
• Sampling procedures.
• Communication lines between contractor and OMV Petrom personnel (all individuals present
should be familiar with the service company's mode of communication. Service company
representatives should report their means of communication to the OMV Petrom company
representative during the treatment. They should plan appropriate action to take if that line
of communication fails.
• Maximum allowable treating pressure.
• Responsibilities of each individual on location.
• Do a complete head count of all personnel on location? It is best practice for the leads to
have an idea of where everyone is at all times? Personnel should inform the leads of their
whereabouts when leaving the site temporarily.
• Check if the place of a fire extinguisher on the ground is easy for access.
• Check if reserve a vehicle is ready for transporting eventually injured personnel in the case of
catastrophic event.
• Give two individuals the responsibility of transporting eventually injured persons to the
nearest clinic/hospital.
• Gathering area in case of emergencies/disasters. Disaster, such as an explosion or a major
equipment failure or leak, may require evacuation to a safe area. By contrast, in the event of
an accident, the gathering area may be more immediately accessible.
• Location of First Aid facilities and first aider in charge.
• Materials Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). Basic information on the nature of chemicals handled,
precautions to be taken and actions to be taken in the event of a fire, spillage or accidental
contact should be available at locations where chemicals are handled and also at first aid
stations.
• Safe Handling of Chemicals (SHOC) instructions should be on site. As to safe handling of
chemicals (SHOC), especially in matrix treatments, whenever in doubt, the manufacturer’s
instructions should be consulted for advice on the handling of chemicals. In general,
precautions should be taken to avoid skin contact and inhalation and, in any event where
contact is possible:
o Hands should be washed before eating, smoking or using the toilet, food should be consumed
in areas free from dust and fumes,
o Contaminated clothing should be removed before eating.
o Personnel handling acid or caustic substances should wear gloves, boots, face shields and
acid/alkali resistant coveralls or aprons.
o During all stimulation jobs, there is a risk of splashing or contact with dangerous chemicals.
Therefore an emergency shower and/or eye wash facility should be installed within 20
meters.
• Rest area.
General HSE guidelines for acidizing
A stimulation treatment involves the handling, injection and back production of potentially
hazardous chemicals and during the operation high injection pressure will be needed. Therefore, the
strict and precise HSE requirements must be followed and applied. To ensure a safe and
environmentally acceptable execution of a stimulation treatment, the following rules apply:
• Design the treatment with chemicals which have the smallest possible environmental impact.
• Make sure that for each chemical used, a instructions and a Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) are available on site.
• For critical jobs, or with new, relatively inexperienced crews, hold dry runs on critical
operations.
• Pressure tests all lines prior to the treatment.
• Determine the position of all valves and sequences of opening and closing of the valves.
• Make sure that all lines are secured and anchored.
• Check the monitoring equipment prior to the main treatment.
• Make sure that adequate (in accordance with the requirements on the SHOC or MSDS cards)
first-aid facilities, including qualified personnel, are available on-site.
• Establish – prior to the treatment – handling and disposal procedures for chemicals, empty
containers and back-produced fluids.
9.7.3 Personnel (Training, Supervision)
Properly trained personnel are the keys to success. The wellsite personnel must understand the
fundamentals of the stimulation technique that will be used and must know how to use the
equipment, software and techniques. Two main keys to effective QC are communication and
documentation. The designer must communicate the design expectations to the material suppliers.
Because these expectations must be consistent with the supplier or manufacturer’s specifications,
the specifications should be available to the designer.
Appendix 9-A Commercially Available Acid Systems Specification Details

Table 9-21 Commercial Sand Acid 1
General Fluid Description Halliburtom Energy Services BJ Services Schlumberger Dowell

Half strength Mud Acid
6% HCl-1.5% HF 6% HCl-1.5% HF 6% HCl-1.5% HF
(H948)
7.5% HCl 7.5% HCl 7.5% hydrochloric acid Regular Acid (7.5%HCl)
10% HCl-1% HF 10% HCl-1% HF 10% HCl-1% HF Custom Blend
Regular Mud Acid
12% HCl-3% HF 12% HCl-3% HF 12% HCl-3% HF
(H949)
13.5% HCl-1.5% HF 13.5% HCl-1.5% HF 13.5% HCl-1.5% HF Custom Blend
15% HCl 15% HCl 15% hydrochloric acid Regular Acid (15% HCl)
Gelled Acid, LT-100, DGA 100, DGA 200, DGA
15% HCl with gelling agent 15% HCl + SGA-HT
HT-200 300, DGA400
Regular Acid (28% HCl)
28% HCl 28% HCl 28% hydrochloric acid
(H28)
Acetic - HF system None Acetic:HF Organic Mud Acid
CLAYFIX 5, 2% Ammonium
Ammonium chloride Chloride, 5% Ammonium Ammonium chloride J285
Chloride
Generic Fluid Description Halliburton Energy BJ Services Schlumberger

Services Dowell
Aromatic solvent Paragon Xylene A26, P121
Aromatic solvent that Paragon 100E+ Envirosol XS P129
does not contain xylene,
benzene, toluene or
Asphaltenic compatible Carbonate Completion One Shot Plus MISCA
acid system for acidizing Acid
of sandstone and
carbonate reservoirs
Biodegradable, non- Paragon EA P130
aromatic solvent
CO2 conditioning system Gidley’s CO2
Conditioner (No
competive equivalent -
HES exclusive patent
Diesel Diesel Diesel U051
Emulsified acid Carbonate Emulsion Emulsified Acid Super X Emulsion,
Acid Super X Emulsion
HT, Dowell Acid
Dispersion (DAD)
Foamed acid Fines Recovery Acid Foamed Acid Foamed acid
Formic - HF system None Formic: HF Organic Mud Acid
(H954)
Gelled acid Carbonate Stimulation Gelled Acid, Gelled DGA 100, DGA 200,
Acid Acid 100, Gelled Acid DGA 300, DGA400
200, Gelled Weak Acid
HCl based, iron control Fe Acid, Double Ferrotrol Agents Micellar Iron and
acid system (non-H2S Strength Fe Acid Sludge Control
environment) Agent (MISCA)
HCl-HF system for use in Silica Scale Acid BJ Sandstone Acid
geothermal wells
HCl-HF system with Sandstone Completion BJ Sandstone Acid
surfactant and aluminum Acid
scale inhibitor
Hydrochloric acid / CLAY-SAFE H
ammonium chloride
conditioner
Hydroxypropyl guar WG-11 Hydroxy Propyl Guar J347
gelling agent Gelling Agent
Generic Fluid Description Halliburton Energy BJ Services Schlumberger

Services Dowell
In-situ gelled acid Zonal Coverage Acid Leak Off Control
Acid (LCA), Self
Diverting Acid
Low strength HCl-HF K-Spar Acid BJ Sandstone Acid Clay Acid
system for use in high
feldspar/fines applications
Nitrogen Nitrogen Nitrogen Nitrogen
Organic acid 10% Formic, 10% Organic Acid L001, L036, L400
Acetic
Organic acid / ammonium CLAY-SAFE 5, CLAY-
chloride conditioner SAFE F
Organic acid for high Hot Rock Acid Organic Acid L400, L036
temperatures
Volcanic Acid I, Acetic:HF Formic:HF Organic Mud
Organic HF system Volcanic Acid II Acid
Potassium chloride 2% KCl Potassium Chloride M117
Retarded HF system with Fines Control Acid BJ Sandstone Acid Clay Acid
surfactants
Seawater Seawater Seawater Seawater
Sour well iron control acid SWIC Acid, SWIC II Ferrotrol-HAS +
system Ferrotrol-HSB A255
Water Water Water Water
Xylene Xylene Xylene A26
Table 9-24 Commercial Carbonate Acid 1
Halliburton – Carbonate 20/20 Matrix Acidising Systems

Acid Composition Adventages
Carbonate Completion Acid 10 to 28% HCl This totally soluble acid blend is
+ FDP-S562A inhibitor universally applicable to most well
+ FDP-S562B anti-sludge conditions. Designed to minimise
Optional: emulsion and sludge problems
FDP-S562C H2S scavenger even in sour wells.
FDP-S562D iron reducer
FDP-S562E dispersant
Carbonate Stimulation Acid 15% HCl Gelled acid improves stimulation
+ 2% SGA-HT results. Moderate viscosity
Optional: enhances zonal coverage and
1 to 4% gelling agent minimises fluid loss.
SGA-HT, SGA-II, SGA-III
Fines Recovery Acid 70 v/o nitrogen The system of choice for low-
30 v/o 20% HCl solubility formations. Gelling
(2.5% SGA-1 in the HCl) agent also functions as a foaming
agent and fines suspender. Foam
enhances fines carrying capacity
and aids in fluid recovery.
Carbonate Emulsion Acid 70 v/o 22% HCl Ultra-retarded acid system
30 v/o diesel enhances zonal coverage and
(2.5% AF-61 in the diesel) efficiently generates wormholes
under nearly all conditions.
Zonal Coverage Acid 15% HCl + 2% SGA-II The ultimate in-situ diversion for
+ 4.5% gal/Mgal XL-1 matrix acidising and fluid-loss
+ 2 gal/Mgal BF-1 control in fracture acidising.
+ 4 lb/Mgal Ferchek
Hot Rock Acid 9% Formic – 13% Acetic The system of choice when
+ 0.5% MSA-II corrosion concerns or formation
+ 0.5% LoSurf-259 compatibility problems preclude
+ 1.5% SGA-HT the use of HCl.
Main Dowell Acid Formulations For Carbonate Matrix Acidising

Acid/Description Treatment / Reservoir Recommended Advantages
Conditions Applications
Dowell X Production restricted Matrix Acidising and Economical and
Inhibited HCl 5 to 15% due to damage or low Acid Fracturing; versatile
formation permeability Carbonate and Iron
(27 to 204 °C) Scale Solvent
Super X Production restricted Matrix Acidising or Acid Greater dissolving
Inhibited concentrated due to damage or low Fracturing; removal of power than equal
HCl formation permeability formation damage or volume of Dowell X
20 to 28% (27 to 177 °C) scale deposits
XX Intensified Acid Low or damaged Matrix Acidising or Acid Accelerated reaction
Inhibited HCl with HF permeability in Fracturing rate with dolomite
intensifier dolomite or siliceous and siliceous
limestone reservoirs limestone
(27 to 204 °C)
Super X EmulsionSXE 27 to 150 °C All applications Highly retarded with
Emulsified HCl i.e. oil outside phase
70/30 HCl/oil
MSR 100, MSR 150 Drilling muds lost to the Matrix Acidising; Acid Brings back large
Blend of 7.5 to 15% formation; or reservoir Fracturing; Formation amounts of muds
inhibited HCl and special has a high percentage Cleaning; Wellbore and clays; minimises
clay dispersing, of silts and clays (27 to Cleanup and Gravel- reprecipitation of
suspending and chelating 121 °C) Pack Cleanup Fluid dissolved iron
agents
DGA100 Carbonate reservoirs Acid Fracturing; reactive Exceptional fluid-
Thickened inhibited (especially older wells) stages in DUOFRAC II loss control and
15% HCl where wider and treatments improved etch
deeper penetrating patterns; suspends
fractures are needed and removes silts
(27 to 121 °C) and solids with spent
acid returns
DGA200 Low-temperature Acid Fracturing; Retarded reaction
HCl thickened up to a carbonate reservoirs Formation Cleaning of rate; reduced
maximum of 28% Fissured Reservoirs, leakoff, low viscosity
DUOFRAC II treatments when spent for good
for low-temperature cleanup; liquid
wells (66 °C) additive gels up to
28% HCl
Acid/Description Treatment / Reservoir Recommended Advantages

Conditions Applications
DGA300 High-temperature Acid Fracturing; Retarded reaction rate;
HCl thickened up to a carbonate reservoirs Formation Cleaning of reduced leakoff,
maximum of 28% Fissured Reservoirs, continuous- or batch-
DUOFRAC II treatments mix applications; stable
for high-temperature at high temperatures.
wells (149 °C) Gels up to 28% HCl
DGA400 Carbonate reservoirs Acid Fracturing; Reduced leakoff; batch-
HCl thickened up to a less than 149 °C Formation Cleaning of or continuous-mix
maximum of 28% Fissured Reservoirs; operations; stable at
DUOFRAC II treatments high temperatures
Foamed X Low-pressure, low- Acid Fracturing and Improved leakoff
Stable inhibited HCl permeability carbonate Formation Cleaning of control and well
and foam; 55 to 85% reservoirs (27 to 121 °C) Fissured Reservoirs cleanup with more
foam quality efficient return of
treating fluids
SDA (Self Diverting Carbonate reservoirs Formation Stimulation, Self diversion
Acid) less than 149 °C Cleaning of Fissured mechanism, deep acid
HCl thickened up to a Reservoirs penetration
maximum of 28%
BJ Services International Matrix Acidising Systems

Type/Name Purpose/Advantages
High-rate, near-wellbore treatments.
Lightly gelled acid Excellent friction reduction.
Various strengths of HCl acid with low concentrations
of gellant (e.g. DSGA or AG-57L at 4 l/m3)
Gelled Acid 100, Gelled Acid 200, Gelled Weak Acid Enhanced zonal coverage, fines
Various strengths of HCl with various concentrations suspending and reaction rate
of gellant retardation
In-situ crosslinked acid, (Enhanced Acid System) Effective diversion for treatment of
Various strengths of HCl, 5 to 28% long intervals, horizontal wells
XL Acid III (various strengths of crosslinked HCl acid) Suitable for high viscosity diversion
stages in matrix acid treatments
Foamed acid Improved diversion, leak off control
and fines recovery
Organic acid High-temperature treatments
Specialty acid systems, e.g. One Shot Acid “Plus” Treatment of asphaltenes and sludges.
Blend of aromatic solvents and acid
Appendix 9-B Commercially Available Additives and Solvent Specifications

Table 9-28 Commercial Sand Additive 1
Generic Aditive Description Halliburton Energy BJ Services Schlumberger

Services Dowell
Acid corrosion inhibitor HII-124B, HII-124F, Hy Temp I, Hy-Temp A201, A153, A179,
intensifier HII-500M O A281
Additive for use in aromatic Targon II AS-32 + NE-110W U101
solvents to enhance
asphaltene dissolution
Anionic, anti-sludging AS-5, AS-9 AS-32 W035 / W60
surfactant
Anionic, de-oiling, Morflo III NE-110W
nonemulsier for aquaeous
based fluids
Antisulfide-cracking agent SCA-130 HS-2 A255

Services Dowell
Broad spectrum, anionic NEA-96M AS-32, NE-110W F104
surfactant for aqueous based
fluids
Broad spectrum, cationic 19N, 20N LT-17 F078, M38B
surfactant for aqueous based
fluids
Broad spectrum, nonionic Losurf 300, Losurf NE-118, NE-940 F75N, F103
surfactant for aqueous based 259, Losurf, 357
fluids
Cationic oligimer for clay Cla-Sta XP Claymaster 5C L055
stabilization in aqueous
Cationic liquid friction FR-28LC AG-12, Acigel J507, J313
reducer
Cationic, mineral fines and Cla-Sta FS Claymaster FSC L042
clay stabilizing additive in
aqueous fluids
Ethylene glycol mono butyl Musol US-40 U066
ether
Ferric iron reduction system FERCHEK SC Ferrotrol-200 or 210 L63, L58
for iron control in sour
environments
High temperature corrosion HAI-85M A280 / A282 with
inhibitor for use up to 500°F A281
with all strengths of acid and
on corrosion resistant alloys
Hydroxypropyl guar gelling WG-11 Hydroxy Propyl J347
agent Guar Gelling Agent
Improved mutual solvent that Musol E US-2
does not contain EGMBE and
is therefore more
enviromentally friendly
Micellar surfactant system SSO-21M LT-32 + Floback-30
with foaming and fluid
recovery properties for use at
225 °F and below
Micellar surfactant system SSO-21HT LT-32 + Floback-30
with foaming and fluid
recovery properties for use
above 225 °F

Services Dowell
Mutual solvent composed of a Musol A US-2 U100
blend of alcohols/ethers for
acids
Nonionic blend of surfactants, Losurf 396 F103
dispersants and solvents for
use where health, safety and
environmental regulations
are concerned
Nonionic microemulsion Pen-88M LT-32
penetrating agent for use at
225 °F and below
Nonionic microemulsion Pen-88HT LT-32
penetrating agent for use
above 225 °F
Nonionic surfactant Sperse-All M, D-4GB F040
dispersant A-Sperse
Nonionic, anti-sludging AS-7 None W054
surfactant
Nonionic, penetrating Pen-5M LT-32 F075N
surfactant
Oil soluble non-emulsifying Hyflo IVM NE-118 F040
surfactant
Organic acid corrosion MSA-II CI-20 A186, A272
inhibitor
Organic acid used for iron Fe-1A, Fe-2 Acetic Acid, Citric L001, L400
control Acid
Organic alcohol Methanol Methanol, K046
Isopropyl Alcohol
Oxygen scavenger used for FERCHEK Ferrotrol-200 or L058
iron control 210
Sandstone acidizing additive ALCHEK BJ Sandstone Acid
for the prevention of
secondary precipitation of
aluminum
Sequestering/reducing and FERCHEK A Ferrotrol-810, L041, U042, L62
scavenging agent for iron Ferrotrol-270
control in acids &271, Ferrotrol-
Soluble corrosion inhibitor for HAI-81M CI-30NF + HyTemp A270,A280
use up to 400 °F 400

Services Dowell
Soluble, enviromentally HAI-OS, HAI-NS CI-27 A259, A261, A262
acceptable corrosion inhibitor
for use up to 200 °F
Surface tension reduction and Superflo III Inflo-150, Inflo-100 F075N, F103
fluid recovery surfactant
Surfactant gelling agent for SGA-1 AG-10 J508
acids
Suspending agent/foaming HC-2 FAW-21 F78, F100
surfactant for acids
Synthetic, cationic gelling SGA-HT AG-12, Acigel J507
agent for acids up to 400 °F
ADDITIONS from DS Halliburton Energy BJ Services Schlumberger

Services Dowell
Environmentally acceptable W060
anionic anti-sludging agent
Environmentally acceptable J507
friction reducing agent
Environmentally acceptable A272
organic acid corrosion
inhibitor
Environmentally acceptable F100
suspending agent/foaming
agent for acids
Environmentally acceptable, F103
broad spectrum nonionic
surfactant for aqueous-based
fluids
Soluble environmentally A259 and A282
acceptable corrosion
inhibitor for use up to 400 °F
List of Figures
Figure 9-1 Skin factor as a function of damage radius and damage ration (kd/k),
Figure 9-2 Pressure profile of damaged and undamaged well,
Figure 9-3 Formation damage types,
Figure 9-4 Formation damage types and treatment selection,
Figure 9-5 Basic Fluid Selection for Well Acidizing,
Figure 9-6 Constituents of sandstone which are soluble in HCl/HF acid systems,
Figure 9-7 Various Wormhole structures,
Figure 9-8 Wormholing controlled by diffusion,
Figure 9-9 Various Wormhole structures (Fredd and Fogler, SPEJ, 1998, 1999; Hoefner and Fogler,
AlChEJ, 1998),
Figure 9-10 Model 1 Preflush/Overflush Fluid Selection,
Figure 9-11 Model 1 Main/Base Treatment Fluid Selection,
Figure 9-12 Main Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays and Zeolites,
Figure 9-13 Main Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays, Chlorite and
Glauconite,
Figure 9-14 Model 1 Main/Base Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays,
Zeolites and Glauconite,
Figure 9-15 Model 2 Preflush/Overflush Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays,
Figure 9-16 Model 2 Main Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays and
reservoir temperature,
Figure 9-17 General Workflow for choosing a diversion method for matrix acidizing,
Figure 9-18 Diversion selection workflow,
Figure 9-19 Impure dolomite: Quartz grains (white crystals) scattered in the dolomitic matrix (brown
crystals of dolomite),
Figure 9-20 Fluid selection workflow for carbonate acidizing,
Figure 9-21 Improper acid placement in carbonate formation,
Figure 9-22 Matrix Acidizing Planning Schedule,
Figure 9-23 Evaluation of matrix stimulation using prediction diagram and injection test,
Figure 9-24 Field Acid Response Curve,
Figure 9-25 Injection rate and pressure during job in Well 2,
Figure 9-26 Field Acid Response Curve,
Figure 9-27 Workflow of matrix acidizing control in real time,
Figure 9-28 Typical Surface Equipment Layout for Standard Matrix Acidizing without using foam,
Figure 9-29 Typical Surface Equipment Layout for Matrix Acidizing with Foamed Acid,
Figure 9-30 Dipolar surfactant composition.
List of Tables
Table 9-1 Summarized skin components,
Table 9-2 Primary chemical reaction in acidizing
Table 9-3 Damaging HF reactions in sandstones,
Table 9-4 Maximum protection time for different acids and temperatures,
Table 9-5 The reaction of HCl with carbonates,
Table 9-6 Solubility of Common Minerals in Acid,
Table 9-7Model 1 Preflush Fluid Selection,
Table 9-8 Model 1 Preflush /Overflush fluid selection including presence of HCl sensitive minerals
Table 9-9 Model 1 Main/Base Treatment Fluid Selection,
Table 9-10 Model 1 Main/Base Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of high sensitivity Clays,
Table 9-11 Preflush /Overflush fluid selection including presence of HCl sensitive minerals and
temperature
Table 9-12 Main Treatment Fluid Selection including presence of HCl sensitive minerals and
temperature,
Table 9-13 Acid treatment guideline,
Table 9-14 Recommended volume of treatment fluid,
Table 9-15 Wormhole structure,
Table 9-16 Statistical analysis of well-documented matrix stimulation treatments,
Table 9-17 Main Reasons for failures,
Table 9-18 Reasons for failures and corrective actions,
Table 9-19 Matrix Acidizing Planning Schedule,
Table 9-20 Temperature limits for corrosion inhibitors,
Table 9-21 Commercial Sand Acid 1,
Table 9-24 Commercial Carbonate Acid 1,

Table 9-28 Commercial Sand Additive 1,
Table 9-32 Commercial Sand Additive 5.
References

• Stimulation & Fracturing Activity 2010 – 2011
• Stimulation study 1 -Standard procedure for matrix treatment recipe formulation
• Stimulation study 2 - standard procedure for design special matrix treatment
• Field Cases of Application of Acidizing Workflow and Acidizing Best Practices Reports
(Well 510 A Burcioaia, G10 Lebada East, 154 Bragareasa - Foam acidizing job,
• Best Candidate Selection Process for Acidizing and HDF
• Acid Systems Specification Details used in Petrom OMV
• Additives and Solvent Specifications/Annex with procedures for testing various additives
• Technical Procedure for Acidizing. WO&WI BU
2. Bert W., Gidley J. and Schechter R.: Acidizing Fundamentals, SPE of AIME, 1979
3. Buijse M.: Mechanisms of Wormholing in Carbonate Acidizing, SPE 37283, 1997.
4. Best Practices--Carbonate matrix Acidizing Treatments; Halliburton Energy Services, Inc.
Bibliography No. H01276; ; Oct. 1998;.
5. Civan F.: Reservoir Formation Damage, Gulf Publishing Company, 2000
6. Daccord, G. Lenormand, R. and Liétard, O.: Chemical Dissolution of a Porous Medium by a
Reactive Fluid,” Chemical Engineering Science 1993. 48, No. 1, 169-186.
7. Daccord, G., Touboul, E. and Lenormand, R.: Carbonate Acidizing: Toward a Quantitative
Model of the Wormholing Phenomenon, SPE 16887, SPE Production Engineering, February
1989
8. Economides M.: A practical Companion to reservoir Stimulation, 1992
9. Economides M. and Nolte K.G.: Reservoir Stimulation, 3rd Edition
10. Economides, M. and Boney, C.: Reservoir Stimulation
11. Ely, J.W.: Stimulation Treatment Handbook, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, PennWell Publishing Co.,
1985.
12. Gidley, J. L.: Stimulation of Sandstone Formations: A Detailed Examination of Recent
Experience, paper SPE 14164, 1985.
13. Gong, M.: Quantitative Model of Wormholing Process in Carbonate Acidizing, SPE 52165,
1999.
14. Huang S. T., et al: Reaction Rate and Fluid Loss; The Keys to Wormhole Initiation and
Propagation in Carbonate Acidizing; SPE 37312,1997.
15. Mostofizadeh B., et al; Optimum Injection Rate From Radial Acidizing Experiments, SPE 2854,
1994.
16. McLeod, H. O.: “Matrix Acidizing,” paper SPE 13752, 1984.
17. McLeod, H.O. Jr., Ledlow, L.B. and Till, M.V.: The Planning, Execution and Evaluation of Acid
Treatments in Sandstone Formations, SPE 11931, 1983.
18. Kalfayan L., Production Enhancement With Acid Stimulation, 2008
19. Kalfayan, L.J. and Watkins, D.R.: A New Method for Stabilizing Fines and Controlling
Dissolution During Sandstone Acidizing, SPE 20076, 1990.
20. Paccaioni G., M. Tambini SPE, Advances in matrix Stimulation Technology (pp. 256-263), 1993
Journal of Petroleum technology, Feb. 1987; Role of Acid Diffusion in Matrix Acidizing of
Carbonates; M. Hoefner, et al; (pp. 203-208).
21. Paccaloni, G.: A New, Effective Matrix Stimulation Diversion Technique, SPE 24781, SPE
Production & Facilities , August, 1995.
22. Prouvost, L. and Economides, M.J.: Applications of Real-Time Matrix-Acidizing Evaluation
Method, SPE 17156, SPE Production Engineering, November, 1989.
23. Recommended Practices for Laboratory Testing of Surface Active Agents for Well Stimulation
(RP 42), second edition, Dallas, Texas, USA, American Petroleum Institute (January 1, 1977).
24. Schehter R.: Oil Well Stimulation, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1992;
25. Wang Y. , et al: The Optimum Injection Rate for Matrix Acidizing of Carbonate Formations,
SPE 26578 1993.
26. Wang, Y., Hill, A.D. and Schechter, R.S.: The Optimum Injection Rate for Matrix Acidizing of
Carbonate Formations, SPE 26578, 1993.
27. Walsh, M. P., Lake, L. W. and Schechter, R. S.: A Description of Chemical Precipitation
Mechanisms and Their Role in Formation Damage During Stimulation by Hydrofluoric Acid,
SPE 10625, 1982.
10. SAND CONTROL
10. SAND CONTROL
Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................... 10-1

10. SAND CONTROL ............................................................................................................................ 10-5
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 10-5
10.1.1 The Fundamentals of Sand Control (Justification, Why, Sand Control Management
strategy)..................................................................................................................... 10-5
10.1.2 Overview of Sand Control Methods Applied in OMV Petrom SA............................... 10-7
10.2 Sand Control Technologies Overview ............................................................................... 10-12
10.2.1 Selection the Best Sand Control Technology ........................................................... 10-13
10.2.2 Gravel Pack Technology in cased and open hole ..................................................... 10-15
10.3 Mechanical Sand Control Methods .................................................................................. 10-20
10.3.1 Standalone Screens Selection Workflow ................................................................. 10-20
10.3.2 Gravel Pack Design and Best Practices Workflow Applied in OMV Petrom............. 10-32
10.3.3 Frac-Pack Design and Best Practices Workflow Applied in OMV Petrom .............. 10-47
10.4 Gravel Pack Operational Aspects ...................................................................................... 10-60
10.4.1 GP Workstring/Service Tools .................................................................................... 10-61
10.4.2 Gravel Pack Completion Tools Currently Used in OMV Petrom .............................. 10-65
10.5 Surface Equipment............................................................................................................ 10-77
10.5.1 Major Considerations in Equipment Preparation and job Planning ........................ 10-77
10.5.2 Pumping Equipment and Filtering System ............................................................... 10-78
10.5.3 Treatment Monitoring System ................................................................................. 10-80
10.6 Materials for Sand Control................................................................................................ 10-81
10.6.1 Carrying Fluid............................................................................................................ 10-81
10.6.2 Gravel Pack ............................................................................................................... 10-81
10.6.3 Coated Gravel Pack .................................................................................................. 10-81
10.6.4 Other Chemicals ....................................................................................................... 10-82
10.7 Quality Assurance and Safety Requirements.................................................................... 10-82
10.7.1 Service ...................................................................................................................... 10-82
10.8 Safety Requirements......................................................................................................... 10-84
10.8.1 General Safety Considerations ................................................................................. 10-84
10.8.2 Personnel Requirements .......................................................................................... 10-86
10. SAND CONTROL
Appendix 10 - A Baker Sand Control Packer Specifications and Setting Procedure .................. 10-87
Appendix 10 - B GP Completion Procedure with Mechanical Packer Type PIROM MOCA-H .... 10-90
Appendix 10 - C GP Completion Procedure with Mechanical Packer Type HOVA-C.................. 10-97
Appendix 10 - D Schlumberger Sand Control Packer Specifications ........................................ 10-103
Appendix 10 - E Weatherford Sand Control Packer Specifications .......................................... 10-104
Appendix 10 - F Standards........................................................................................................ 10-105
List of Figures............................................................................................................................ 10-106
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. 10-109
References ................................................................................................................................ 10-111
10. SAND CONTROL
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 10. SAND CONTROL

Determine the depths of the minimum four casing couples above the top of open interval/s.
1.
in order to set the GP packer on proper position.
Clean perforations prior to installing gravel pack and Frac-Pack. Washing perforation and
2.
cleaning with using flapper milling tool are commonly used methods in OMV Petrom SA.
Avoid pump perforating debris into the well or letting it flow back into perforations via fluid
3.
loss.
4. The clearance between the casing and the screen should be a minimum of 12 gravel D50.
Before job execution, perform QA/QC checks of materials (proppant) and fluid (carrier
5.
fluid, acid, brine/fresh water) to be used for GP and Frac-Pack
The use of a dedicated clean work string strictly for gravel packing should be considered if a
6.
number of wells are to be completed.
Pump gravel pack at as high a rate as possible. May be limited by surface equipment and/or
7.
tubulars.
Use a representative formation sand sample and generate grain size distribution in order to
8. select the correct gravel size in relation to the formation sand size and to select proper
screen slot size and size of filters used for grave-pack fluid preparation.
If long shale sections (>10m) are present, use blank pipe across these sections to prevent
9. fines from entering the screen. High strength wire-wrapped screens should be used for
better slot opening control and reduced potential for damage during installation.
Use length of the screen which should provide overlapping above and below open
10.
interval/s of minimum 1.5 m.
11. Limit return/reverse rate to ensure leakoff to the perforations.
12. Apply wire spacing (Δ) is about 50-70% of the minimum grain diameter.
Use the Saucier criterion for gravel sizing is. From this work he concluded that the optimum
ratio, i.e. the ratio which maintains the highest pack to formation permeability ratio and
avoids sand production, is between 5 and 6.
13.
Use surface annular pressures during Frac Pack job to identify the initiation of a TSO. Use
14. observed pressure trends to adjust the pumping schedule and extend final stages if TSO
initiation is later than expected.
10. SAND CONTROL

Record the following data during packing operations (sample frequency should be selected
depend on surface and downhole conditions, best practice 3-15 second frequency):
16. Treating pressure, annulus pressure, slurry rate , Return Rate, proppant concentration
washpipe pressure, bottom hole work string and annulus pressure and accurate amount of
proppant reversed out following gravel pack
In Frac-Pack operation stat to injection proppant slurry at around 60-120 kg/m3 (0.5 or 1
17.
ppg) with stages of increasing proppant concentration up to 350 to 600 kg/m3 (3 – 5ppg).
For proppant selection in the case of Frac-Pack application use a D50 of proppant to D50 of
18. formation ratio of around 8 to 10 in sizing the proppant. Where possible this should be
based on sand retention tests to avoid excessive fines plugging.
Use Workflow on Page 62 (Figure 10-28 to 10-32) for preparing design of Frac-Pack and
19.
executing.
Workflows 10-43 to 10-47 (Pages from 81 to 85) for design and execution of GP in cased
20.
hole.
21. Use work string so the frictional pressure drop be a minimum.
Ensure that screen jacket is strong enough to prevent “pull-off” from base pipe during sand
22.
screen out.
If the screenout hasn’t been occurred, the injection rate would be decreased stepwise below
fracture extension rate defined by Step Rate Test in order to pack off production screens. If
23.
screen out occurs while pumping the frac pack, bleed of annulus pressure and then pressure
to reverse out excess sand.
Pressure test surface injection lines and workstring up to 20% above referent test
pressure (Preftest) . If maximum designed treated pressure (Ptrmax) is greater than hydraulic
24.
packer ball shear out pressure (Ppacker) then the reference pressure should be taken (Ptrmax),
otherwise, Ppacker should be used as referent pressure.
25. For Frac-Pack operation use fracturing fluids that have efficiencies less than 30%.
Before job, perform QA/QC checks of the proppant, viscosifier, cross-linker, breakers, and
26.
mix water to be used for the Frac-Pack treatment.
Check casing burst below the packer and collapse of blank pipe and downhole tools to
27.
prevent burst/collapse at maximum rate proppant loading during Frac-Pack operation..
28. Screens with centralizers which are corrosion resistant and easy to mill.
Minimize GP plugging caused by fines migration and clay swelling using new technology
29.
solution capable to inhibit fines movement and clay swelling.
Use guidance below to determine minimum size of the filter for filtering brine used for GP
and Frac-Pack operations.
30.
10. SAND CONTROL

To use mixed material (standard steel and for example Inox) for various component of
1
downhole equipment.
To perform the GP operation if ratio of washpipe OD to screen base pipe ID is not
approximately equal to 0.8*.
2
*Achieving this ratio in some screen sizes will require the use of special flush joint washpipe
connections.
3 To start GP or Frac-Pack job without running casing scrapers to the top of open interval/s.
Start GP and Frac-Pack without pickling the work string with a pipe dope solvent and at least
4
10% HCl.
Mass of gravel to pack unit length of tubing in various production casing less than as
specified.
6 To start Frac Pack treatment with proppant concentration greater than 200 kg/m3.
To clean the well quickly in order to prevent gravel pack destabilization. Over displace the
7
Frac-Pack.
To leave material in the wellbore as a result of drilling and cementing the well which can
8
cause serious damage to the Frac-Pack.
10. SAND CONTROL
10. SAND CONTROL
10. SAND CONTROL
10.1 Introduction
Sand control techniques are used in reservoirs susceptible to shear and/or tensile failure from drag
forces and loads applied to the rock matrix from production and depletion.
Sand management solutions should be based on a balance of technical (reservoir rock properties and
depletion stage, available equipment, complexity of completion, proper execution and quality
control), economic (cash flow and rate of return etc) and risk constraints (reducing well inflow
performance, conditions of downhole equipment, unpredictable fines migration, incompatibility of
reservoir fluids and GP carrier fluid etc.).
The essential goals of best practices and sand management are to optimize production by preventing
or delaying sand production throughout the life of a well or field.
OMV Petrom has decided to use Gravel Pack and Frac Pack as the two most applicable solutions
fitting the current reservoir conditions and expectations related to production goals. Chemical
methods (resin injection) has been tried in the past however, OMV Petrom currently uses only Gravel
packs and Frac Packs.
10.1.1 The Fundamentals of Sand Control (Justification, Why, Sand Control Management
strategy)
Formation sand production results in lost production and plugged gravel packs, screens, perforations,
tubulars, surface flow lines, and separators.
In addition to damage caused to surface equipment by plugging, casing and surface equipment can
erode due to abrasive, sand-laden fluid flow from the well.
Worst-case sand production problems can cause total well failure or the need for recompletion from
casing collapse, open-hole collapse, or both.
Quantification of Sand Production Risk
Traditionally, sanding risk is perceived as the risk of reaching the operative conditions at which sand
begins to enter into the wellbore. It is implicitly assumed that sand will eventually cause unbearable
problems and that no effective action can be taken to cope with it but to avoid the sand inflow. Sand
management extends this concept by assuming that sand production is not always unacceptable,
economically or for safety. The goal is to define the conditions at which each single sand-related
problem (steel erosion, perforations plugging, sea-line blockage, separator filling-up, etc.) can occur
in each individual case. To achieve this, analysis has to rely on different models and criteria that act
as tools to estimate the risk of each individual problem. Integration of these results can define
production ranges within which total risk is acceptable, and may help the reservoir and completion
engineers to make logical choices to extend these production ranges. Quantification of each
particular risk could provide answer on following questions:
10. SAND CONTROL
• Is a sand control method required?

• Which method would be best to fit the well conditions and production requirements?
• When to apply sand control?
• How to implement the selected sand control method?
Providing answers on these questions is a step by step integrated sand management process
consisting of sand problem analysis, methodologies, data required and decision workflows, for
selecting the best method, as shown in Figure 10-1.
The whole process is completed with an economic and risk analysis in order to select, verify and
justify the selected sand solution. OMV Petrom is following the previously described sand
management model in both cases, when a Gravel Pack or Frac-Pack should be applied.
Figure 10-1 Sand Control Process Managing
An essential part of the sand management workflows is prediction of sand production. Sand
production risk is addressed in terms of critical drawdown and reservoir pressure. The reservoir
pressure depletion, well trajectory, perforation orientation and water-cut are the factors that affect
critical drawdown. Collecting information during well testing in new wells and monitoring the
content of the sand in the produced fluid can be used to correlate the critical drawdown and sand
occurrence in produced fluid.
History has confirmed that there is direct correlation between reduced reservoir pressure and
increased sanding potential. It is recommended to make sensitivity analysis and to define critical
drawdown and sanding potential as shown in Figure 10-2
A correlation with maturated offset wells is the most reliable and applicable method to select the
correct applications for sand control. The success rate of GP applications (80-85%) confirms that this
methodology has been successful.
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-2 Critical drawdown and sanding potential
10.1.2 Overview of Sand Control Methods Applied in OMV Petrom SA
The analysis that has been done by Sand Control Department showed that 41% total oil production in
Petrom OMV require sand control. Currently, Gravel Pack is the most applied technique. The
application of the gravel pack started in 1996 and Figure 10-3 shows the brief history of GP
application and various stages in GP development life.
Figure 10-3 Gravel Pack Life Time in OMV Petrom
The wells completed with GP produce 82% of the total production impaired by sand while the Frac
Pack application is contributing around 6%. The remaining 12% of wells which have an identified sand
problem currently do not have any method of sand control.
Failure Analysis of Sand Control Completion

The sand control system has to be selected not only for its ability to keep sand from the wellbore, but
also for its ability to maximize safe production throughout the well’s life. Improperly executed or
inappropriate procedures can result in damaged screens or ineffectively placed gravel and frac packs,
leading to system failure during early or even initial production. Incompatible processes and
materials, sometimes coupled with, and sometimes the result of, poor reservoir understanding can
lead to corrosion, erosion and other mechanical failures. Systems will eventually fail when screens or
packs are required to perform beyond the life or service conditions for which they were originally
designed.
10. SAND CONTROL
The most common point of failure in sand control systems is at the screen designed to constrain the
gravel or, in the case of screen-only completions, at the formation. Screens typically fail as the result
of productivity or completion activities. Failure causes can be grouped in the following categories:
• Destabilized annular gravel pack due to excessive flow velocity through the perforations
• Screen erosion
• Screen corrosion
• Localized hot spots caused by flow around sections of plugged screens or by inadequate
annular gravel packing screen collapse from compaction
• Screen collapse caused by plugging.
The gravel pack main components and corresponding functions are shown in Figure 10-4 .
Figure 10-4 Internal Gravel Pack System Boundary
These mechanisms often work in concert to cause final system failure. This is particularly true in the
case of interplay between destabilized annular packs, screen erosion and corrosion. In this scenario,
as the gravel packed into the annulus or the perforation tunnels becomes unstable and shifts, gaps
are created through which formation fluids flow at high velocity. Sand particles moving in this high-
velocity stream pummel the screen, initiating and then accelerating its erosion. How quickly a screen
fails depends on fluid-flow velocity, angle of incidence of the flow, sand particle size and
concentration, flow duration and fluid properties such as density and viscosity. This same mechanism
works to hasten failure in screen sections already made vulnerable by corrosion
The key elements of the failure analysis standards and definition are shown Table 10-1.
Table 10-1 Failure Analysis Component
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-5 Internal Gravel Pack System Functional Block Diagram
Sand Control Completion failure analysis in OMV Petrom still is not organized at such level to enable
tracking of the sand completion failures. According to standard ISO 14224 (industry guideline), there
is established consistent terminology and structure for classifying, recording and storing the various
attributes of a failures analysis of various equipment. ISO 17824 is standard established for tracking
failure analysis of sand control completion.
Using the proposed methodology for failure analysis, in the table … is shown statistical analysis of the
most frequent causes of gravel pack failures based on data collected from the Assets for the last
three years (from 2009 to 2011) . The total installed GP systems in this period is 694 and 86 GP
system has been failed due to various reason as shown in Figure 10-6. The number of failures has
been decreasing from 44 in 2009 to 8 in 2011 year.
Figure 10-6 GP completions analysis in OMV Petrom (from 2009 to 2011)

10. SAND CONTROL
The Gravel Packing completions percentage for each Asset and failure rate are shown in Figure 10-7.
The highest failure rate (37%) has been recorded in Asset 7.
Figure 10-7 GP completions and failures for Assets
Fines migration and plugging of GP Screens with fines is almost in 31% direct cause of the premature
failure of GP system. Running out of hole GP system because of recompletion operation in the well
was the most frequent cause of ROH GP, as it is shown in Table 10-2.
Table 10-2 Failure causes and statistics OMV Petrom
10. SAND CONTROL
From total 86 GPs POOH, 51 completions (59.3%) had a production period shorter than 201 days
(early – time failure) until next workover for POOH gravel packing downhole equipment (critical
domain is 0 – 200 days).
In critical domain (0 – 200 days life duration) the percentage weight for different reasons that caused
completions life end for 51 completions is as follows:
• GP execution faulty: 23,53% (12 completions):
• GP down hole equipment broken down: 7.8% (4 completions):
• Plug back and perforate upper layer: 39.2% (20 completions):
• Fines migration (Dirty layers): 17.7% (9 completions):
• Another reasons: 11.8% (6 completions)
Figure 10-8 GP completion run life analysis
In critical domain (0 – 200 days life duration) the percentage weight for different reasons that caused
completions life end for 51 completions is as follows:
• GP execution faulty: 23,53% (12 completions):
• GP down hole equipment broken down: 7,84% (4 completions):
• Plug back and perforate upper layer: 39,22% (20 completions):
• Fines migration (Dirty layers): 17,65% (9 completions):
• Another reasons: 11,76% (6 completions)
Historically, tracking such data has been difficult but introducing the system for SCC failure analysis
according to industry accepted standards can significantly improve the current best practice as well
as promote introducing new solutions (stand alone screens, prevention of fines migration and clay
swelling, using resin coated gravel etc).
10. SAND CONTROL
10.2 Sand Control Technologies Overview
More than 40% of the total production of oil and gas in the OMV Petrom requires the sand control.
This problem occurs particularly in the Sarmatian sands. These formations are weakly consolidated
by argillaceous cementing materials, interaction of intergranular friction and in situ stresses, capillary
forces, and by viscosity of the fluids in place. This is due to insufficient cementing materials and a
geopressured environment, reducing the effects of intergranular frictions and overburden stress.
Production of the well-bore fluids creates stresses in the near-wellbore area that cause sand to be
produced. The stresses are the result of localized pressure reductions, resulting in greater
overburden loading on the formation matrix, and by drag of the fluid as it flows through the matrix.
The magnitude of the fluid drag is dependent on the factors such as effective permeability,
production rate, fluid viscosity and fluid phase. Once the destabilizing forces overcome the formation
strength, sand production will follow. Restricting production rate will prevent sand production by
reducing the destabilization forces to a point below the restraining forces. Determination of the
maximum sand free production rate is complicated by the interaction of the previously mentioned
factors.
Sand production is frequently preceded by water production. Water production has a severe impact
on sand strength and permeability due to dispersion of amorphous bonding materials. The released
sand is triggered by excessive drawdown, which causes local failure around the perforation, or by
depletion, which caused shear failure in the entire reservoir.
Maximum and free drawdown is more pronounced in a gas reservoir than in a liquid reservoir. This
allowable drawdown decreases as reservoir pressure depletes.
The installation of gravel packs has been the most popular method to alleviate the sand production
problem and permit high rate completions. These gravel pack installations have proved successful in
surviving the depletion life of most reservoirs.
To improve gravel packing results and to optimize completion efficiency various methods have been
used and applied (such as acidizing, increasing perforation shot density, minimizing fluid loss, using
high conductivity sand (proppant), and placing larger quantities of gravel through the perforations).
In recent years Frac-Pack has been a very attractive and effective method of providing long term high
performance results in reservoirs where mechanical methods are not applicable.
Field procedures and equipment utilized to perform gravel pack jobs are critical to the results
achieved. Sizing the gravel, selection of the screen, the placement method and the down-hole
equipment must be followed by competently executed field procedures and personnel.
Unexpectedly produced sand can lead to erosion, loss of integrity and potential fatalities. Conversely,
unnecessarily installing sand control can be expensive and detrimental to productivity and reservoir
management.
The installation of sand control in wells is considered one of the most critical components in long
term service life of a well. Failure to install appropriate sand control can result in underperforming
wells, possible loss of the completion and negative NPV.
10. SAND CONTROL
The workflows are developed as quick tool in the selection and installation of appropriate sand
control with intention to improve the existing best practice and to increase run life of the applied GP
system, particularly in the most critical Assets where GP run life is less than 200 days.
10.2.1 Selection the Best Sand Control Technology
Taking into account various techniques and equipment available for selecting the best sand control
method, the most critical step for applying some of the available sand control methods is the
question: How should an appropriate sand control method be selected?
The criteria used for selecting sand control methods in OMV Petrom are:
1.Reliability
Sand control failure usually results in a side track or well abandonment. Care must always be taken
when using historical data on reliability to ensure that the environment is similar, the tools and
techniques have not improved and to ensure a valid statistical approach is used.
2. Productivity
For economic evaluation the well productivity should be converted into comparable (discounted)
production profiles. These profiles need to include completion effect, reservoir depletion and
water/gas influx.
3. Cost
The required costs for implementation of sand control method/s must be all-encompassing. Total
costs include: equipment, material and installation costs, as well some associated costs caused by
additional operations to assure proper application of selected method (eventual change of mud type
prior application of GP in open-hole, additional wiper trips for an expandable sand screen or different
trajectories/reservoir section lengths).
4. The ability to control water or gas/zonal isolation
Essentially, a management process of the well completed by gravel pack or Frack-Ppack method
means efficient control of water and gas inflow. By including reservoir dynamics and behavior of the
well before and after sand control application gives possibility to successfully regulate excessive
water and/or gas production. The proposed matrix which correlates the previous four criteria/factors
and applied sand control methods in OMV Petrom is shown in Table 10-3.
To make an informed assessment of the first two criteria (reliability and productivity), physical
testing is recommended, when possible, in order to compare:
• Slurry against screen for testing of plugging and hence also erosion potential of standalone
screens.
• Gravel pack against core for testing of fines invasion.
• Fines production and permeability change with increasing stress
• Sand particle size analysis.
• Fluid compatibility. Important for detailed stage design and for screen selection options,
especially for open hole gravel pack.
10. SAND CONTROL
Table 10-3 Relative merits of principal sand control methods
Green =Good Yellow=Moderate Red=Poor
Selection workflow of the best sand control method which takes into account technical constraints
and reservoir properties like permeability, formation strength, presence of formation damage and
sanding time and the final choice of sand control methods will strongly depend on the answers to
these critical questions:
• Will a new well have a problem with sand production?

• Is it possible to continue with production without using sand control method? Which
perforation technology should be used?
• Can the downhole conditions be altered to produce below critical conditions?
• If sand production will be allowed, can the sand be removed at surface?
• If the well is completed as open hole, could screens be applied to stop sand production?
• Make decision to apply or not gravel pack.
• If application of gravel pack is decision how to select the optimum gravel size, cleanup
technique, carrier fluid type, size and type of screens?
• How to select the most appropriate sand control method considering the economic criteria
and analysis (NPV, ROR etc.)?
The selection workflows are presented in Section 10.3 Mechanical Sand Control Methods.
10. SAND CONTROL
10.2.2 Gravel Pack Technology in cased and open hole
Gravel packing is the most widely used method of controlling sand production in OMV Petrom (95%)
. When properly designed and executed, this method is also the most productive for controlling sand,
especially in initial completions. Gravel Packing is a technique that involves placing a specially sized
gravel sheath between the formation face or perforation tunnels. The gravel pack is sized to prevent
movement of formation sand. A screen is used to retain the gravel in place as shown in Figure 10-9.
Figure 10-9 Schematic of Gravel Pack technology
Since the first application of gravel pack in oil wells and pioneered work of E. Coberly (1937) to
develop GP application workflow/guideline has a long period has passed during which a various
methods and technique have been developed. The continuous research works have led to successful
gravel packs application in almost all types of sand-troubled reservoirs. The essential breakthroughs
in GP the developments were: (1) better methods to size gravel, (2) improved placement methods,
(3) using clean completion fluids, (4) improved downhole equipment including screens and, (5) better
perforating procedures. Following the general trends in GP development OMV Petrom has passed
through the similar development process particularly focused on improvements of downhole
equipment (packers, screens, service tools etc.).
Plugging tendency and amount of solids that will pass through a gravel pack and screen is
determining factor for proper application of gravel pack technology.
In gravel pack completions, sand, that is larger than the average formation sand grain size, is placed
between the formation and a screen or slotted liner. The gravel pack sand should retain most of the
formation sand, but must allow production of formation fines to prevent plugging and loss of well
productivity. A successful gravel pack completion must retain the formation sand and offer the least
possible resistance to flow through the gravel itself.
Figure 10-10 Non-plugged gravel pack Figure 10-11 Partially Invaded Gravel Pack
10. SAND CONTROL
Two opposite cases are shown in Figures 10-6 and 10-7. Effective gravel with little invasion of
formation fines into gravel (Figure 10-10) and with intensive invasion of fines (Figure 10-11)
The two most common types of gravel pack completions are an inside-casing gravel pack and an
open hole or underreamed-casing gravel pack provides better conductivity through the gravel pack,
but it is limited to single-zone completions. In both cases the crucial for efficient application of gravel
pack technology is selection of the gravel size using known formation Particle Size Distribution (PSD
curve).
When designing a gravel pack it is important to take into account that the formation sand should be
controlled without excessively reducing well productivity. Effective control requires a good sand-
control design and execution, including obtaining a representative formation sand sample, grain size
distribution, selecting the correct gravel size in relation to the sand size and using the optimum
screen slot size to contain the gravel.
Variations in rock properties, reservoir characteristics, and production environment make every sand
control design unique. Careful evaluation is required for each completion to ensure the best sand
control technique is implemented.
Gravel Size Selection
The selection of a gravel size is based primarily on the finest sand contained in the producing
formation. Thus obtaining a representative sample is critical. Available types of samples are:
• Sands contained within the produced fluids,
• Samples obtained by bailing/washing
• Sidewall samples
• Samples obtained using rubber sleeve cores
Generally, sand obtained from the production lines contains an excess of fines since the large grains
will tend to settle back into the well. For this reason, bailed samples will generally biase toward the
larger sand grain sizes. When bailed samples are the only ones available, then a very conservative
criterion for gravel size should be implemented.
Rubber sleeve cores are considered to be more representative than are sidewall cores, which tend to
contain some sand that has been crushed by the sampling procedure. Industry recommended
practice is that at least one well in each field or area that produces sand from a given geological
formation be sampled completely through the producing intervals. If possible, a sample should be
taken every 0.6-0.9 m (2 to 3 feet) within the formation or at every lithology change. The formation
samples should be disaggregated, avoiding crushing the sand grains, and then passed through a
series of sieves to separate the particulates into size ranges. To assure that the clays and the silt are
separated from the sand grains, the sample is sometimes blended in water containing a dispersant.
The dispersed particles are then washed through a 325 U.S mesh screen to separate most of the clay
and the silt from the sand grains. The remaining sand fraction should then be dried and sieved. After
shaking, the material retained on a progression off sieve sizes should be determined. The weight of
the material passing through the small, wet sieve should also be measured and recorded.
Two methods currently used for analysis of PSD are: Standard Dry Sieving (SDS) and Laser Particle
Light Scattering Analysis (LPLSA)
10. SAND CONTROL
It is evident from industry experience and from literature that these two methods yield very different
results, as shown in Table 10-4 and Figure 10-12.
The width of opening depends on the mesh and diameter of wire U.S. Mesh series specifies mesh
size and width of opening, as shown in Table 10-5.
Table 10-4 Comparison of Dry Sieving & LPLSA
Table 10-5 US Mesh Size vs. Sieve Opening
10. SAND CONTROL
Standard Dry Sieve
• Very common method

• Particles agitated during sieving so smallest dimension is measured
• Not recommended to measure grains less than 44 μm
Laser Particle Light Scattering Analysis
• Laser diffraction - modern, fully automated method

• Average grain size measured over repeated passes of laser
• Laser diffraction measures from 2 mm to 0.1 μm
Figure 10-12 Non-Uniform Sand: Sieve Analysis vs. Laser Scattering
It is recommended to use SDS data for gravel size analysis. The use of laser particle light scattering
analysis data to determine particle size is not recommended for gravel pack design, however, it can
be helpful in assessing presence of formation fines.
A cumulative weight-percent distribution as a function of grain size shown in Figure 10-13 should be
used in designing the gravel pack. The slope of this sieve-analysis plot expresses the sand’s
uniformity. The grain size refers to the sieve opening which will retain grains of a particular size or
larger. The cumulative grain size distribution is the cumulative weight percentage or fraction as a
function of grain size; that is, the cumulative weight percentage of the sand sample with grains larger
than a specific diameter.
The important parameters, obtained from PSD which commonly used for properly selection of
standalone screens, design gravel pack in cased or open hole wells and Frac-Pack, are: D95, D90, D50,
D50, D60, D10.
• The median (D50 , half the sample has grains smaller than the median size and half larger) and
based and Saucier experiments is used for selection gravel size.
• D10 (which gives an estimate of the largest grain diameter present in a significant amount),
• The uniformity coefficient (UC = D40/D90 or UC = D60/D10 used in OMV Petrom).
• Factor of grain asymmetry (FA ), FA=D50 -0.5 (D10 + D50), mm
• Sorting coefficient (SC= D10/D95)
10. SAND CONTROL
The Uniformity Coefficient provides an approximate description of the distribution curve. The
convention has been to describe the distribution curve by the grain size at two specific points the
40% and 90% cumulative weights. The ratio of the dimension of the grain size at 40% and 90% is
called the uniformity coefficient. The slope of the curves indicates a degree of sand uniformity and
sorting.
Figure 10-13 Particle Size Distribution
Summarizing the particle size distribution analysis for different fields as shown in Figure 10-14 using
the same method, it is obvious that sand distribution curves generally are spread over a range of
sizes. The next section considers of the optimum gravel pack design .
Figure 10-14 Particle size distribution for different locations
How to use Uniformity and Sorting Coefficients to define formation sand is shown below and in
Table 10-6.
D40 = Grain Diameter at 40% Cumulative Weight
D90 = Grain Diameter at 90% Cumulative Weight
UC < 3 (or UC < 5) Uniform Sand
3 < UC < 5 ( or 5 < UC < 10) Non-Uniform Sand
UC > 5 ( or UC > 10) Highly Non-Uniform Sand
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Table 10-6 Reservoir sand characterization using PSD analysis
Another commonly extracted parameter is the volume percent of fines. This is defined as those
particles that pass through a 325 US mesh screen (i.e. particles less than 44 μm) and approximates
the size range of particles that can cause plugging problems in both screens and gravel packs.
Based on research conducted by the Shell centre, more specific guidelines have been developed to
optimize the productivity of gravel pack completions. The Table 10-7 presents those results.
Table 10-7 Gravel Design Criteria (proposed by Shell)
Sand Sand Shape Fines Level Gravel & sand mean size ratio*
Sorting Normal Gravel Synthetic Gravel
External GP Internal GP External GP Internal GP
Good Rounded Low 6 5 7 6
Good Angular Low 5 4 6 5
Poor Rounded Low 5 4 6 5
Poor Angular Low 5 4 6 5
Good Rounded High 4 3 5 4
Good Angular High 4 3 5 4
Poor Rounded High 5 4 6 5
Poor Angular High 5 4 6 5
UC < 2 Sand is good sorted; UC > 2 Sand is poor sorted;
Rounded sands: Roundness factor > 0.3 or sphericity > 0.8**
Angular sands: Roundness factor < 0.3 or sphericity < 0.8
Low fines level: Cumulative weight percentage of fines in reservoir sand < 10%***
High fines level: Cumulative weight percentage of fines in reservoir sand >10%
*If not available use gravel one size smaller
**Roundness and sphericity according to API RP60 (see Appendix 10-10F )
***Fines are defined as those particles present in the reservoir sand that are smaller than 0.1 of the
mean size of the GRAVEL considered.
10.3 Mechanical Sand Control Methods
Selection of the most suitable mechanical methods (Standalone Screens-SAS, Gravel Pack and Frac-
Pack) methods to control sand production and to reduce risk of premature failure of downhole
equipment and decrease of well production will strongly influenced a proper selection of screen
type, screen slots , gravel size, both for GP and Frac-Pack.
10.3.1 Standalone Screens Selection Workflow
Standalone screens (SAS) are used extensively throughout the world due to their simplicity and low
installation costs. Many high-profile failures have led to them obtaining a poor reputation.
Nevertheless, in recent years, a strong emphasis on both screen selection and rigorous quality
control during installation has led to substantial improvements in reliability when they are used in
the appropriate environment.
10. SAND CONTROL
Wire-wrapped, pre-packed and premium screens are all used as standalone screens, while only wire
wrapped screens are used for gravel pack application in OMV Petrom. These screens can be installed
with or without a washpipe and often incorporate blank sections of pipe and external casing packers
(or swellable elastomers packers). Because of the lack of pumping and screen expansion operations,
they are sometimes the only form of sand control that can be deployed in extended reach wells or in
many types of multilateral wells.
Open hole completions, using standalone screens or slotted liners can be used in cases when sand
production is not intensive. OMV Petrom has tried to use standalone filters (Baker Extruder, SLB
Mesh Rite etc.) and results acquired during tests were not successful and discouraged their further
application.
Slotted liner application
Recently, slotted liner has been applied in cyclic steam stimulated horizontal wells (length of
horizontal section is 350-400m) to prevent sand (solids) production. The slotted liner is combined
with STIMPEX filter installed on pump intake to protect the pump from mechanical damage due to
erosion. Screen selection (length, slot size, material etc.) depend on downhole conditions, primarily
of formation particle size distribution, as it is explained in section 10.2.2 Gravel Pack Technology in
cased and open hole.
The slot width of the liner (0.35 mm) has been selected using criteria for conventional wire wrapped
screens (50-70% of the minimum gravel size selected by Saucier’s criteria) slightly modified. This slot
width is allowing formation particles to pass with sizes less than 0.35mm and larger particles are kept
in the formation.
The number of slots is 160 per ft (around 500 per meter) and average slot length of 2 inch (50.8 mm)
have been selected in order to provide minimum pressure drop and to keep mechanical integrity of
liner according to API standards 05CT.
As the slotted liner is part of initial completion it is very important to that drilling fluid must be
properly designed to allow the filter cake to flow back through the screen without plugging the slots
and reducing the target production.
Using STIMPEX filter (usual slot size 0.3 mm) at the pump intake provides additional protection of
pump and assures longer run life. The information collected during relatively short period of
application shows that solids still causing the plunger and barrel damage of the pumps and further
monitoring of well operations could provide sufficient information for eventual corrections and
modifications of the applied solutions.
Recommended Practice for SAS Application
The screen slot openings are carefully designed to both retain the majority of the formation sand, yet
allow production of formation fines below 44-50μm. This is important due to the fact that formation
fines can plug the screens over time.
In order to utilize this method, the sands throughout the completed reservoir need to have a high
degree of uniformity, D40/D90<5. If long shale sections (>10m) are present, blank pipe is
recommended across these sections to prevent fines from entering the screen. High strength wire-
wrapped screens are recommended for better slot opening control and reduced potential for
damage during installation.
10. SAND CONTROL
Slot sizing should be based on 1xD10 of the formation, according to Rogers or 2xD10 (as recommended
by Coberly) to include deviations up to an absolute maximum size of the finest particles that could be
produced. This should be considered for each particular case. The smallest screen size to be run in a
standalone application is 175 μm (7 gauge). If screen size based on D10 is less than 175 μm or sub 44
μm fines >5% stand alone screen application is not recommended.
The screens can be installed in both Water Based Mud (WBM) and Oil Based Mud (OBM). The drilling
fluid (mud or brine) must be properly designed to allow the filter cake to flow back through the
screen. If installed and initially produced with particle laden fluid, careful selection of slot openings
and testing are recommended to ensure proper clean up. Prepacked screens are not recommended
due to high plugging tendency. If using premium screens ensure that, the well is fully displaced to a
particle free fluid, before installing the screens. This is mainly to prevent the screens from plugging
during installation and during flow-back (clean-up).The general workflow for selecting mechanical
method for sand control is shown in Figure 10-15. More detailed workflow defining the specific
condition for application of standalone screens is shown in Figure 10-16.
If sand production can’t be stopped with using SAS, then in most cases application of gravel pack
could assure efficient control of sand production , maximize sand oil and gas production or assure
good injectivity if it would be applied in water /gas injection wells.
The gravel pack installations require placement of gravel or proppant around the gravel pack screen
and against the formation face. These placement methods are as follows:
Low Density GP (Water Packs WP)

These treatments are pumped at matrix rates or frac rates, depending upon the well conditions.
Slurries contain sand (proppant) and completion fluid (or light brine]. Proppant is mixed at various
concentration depend on downhole conditions in well. The most frequently method used in OMV
Petrom is a technique of low concentrations 120 to 240 kg/m3 (1 to 2 ppg).
High Density GP (Slurry Packs)

These treatments are pumped at matrix rates. Slurries are typically batch mixed with polymer based
carrier fluids. Sand concentrations are typically 700 to 1800 kg/m3 (6 to 15 ppg). They are utilized
primarily in areas with low horsepower (<250 HHP) applications where batch mixing equipment is
preferred. At the present time this method is not used in OMV Petrom
Frac Packs (FP)

These treatments are pumped at frac rates. Typical slurries contain proppant and linear or
crosslinked polymer gels. Proppants are pumped in stages with subsequent increasing proppant
concentration. The good results have been obtained in the last several years.
There is now a unique and consistent methodology to choose between GP or Frac-Pack application.
The proposed workflows could help and use as a general guideline but each well request detailed
analysis before application. Adding some lessons learned from off-set wells reduces potentially risk
of mistaken decision.
In the Figure 10-17, Figure 10-18 and Figure 10-19 are shown developed workflows which can be
used as the industry recommended practice for selection GP.
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-15 General workflow for selecting sand control mechanical system
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-16 Standalone Screens Selection
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-17 GP selection workflow-GP vs. Frac pack
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Figure 10-18 GP selection workflow for open hole wells (GP vs. SAS)
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-19 GP selection workflow for cased hole wells
Besides of the proposed flowcharts for cased hole GP (OMV Petrom Best Practice) and open hole GP
(recommended practice in the case of future needs for the new drilled wells), the selection tables
(Table 10-8 and Table 10-9) using multi-criteria evaluation are added with the intention to be used as
second pass and quick guidance for selecting an optimum sand control method.
10. SAND CONTROL
The flowcharts should be used as first pass selection criteria to guide engineer to a most likely sand
control option and they are in conjunction with selection tables. One of the options and
recommended best practices, for both, OH and CH GP, is to use Alternate Path Technology with
shunt tube (APT) in the case that GP has to be placed over long intervals in vertical and horizontal
wells.
The numeric ratings (i.e., 1 through 4) refer to the effectiveness of the different techniques in
managing sand under a variety of wellbore and reservoir conditions and should be considered only as
a guide in the overall design process.. Ratings are based primarily on data, information and
experience of worldwide GP applications and could be corrected using OMV Petrom experience and
results acquired during long period of GP application. Some additional factors should be considered
to achieve an effective design, like:
• Well productivity differences if various sand control methods would be used,

• Reliability of different sand control techniques in terms of failure frequencies which can be
used to estimate the number of workovers that may be required or the probability of a
workover during the life of the expected production.
• Reservoir Damage Potential caused by both completion fluid type and fluid losses from
different technique.
• Effect of fines migration
o CHGP Fines can migrate towards the pack and decrease the permeability of the
proppant in the packed perforations tunnels significantly increasing the pressure
drop (skin) through the perforations.
o OHGP - Have significantly more surface area to plug with fines compared to cased
hole gravel pack completions. Fines will bank at the proppant / formation interface
or invade the annular area, reducing the proppant permeability and increasing the
pressure drop (skin) through the gravel pack.
o SAS - If screens are designed properly to allow fines to pass through, then effects of
fines migration can be mitigated. If fines are not allowed to pass through the screen
then results can be similar to OHGP.
o FP Most forgiving completion for fines migration. More than 50 times surface area to
plug compared to an underreamed openhole gravel pack. Frac wings "extend" the
wellbore. With the larger wellbore, fluid velocities are reduced and the potential for
fines migrations is less likely.
• Relative Costs associated with the different techniques. Total costs should be compared
between the methods starting with the drilling of the production hole.
• Service Provider Capability to perform different techniques
• Equipment Availability/Lead Time associated with the purchased and rented equipment
used by the different techniques in the actual geographical area where the installation is
performed.
• Reservoir or Facility Constraints that effect well productivity and benefits of different
techniques. Facilities must be considered in the design phase to allow production of fines.
• Relative Fishability of assemblies associated with different techniques, if applicable.
• Proven Historical Effectiveness in a given field area for different techniques.
10. SAND CONTROL
Table 10-8 Sand Control Selection in Cased Hole Wells
a. Benefit of sand control completion decreases with increasing reservoir permeability.

Fractures can still be beneficial for breaking through near-wellbore drilling and perforation
damage.
b. APT may be required. Net pressure increase and shunt friction pressure could be confused
while monitoring surface treating pressures. Undetected high rates of slurry can enter shunt
tubes resulting in catastrophic shunt/screen damage. Pump rates into shunt tubes should be
selected based on tube diameter.
c. Adequate returns to insure critical carrying velocity are required to ensure a full annular
pack.
d. Fracture may not grow across entire interval. An annular bridge may form if a thief zone is
present high in the interval. Short intervals are less susceptible to incomplete annular packs
after post job gravel settling than long intervals.
e. It might not be able to achieve drawdown required to assist in general cleanup of gelled
fluids if the reservoir is depleted. Need to ensure gels will break for easier clean up.
10. SAND CONTROL
f. (Extreme fluid loss caused by high differential could result in an incomplete annular pack and
reservoir damage due to fluid invasion.
g. Between 55 and 75 degrees, beds of sand deposited along the low side of the wellbore can
become unstable and suddenly fall down the hole in a concentrated slug that could lead to
bridging across a high leak-off zone.
h. Adequate returns must be taken to avoid bridging resulting in an incomplete pack. The ability
to get returns becomes more difficult with longer interval lengths, smaller washpipe and
lower reservoir pressures.
i. Gravity will assist in packing the annulus at low deviations.
j. Annular voids are likely in this geometry.
k. Packs are likely to plug resulting in high decline rates.
l. Inadequately cleaned perforations may not take fluid and will not get packed. This will result
in excessive completion damage caused by perforation tunnels filled with formation sand.
Exceeding reservoir fracture pressure is required to break through this damage.
m. Defined by a single completion with multiple productive zones separated by nonproductive
barriers.
n. APT adds additional complexity and risk resulting in limited benefits.
Table 10-9 Sand Control Selection in Open Hole Wells
10. SAND CONTROL
a. Variations in hole diameter can cause the alpha wave to stall. Higher pump rates, lower
slurry concentrations, and sand free slugs can mitigate stalling.
b. Depending on the cause of the rugosity, a hole that is less likely to remain stable in the
production mode could be indicated.
bb. Screens need to be strong enough and sized properly to address concerns
during running and production in this type of wellbore.
c. Must design completion and gravel pack fluids to maintain shale stability. Shale sloughing can
stall or plug gravel pack.
d. Vertical wells with short completion intervals and high velocities through bare screens are
susceptible to erosion. This type of well is also susceptible to permeability reduction due to
different formation sand/shale sorting in the annulus.
e. High friction pressure is generated in the washpipe by base pipe annulus. A low fracture
gradient by ECD margin can make water packing difficult. A shorter wellbore or Baker's Beta-
breaker technology may help.
f. Special design considerations must be given to the gravel pack carrier fluid.
g. High degree of reservoir lamination offers potential for shale to embed on the screen, which
could lead to plugging and eventual hot spots. Consider using blank pipe and/or isolation
packers across shale sections.
h. D40/D90 is a quick look reference for sand uniformity, which is used to determine the
applicability of screen only completions. Use standard dry sieve data for slot size analysis.
The use of laser light scattering data to determine particle size is not recommended for sand
control design
i. Defined by a single completion with multiple productive zones separated by nonproductive
barriers.
j. May not be able to achieve drawdown required to assist in general cleanup of gelled fluids if
the reservoir is depleted. Need to ensure gels will break for easier clean up.
k. Minimal fluid loss is critical for a successful open hole water pack. Fluid loss can be more of
an issue in depleted reservoirs and must be addressed.
l. Friction loss in the shunt tubes becomes more of an issue with increased lateral lengths.
Proper modeling can help to determine feasibility of APT in this geometry.
m. Back pressure through the screen and washpipe assembly while circulating increases with
interval length as the Beta wave progresses back towards the heel. With longer lengths, the
potential is higher for exceeding fracture pressure while pumping.
n. Between 55 and 75 degrees, beds of sand deposited along the low side of the wellbore can
become unstable and suddenly fall down the hole in a concentrated slug that could lead to
bridging across a high leak-off zone.
o. A complete annulus pack can help to redistribute load from the screen thus increasing screen
collapse resistance.
p. Screen strength is critical where compaction / collapse is likely
q. Remaining filter cake can cause production impairment, initially and over time. This effect
should be addressed by screen selection and pack porosity (gravel pack) to allow flowback
and/or chemical treatment.
r. Screen slots/mesh and/or gravel pack sand must be carefully sized to allow the production of
fines to prevent plugging.
s. Install blank pipe across shale and silt sections of the wellbore.
10. SAND CONTROL
10.3.2 Gravel Pack Design and Best Practices Workflow Applied in OMV Petrom
This chapter will provide means to navigate through a logical sequence of steps to arrive at the most
viable solution for each completion component. The following components will be addressed:
• Gravel /proppant size selection
• Gravel pack screen and washpipe selection
• Carrier fluid selection
Gravel Size Selection
The first step in proper GP design is a selection of gravel size using PSD curve. The most widely used
criterion for gravel sizing is the Saucier criterion. In a linear flow test cell Saucier carried out
laboratory experiments to determine the optimal gravel to sand size ratio. From this work he
concluded that the optimum ratio, i.e. the ratio which maintains the highest pack to formation
permeability ratio and avoids sand production, is between 5 and 6. The Figure 10-20 depicts the
relationship of the final and initial permeability ration (Kf/Ki) as a function of median gravel/median
sand diameter (D50/d50)
Figure 10-20 Results of Saucier’s Gravel Size Experiments
The Y axis illustrates the normalized permeability of the gravel pack (1 = the initial gravel pack
permeability). The X axis illustrates the relative size of the gravel vs. the formation sand. To the right
of the graph, the gravel gets larger. The permeability is reduced due to invasion of the fines into the
gravel matrix (see Figure 10-10 and Figure 10-11). As the gravel size gets larger the permeability is
regained but at the expense of fines production.
For a reasonable uniform sand, Saucier's results are logical as the median grain size is theoretically
smaller than the pore throats of the gravel pack (assuming a hexagonal packing mode). Hence the
gravel acts as a filter for the formation sand. The gravel invasion process by formation sand is a
function of the pack structure of the gravel because in situ packing conditions will differ from
controlled laboratory conditions, the pack permeability versus grain size ratio could deviate from the
data reported by Saucier. Even under controlled laboratory conditions, small amounts of formation
sand were produced continually, independently of the gravel size used. This observation indicates
that finite sand production is inherent in gravel packs and this is confirmed by field experience.
Saucier's experiments were carried out with clean sands with low fines content.
Saucier criteria D50 must be optimized to achieve maximum gravel pack sand permeability, yet still
maintain sand control as shown in Figure 10-21 and Table 10-10
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-21 Optimization of Gravel Pack Sand
Table 10-10 Criteria for optimization of gravel size
Ratio Dg50/ Df50 Notes

5 Good sand control, but restricted flow due to low gravel permeability.
5 to 7 Good sand control and maximum pack permeability.
7 to 9 Good sand control, but restricted flow due to formation sand
Invasion of gravel pack sand.
>9 No sand control, formation sand passes through gravel pack sand.
This chart below (Figure 10-22) shows the limitations of the Saucier criteria when comparing two
sands of different uniformity. Therefore more elaborate design criteria have been developed.
Figure 10-22 Uniform (A) and Non-uniform (B) sand
The almost vertical curve A in Figure 10-22 represents a highly uniform sand and well sorted,
whereas curve B with the lower slope indicates a non-uniform and poorly sorted sand because of the
wide distribution in particle sizes. This chart shows the limitations of the Saucier criteria when
comparing two sands of different uniformity, therefore more elaborate design criteria and
relationships have been developed which can be used to select optimum gravel size and they are
summarized in Table 10-11
10. SAND CONTROL
Table 10-11 Gravel size selection according to various authors
SAUCIER For 5 > SC > 25 5Dg50= (5-6)Df50 Note: Used in OMV Petrom
COBERLY Dg10=10x Df10(largest 10%)
SCHWARTZ IF SC < 5 then use Dg10=6xDf10 or IF <10 SC > 5 then use
Dg40=6xDf40 or IF SC >10 then use Dg70=6xDf70
STEIN Dg85= 4xDf85
GILLESPI at al IF SC < 2 then use Dg50=6xDf10 or IF SC ~ 2 then use
Dg40=6xDf40 or IF SC > 2 then use Dg30=6xDf30
KING IF SC < 5 then use Dg50=9xDf10 or IF SC (5-15) then use
Dg50=8xDf70 or IF SC (15-25)then use Dg50=7xDf50 or IF SC >
25 then use Dg50=6xDf50
If the reservoir is heterogeneous and consists of the layers with various properties, each layer could
require different gravel sizes. The smallest gravel size should be selected and used.
OMV Petrom uses Saucier’s method to select gravel size. Based on accumulated knowledge, field
experience and sand samples analysis (PSD), OMV Petrom has been decided to use the following
gravel sizes as shown below.
Oil Wells
Gas Wells
Standard Special Cases
Gravel Size (US mesh, mm) 20-40, 0.85-425 16-30, 1.18-0.6 30-50, 0.6-0.3
The specification of gravel pack sand size of the most frequently used in OMV Petrom according to
API RP 58 is shown in Table 10-10.
Table 10-12 Recommended Practices for Testing Sand used in Gravel Packing Operations
Screen Selection
Screen selection is very important in successful gravel packing completion. Screen acts as a filter to
keep gravel in position after placement. Screen selection is composed of screen length, screen size
(O.D.), screen wire spacing/slot size and screen type. For the design point, the selection of blank pipe
and wash pipe are always linked with the selection of screen in gravel packing design.
Screen Length
Screen length should be sufficient to extend above and below open interval-interval/s. Some
companies use a minimum of 6 m of overlap on the top of the interval when low density GP is used.
Lessons learned from results of these applications confirmed that, in some cases, a long screen was
10. SAND CONTROL
detrimental due to screen erosion immediately prior to screenout. Upon coverage of the
perforations at full pump rate, high velocities can occur for a brief period just prior to screen
coverage causing screen damage and unsuccessful GP operation. The accepted practice in OMV
Petrom is that length of screen should provide overlapping above and below open interval/s of
minimum 1.5 m. In the case that more intervals are opened, the distance between lowermost and
uppermost should be used to determine the length of a filter. This general rule is valid for the vertical
and slightly deviated wells. The overlap above the top interval increases with increase of the well
deviation angle above 50 degrees and recommended practice workflow is shown in Figure 10-23.
Screen Size (O.D.)
Radial screen clearance of >=25 mm is a rule of thumb number that will help maintain sand control
and provide optimum fishing conditions for subsequent removal. Upper zone screens must have an
inside diameter (ID) to accommodate concentric tubulars to access the lower zones. The screens
often have smaller radial clearances making small casing completions very challenging. These tight
radial clearances make annular gravel placement more difficult. Screens are often sized so they can
be conveniently made up to the sump packer seal assembly and the blank pipe without the need for
a crossover. This can reduce considerable expense. Screen size should satisfy the following criteria in
the following order:
• On upper settings of multi-zone completions. The screen I.D. must accommodate concentric
tubulars for the lower zones.
• Should be easy to wash over during fishing operations. (>=25 mm of radial clearance).
• Should be easy to pack the annular area
• I.D. should accommodate wireline tools. (Typically > 50mm/1.995" I.D. [60.3 mm /2 3/8"
Base Pipe])
• When convenient, the screen should screw together with blank, and seal assemblies with
minimal crossovers.
The recommended OD for standard screens used in OMV Petrom (Stimpex) are shown in Table
10-13.
Table 10-13 Screen OD – OMV Petrom Best Practice
Screen
Base Pipe Screen
Casing OD Centralizer
OD OD
OD
mm inch inch mm mm
127 5 1.9 58 100
139.7- 5 ½ -6 2 3/8 70 110
152.5
168.3 6 5/8 2 7/8 83 135
177.8 7 2 7/8(3 ½) 83 (100) 135(148)
219.1 8 5/8 5½ 150 190
Screen Slot Size
The screen aperture should be the largest size that stops all of the gravel from passing through,
generally no larger than 75% of the smallest gravel diameter. For a wire-wrapped screen, this is
relatively easy. In any case, this rule of thumb needs to be validated with laboratory testing to ensure
that the screen works in combination with the selected gravel. An absolute stoppage criterion (i.e.
10. SAND CONTROL
slot size smaller than smallest gravel size) has to be used to ensure the gravel is kept in place, while
keeping the inflow large enough to avoid a rate limiting pressure drop over the screen, as shown in
Figure 10-24. For pre-packed, sintered and mesh screens the mesh or pore sizes should be designed
according the absolute stoppage criterion. The recommended wire spacing (Δ) is about 50-70% of
the minimum grain diameter as is indicated by equation: ∆= (𝟎. 𝟓 𝒕𝒐 𝟎. 𝟕 ) ∙ 𝑫𝒈𝒎𝒊𝒏 . For the
most frequent gravel size in OMV Petrom, the recommended screen slot size is shown in
Table 10-14.
Table 10-14 Screen slot size in OMV Petrom
Gravel Size Maximum recommended screen slot size
mm(mesh) mm inch
0.6 -0.3(30-50) 0.2 0.008
0.8 -0.4(20-40) 0.3 0.012
1.18-0.6 (16-30) 0.5 0.020
Screen Design Type
There are three basic types of screen: standard screen, pre-packed screen and wire mesh / sintered
metal (premium). Standard screen is normally used in vertical wells or less degree deviation wells
gravel packing completion with different gravel placing technique to prevent formation sanding
problem. Prepacked screens consist of two concentric screens packed with resieved silica sand
(either resin coated or conventional). The wire mesh screens contain alternating layers of sintered
metal and wire mesh. The pre-pack screens and wire mesh screens are generally utilized as insurance
for a gravel pack failure in adverse conditions such as open-hole and/or long deviated intervals
OMV Petrom uses wire-wrapped screens manufactured by STIMPEX Company under QA/QC
guidelines and technical specifications defined by OMV Petrom. The main characteristics of STIMPEX
screen are specified in Table 10-15. To avoid premature failure caused by erosion and corrosion
problems it is obligatory to assure proper metallurgy for anticipated reservoir fluids and conditions.
Additionally, to reduce negative impact of corrosion, it is recommended to use screens with plastic
centralizers which are corrosion resistant and can be milled easily.
The common practice is to use two screens as part of downhole equipment. The production (main)
and control screen downhole configuration depend on which GP placement is selected and the type
of carrying fluid used for GP placement. OMV Petrom has been using both screens as proven best
practices. The control screen is positioned above the main screen because the carrying fluid is of low
viscosity and low concentration brine and the reverse circulation method using a crossover tool is the
applied placement technique.
If the total length of perforated interval is less than 6 m then a control screen is not required and the
selected length of the production screen should be increased by about half the length of perforated
interval. This is common practice in OMV Petrom.
Table 10-15 Production (Main) Screen STIMPEX duplex type technical details
Centralizer Manufactured
Screen Base Pipe Wire Wrap
Diameter length of Screen
OD, inch Material OD, mm Material mm m
1.9 Stainless steel 58 Stainless steel 100 2, 4.5 and 6*
2 3/8 DUPLEX 2205 70 DIN#1.4462 110
2 7/8 DIN#1.4462 83 (AISI 321) 135
*The length of screens provided by various foreign providers are in the range from 3 to 9 m.
Standard length of control screen type STIMPEX is cc 2m (6 feet).
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-23 Gravel Pack Design Workflow in Petrom OMV
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-24 Inside casing GP solution
Gravel –Pack Design Requirements
In order to properly plan the execution of a gravel pack operation a specific volume of slurry is
required to be pumped into the well. The minimum calculations needed for planning and execution
gravel-pack operations are:
1. Total Gravel Volume (VTg)
2. Gravel-Pack Fluid Volume (VgpF)
3. Slurry Volume (Vs )
4. Displacement Volumes (Vdisp)
Total Gravel Volume
The gravel volume calculation assumes that when particles are at well downhole they occupy volume
equivalent to their bulk density at the surface.
The required gravel volume is:
1. The perforation-tunnel volume for a cased-hole pack and sand washed out volume of
formation. The volume varies as a result of interval characteristics; sanding time and volume
produced in certain period of time and should be estimated using recorded sand production
volume/mass. Practically, the volume/quantity of sand needed for injection in the productive
formation should be calculated based on the experience in sand control at the offset wells.
2. The annular volume (m3, ft3) between the casing below the packer or openhole and tubular
pipes (screens and blank pipe).
3. Required volume of the gravel above screen.
1. Required Volume of Gravel across Perforated Sections
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This is the estimated volume gravel (m3/m, ft3/ft) to fill the perforations and the void space behind
the casing created by the perforation cleaning operation. Using the data in Figure 10-25, the rule of
thumb for determining the gravel volume per unit length (m,ft) of perforated interval is:
• New Zones (good, clean formations): 0.0465 m3/m (0.5 ft3/ft)
3 3
o Minimum gravel volume is 0.7 m (25 ft )
• New Zones (dirty, low-permeability formations): 0.14 m3/m ( 1.5 ft3/ft)
• Recompletions (formations that have produced sand): 0.14 m3/m ( 1.5 ft3/ft)
Figure 10-25 Volume of the gravel per length of perforated interval
Usage of 0.7 m3 (25 ft3 ) as the minimum gravel volume in good, clean formations yield a larger
volume than that indicted in Figure 10-25, but includes lost slurry volume in surface equipment. The
following factors will affect the amount of gravel squeezed into the formation:
• Screenout, preventing further injection, is highly dependent on permeability. In clean,
permeable formations, dehydration of the slurry will occur earlier thusly, reducing gravel
requirements. In dirty, low permeability, zones, fracturing may occur (increasing gravel
volumes). In the latter case, a screenout may only be possible by using a low-viscosity
carrier fluid.
• Long zones, particularly those with high-permeability streaks, require less gravel per ft
than shorter intervals because more area for dehydration is available.
• High-permeability streaks at the top of long intervals may cause bridging and early
screenout.
Using defined rules, required volume of gravel for perforation and formation, equal to:
Vgper = V (volume of perforation per unit length of perforation) X Lperf (length of perforated
perf
zone) + Vfor (volume of sand washed out formation)
As the sanding time is usually difficult to estimate and as there are not continuously recorded
volume of the produced sand during the time, the practical data collected during wash out
intervention ( Vswo - average volume/mass washed out and cleaned) as well as the number
interventions (Nintwo), an average washed sand from formation is:
Vfor = Vswo x Nintw
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As during intervention it is much easier to record the length of sand plug accumulated in casing,
annulus (Lsp), Vswo is:
Vswo = 0.785x(Dic2 – Dto2)x Lsp
Knowing the geometrical parameters of perforation from perforating program (shoots/m,

perforation hole diameter and penetration depth – service data) the total volume of perforation is:
Vperf= Nperf (shoots/m) x 0.7854xDperf2 (Perforation Diameter) x Lperf (Average Perforation Length )
2. Required volume of gravel for casing Screen Annulus
The gravel volume required to fill the annulus between the sand screen (main and control) and the
casing from the bottom of the gravel to the top of screen (VgSA) is equal:
VgSA = Van (annulus volume per unit length of perforation) x Ls (total length of screen/s)
Blank-pipe and gravel-reserve calculations
The minimum blank-pipe length required for a gravel pack (whether high-gravel concentration,
circulation-squeeze or squeeze gravel pack with low gravel concentration) should be selected to
ensure that the screen will be covered with gravel (after settling) if a premature screenout occurs. In
producing wells, reserve gravel also prevents gravel fluidization during production. It is necessary to
determine the length of pipe required to ensure coverage of the productive interval plus
approximately 6 to 9 m (20 to 30 ft) of reserve gravel above the interval. The model of calculation is
based on the settled gravel height taken as though none of the slurry had dehydrated.
The length of blank pipe required is affected not only by the gravel concentration but also by the
screen length. Both cases, cased and open – hole are considered.
Cased Hole
MBPLCH = (one JOINT) + [Ls (1-GSV)]/GSV
Where:
MBPLCH = minimum blank pipe (cased hole), m (ft),
one JOINT = one joint blank pipe, 6 to 9 m (30 to 40 ft),
GSV = gravel settled volume, fraction of slurry.
The one JOINT is optional, and is generally omitted if experience in a given area justifies this
elimination.
Openhole
MBPLOH = [(one JOINT) +Ls (1-GSV ) (OHD 2 - SOD2 )]/ [GSV (RGHD2 - BPOD2)]
Where:
MBPLOH = minimum blank/blind-pipe length (openhole), m(ft),
OHD = openhole diameter, mm, (inch),
SOD = screen outside diameter, mm, (inch)
RGHD = reserve-gravel hole diameter, mm, (inch)
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BPOD = blank-pipe outside diameter, mm, (inch)
Once the length pipe of blank pipe is determined then volume of gravel to fill annular space between
blank pipe outside diameter (OD) and casing inside diameter (ID) is equal:
VgBP =VanBP*MBPL (CH or OH), where:
VanBP – Volume of unit length of annular space between blank pipe and casing
Settled Volume
GSV = G/F (GBV)/ [1 + G/F (GAV)]
where
G/F = gravel to carrier fluid ratio, kg/lit (lbm/gal),
GBV = gravel bulk volume, lit/ kg (gal l/bm),
GAV = gravel absolute volume, lit/ kg (gal l/bm),
Values of GSV as a function of concentration in kg/lit (lbm/gal),of carrier fluid are shown in Figure
10-26 for regular gravel.
Figure 10-26 Gravel settled volume (SI and API)
Total Volume of Gravel
The total volume of gravel required is sum of the previous calculated volumes:
VTg= Vgper + VgSA + VgBP
Gravel-Pack Fluid Volume
VgpF (Gravel-Pack Fluid Volume)= VcFs (Carrier-Fluid Volume for Slurry)+ Vpr (Prepad Volume) + Vpp
(Postpad Volume) + Vex (Excess Volume)
10. SAND CONTROL
Slurry Volume
If gravel concentration (Cg) and bulk density (ρg) are known then using the previously calculated
gravel volume (Vg carrier volume) carrier fluid volume (VcF) is defined as follows:
VcF (Carrier Fluid Volume)= ( Vgxρg)/Cg
Then, slurry volume is:
Vs= VcF (1+Vga*Cg)
Where:
Vga - Gravel Absolute Volume (l/kg, gal/lbm) is given for each type of gravel, as shown in Table 10-16.
Prepad and Postpad Volumes
General guidelines for selection prepad and postpad volume required for providing pumping
schedule are:
• Prepad Volume = Annular Volume + Washpipe Volume or 0.8 m3 (5 bbl), whichever is greater.
• Postpad volume = 0.33 x Workstring Volume.
Table 10-16 Gravel Absolute Volume
OMV Petrom is using gravel with bulk density 1600 kg/m3 what expressed in terms of gravel
absolute volume is equal to 0.625 lit/kg or 0.07489 gal/lbm.
Based on practical experience and data collected during long period of application of gravel pack,
OMV Petrom has developed guidance for estimating required mass of gravel to pack unit length of
tubing in various production casing, as shown in table below (Table 10-17)
In order to assure enough reliability in executing GP operations the calculated mass of gravel should
be increased by approximately 10%, as per OMV Petrom best practice.
10. SAND CONTROL
Table 10-17 Required Gravel Mass per Unit of Tubing Length
Casing OD Mass of Gravel per unit

Base and blind pipe’s OD
Wg/L
inch inch Kg/ linear meter
5 1.9 13
5½ 2 3/8 14
5¾ 2 3/8 16
6 2 3/8 (2 7/8) 18 (15)
6 5/8 2 7/8 21
7 2 7/8 (3 1/2) 26 (22)
8 5/8 2 7/8 (3 1/2) 55 (51)
Displacement Volumes (Vdisp)
The final step in calculation of gravel pack volume is to prepare various prepad and postpad
displacement volumes as listed below:
1. Prepad at service tool = Workstring Displacement Volume (measured from start of prepad) =
tubing/drill pipe capacity,( lit/m, bbl/ft )x depth ( m, ft).
2. Prepad at formation = Prepad at Service Tool Volume + Annular Volume, service tool to
perforations
3. Slurry at service tool = Prepad at Service Tool Volume + Prepad Volume
4. Slurry at formation = Prepad at Formation volume + Prepad Volume
5. Slurry at lower telltale = Slurry at Service Tool Volume + Annular Volume, Service Tool to
lower telltale
6. Postpad at formation = Slurry at Service Tool Volume + Total Slurry Volume
Once the volumes for designing gravel pack are determined, then weight of gravel should be
determined knowing gravel and carrying fluid density.
The previously described model can be applied for technology of low density-low concentration
gravel with circulation using crossover tool, for both cased and open-hole wells.
As the technology of high density-high concentration gravel is not used in OMV Petrom, below is
shown best practice workflow (Figure 10-27) recommended for eventual future use in horizontal,
high deviated wells and slim hole wells. Selection of the appropriate fluid for placement gravel pack
by using the high density –high concentration technology is described in the following section.
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-27 Recommended Workflow for GP Design Using High Density-High Concentration
10. SAND CONTROL
Fluid Selection
Carrier fluid used for gravel pack operations has three primary functions:
• Transport the gravel to proper location,

• Provide fluid-loss through either screen or formation in order to allow pack to form,
• Flow-back from formation without reducing permeability.
 Use gel breaker for viscosified fluids.
Proppant transport is dependent upon the following characteristics.
• The ratio of the density of the carrier fluid to the density of the particle. When the fluid
density = the particle density the particle will be suspended,
• The velocity of the fluid relative to the particle,
• The viscosity of the fluid.
Often a fluid property that is desirable for gravel transport may prevent the fluid from flowing back
from the formation. A gel breaker must be used to reduce the fluid viscosity before recovery from
the formation.
The most commonly used fluids for GP have been brine and hydroxy-ethycelluse gel (HEC). Gravel
pack performed with brine carrier fluid is referred to as “water pack” or “conventional pack”, which
is only used in OMV Petrom.
The common practice for executing GP job is to use filtered field water with 3% of KCl. The
recommended practice is to use filtered fresh water with 2% KCl which could help in decreasing the
risk of corrosion.
If the carrier fluid is brine (reservoir or salt water) then only the method of Low Density-Low
Concentration (LDLC) can be applied (best practice in OMV Petrom), or if the carrier fluid is gelled
brine, then the high density/viscosity-high concentration (HDHC) placement technique can be used.
Comparison between HEC slurry pack and brine water pack carrier fluid is shown in the table below.
HEC Gel Brine

Fluid Viscosity (mPas) 300-750 1-2
Typical gravel concentration (kg/lit, lbm/gal) 1.2-1.8, 10-15 0.12-0.36, 1-3
Typical pump rate (lit/min, bbl/min) 160 -640, 1-4 640-800, 4-5
The main objective of annular gravel placement is to pack effectively the annulus between the screen
and the casing or the open hole. For cased-hole completions the added objective is to pack the
perforations with gravel since the latter significantly improves well productivity and longevity.
The main advantage is that the pumping rate can be slowed so that gravel and formation sand
intermixing is minimal. Results of an application of high concentration slurry packing show that after
operation with slurry the perforations were often not completely packed and voids in the annular
pack were frequently the case. The use of HEC and other polymers was causing formation damage
and permeability of the near wellbore zone to be reduced.
10. SAND CONTROL
In addition to perforation packing, the quality of the pack in the screen/casing annulus is important
regardless of whether the well is completed open or cased hole. The gravel packs performed with
viscous gel carrier fluids show the presence of large voids in the annular pack which, if not repaired,
will result in formation sand production.
Figure 10-28 is an example of wells gravel packed with viscous gel and then re-packed with brine due
to voids in the initial viscous gel pack. The subsequent brine pack filled the voids.
Pumping rate of carrying fluid and gravel depends on workstring internal diameter and numerous
tests have led to empirical model which can be used for planning injection rate.
QinjS (Injection rate of slurry)= 120xDit2, where Dit is inside diameter of the working string.
When water pack technique is used, then fluid should be pumped at the rate in range from 300 to
800 lit-min (2 to 5 bbl/min).
Quality check of the performed GP with water pack GP placement confirms that the annular packs
were very tight and compact without undesirable voids. One of disadvantages of water packs is a
high leak rate particularly in high permeability formations which can cause bridging in the
screen/casing annulus and premature screenout of the treatment
The selection of gravel-carrying fluid depends on the type of zone to be packed. The major
distinguishing characteristics between the fluids are the base-fluid type, carrier fluid viscosity and
temperature of application.
Figure 10-28 Quality of Annular pack using brine and slurry pack
10. SAND CONTROL
10.3.3 Frac-Pack Design and Best Practices Workflow Applied in OMV Petrom
Frac-Pack Technology
“Frac-Pack” refers to a completion method that combines tip screen-out (TSO) hydraulic fracture
stimulation with or without gravel pack pumped with the screen-blank packer assembly in place. The
TSO fracture creates a short, highly conductive path that bypasses near well-bore damage with or
without the screen assembly preventing proppant flow back, as it is shown in Figure 10-29.
A Frac-Pack job conducted in poorly consolidated sandstone produces much shorter fractures than
conventional hard-rock fracturing. Typical fracture lengths are around 15–30 m; in contrast hard-rock
fractures typically extend more than 150 m from the wellbore.
Figure 10-29 Frac Pac without/with Screen
The-tip screenout fracturing (TSO) technique applies hydraulic-fracturing technology to create a

wide, short fracture that yields high production rates with reduced pressure drop. TSO can be a
highly effective technique in controlling sand and stimulating maximum production from weak
formations. Ideal candidates for hydraulic fracturing with planned screenout include the following
types of wells:
• Wells that require a limited fracture size or a fracture that just bypasses wellbore damage.
These may be wells with no boundaries for fracture-height restriction, wells with a nearby
aquifer, injection wells, or slim holes spaced close together in a field.
• Formations that are not candidates for matrix acidizing.
• Reservoirs with moderate to high permeability (with or without formation damage, see
Table 10-18 below).
Table 10-18 Permeability classification
• Wells that require restricted production rates for sand control (or otherwise need prevention
from formation failure).
10. SAND CONTROL
• Wells that have been previously gravel packed and have lost production because of pore
collapse and plugging of the gravel pack due to fines migration.
Frac-Pack is a single step process of fracturing and gravel packing which provide the following
advantages:
• Effective sand control,
• Frac packing is well suited to intervals with high fines contents. In some cases fines invasion
will reduce proppant permeability. Some mitigation can be achieved by good initial proppant
permeability and aggressive TSO treatments (high-width fractures).
• Large increase of formation sand face area,
• Reduced chance of fines migration,
• Mechanical re-stressing of the near wellbore area,
• Connection of laminated layers,
• Larger proppant are used with 300 to 500% more conductivity than conventional gravel pack
sand with adequate sand control,
• Proven high probability of sustained low skin completions.
Intervals close to water or gas contacts or intervals where cement quality is poor are not suited to
Frac pack. In comparison to cased hole gravel packs, frac packs require more complex fluids, larger
volumes, higher pump rates, plus the associated mixing and pumping equipment.
Achieving TSO and packing the fracture with proppant are the most important elements of the
technology. The process of Frac-Pack using TSO technology is shown in Figure 10-30.
At every stage in the process, a realistic model of formation properties should be matched with those
predicted/simulated and it is needed that wellbore hardware affects placement and the
measurements being made to evaluate the placement.
Figure 10-30 Tip Screen Out (TSO) Fracturing Process
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-31 shows the deployment of a Frac-Pack and the resulting flow patterns. Where the
permeability of the formation is low in comparison to the gravel, the fracture dominates
performance and negative skin factors can result. The flow through perforations not connected to
the fracture will be minimal and there is a reduced requirement to ensure that these perforations are
clean. Turbulence and inertial flow effects become more important with Frac-Pack due to reduced
flow areas through the perforations and higher rates. These non-Darcy effects (i.e. a rate-dependent
skin factor) are dependent on the permeability of the gravel.
Figure 10-31 Frac pack geometry and production behavior
After perforating or re-perforating, surging perforations and running a screen and packer assembly,
the production screen is latched into the plug and the packer is set. An acid treatment is spotted
across the perforations to remove any existing damage and to provide good injectivity and packing
proppant during frac operation. Following the acid treatment, step rate test and step down test are
performed to calculate the closure stress and fluid efficiency. If it is possible a minifrac should be
performed. Results from the two tests are used to calibrate the fracture model and a final treatment
is designed.
Frac-Pack should be designed for a tip screenout. Use surface annular pressures during job to
identify the initiation of a TSO. Use observed pressure trends to adjust the pumping schedule. Extend
final stages if TSO initiation is later than expected.
Use a D50 of proppant to D50 of formation ratio of around 8 to 10 in sizing the proppant. Where
possible this should be based on sand retention tests to avoid excessive fines plugging.
The clearance between the screen and liner/casing increases the frictional pressure drops slightly
and increases the screen out risk. A rule of thumb for the clearance between the casing and the
screen is a minimum of 12 gravel D50.
Always take returns on the annulus at the end of a frac pack to ensure a good annular pack. If screen
out has not occurred, reduce rate after pumping 50% of the flush volume and take returns for the
last 10 bbls of flush. If screenout occurs while pumping the Frac-Pack, bleed off annulus pressure and
then add pressure to reverse out excess sand.
10. SAND CONTROL
The fluid should be designed to carry proppant during the pumping phase of the treatment. The fluid
should contain enough breaker (dispersed and encapsulated) to break the gel within approximately 1
hour of pumping the treatment to minimize any residual damage to the formation and proppant.
Design a frac workstring/tubing to minimize friction allowing for a higher treating rate at the
maximum treating pressure.
Check casing burst pressure below the packer and collapse of blank pipe and downhole tools to
prevent burst/collapse at maximum rate proppant loading. It is preferable to start treatment with
proppant concentration less than 150 kg/m3. After the treatment has been finished, the pump rate
should be reduced slowly. It can be decreased abruptly only during flushing. It is important to keep
pressure not higher than 100 -140 bar (1500 to 2000 psi) of net pressure during pumping.
Planning Frac-Pack operations
A successful Frac-Pack job requires a careful pre-job modeling to establish the necessary fracture
height and length, and also requires a professional management team and their equipment at the
wellsite. Pre-job planning draws on a range of data sources to produce a fracturing model. Using
proper software tools for modeling of Frac-Pack operation is crucial step required to provide good
understanding and on-time matching during job execution. Simulation and analysis should determine
the stress profile in the pay zone and the surrounding rock layers. Because the results of the
treatment hinge on producing a wide fracture, the rock mechanical properties, such as Young’s
modulus, are very important.
Fracture height is generally controlled by the stress field that exists within the target formation and
the presence of rock barriers above and below it in the sequence. The injected fluid volumes and the
fluid-loss properties of the injected fluid influence the fracture length that can be achieved.
Every Frac-Pack job is tailored to the specific well conditions and designed to optimize well
performance. The aim is to maximize hydrocarbon production by designing the most efficient pack.
Analytical modeling also helps to reduce design time as operators seek to identify the optimal
treatment conditions nevertheless of well type (vertical, slant or horizontal). It must be ensured that
verified pressure is available so the limits for each job are known and the appropriate safety
standards for the field are met.
Frac packing is a technically demanding operation and it is important to perform it correctly.

Attention should be paid to the details and it should be ensured that the design guidelines and
proposed execution sequences are followed. The end results should be low-skin, high-performance
completion.
Even though Frac-Packs are much more robust completions than gravel packs, it is important that
proper completion practices are followed. Material left in the wellbore as a result of drilling and
cementing the well can cause serious damage to the Frac-Pack. Because the placement of the frac-
pack system involves pumping proppant-laden fluid between a screen and the casing, the scouring
action of the proppant on the casing will mix any remaining material from drilling into the frac-pack
fluids.
10. SAND CONTROL
Frac-Pack Fluid Selection
Frac-Pack fluid systems should have the following characteristics:

• Low formation damage
• Adequate proppant transport
• Adequate leakoff to promote grain-to-grain proppant contact from the tip of the fracture
back to the wellbore.
• High retained conductivity in the fracture
• Easily mixed and adaptable to various breakers
• Reasonable unit volume cost
• Low friction.
High fluid efficiency or low leakoff are not as critical as fluids used in low-permeability, hydraulic-
fracturing treatments. Fluid-loss additives are seldom used in Frac-Pack because the jobs are
designed for short propped length with tip screenout.
In OMV Petrom, the most common carrier fluid utilized in frac packing are:
• Filtered non viscous brine
• Gelled water using various types of polymers (WGA 20, etc.)
The design parameters encountered when choosing the correct fluid are as follows:
• Formation conductivity (Kh) and fluid leakoff. Leakoff of a frac fluid depend upon the
difference in the frac pressure and the pore pressure. In wells with a low BHP and a high
Kh, the fluid must be thicker and more efficient.
• Pipe I.D. Friction pressure can impact fluid performance due to the excess horsepower
required to maintain proper pump rates. In the case of small ID work strings the
recommended solution could be to use a delayed crosslinked system.
• Temperature will affect the fluid performance. Breaker systems also depend upon
temperature. Breakers must be tailored to accommodate the fluid temperature at the
target. The breaker system must be aggressive as possible without compromising the
particle placement criteria. Temperature also affects the polymer loading in the design.
Hotter wells may need more polymer and cooler wells may require less polymer.
Other carrier fluids used for Frac-Pack
Frac-Pack fluid systems frequently used for executing jobs are:

• Hydraxyethylcellulose (HEC)
• Borate-crosslink guar/Hydroxypropylguar (HPG)
• Viscoelastic Surfactant (VES)
Borate-crosslinked guar, or HPG, has been used over a wide temperature range of 48-138 oC.
Although the guar has more gel residue than HPG, studies show that pack damage is similar. To
reduce tubular friction, service companies can delay the crosslink mechanism. Low polymer loadings,
3.6-4.2 kg/m3 (30-35 lb/1,000 gal), are used depending on formation temperature and permeability.
Borate fluids are generally more efficient than HEC, but there has been controversy as to retained
pack conductivity. Because Frac-Pack need short pump times and low fluid volumes, jobs can include
much higher breaker loadings. This may help to prevent possible conductivity problems caused by
borate fluids.
10. SAND CONTROL
Viscoelastic Surfactant (VES) is solids-free liquid gelling agent which develops viscosity when blended
in light brines (at a gel concentration of 3 to 6% vol./vol.). This fluid provides the following
advantages.
• High viscosity at low shear rates (good prop transport characteristics).

• High leakoff (high probability of a tip screenout).
• Low friction pressures.
• High return perm and conductivity values
• Not susceptible to bacteria attack.
• On-the-fly mixing capabilities
The VES systems are highly recommended in zones that remain stagnant for a period of more than 7
days prior to cleanup and prediction. These systems are residue free. In single selective completions,
where days or months go by before flowback, polymer systems will precipitate damaging materials.
These systems are also utilized in situations where tip screenout are critical as in the case of short
fracture half lengths (less than 5 m in length). This is desirable in the case of close proximity of water
or whenever limited height growth is desired. The use of VES results in high leakoff at the fracture tip
yielding a much higher probability of a tip screenout. VES is relatively more expensive (factor of 3)
when compared with the HPG but it is important that the VES requires very little additives. There are
no bactericides, breakers, demulsifiers, crosslinkers, buffers or delay agents. When considering a VES
fluid, there is a significant advantage in logistical risk due to its simplicity. This alone can significantly
offset the additional product expense.
HEC, with varying polymer loading, has been used extensively because it is also commonly used in
gravel packing in various locations all around the world. Although HEC exhibits most of the preferred
characteristics, it has four major drawbacks:
• It is a subject to viscosity reduction at higher temperatures.
• If improperly mixed, it can result in microgels.
• It exhibits high friction pressures as compared with delayed crosslinked fluids and VES
(Viscoelastic Surfactants). This becomes a significant penalty in long and/or small ID
tubulars.
• HEC does not demonstrate proppant transport qualities as well as other fluids. The low
shear rate viscosities [at < 1 sec"1'are not as high as the crosslinked VES.
Frac Pack Job Execution Sequences
The general job sequence progresses for Frac-Pack applications where mechanical sand control
equipment is placed in the wellbore applied in OMV Petrom SA are:
• If the existing interval is reperforated in order to provide adequate perforations needed for
Frac-Pack application (larger perforation diameter and more perforation holes), one must
retrieve perforating guns from the well after perforating.
• Prepare the well for Frac-Pack operation (check well bottom, check casing ID, check the
depths of casing couplings above the perforated interval/s in order to determine position of
the packer and avoid eventually problem with packer sealing). It is mandatory to determine
the depths of the minimum four casing couples above the top of open interval/s.
• Run the completion assembly into the hole (packer setting and sealing).
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• When on depth, set the gravel-pack packer and reciprocate the workstring to set the service
tool in circulating position. Circulate completion fluid into the well to fill the annulus
between casing and workstring with a fluid of known density.
• Shut in the annulus and position the valve so that fluid can be pumped down the workstring
while monitoring annulus pressure.
• Pressure test surface injection lines and workstring up to 20% above referent test pressure
(Preftest) . If maximum designed treated pressure (Ptrmax) is greater than hydraulic packer ball
shear out pressure (Ppacker) then as referent pressure should be taken (Ptrmax), otherwise,
Ppacker should be used as referent pressure.
• Test the reverse circulation line (commonly up to 100 bars). This pressure should be
determined using increase pressure in annulus when work string reverse line is opened and
casing reverse line is closed.
• In order to remove damage the well should be treated with adequate acid solution. Acid
recipe for treatment is prepared using workflows for matrix acidizing treatment (see chapter
9). In the case of the gas wells, usually, for preflush and main treatment, beside additives to
prevent corrosion, emulsion, iron precipitation, methanol can be added.
• To avoid problem with sludge forming in oil wells, prior to acid solution injection, preflush
nearwellbore zone with mutual solvent (commonly xylene is used) is preferable.
• Acidize the well with prepared acid solution. Acid injection line should be isolated of the sand
injection line.
• Inject the acid solution with injection rate in the range of 250-500 lit/min and displace acid
solution with prepared carrier fluid.
• After displacing acid and removing the product of acid reaction, perform step-rate (up) test.
• Perform the step-rate test (SRT) by pumping carrier fluid. The step-rate test should pump a
pressure high enough to exceed the formation fracture gradient. The required number of
test point should be 10. The first injection rate and subsequent rate during SRT should be
determined using injectivity test data. A friction-reducer additive may be necessary to
reduce wellhead pressure while pumping higher rates.
• Shut down the pumps and allow the pressure to return to near-initial reservoir pressure.
• Evaluate the step-rate test to determine the fracture extension pressure and rate. The SRT
will determine the upper limit of closure pressure. Redesign the fracture treatment as per
minifrac and step-rate test results.
• It is recommended to perform a minifrac test by pumping the proposed fracturing fluid at a
constant rate. A step-down test can be performed as part of the minifrac test to determine
whether any fracture-entry restrictions are present. If minifrac is not performed then step-
down-test should be done. If minifrac test is executed then load Step Rate Test (SRT) fluid
with breakers to assist breaking minifrac gels. Step rate fluid can be used to displace mini-
frac fluid.
• Perform minifrac enough long to contact most of the height of the zone(s) being treated
(typically 10 minutes at Frac-Pack rate using frac pack fluid). Displace the minifrac test fluid
to the top perforations leaving service tools clear of gel. After pumping the minifrac, use
pressure falloff data/Step down test to calculate fluid efficiency and minimum closure
pressure
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• Calculate the fluid-leakoff coefficient, closure pressure, closure time, fluid efficiency, and
friction pressure. Refer to Chapter 11 for the procedures involved in determining these
coefficients and pressures.
• Design a propped-fracture treatment that optimizes pumping rate, pad volume, and
proppant schedule.
• Perform the tip-screenout fracture treatment until screenout occurs or until the volume
needed to form an annulus pack remains in the workstring.
• Once pumping begins at full design rate, a fracture is initiated with carrier fluid (pad),
commonly a filtered water or gelled water using polymer that has a low to modest fluid
efficiency (between 10% and 30%). Injection proppant slurry, typically starting at 60-120
kg/m3 (0.5 or 1 ppg) with stages of increasing proppant concentration up to 350 to 600 kg/m3
(3 – 5ppg). Fracture growth stops when the proppant screens-out at the fracture tip.
Continued pumping at a rate greater than the fluid leak-off rate will result in a continual
treating pressure increase. Fracture width increases with increasing treating pressure after a
TSO has been established. After a TSO is evident, proppant is displaced (flushed) to near the
GP service tools (approximately 1 m3) and pump rate is slowed to enhance packing of the
fracture. With displacement rates below 1 m3, full returns are taken during the final 1.5 m3 of
flush to facilitate a good annular pack.
• Slow the pumping rate to 160-320 lit/min (1-2 bbl/min ) and open the annulus valve through
a choke. This choke allows the proppant pack to be dehydrated across the screen, forming an
annular pack between the casing and screen.
• Shut down the pumps when maximum pressure is achieved. Observe the pressure bleed-off.
Re-stress the pack until a tight annulus pack is achieved. A “top off” gravel pack can be
added, if necessary.
• Reciprocate the workstring to select the reverse position on the service tool. Reverse any
excess slurry from the workstring.
• Retrieve the workstring from the hole and run the production tubing and assembly into the
well.
• Clean up the well slowly to allow the gravel pack to stabilize.
• Put the well into production by running in hole the required production equipment
depending which method will be used (flowing, SRP, ESP, PCP, Gas Lift)
Frac-Pack–Design and Execution detailed workflow developed by using the analyzed cases in OMV
Petrom SA is shown in Figure 10-32.
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Figure 10-32 Frac-Pack design and execution workflow
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Figure 10-33 Frac-Pack design and execution workflow (Continuation)
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Frac-Pack Post-job analysis
The importance of analyzing pressure data during a minifrac has already been promoted. The main
frac performance can also be analyzed using annular pressure or downhole memory gauges. The net
pressure gain during a treatment, indicative of the degree of fracture width achieved, is generally
determined and reported.
Radioactive tracers and temperature gauges/surveys can determine fracture propagation and
vertical height growth. Care must be taken with any Frac-Pack well to isolate the effects of rate-
dependent skin, fracture transients, deviation (negative) skin and skin caused by perforating, fracture
and gravel packing. For example, if the rate reduces over time as the fracture pressure transients
progress to pseudo steady state, the rate-dependent skin factor will reduce and it could appear that
the fracture is cleaning up. Trying to isolate the effects of change and therefore improve requires
data – pre and post job . Obtaining this data is frequently undervalued. With this data, we have a
better understanding of the well behavior and we have a better chance of achieving the established
production goals. It is strongly recommended to acquire as much as possible data after job execution
in order to allow proper planning of the Frac Pack jobs for the next candidates wells.
10.4 Gravel Pack Operational Aspects
Gravel packing (especially cased hole) has the potential to create severe formation damage and
productivity impairment if proper procedures are not followed. Gravel packs are complicated and
challenging completions that require attention to details:
• Compatible fluids
• Clean fluid handling systems and clean wellbore
• Filtered completion brine
• Clean perforations of sufficient size and number
• Proper gravel quality and size
• Proper gravel placement
The job is successful only if sustainable maximum productivity is achieved after the well has been
completed.
Cased hole gravel packs are extensively used in OMV Petrom and this method have been passing
through continuous improvement of patented downhole equipment (mechanical packers type HOVA
and PIROM-MOCA) and quality of the services. Open-hole water pack gravel placement technology is
not used in OMV Petrom. Eventual drilling of the new wells which could be completed as open hole
potentially can be candidate for OHGP application and some practical directions based on industrial
recommended best practices will be considered at a later date.
The method of water pack (LDLC) refers to a completion method that utilizes a crossover tool and
wash pipe to squeeze proppant into the perforation tunnels with a non-gelled completion fluid. In
wells >30o, high pump rates and low circulation rates (160-320 lit/min, 1-2 bpm) are established to
assist transport of proppant to the bottom of the well while fluid loss to the formation carries
proppant into and packs the perforation tunnels.
Cased and open holes gravel packs are similar. The pumping rates are also similar. It is desirable to be
able to squeeze and circulate. Pure circulation will lead to the perforations not being packed.
Squeezing can be achieved by restricting the return flow, for example, by closing the BOPs. For long
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intervals however, circulation will assist in getting the gravel to the toe of the interval. There is a limit
to the length of the interval that can be treated in one step. Usually, in OMV Petrom the lengths of
open intervals are less than < 75 m (250 ft )
Sometimes carrier fluid should be pumped at the highest rate possible to help ensure a tight annular
pack and maximize filling of perforation tunnels. This technology is called High Rate Water Pack
(HRWP). Usually, fluid should be pumped below fracture pressure, but in certain cases fluid can be
pumped at or slightly above fracture pressure to break through near wellbore mechanical and
perforation damage.
In all cased hole gravel packing techniques, if perforation tunnels are not cleaned up after perforating
with adequate underbalance and/or surging, fluid may not be able to leakoff into the formation and
the perforation will not be packed. Unpacked perforations result in sub-optimal completion
deliverability.
The absence of suspension properties of the water carrier fluid allows gravity to assist in the packing
process in wells with completion deviations of less than 60 degrees. Greater returns are required in
deviated wells greater than 60 degrees to prevent bridging in the annulus resulting in gravel pack
voids. The use of water also eliminates any potential for gel damage as long as Lost Circulating
Materials (LCM) pills are avoided after gravel packing. Water packing can produce low cost, highly
efficient completions.
The tool and accessories for gravel-pack treatments either remain in the well (completion tools) or
are run and retrieved before the production tubing is run (service tools).
10.4.1 GP Workstring/Service Tools
Gravel pack service tools are defined as the equipment necessary to perform the gravel pack, but
which are removed from the well after gravel packing. In most cases, the service tools required for a
gravel pack are dictated by the type of gravel pack equipment being used.
Service tools:
• Setting tool
• Cross-over tool
• Reverse ball check valve
• Retrieving tool
• Wash pipe
• Shifting tools
Setting Tool
The setting tool is basically a hydraulic piston that generates the force required to set the gravel pack
packer (see Figure 10-37). It is attached to the top of the crossover tool and has a sleeve shouldered
against the setting sleeve of the packer applied pressure to the workstring acts on a piston in the
hydraulic setting tool to force the sleeve down to compress the slips and packing element of the
packer. The setting toll is equipped with an adapter sleeve and with a setting ring to be able to cover
all range of packer size (see Appendix 10- A to Appendix 10- E). The maximum operating temperature
is 120 oC. The setting toll is reusable after replacement and maintenance of used elements.
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Figure 10-37 Hydraulic Setting Tool
Cross-over tool
The gravel pack crossover tool creates the various circulating paths for fluid flow during the gravel
packing operation. It consists of a series of molded seals surrounding a gravel pack port midway
down the tool and a return port near the top of the tool (see Figure 10-38). A concentric tube design
in the crossover tool along with the gravel pack packer and gravel pack extension allow fluid pumped
down the workstring above the packer to “crossover” to the screen/casing annulus below the packer.
Similarly, return fluids flowing up the washpipe below the packer can “crossover” to the
workstring/casing annulus above the packer.
Figure 10-38 Gravel Pack Crossover Tool
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The crossover tool ensures the sealing inside the packer bore and sliding sleeve at minimal pressure
of 250 bars. It allows circulating the slurry of gravel and carrier fluid to the maximum concentration
of gravel of 500 kg/m3 and injection rate to 1400 lit-min. mechanically, the crossover tool carries the
weight of the gravel pack assembly into the well via a left hand square thread connection to the top
of the gravel pack packer’s seal bore.
The crossover tool support does not allow any drop sand inside the screens during the upward
movement, to reverse circulating position of the service tool. All parts of crossover toll, except the
sealing elements, which are in contact with GP sand are abrasive resistant in order to be able to
allow injection of the least 10t of sand/ operation without damaging the bypass crossover sub ports.
The crossover tool also contains the ball seat to allow pressuring of the workstring to set the packer.
After setting the packer, workstring pressure is increased to blow the ball into a sump area below the
gravel pack ports of the crossover tool. At this time the crossover tool can be released from the left-
hand square thread of the packer. Crossover tools are supplied with either a rotational mechanical
release or a hydraulic release. The mechanical release requires 10 to 12 rotations to the right at the
packer with slight upstrain. The hydraulic releasing mechanism is actuated by pressure in the
workstring/casing annulus. The mechanical release may be used as a backup to the hydraulic release.
To assure reliable operation crossover toll is able to allow the use of the secondary setting ball in
case of failure of the first one. Also, it should be allowed independently pack of control and main
screen. The sealing elements can withstand the maximum operating temperature up to 120 oC.
Gravel pack crossover tools have three positions - squeeze, circulating, and reverse circulating as
illustrated in Figure 10-39. The squeeze position is found by setting down weight on the packer to
seal the return ports in the packer bore. The squeeze position allows all fluids pumped down the
workstring to be forced into the formation and is used to perform squeeze gravel pack treatments
and/or inject acid treatments into the formation. The circulating position is located by picking the
crossover tool up approximately 0.5m (20 inches) above the squeeze position. The circulating
position works in conjunction with properly sized washpipe to provide a flow path to circulate gravel
pack sand to completely fill the screen/casing annulus. The flow path is down the workstring, into the
crossover tool, out the gravel pack extension, down the screen/casing annulus, into the screen, up
the washpipe, into the crossover tool again, and up the workstring/casing annulus.
Shifting Tool
The shifting tool is run below the gravel pack crossover tool and is used to open and close the sliding
sleeve in the gravel pack extension. The tool is basically a collet designed to catch the fingers of the
sliding sleeve and shift it closed with upward movement or open with downward movement. The
shifting tools allow the rotation of the setting tool, crossover toll and washpipe, if it is required. The
top thread of shifting tool is the same with crossover thread. The bottom thread of the shifting tool
can be connected to the following size of wash pipes
1.315” Hydril CS used for downhole assemblies in casing 5 ½” – 6” and 1.66” in casing 6 5/8” to 7”.
The shifting tool is only required if running the gravel pack extension with sliding sleeve.
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Figure 10-39 Gravel Pack Crossover Tool Positions
Wash pipe
Washpipe is run below the gravel pack crossover tool or shifting tool inside the blank pipe and screen
to insure that the return circulation point for the gravel pack carrier fluid is at the bottom of the
screen. This assists in getting gravel pack sand to the bottom of the screen and packing in a bottom
up fashion. The end of the washpipe should be positioned as close to the bottom of the screen as
possible. Increasing the washpipe OD increases the resistance to flow in the washpipe/screen
annulus. The greater resistance to flow forces the gravel pack carrier fluid to flow in the
screen/casing annulus and carry the gravel pack sand to the bottom of the well. By accomplishing
this, gravel packing of the screen/casing annulus is more complete. Based on the experiments, the
optimum ratio of washpipe OD to screen base pipe ID should be approximately 0.8. Achieving this
ratio in some screen sizes will require the use of special flush joint washpipe connections.
Table 10-19 shows the recommended OD diameters for washing pipes for different types of
mechanical packers used in OMV Petrom (HOVA C and PIROM MOCA H). Also shown are the
different types of threads that are used . They can be either type Hydril or TBG (ISO 10422).
If the thread of the screen base pipe is not type HYDRIL, the washpipe can be replaced with washpipe
of the same diameter pipe, and TBG thread. A cross tool is required in order to change from HYDRIL
thread to TBG thread.
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Table 10-19 Washpipe diameter for mechanical packers used in OMV Petrom
Packer HOVA C Packer PIROM MOCA H
Wash Thread Base Pipe Wash Pipe Thread Type

Base Pipe Type OD OD
Pipe
OD
OD
inch inch inch inch
1.9 1.05 TBG 4 1.66 HYDRIL(TBG)
2 3/8 1.315 HYDRIL 4 1.66 HYDRIL(TBG)
2 7/8(3 ½) 1.66 HYDRIL
5½ 1.66 HYDRIL 5½ 1.66 HYDRIL(TBG)
10.4.2 Gravel Pack Completion Tools Currently Used in OMV Petrom
Completion tools:
• Gravel pack packers (Mechanical – currently used Type HOVA C, PIROM and MOCA-H and
Hydraulic type Baker 70 B-32 or another)
• Extensions with sliding sleeve
• Shear out Safety Joint
• Blank pipes (upper and lower)
• Sand screen (Production and Control Screen)
• Seal Assembly
Packers used in Gravel Pack operation
At the top of the gravel pack assembly there is a gravel pack packer. This packer may be permanent
or retrievable. All packers (mechanical and hydraulic) used in OMV Petrom are retrievable type
packers. Because gravel packing is a complex completion operation, failures during initial gravel
placement or during the life of the reservoir can occur. A retrievable packer expedites workover
activities without the potential cost and risk of milling a permanent packer.
The retrievable packers used for gravel packing are seal bore type packers such as the Model “SC-1”
Packer (Figure 10-40). In addition to facilitating gravel pack operations the packer can be used for
production; therefore, the packer must be designed for the temperature, pressure and
environmental conditions present in the well. This packer is capable of withstanding differential
pressures up to 400 bar and temperature up to 120 oC. The maximum expected pressure differential
pressure in OMV Petrom is 250 bars. A hydraulically operated interlocking device, incorporated into
the setting sleeve, preventing the pre-setting of the packer during run-in. The packer is set with a
hydraulically actuated setting tool with no rotation required. Single cup forming packing element
requires milling to eliminate metal spacers. The packer is released and retrieved with retrieving tool
using a simple straight pull. Packer SC1 can be used for testing of the annular space, if it is needed.
If in the future would be required to install GP equipment in the well having higher temperature in
the range of 120 -230 oC and higher pressure > 400 bar, then other packer model (SC-2, HP1 etc.)
with more sophisticated packing elements and more rigorous material specifications can be used
Details and technical specifications of various packers are shown in Appendix 10- A to Appendix 10- E.
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Figure 10-40 Hydraulic Retrievable Gravel Pack Packer Model “SC-1”
Gravel Pack Extensions
Gravel pack extensions are used in conjunction with the gravel pack packer and service tools to
provide a flow path from the tubing above the packer to the screen/casing annulus below the packer.
The gravel pack extension consists of the upper extension (which contains flow ports for the gravel
pack fluids), seal bore (sized to match the bore of the gravel pack packer) and lower extension (to
house the gravel pack crossover tool throughout its range of motion). The length of the gravel pack
extension is carefully designed to work with a particular gravel pack packer and crossover tool.
Gravel pack extensions are available in two types, perforated and sliding sleeve (Figure 10-41). In a
perforated gravel pack extension, the upper extension simply has drilled holes for fluid exit. These
holes should be isolated during the well production with a seal assembly as a precaution to prevent
any gravel production. In a sliding sleeve gravel pack extension, the holes in the upper extension are
open during the gravel pack but isolated with a sliding sleeve that is closed by a shifting tool when
the gravel pack service tools are pulled out of the well.
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Figure 10-41 Gravel Pack Extensions
Shear-Out Safety Joint
A Shear-Out Safety Joint (SOSJ) consists of a top and bottom sub

connected by a number of shear screws (Figure 10-42). This device is
incorporated in most gravel pack completion assemblies to allow
retrieval of the gravel pack packer and extension independently of the
blank pipe and screen. The SOSJ is parted with straight tension to shear
the screws while pulling the packer with the packer retrieving tool. After
removing the packer, the blank pipe and screen may then be washed
over and retrieved using routine fishing techniques. If a SOSJ is not run,
the blank pipe below the packer must be cut to allow retrieval of the
packer. The shear pins used in the SOSJ must support the weight of the
blank pipe and screen with a generous safety factor. The limitations of
the workstring that will be used to retrieve the packer should also be
considered when selecting a shear rating. Standard shear ratings are
adjustable between 15 to 25 t (44,800 and 80,640 pounds) depending on
the size of the tool. The top and bottom subs are rotationally locked to
allow torque transmission if required. SOSJ’s are not normally used when
running permanent style gravel pack packers or when running extremely
long and heavy gravel pack assemblies. Because these tools do shear with
upward tension, gravel pack assemblies are normally set in compression
to insure they do not shear when gravel packing pressures are applied. Figure 10-42 Shear-Out
Safety Joint
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There are numerous types, combinations and systems of gravel pack completion equipment available
to handle virtually any conceivable well conditions. Figure 10-43 shows typical gravel pack
completions in cased and open hole using hydraulic type of GP packer type SC 1. The completions, as
illustrated, make use of crossover type circulating gravel pack technology which is considered state-
of-the-art in the industry today. The schematics shown in the next Figures (Figure 10-44, Figure
10-45 and Figure 10-46) have been selected to illustrate various best practices in oil and gas wells
completed with various type of packers (Mechanical-PIROM MOCA H and HOVA C and Hydraulic type
Baker) in OMV Petrom..
Figure 10-43 Typical Gravel Pack Completion Equipment in Cased and Open Holes
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Figure 10-44 Typical Gravel Pack Completion Equipment with PIROM MOCA H (operation and completion)
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Figure 10-45 Typical GP completion for oil/gas well with mechanical HOVA packer in oil/gas well
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Figure 10-46 Typical GP completion for oil/gas well with hydraulic packer in oil/gas well
Based on the various cases of GP application in OMV PETROM, integrated workflow of low density GP
best practice technology is shown in Figure 10-47 to Figure 10-51 and in Appendices 10-A, 10-B and
10-C.
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Figure 10-47 Integrated workflow of low density gravel pack technology applied in OMV PETROM
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Figure 10-48 Integrated workflow of low density gravel pack technology applied in OMV PETROM (continuation)
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10.5.1 Major Considerations in Equipment Preparation and job Planning
Careful planning, well preparation, and completion execution are all required for completion success.
The omission of any of these steps may account for a completion that falls short of its objectives
since many of the completion operations are interdependent. To achieve the completion goals of
sand control, productivity and longevity, attention must be given cleanliness, completion fluids,
perforating, perforation cleaning, acidizing, gravel specifications, tool specifications and rig and
service company personnel. The proper preparation of a well for sand control can be the key to a
successful completion.
Cleanliness may be one of the most important considerations when implementing a completion for
gravel packing and Frac-Pack. Since a gravel pack represents the installation of a downhole filter, any
action that promotes plugging the filter (i.e., the gravel pack sand) is detrimental to the success of
the completion and well productivity. Many advances have been made in improving the cleanliness
of gravel pack operations, particularly completion fluids (filtration). Also, the lack of cleanliness in the
casing, work string, lines, pits and other equipment is a source of potential formation damage and
lost productivity. Reverse circulation is the preferred method of circulation for cleaning the casing
and the recommended annular velocity is 0.7 m/min (130 ft/min) for casing shoe deviations less than
60° and 90 m-min (300 ft/min) for deviations greater than 60°. Planning for a work string that will
permit reverse circulation is required. Both mechanical, hydraulic and chemical cleaning agents
should be employed to clean the casing. Mechanical agents are usually casing scrapers and most
often hydraulic agents are push pills and filtered brine.
It is recommended to run casing scrapers to the top of perforated interval/s. If new interval should
be perforated the best practice is to run casing scraper to the bottom, or at least through the interval
to be perforated.
For open-hole completions, the scraper should be run within 30 m (100 ft) of the shoe or at least past
the proposed packer seat.
Work String
The work string should be sized to permit reverse circulation and always be run in open ended to
minimize back pressure on the formation. The work string will contain the same types of debris
associated with the casing. However, unlike the casing, both the inner and outer surfaces must be
clean because completion fluid will be circulated along both surfaces. Scraping the work string is
usually not an option as with the casing, but visual inspections of the tubing before it is run into the
well are encouraged to ensure that the tubing is in good mechanical condition and clean. As a
minimum, a “rabbit” with a diameter equal to the drift diameter of the work string will help to loosen
scale and other debris, as well as providing assurance of the internal diameter of the work string.
Once the work string is clean every effort must be made to keep it clean. A common source of
contamination of the gravel pack is thread dope lubricant. Recommendations are to use thread dope
lubricant sparingly only on the pin ends during the completion phase, and to eliminate the use of
thread dope completely on the final run in the hole just prior to gravel packing the well. Pickling the
work string with a pipe dope solvent and 10% HCl before starting a gravel pack is a must. As with any
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solvent, there is a required contact time and wash rate to dissolve lubricant and carry material out
the work string. The use of a dedicated clean work string strictly for gravel packing should be
considered if a number of wells are to be completed.
Surface Facilities
Tanks and lines are sometimes ignored but are a common cause of damaging materials, particularly
when the rig that drilled the well is used for completing the well. Tanks must be thoroughly scraped
and jetted to ensure any residual solids are removed. Tank must be properly cleaned and
conditioned. Two cases (bad and good) are shown in Figure 10-52.
Figure 10-52 GP fluid tanks with prepared carrier fluid
10.5.2 Pumping Equipment and Filtering System
Gravel-pack completion fluids must be sufficiently clean in order that suspended particles do not plug
or reduce the permeability of the formation, perforations or gravel-pack sand. In order to achieve a
clean fluid a filtration is required. Completion fluids are typically filtered in the range of 2 to 10
microns, but in It is preferable to filter brine with 2 micron and this depend of reservoir properties.
The fluid can be filtered by either a diatomaceous earth (DE) filter upstream in combination with a
cartridge filter unit downstream, or with a cartridge filter unit alone (see WO BP Well Control, Section
4.8) Since diatomaceous earth is less expensive than cartridges, the use of a DE filter with a cartridge
filter downstream will be more economical than a cartridge filter unit alone. This is especially true if
the workover fluid is very dirty, or if large volumes of fluid are required, as in the case of gravel and
frac packing . Pumping equipment with filters is shown in Figure 10-53.
If a gravel pack is to be done and contaminated fluid is used as carrying fluid, the small particles of
solids mixing with the sand will take up the pore space between the sand grains reducing
permeability.
The key question is how clean does the fluid need to be and what size particle should be removed.
The answer on this question is related to how accurately the pore space can be characterized
(permeability, porosity, pore throat size and distribution etc.). Very often data concerning pore
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space characterization are not available or, if they exist, they have been taken in early stage of field
development and do not represent the current situation. The models used capillary pressure
measurement can be used to estimate two main petrophysical parameters (permeability-K and
porosity- φ) to calculate average pore throat size and based on that to define the minimum size of
the filter used for filtering brine used as carrier fluid in GP or Frac-Pack operations. The following
table (Table 10-20) can be used as guidance for determination of the pore throat size, and
consequently for selection type of filter and size.
Table 10-20 Summary of particle size affects
Particle Size Affect Relations

< 1/3 pore Bridge instantly on the throat and do not Coberly:
throat diameter penetrate the information. d= D50/6.5
Solution: Filter fluids to remove particle + Kozeny model:
>1/3 the pore diameter. Remove particle 𝐾
𝑑 = 0.128�
from the perforated tunnels by applying a ∅
perforation wash tool. Blick-Civan
1/3 to 1/7 pore Invade the formation and bridge on the pore 32𝐾
𝑑=�
throat diameter throat in the formation. ∅
Solution: Filter fluids to remove particle less OMV Petrom
than 14% of the pore diameter 𝑑 = √𝐾
< 1/7 pore Normally, these particles are considered as Rules:
throat diameter non-damaging to the formation. If Dp > d/2 then bridging occurs
< 2 micron Considered as non-damaging If d/7 < Dp<d/3 then shallow
invasion occurs (worst case)
If Dp < d/7 then deep invasion
occurs (no problem)
Where: d – average diameter of pore throat(micron) Dp- particle diameter (micron) , K – permeability (mD) φ- porosity (%)
Figure 10-53 Pumping unit with filters
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10.5.3 Treatment Monitoring System
During packing operations the recommended practice is to record the following data (sample
frequency should at least each 5 second) as shown in Figure 10-54
• Treating Pressure
• Annulus Pressure
• Slurry Rate
• Return Rate
• Proppant Concentration
• Washpipe Pressure \ Temperature
• Bottom Hole Drillpipe and Annulus Pressure \ Temperature (Bundle Carrier)
• Accurate amount of proppant reversed out following gravel pack
Figure 10-54 Recorded operation parameters during GP installation
Pressure and time recorder (Figure 10-55) should be used and installed during operation
Figure 10-55 Pressure and time recorder
10. SAND CONTROL
10.6 Materials for Sand Control
10.6.1 Carrying Fluid
Comparison between HEC slurry pack and brine water pack carrier fluid is shown in Table 10-21
below.
Table 10-21 Comparison HEC slurry pack and Brine water
HEC Gel Brine-KCL

Fluid Viscosity (mPas) 300-750 1-2
Typical gravel concentration (kg/lit, lbm/gal) 1.2-1.8, 10-15 0.12-0.36, 1-3
Typical pump rate (lit/min, bbl/min) 160 -640, 1-4 640-800, 4-5
10.6.2 Gravel Pack
Gravel pack well productivity is sensitive to the permeability of the gravel pack sand. To ensure
maximum well productivity only high quality gravel pack sand should be used. The API RP58
establishes rigid specifications for acceptable properties of sands used for gravel packing. These
specifications focus on ensuring the maximum permeability and longevity of the sand under typical
well production and treatment conditions. The specifications define minimum acceptable standards
for the size and shape of the grains, the amount of fines and impurities, acid solubility, and crush
resistance. A summary of the API gravel test procedures and specifications are given in Appendix 10-
10F. Only a few naturally occurring sands are capable of meeting the API specifications without
excessive processing. These sands are characterized by their high quartz content and consistency in
grain size. A majority of the gravel pack sand used in the world is mined from the Ottawa formation
in the Northern United States. Table 10-22 gives the permeability of common gravel pack sand sizes
conforming to the API RP58 specifications.
Table 10-22 Permeability of Gravel Pack Sands
Permeability of Gravel Pack Sands

U.S. Mesh Range Permeability
(Darcy’s)
6/10 2703 - -
8/12 1969 - -
10/20 652 500 -
12/20 - - 668
16/30 - 250 415
20/40 171 119 225
40/60 69 40 69
50/70 - - 45
10.6.3 Coated Gravel Pack
Used primarily in prepacked screens. Also used in thermal wells where the resin is thought to protect
the sand grains from dissolution by high pH steam. High temperature required to cure resin. Strength
of consolidated pack is dependent on curing temperature and time. Consolidated pack will lose
compressive strength when exposed to HCl-HF mud acid.
10. SAND CONTROL
10.6.4 Other Chemicals
Polymers are used to viscosify brines in order to enhance transport characteristics. Before each job
the proposed polymer and brine combination should be carefully analyzed for compatibility with the
formation and reservoir fluids. Chemical nature of some chemicals frequently used for sand control
is shown in Table 10-23 below.
Table 10-23 Other chemicals specifications
Gelling Agent Chemical Category Trade Name

HEC Hydroxyethyl cellulose HEC-10, Hydropac, Aquapac
SGC Succinoglycan, biopolymer Shellflo-S, Flopac
Xanthan Clarified biopolymer Xanvis, Biopac
Surfactant Gel Ammonium quat Permpac
10.7 Quality Assurance and Safety Requirements
The standards of service quality for sand control operations of OMV Petrom is primarily focused on
defining the minimum requirements to assure safe and reliable operations , before, during and after
job execution.
10.7.1 Service
Before commencing the job, all job procedures, defined by detailed technical program and design,
should be agreed by all parties and included in the job execution.
All perforations must be cleaned prior to gravel packing. Washing perforation and cleaning by using a
flapper milling tool are methods that are commonly used in OMV Petrom SA.
As the surging of perforation with a downhole atmospheric chamber is the most effective technique
to clean perforation, this method should be considered as a viable option for cleaning perforation
before installing GP or Frac-Pack. When surging on a separate trip following perforating, perforate
the well with a moderate 7 to 20 bar (100-300 psi) under balance so to minimize risk of gun sticking.
If the well is not surging, use an industry correlation to determine minimum and maximum
underbalance values for perforating operations (See Chapter 6 - Perforation BP). Use low debris, big
hole gravel pack charges with a high shot density in a spiral pattern (60o phasing).
Recommended practice to achieve planned volume is to surge 50 lit/m (4 gallons/feet) of

perforations to ensure clean up of perforation tunnels. The surge workstring should be placed above
the top of perforation equivalent to 1.5 times the planned surge volume.
Use an electronic optical scanner over the full length of the screen to determine slot dimensions. It is
required that 97.5% of all observations must fall within +- 1.5 gauge (0.0015 inch/38 microns). Ensure
adequate strength of screen, screen jacket, base pipe, welding and blank pipe for running and gravel
pack conditions. To assure the screen in not resting on the bottom, a centralizer should be used.
Before the job begins, perform QA/QC checks of the proppant, viscosifier, cross-linker, breakers, and
mix water to be used for the Frac-Pack treatment.
10. SAND CONTROL
As the cleanliness is the most critical for assuring planned well productivity it is required to avoid
using of any doping of the workstring pipes after pickling or while running GP assembly. Any excess
of dope from all connections must be wiped. It strongly recommended avoiding pump perforating
debris being left into the well or letting it flow back into perforations via fluid loss. The gravel pack
screen should not be run in particle-laden fluid, unless the fluid in the well (brine or mud) has been
tested against a screen 2 gauge (0.002 inch, 0.051 mm) sizes below minimum design screen gauge to
ensure that fluid will pass through.
A high-pressure manifold should be connected to the surface equipment to allow fluids to be

pumped in any combination of paths by opening and closing the appropriate valves.
Full-opening valves should be mounted in any line through which high flow rates will be pumped. The
full-opening valves impose minimum restriction to fluid flow.
A densometer should be used to measure proppant concentration in both the injection and return
lines
It is not recommended to use two separate pressure lines from the pump trucks to the well for
tubing and casing, as shown in Figure 10-56, but it is recommended to use a manifold with the high
pressure lines.
Potential tubing contraction should be calculated during the job. Tubing-string movement should be
estimated and precautions should be taken to prevent such movement.
Downhole tools (packer, blank pipe, crossover toll etc,) used for Frac-Pack operations must withstand
high pressures during a job which is often higher than during a conventional fracture stimulation.
When screenout occurs, differential pressure will be high and GP packer should be able to withstand
this high differential pressure. Also, blank pipe used as part of downhole equipment should be able
to withstand screenout pressures. If the predicted/estimated screenout pressure is higher than
hydraulic packer ball shear out pressure then work string and surface line should be tested with
pressure over 20% of the maximum treated pressure.
Figure 10-56 Connection of surface lines
10. SAND CONTROL
If properly filtered brine is used, the hole should displaced as recommended and surface facilities
should cleaned. This process allows us to obtain brine returns less than 20 Nephelometric Turbidity
Units (NTU). Again, this is only possible if all of the steps are followed and there are no "short cuts".
In order to avoid premature failure of downhole equipment it is not allowed to use mixed material
(standard steel and for example Inox, as can be seen in Figure 10-57. In such cases copper couplings
between standard steel and INOX steel should be used to prevent the corrosion problems.
Figure 10-57 Using mixed materials for various component of downhole equipment
10.8 Safety Requirements
OMV Petrom SA safety standards and documents should be provided on site and all personnel must
be introduced with officially internal standards concerning to sand control methods. The purpose of
these standards is:
• to prevent personal injury
• to prevent loss of equipment
10.8.1 General Safety Considerations
To ensure that rig personnel and 3rd party (external service companies) personnel are aware that
each person on the job understands their responsibility. Prejob safety briefing is mandatory. The job
supervisor will discuss responsibilities, personnel stations and when each person should perform
their assigned task.
The job supervisor has to discuss the following topics during the prejob safety briefing:
• Job procedures
• Pressure limitations
• Escape routes and emergency equipment locations
• Only assigned personnel in the area
• Emergency response plan
• Hand signals and radio communications.
The job is performed according to procedure and design. If at any time during job execution a
problem occurs, execution should be halted until the job supervisor, together with all parties, decide
on the required action. If the job execution cannot be halted when the problem occurs, execution
will continue until the first opportunity to stop comes.
10. SAND CONTROL
Required Communications
Operational two-way radios and hand signal should be available during job execution.
If during job execution a leak occurs in treating line, the following procedure is to be followed:
• Notify the job supervisor.

• If possible displace the fluid in the line with a nonhazardous material.
• Close the wellhead valve.
• Bleed pressure off of the high-pressure line.
• Repair the leak.
• Pressure test the line and then bleed off.
• Apply pressure to the line equal to the anticipated treating pipe pressure.
• Open the wellhead valve.
• Resume the job execution.
All personal should strictly follow the procedure for safe equipment backloading. Prior equipment
backloading job/Well site supervisor should meet with crane operator and give him equipment
weights and information about hazardous material.
Also, the responsible personnel on site should check and ensure before backloading equipment that:
• All oil drip pans are clean and empty.
• Drip pan plugs are in place.
• Slings are inspected for damage and correct attachment.
• Blenders are empty of fluid.
• All suction manifolds are capped.
• Drains are open.
• All acid tank lids are secured.
• Plugs are sealed on marine portable tanks.
• The correct paperwork is sent with the equipment.
The supervisor will organize postjob meeting on order to analyze and discuss job execution
Discussion includes the following:
• Was the equipment rigged-up in accordance with location safety standards?
• Was the job executed per design?
• Was the client satisfied with performance?
• Incidents (what happen, who was involved, where there any injuries, were hazards
recognized prior to the job, were hazards mentioned in the prejob briefing, what actions
were taken on location, what steps will be taken to prevent future occurrences).
All treating equipment has to be inspected and maintained in accordance with technique directives
and standard equipment maintenance program defined by OMV Petrom. Equipment which is
returned from a job must be thoroughly inspected and pressure tested (where applicable) in
accordance with the standard equipment maintenance program. The Equipment Supervisor must
insure that each piece of equipment is inspected using designated procedures. All hand tools must be
inspected prior to use.
10. SAND CONTROL
Regardless of materials or service, as a minimum, the standard safety equipment (hard hat, uniform,
boots, safety glasses and gloves) is worn by all personnel. Any additional safety equipment required
for particularly hazardous fluids or operations must be used.
10.8.2 Personnel Requirements
Only personnel trained will be allowed to operate and execute the job.
The company should prepare the list of specific training that personnel must complete in order to
participate to the sand control operations.
Prior to assigning an equipment maintenance task to a technician, the equipment supervisor must
determine that the technician has been trained and certified to perform the task and that all
personal safety equipment is used. All personnel not essential to pumping operations should stay of
the injection and return lines on the rig floor during pumping.
10. SAND CONTROL
Appendix 10 - A Baker Sand Control Packer Specifications and Setting

Procedure
Packer setting and sealing
In order to set to and to seal the Baker hydraulic packer, the following operations will be taken:
• the BOP will be closed;
• the circulation way through crossover and work string will be washed by reverse circulation:
- fluid type: operating fluid;
- volume: 1.5 x work string volume;
- rate: max 250 l/min.
Note: The return fluid will be sent to the operating fluid tank.
• the work string return will be closed;

• the connection between the direct injection line and the quick operated valve will be
unscrewed;
• the quick operated valve is closed;
• the packer setting ball is placed inside of the quick operated valve;
• direct injection line is remade;
• the casing sleeve valve is closed;
• the surface lines are tested at:
- 350 bar for direct injection;
- 100 bar for return circulation;
• the setting ball will be dropped through the work string by opening the quick operated valve
and wait for it to land on the seat (waiting time: 5 min for every 300 m of work string);
• the BOP will be opened and the slips will be removed;

• 2 - 2,5 t will be set on packer and the BOP will be closed;
• The procedure used to set and seal the packer will be carried out;
Note:
1. The minimum pressure necessary to set and seal the packer in a proper way is 218 bar;
2. If the pins from the seat are sheared before the above pressure is reached, the secondary ball
will be dropped and the pressure will be increased again in the work string at the minimum
value necessary for setting;
3. While the setting procedure has started, the weight indicator shows an increase in load, the
work string will be lowered slowly so that the hook load will remain the same.
• The procedure for testing the setting and the sealing will be made.
10. SAND CONTROL
Testing the circulation through the hydraulic assembly Baker type
Testing the circulation lines through the hydraulic assembly type Baker will be done by the following
steps:
• BOP - “open”
• The work string will be released from the hydraulic packer and then lifted to verify the
success of release operation. The injection line will then be connected .
• BOP – “closed”
• Check reverse out position;
• The reverse for the work string will be closed;
• The annulus reverse – “open”;
• Establish circulation through crossover port by shearing the pins of ball seat 295 bar.
Note:
1) If the secondary ball was used to set packer, the circulation ports through crossover tool are
opened;
2) To pool the secondary ball out of hole, the next following steps are required:
- Close BOP;
- Work string set in slips;
- Unscrew quick operated valve;
- The fluid is reverse circulated untill secondary ball reaches the surface;
- Add the quick operated valve at top of work string;
- Direct injection line is reestablished and slips are removed.
• The operating equipment will be moved in upper circulation position needed for production
sand screen packing;
• Circulation test is run for production sand screen packing and the working pressure is
recorded:
- fluid type: operating fluid;
- volume: approx. 1000 l;
- injection rate: approximately 500-600 l/min;
• Reset the work string in squeeze position (max. load on packer: 5-6 t);
• Injectivity test:
- fluid type: operating fluid:
- volume: approx. 1000 l;
- injection rate: approx. 450 l/min;
10. SAND CONTROL
Table 10-24 Use range- Baker packers
10. SAND CONTROL
Appendix 10 - B GP Completion Procedure with Mechanical Packer Type

PIROM MOCA-H
SAND CONTROL COMPLETION SYSTEM
This type of completion enables the well to be produced with a fixed pump run inside the production
screens or below the perforated interval. This process takes place in two stages:
Stage I
a) RIH and positioning of the downhole equipment to the established depth. Configuration of the
BHA is:
• Production screens plug.
• STIMPEX stainless steel wire wrapped type production screens;
• TBG lower blank pipe;
• STIMPEX stainless steel wire wrapped type control screen;
• TBG upper blank pipe;
- Safety joint (PF);
- PIROM crossover tool (MF);
- PIROM retrievable sand control packer tool (PK).
- PIROM service tool (DOC).
b) PK setting and PK sealing;

c) Sand squeezing in to formation and screen out;
d) POOH DOC + PK + MF to surface.
Stage II
a) RIH MOCA 142-157 production packer (PP) and set in PF

Note: To be able to set PP, a hydraulic setting tool MOCA-H 142-157 ( CL )has to be used .
b) PP casing sealing;
c) POOH CL to surface.
COMPLETION PROGRAM
DOWNHOLE EQUIPMENT PREPARATION
PK Equipment
PK equipment comes in two subassemblies and it is prepared to be launched in the well according to
Chapter 5 of the 888-00 N.T. Technical Note (preparation will be performed at the equipment’s
manufacturer BAT Târgovişte).
PP production packer
The PP production packer is delivered and prepared to be launched in the well according to Chapter
5 of the 915-00 N.T. Technical Note (training will be performed at BAT Târgovişte equipment
manufacturer).
10. SAND CONTROL
WELL COMPLETION
Stage I
Downhole equipment (PK) running, setting and sealing procedure
After warehouse preparation the following steps will be undertaken:

• Wireline gauge run for TD check
• M/U downhole BHA in the following order:
• Production screens plug;
• STIMPEX type stainless steel wire wrapped production screen;
• TBG 4 API 5 CT lower blank pipe;
• STIMPEX type stainless steel wire wrapped control screen;
• TBG 4 API 5 C upper blank pipe;
• Wash pipes (WP);
• DOC + PK + MF + PF retrievable equipment;
Note: DOC+PK+MF+PF retrievable equipment will be prepared in the workshop and will be brought to
the well site.
Start RIH BHA.
Note: 1) The combined working string will be fully tested in the well at 250 bars;
The work string will be tested to Pmaxtest = 20% above Preftest. (Best practice in OMV PETROM is 250
bar).
2) While M/U the BHA drift screens and WP.
3) While RIH with the tubing, test each joint with appropriate drift.
4) Space out work string in order to have 0.5 - 1 m stick out above rotary table approx..
Note: If the packer cannot set or if the check of the packing elements integrity is negative the packer
will be replaced.
• Start RIH the BHA with the working string to TD.
Tag TD and slack 0.5t, then PU 0.5m.

• Set working string in the spider;
• Install Gray safety valve on top of working string;
• R/U surface equipment.
• Line up surface lines for:
• Direct circulation - tacking returns on surface.
• Reverse circulation - taking returns on surface.
Pressure test lines as follows:

• Direct pumping lines to Pmaxtest = 20% above Preftest. (Best practice in OMV PETROM
is 250 bar).
• Return lines to 150 bar.
10. SAND CONTROL
Note:
1) The returns will be recovered during direct pumping and as well as during reversing out to surface
in the tank used for storing the dirty fluids.
2) Surface lines will be rig- up in order to be able to move the work string up at least 4m.
• Fill up annular space.
Note: 1) The well will be filled up with working fluid.
2) If the well cannot be filled up (formation has significant losses) the operation will be performed
after setting the packer.
• Close BOP.
• Circulate in reverse the work string taking returns on surface.
- fluid type: working fluid;
- volume: approx. 1,5 working string Volumes;
- circulation flow rate : approx. 300 l / min;
• Open casing in order to be able to take returns;
• Close the returns on the pumping line
• Pump in direct and take returns on surface
- fluid type: working fluid;
- volume : approx. 1000 l;
- circulation flow rate : approx. 500 l / min;
Note:
The returns from direct or reverse circulation will be received in the tanks used for storing working
fluid.
• Open BOP;
• Disconnect the pumping line to the work string;
• Remove the spider;
• Set the packer
Note:
The slack on the packer has to be from 6 to 0 t.
• Close BOP;
• Connect the pumping line to the work string;
• Pressure test from back side the packer sealing at 50-60 bar.
• Close the work string returns.
• Open the casing.
• Pump directly and check if the downhole tools are working properly.
• fluid type: working fluid;
• volume : 1000 l;
• circulation flow rate : approx. 500 l/min;
Note: The surface returns will be taken in the working fluid storage tank.
• Release the DOC from the PK as follows:

• Drop from the surface a Φ = 28, 575 mm ball;
10. SAND CONTROL
• Take 15 minutes break to let the ball to reach the ball sit;
• Pump in direct in order to increase the working string pressure up to (100 bars) to shear the
ball sit shear pins.
Note: the release of the DOC from the PK will be noticed by drop of pressure to 0 bar
• Close BOP;
• Open casing return valve;
• Perform the direct circulation test;
• Fluid type: working fluid;
• Volume to be pumped: approx. 1000 l;;
• Circulation flow rate: approx. 500 l / min;
• Close casing return;
• Keep weight on packer at 6…10 t;
• Perform the injectivity test as follows:
• Bring the casing pressure to approx. 70 bars and maintain it during the test:
• Fluid used: working fluid;
• Squeeze fluid information through the working string:
• Circulation flow rate : 500…600 l/min
• Testing time: approx. 1…2 minutes.
Sand injection into formation

Increase pressure in casing up to approximately. 20 bars above the pressure recorded during the
injectivity test. Do not exceed 100 bar.
Pump in a slurry of working fluid and sand through the working string.
• injection flow rate : 500…600 l/min
• pumping ratio : approx. 5…6 m³ fluid / 1 t sand
• injected sand quantity: approx. 4,8 t (rated value);
• maximum injection pressure rate : 80…90 bars.
Note: 1) The injection flow rate / sand quantity to be injected can be changed due to flow
rate /pressure recorded during the injectivity test.
2) If the injectivity pressure is equal or higher than 90 bars the gravel pack operation will be
started.
GP Production screen
If the screen gravel packing is not completed during the first sand injection, repacking will be carried
out as follows:
• Ensure the returns are received on surface:
• Stop pumping in annulus;
• Open slowly casing return line;
• Continue pumping in direct the mixture of working fluid with sand:
• Injection flow: 300 - 500 l / min;
• Pumping ratio: 5-6 m3 fluid / 1 t sand;
• Pump in well the total required sand mass;
10. SAND CONTROL
• Maximum circulating pressure: 100-120 bar.

Removal of sand excess from work string and POOH of DOC+PK+MF
The operations sequences are:
• - place DOC in reverse circulation position by lifting the working string 1,65 – 2,15
(1,9 m recommended) from the PK setting position;
• - circulate in reverse using working fluid until clean returns;
• - POOH DOC + PK + MF and wash pipes.
Note: 1) After pulling out the service tool (DOC + PK + MF + wash pipes) the PF and the gravel pack
production screens will remain in the well bore.
2) The necessary force to pull out the downhole equipment is 1.5 - 5 t.
Stage II
RIH PP and PF setting
PP installation and its setting in PF will be executed as follows:
• Perform gauge run using wire line in order to check the PF position;
• RIH the CL + PP assembly (use the same working string that was used to run the
PIROM equipment);
• Set by slack off PP in PF (recommended setting weight is 2-4 t);
• Perform pull test 2-3 t.
Release PP sealing and POOH CL
In order to seal the PP it is necessary to release CL from PP as follows:
• Remove the spider and set the work string in neutral.
• Drop the Φ = 34.93 mm ball from the surface;
• Take a 15 minutes break to let the ball to rich the ball seat;
• Increase the pressure in the working string to shear the four pins of the setting
piston.
Note:
1) The release pressure of CL from PP will be of about 70 ± 30 bar;
2) The CL release from PP will be seen by the sudden pressure drop to zero and usually getting surface
returns through the annular area.
PP sealing procedure:
• - Slack the work string and share the setting share pins
• - Continue slacking the work string till the sealing element starts to inflate and seal.
(recommended slack off force 7-8 t)
• - Perform back side pressure test at 50-60 bar.
• - Release CL from PP by strait pool of work string (max pooling weight 12 t
• -POOH CL.
10. SAND CONTROL
Table 10-25 Use range-Pirom packers
10. SAND CONTROL
Table 10-26 Use range – Moca packers
10. SAND CONTROL
Appendix 10 - C GP Completion Procedure with Mechanical Packer Type

HOVA-C
SAND CONTROL COMPLETION SYSTEM
For an effective operation of the sand control it is necessary that well is completed with gravel -
packing mechanical system by using a HOVA type mechanical equipment including the following
components:
• Production screens plug,
• STIMPEX stainless steel wire wrapped type production screens,
• Lower blank pipe,
• STIMPEX stainless steel wire wrapped type control screen,
• Upper blank pipe,
• Safety joint,
• Crossover tool,
• HOVA – C mechanical packer,
COMPLETION PROGRAM
DOWNHOLE EQUIPMENT PREPARATION
The HOVA equipment for gravel packing operations is delivered as follows:

• Mechanical packer,
• Circulations crossover tool,
• Safety joint,
The HOVA mechanical packer, the crossover tool and the safety joint are delivered by the equipment
manufacturer as whole unit
The service tool comes in two subassemblies:

Upper subassembly:
• Running sub,
• Adjustable bushing,
• Threaded blocking pin,
• Washing pipe,
• Pocket guide,
Lower subassembly:
• Sealing extension
• Ball
• Seat nipple.
Preparing the downhole assembly for RIH will take place in the warehouse according to the “HOVA –
C downhole equipment preparation procedure for RIH”.
PACKER RUNNING, SETING AND SEALING
After warehose preparation of the HOVA packer running, setting and sealing, the following steps will
be done for:
Check total depth (TD) with wireline

10. SAND CONTROL
Downhole BHA in the following order:

• Production screens plug,
• Production screens,
• Lower blind pipe,
• Control screen,
• Upper blind pipe,
• Wash pipes,
Subassembly includes:
• Safety joint;
• Lower extension;
• Crossover tool;
• Mechanical packer;
• Service tool.
The subassembly: service tool – mechanical packer – crossover tool – lower extension – safety joint
should be delivered to the well as one peace.
Start RIH BHA
Note:
• The work string (API 5 CT 2 7 / 8 in - C75 or N 80 tubing) should be tested to 250 bar.
• While M/U the BHA drift screens and wash pipe..
• While RIH tubing, drift each joint with appropriate drift.
• When making up the working string use dope on each connection and torque the threads at
recommended value.
• Space work string in to have above rotary table approx. 1.0 m stick out.
Test packer set as follows:
• RIH the downhole assembly with a piece of the working string;
• Lift the working string about 80 cm,
• Turn the working string 2-3 turns to the left,
• Lower the working string until the packer sets in the casing, and the working string remains
suspended.
Unset the packer and POOH by performing the following operations:
• Lift the working string minimum 1 m,
• Turn the working string 2-3 turns to the right.
• Lift the working string until the HOVA sticks out,
• Check the strings condition and the packer’s setting system then restart the downhole
equipment RIH with the working string until it reaches the established depth. If the packer is
not set or if the check of the packing elements integrity is negative the packer will be
replaced.
• Set working string in the spider,
• Install Gray safety valve top of working string
10. SAND CONTROL
Line up surface lines for:

• Direct circulation tacking returns on surface.
• Reverse circulation tacking returns on surface.
Pressure test lines as follow:

• Direct pumping lines to 250 bar.
• Return/Reverse lines to 150 bar.
Note: The returns will be recovered during direct pumping and as well during reversing out to surface
in the tank used for storing the working fluid. Surface lines will be rigid up in order to able to move
the work string up at least 4m.
Ensure an open position for:

• BOP,
• Return and Gray valve of the working string,
• Casing valve,
• Close the casing return and fill in the annular space with working fluid. If the well can not be
filled up ( there are high losses into formation ) the operation will be performed after setting
the packer.
• Shut off BOP, wash out the working string by reverse circulation with approximately 300 l/
min taking returns on surface. Circulation volume should be approximately equal to 1.5
working string volume.
Note: Taking returns on surface for both direct and reverse injection will take place in the
tank for working fluid storing.
• Open the BOP;
• Close the return on the working pipe;
• Check direct circulation taking return on surface:
• Quantity: approx. 1000 l;
• Circulation flow: approx. 500 l / min;
• Open BOP;
• Free the line from the Gray valve;
• Remove the spider;
• Set and seal the packer in the casing as it follows:
• Check the bottom hole (maximum load on bottom hole about 1 tf);
• Lift the operating string from 50 to 70 cm above the bottom hole;
• Turn the operating string 2 - 3 turns to the left;
• Lower the working string until the packer is set in the casing;
• Continue lowering the working string until the necessary weight is achieved in order to assure
the sealing of the packer.
Note: In order to perform the sealing the load on the packer has to be of minimum 6 tf.
• Close BOP and casing return;
• Remake the line up to the Gray valve;
• Perform the packer’s sealing test at a 50…60 bars;
• Turn off the working string return;
• Close the casing string return;
• Open casing return;
• Check the circulation lines through the direct circulation downhole assembly:
10. SAND CONTROL

• Quantity: 1000 l;
• Circulation flow: approx. 500 l/min;
• Hang the working string in the spider;
• Close the casing return and valve;
• Close the working string Gray valve;
• Uninstall the line up of the working string above the valve;
• Place the setting ball above the previous shut valve;
• Remake the line up to the Gray valve;
• Pressure test line;
• Pressure in casing/return line: 150 bar;
• Pressure in the working string: Direct pumping lines to Pmaxtest=20% above Preftest ( Best
practice in OMV Petrom is 250 bar);
• Open the BOP;
• Remove the spider and assure the minimum 6 tf;
• Release the service tool from the packer:
• Set the ball by opening the valve on the working string and wait until it drops (without
gravitation) on the ball seat (waiting time approx. 1 min. / 160 m of working string);
• Release the running sub from the packer by shearing the ball pins:
• Pins shearing pressure: 150 – 200 bar;
• Increase pressure at each step by 50 bar with 1 minute break.
Note: After shearing the pins, the seat and the ball will lower in the pocket guide’s ports clearing the
line ups.
• Close BOP;
• Open casing return and valve;
• Perform direct circulation test:
• Qquantity: 1000 l;
• Circulation flow: 500 l / min;
• Close the casing return;
• Perform injectivity test as follows:
• Bring the casing pressure to approx. 70 bars and maintain it during the test:
• Squeeze fluid in formation through the working string;
• Circulation flow: 500…600 l / min;
• Testing time: approximately 1…2 minute.
Note: If the injectivity pressure is equal or more than 90 bar pass directly to the gravel packing.
SAND INJECTION IN FORMATION

Inject sand in formation should be performed following the procedure:
• Maintain the circulation lines made for the receptivity test;
• Maintain the minimum load on the packer at 6 tf;
• Maintain a casing back pressure higher than the receptivity pressure registered on the
working string, but no higher than 100 bar;
10. SAND CONTROL
• Initiate and continue working fluid injection with sand in suspension until the maximum
admitted pressure is reached.
The technological parameters for sand injection are:

• Injection sand quantity: approx. 2,4 ;
• Circulation ratio: 5…6 m³fluid / sand t;
• Injection flow: 500…600 l / min;
• Maximum injection pressure rate: 80-90 bar.
Note:
• The volume/mass of the sand needed is estimated as part of detailed design program.
• The pressure in the casing should to be approx. 20 bars above the pressure registered in
the injectivity test, without exceeding 100 bars value.
• The maximum pressure value may be modified depending on the pressure values
recorded during injectivity test.
• If the casing back pressure recorded during the injectivity test is equal to the maximum
pressure this step should be skipped and start directly with the production screens gravel
packing operation.
GP Production screen
• If the maximum sand injection pressure is reached, the production screens gravel packing
will be made as follows:
• Stop sand metering;
• Assure returns are taken on surface through:
• Stop casing pump;
• Slowly open casing return;
• Continue pumping working fluid without sand in suspension, taking return on surface:
• Circulation flow: 300…500 l / min;
• Necessary sand (in theory): approx. 380 kg;
• Circulation maximum pressure: 120 bar.
Note: The mass of sand in suspension in the working string at the moment when the maximum
injection pressure is reached and its measured mass in the working fluid when the injection is
stopped should be sufficient to complete cover GP screens.
THE REMOVAL OF THE SAND EXCESS IN THE WORKING STRING
In order to eliminate the sand excess in the working string the following operating sequences should
be performed:
• Open casing return line;
• Close casing return;
• Increase the casing pressure to an approximatelly 60 bar;
• Place the working tool in the reverse circulation position, by lifting 2.5 m the working string;
• Circulate in reverse until clean fluid return;
• POOH the running sub and the washing pipes.
10. SAND CONTROL
Table 10-27 Use range – Hova packers
10. SAND CONTROL
Appendix 10 - D Schlumberger Sand Control Packer Specifications

Table 10-28 Use range-Schlumberger packers
10. SAND CONTROL
Appendix 10 - E Weatherford Sand Control Packer Specifications

Table 10-29 Use range-Weatherford packers
10. SAND CONTROL
Appendix 10 - F Standards
Table 10-30 API Specification for Gravel-Pack Sand
API Specifications for Gravel-Pack Sand

A minimum of 96% by weight of the tested sand sample should pass the designated course
sieve and be retained on the designated fine sieve (with the designated course and fine sieves
Sieve defined for specific size gravels in the RP58). Not over 0.1% of the total tested sample should
Analysis be retained by the most course designated sieve and not over 2% of the total tested sample
pass through the most finely designated sieve. No more than 1.9% of the total by weight
should be retained by the second sieve screen (100% - 0.1% - 2% - 1.9% = 96%).
Gravel pack sand should have an average sphericity of 0.6 or greater and an average
roundness of 0.6 or greater as determined by visual analysis using the chart developed by
Krumbein and Sloss (API RP60, From Stratigraphy and Sedimentation, Krumbein and Sloss).
Sphericity
and
Roundness
A 5 gram sand sample is added to 100 ml of 12%-3% HCl-HF acid and allowed to sit for one
hour at 72°F to allow dissolution of contaminates (carbonates, feldspars, iron oxides, clays,
Acid
silica fines etc.). The sand is then removed and dried. The before and after weights are
Solubility compared to determine acid solubility. The acid soluble material in gravel pack sand should
not exceed 1.0% by weight.
Silt and A 20 ml sample of dry sand is mixed with 100 ml of demineralized water and allowed to sit for
30 minutes. The sample is then shaken vigorously for 30 seconds and allowed to sit for 5
Clay minutes. A 25 ml sample of the water-silt suspension is removed and the turbidity is
Content measured. The resulting turbidity of tested gravel pack sand should be 250 NTU's or less.
A sand sample is sieved to remove all fines and weighed. The sample is then exposed to 2,000
psi confining stress for two minutes. The sample is resieved to determine the weight of fines
Crush
generated. Gravel pack sand subjected to this test should not produce more than 2% by
Resistance weight fines. For large sand sizes, 12/20 U.S. Mesh and 8/12 U.S. Mesh, the amount of fines
produced should not exceed 4% and 8% respectively.
10. SAND CONTROL
List of Figures
Figure 10-1 Sand Control Process Managing,
Figure 10-2 Critical drawdown and sanding potential,
Figure 10-3 Gravel Pack Life Time in OMV Petrom,
Figure 10-4 Internal Gravel Pack System Boundary
Figure 10-5 Internal Gravel Pack System Functional Block Diagram
Figure 10-6 GP completions analysis in OMV Petrom (from 2009 to 2011)
Figure 10-7 GP completions and failures for Assets
Figure 10-8 GP completion run life analysis
Figure 10-9 Schematic of Gravel Pack technology,
Figure 10-10 Non-plugged gravel pack,
Figure 10-11 Partially Invaded Gravel Pack,
Figure 10-12 Non-Uniform Sand: Sieve Analysis vs. Laser Scattering,
Figure 10-13 Particle Size Distribution,
Figure 10-14 Particle size distribution for different locations,
Figure 10-15 General workflow for selecting sand control mechanical system,
Figure 10-16 Standalone Screens Selection,
Figure 10-17 GP selection workflow-GP vs. Frac pack,
Figure 10-18 GP selection workflow for open hole wells (GP vs. SAS),
Figure 10-19 GP selection workflow for cased hole wells,
Figure 10-20 Results of Saucier’s Gravel Size Experiments,
Figure 10-21 Optimization of Gravel Pack Sand,
Figure 10-22 Uniform (A) and Non-uniform (B) sand,
Figure 10-23 Gravel Pack Design Workflow in Petrom OMV,
Figure 10-24 Inside casing GP solution,
Figure 10-25 Volume of the gravel per length of perforated interval,
Figure 10-26 Gravel settled volume (SI and API),
Figure 10-27 Recommended Workflow for GP Design Using High Density-High Concentration,
10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-28 Quality of Annular pack using brine and slurry pack,
Figure 10-29 Frac Pac without/with Screen,
Figure 10-30 Tip Screen Out (TSO) Fracturing Process,
Figure 10-31 Frac pack geometry and production behavior,
Figure 10-32 Frac-Pack design and execution workflow,
Figure 10-33 Frac-Pack design and execution workflow (Continuation),
Figure 10-37 Hydraulic Setting Tool,
Figure 10-38 Gravel Pack Crossover Tool,
Figure 10-39 Gravel Pack Crossover Tool Positions,
Figure 10-40 Hydraulic Retrievable Gravel Pack Packer Model “SC-1”,
Figure 10-41 Gravel Pack Extensions,
Figure 10-42 Shear-Out Safety Joint,
Figure 10-43 Typical Gravel Pack Completion Equipment in Cased and Open Holes,
Figure 10-44 Typical Gravel Pack Completion Equipment with PIROM MOCA H (operation and
completion),
Figure 10-45 Typical GP completion for oil/gas well with mechanical HOVA packer in oil/gas well,
Figure 10-46 Typical GP completion for oil/gas well with hydraulic packer in oil/gas well,
Figure 10-47 Integrated workflow of low density gravel pack technology applied in OMV PETROM,
(continuation),
(continuation),
(continuation)
(continuation),
Figure 10-52 GP fluid tanks with prepared carrier fluid,

10. SAND CONTROL
Figure 10-53 Pumping unit with filters,
Figure 10-54 Recorded operation parameters during GP installation,
Figure 10-55 Pressure and time recorder,
Figure 10-56 Connection of surface lines,
Figure 10-57 Using mixed materials for various component of downhole equipment.
10. SAND CONTROL
List of Tables
Table 10-1 Failure Analysis Component,
Table 10-2 Failure causes and statistics OMV Petrom,
Table 10-3 Relative merits of principal sand control methods,
Table 10-4 Comparison of Dry Sieving & LPLSA,
Table 10-5 US Mesh Size vs. Sieve Opening,
Table 10-6 Reservoir sand characterization using PSD analysis,
Table 10-7 Gravel Design Criteria (proposed by Shell),
Table 10-8 Sand Control Selection in Cased Hole Wells,
Table 10-9 Sand Control Selection in Open Hole Wells,
Table 10-10 Criteria for optimization of gravel size,
Table 10-11 Gravel size selection according to various authors,
Table 10-12 Recommended Practices for Testing Sand used in Gravel Packing Operations,
Table 10-13 Screen OD – OMV Petrom Best Practice,
Table 10-14 Screen slot size in OMV Petrom,
Table 10-15 Production (Main) Screen STIMPEX duplex type technical details,
Table 10-16 Gravel Absolute Volume,
Table 10-17 Required Gravel Mass per Unit of Tubing Length,
Table 10-18 Permeability classification,
Table 10-19 Washpipe diameter for mechanical packers used in OMV Petrom,
Table 10-20 Summary of particle size affects,
Table 10-21 Comparison HEC slurry pack and Brine water,
Table 10-22 Permeability of Gravel Pack Sands,
Table 10-23 Other chemicals specifications
Table 10-24 Use range- Baker packers
Table 10-25 Use range-Pirom packers
Table 10-26 Use range – Moca packers
Table 10-27 Use range – Hova packers

10. SAND CONTROL
Table 10-28 Use range-Schlumberger packers
Table 10-29 Use range-Weatherford packers
Table 10-30 API Specification for Gravel-Pack Sand
10. SAND CONTROL
References

• Standards, Cases- Various Document of GP application in OMV Petrom
• Proiect GP 103 Meteu, Proiect GP sWell 682 Oprisenesti, GP 3229 MP Moreni, GP 283
SNP MP Tintea
• Sand Control Operation Sequences Procedure and Best practices applied in OMV Petrom
SA
• OHGP (Re-)completion of old and new wells-OpenHole GP applications-Presentation
• AG2 Packer + Gravel Pack Tools –Presentation
• ICGP Blejesti 2150- Internal Audit report
• Gravel and Screens Specifications used in OMV Petrom
• The most frequent problems and statistical analysis of GP application in OMV Petrom-
Presentation
• OTIS manual for GP application
• GP mechanical Packers (MOCA+Pirom and HOVA) and other completion tools
Specifications Details
• Proiect FracPck : Well 2153 Blejesti
• Project Frac-Pack 110 STANCESTI
2. API Recommended Practice (RP 58), 1995. Recommended Practices for Testing Sand Used in
Gravel Packing Operations, 2nd ed. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
3. Andrews, J., Kjorholt, H. and Jøranson, H.: Production Enhancement from Sand Management
Philosophy: A Case Study from Statfjord and Gullfaks. SPE 94511, 2005
4. Addis, M.A., at all: Slotted Completion for Sand Management A Novel Screenless Completion
Technique, SPE/IADC Paper, 97415
5. Bale, A., Owren, K. and Smith M. B.: Propped Fracturing as a Tool for Sand Control and
Reservoir Management. SPE 24992, 1994
6. Bellarby Johnathan - Well Completion Design - Elsevier 2009
7. Britt, L. K., Smith, M. B., Cunningham, L. E., et al.: Frac-Packing High-Permeability Sands in the
Mahogany Field, Offshore Trinidad. SPE 63105, 2000
8. Banman Mark, at all.: Single Trip Multi-Zone Gravel Packing—Case Study at Handil, Bekapai
and Sisi-Nubi Fields, IPTC 12388, 2008
9. Corbett, T. and Vickery, E.: Multiple Zone Open Hole Gravel Packing Techniques with Zonal
Isolation, IADC/SPE 77214, Technology Conference, Jakarta, September 9-11, 2002
10. Constien, V. G. and Skidmore, V.: Standalone Screen Selection Using Performance
Mastercurves. SPE 98363, 2006.
11. Economides, M. J., Watters, L. T. and Dunn-Norman, S., 1998. Petroleum Well Construction.
Wiley, England, p. 128.
12. Ellis, R. C.:. An Overview of Frac Packs: A Technical Revolution (Evolution) Process. SPE 39232.
Frac-Pack Completion Service, Haliburton, 1998
13. Farias, R., Li, J., Vilela, A., et al.: Best Practices and Lessons Learned in Openhole Horizontal
Gravel Packing Offshore Brazil: Overview of the Achievements from 72 Operations. SPE
106925, 2007.
14. Van den Hoek, P.J, Gelikman, M.B, Shel Intl. E&P B.V: Prediciton of Sand Production Rate in
Oil and Gas Reservoirs: Field Validation and Practical use, SPE 95715, 2005
10. SAND CONTROL
15. Jones, C., Tollefsen, M., Metcalfe, P., et al.: Expandable Sand Screens Selection,
Performance, and Reliability: A Review of the First 340 Installations. SPE/IADC 97282, 2005
16. Liu, L., Deng, J., Ma, Y., et al.:Single-Trip, Multiple-Zone Frac Packing Offshore Sand Control:
Overview of 58 Case Histories. SPE 103779, 2006.
17. Kaiser, T.M.V., at all: Inflow Analysis and Optimization of Slotted Liners, SPE 65517, 2000
18. Markestad, P.: Selection of Screen Slot Width to Prevent Plugging and Sand Production, SPE
31087, 1996
19. Mathisen, A. M., Aastveit, G. L. and Altera’s, E: Successful Installation of Stand Alone Sand
Screen in More than 200 Wells – The Importance of Screen Selection Process and Fluid
Qualification. SPE 107539, 2007
20. Marques, L. C. C., Paixa˜o, L. C. A., Barbosa, V. P., et al.: The 200th Horizontal Openhole
Gravel Packing Operation in Campos Basin: A Milestone in the History of Petrobras
Completion Practices in Ultradeep Waters. SPE 106364, 2007
21. Neumann, L. F., Pedroso, C. A., Moreira, L., et al.: Lessons Learned from a Hundred Frac Packs
in the Campos Basin. SPE 73722, 2002
22. Ott Willliam K. and Woods Joe D.: Modern Sandface Completion Practices Handbook - WO
2003
23. Penberthy W.L. Jr. & C.M. Shaughnessy: Sand Control, SPE Series on Special Topics, Volume
1, 1992
24. Pashen, M. A. and McLeod, Jr., H. O.: Analysis of Post-Audits for Gulf of Mexico Gravel-
Packed Oilwell Completions Leads to Continuous Improvement in Completion Practices. SPE
65096, 2000
25. Raffn, A. G., Hundsnes, S., Kvernstuen, S., et al.: ICD Screen Technology Used to Optimize
Waterflooding in Injector Well. SPE 106018, 2007
26. Saucier, R. J.: Considerations in Gravel Pack Design. SPE 4030, 1974
27. Shenoy, S., Gilmore, T., Twynam, A. J., et al.: Guidelines for Shale Inhibition during Openhole
Gravel Packing with Water-Based Fluids. SPE 103156, 2006.
28. Wan Amni Bt Wan Mohamad at all: Temana Field Pilot Implementation A Shift in Sand
Control Philosophy To Improve Well Performance, IPTC 12390, 2008
Contents

11. STIMULATION BY FRACTURING.................................................................................................... 11-3
11.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 11-3
11.2 Fracturing Stimulation Technology Overview .................................................................... 11-3
11.2.1 Selection of Candidate for HDF and Acid Frac in OMV Petrom SA ............................ 11-5
11.2.2 Data Preparation required for hydraulic and acid fracturing design ......................... 11-9
11.2.3 Hydraulic Fracturing (HDF) Key Technology Parameters ......................................... 11-12
11.2.4 Fracturing Fluids and Additives Selection ................................................................ 11-16
11.2.5 Propping Agent Selection ......................................................................................... 11-18
11.2.6 HDF Pre-Job Evaluation Practice in OMV Petrom .................................................... 11-20
11.2.7 Rate Changes During the Job and MiniFrac data interpretations ............................ 11-28
11.3 Fracturing Methods Technology Workflow ...................................................................... 11-30
11.3.1 Propped Fracture Operation Workflow ................................................................... 11-31
11.3.2 HDF Design Process .................................................................................................. 11-32
11.3.3 Model Selection of fracture propagation ................................................................. 11-33
11.3.4 Net Pressure History Matching and Design Correction ........................................... 11-38
11.3.5 Methodology of Acid Fracturing .............................................................................. 11-43
11.3.6 Workflow Design Procedure for Acid Frac ............................................................... 11-47
11.3.7 Planning, Execution and Real Time Control of Well Fracturing ............................... 11-53
11.4 Downhole Completion Well Schematic for Fracturing ..................................................... 11-60
11.5 Surface Equipment for Fracturing..................................................................................... 11-65
11.6 Fluids and Materials Used for Fracturing.......................................................................... 11-68
11.6.1 Fracturing Fluids used in OMV Petrom .................................................................... 11-68
11.6.2 Fracturing Fluid Additives......................................................................................... 11-71
11.6.3 Foams/Energized fluids ............................................................................................ 11-73
11.6.4 Proppants ................................................................................................................. 11-74
11.7 Quality and Safety Requirements for Fracturing .............................................................. 11-76
11.7.1 Quality Assurance and Control of Fracturing Operations ........................................ 11-76
11.7.2 Safety Considerations............................................................................................... 11-80
11.7.3 Personnel.................................................................................................................. 11-80
Appendix 11 - A Surface Equipment for Fracturing (Various service companies). .................... 11-81
Appendix 11 - B Commercial fracturing fluid systems ............................................................... 11-82
Appendix 11 - C Proppant Specifications and characteristics .................................................... 11-83
Appendix 11 - D Fracture Stimulation Checklist ......................................................................... 11-84
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 11-88
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. 11-91
References .................................................................................................................................... 11-92
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 11. STIMULATION BY FRACTURING

1. Linear gel is recommended to be in the wellbore and near-wellbore region for the Rate Step
Down Test (RSDT)
2. Always use properly selected biocide if water based fracturing fluid will be used for
operation.
3. To limit leakoff in high permeability formation during hydraulic fracturing process
crosslinked systems should be used.
Apply the Rate Step Down Test (RSDT) to accurately make the difference in friction pressure
between the perforations and near wellbore friction and to exactly define Fracture Entry
Friction (FEF). The magnitude of the FEF components has served as guidance to design
and/or modify the placement procedure and treatment schedule, in order to reduce
unplanned terminations (screenout) of propped hydraulic fracture treatments.
Each step of the flow rate reductions during RSDT should be about 10-20 seconds long what
4. should be enough for stabilization of the flow rate and pressure. It should be avoided to
pump a small volume ahead followed by long steps, or, pump first small volume and then a
following rates in short steps.
5. Considering downhole stress conditions, reservoir and fluid properties in order to get
properly propped fracture with good conductivity use proppant size 16/30 or 16/20 mesh.
During Rate Step Down Test once fluid has been pumped through the perforations, bring the
6.
rate up to the designed rate. Typically 3-4 abrupt drops in rate are sufficient (2.4, 1.8, 1.2
and 0.6 m3/min or in API units 15, 11.5, 7.5, 3.5 bbl/min.
Use Minifrac analysis to get data for estimation the following parameters:
• Fracture Closure Pressure and time (Pump-in/Shut-in test)
• Fracture Net Pressure (Pump-in/Shut-in test)
7. • Stress profile and fracture geometry using net pressure matching (Pump-in/Shut-in
test)
• Fluid loss characteristics (total leakoff coefficient Ct and fluid efficiency) with respect
to the formation, fracture geometry and fracture parameters (Pump-in/Shut-in test)
• Minimum in situ-stress or ISIP (Pump-in/Flow-back test)
Proppants should be checked for proper type and size, and meet API specifications ( API RP
8.
56 or API RP60). Sieve analyses from each container should be used to establish size and
fines content.
In some cases, usually in the final stage of acid fracturing treatment, acid should be
9. pumped below the fracturing gradient pressure (injection in matrix mode). The injection
rate should be decreased to achieve required/designed pumping pressure. The reason for
following this procedure is to increase the etching of the fracture face near the well bore,
thus, increasing the fracture conductivity.
To make decision which fracturing method should be applied considering advantages and
10. disadvantages of the conventional fracturing with creating propped fracture and acid
fracturing, the best practice workflow shown in Figure 11-39 should be used.

• During execution fracturing job
• Check the proper functioning of the pumps, blenders, monitoring equipment, etc.
11.
• Continuously check the quality of the fracturing fluid and the proppant.
• Take samples of the fracturing fluid and proppants at all stages of the treatment.
• Continuously observe the pressures, rate, density proppant concentration.
In case of a premature termination of the job, immediately inform the rig/installation
12
supervisors to take appropriate action (e.g. circulate out any proppant laden fluid). Make
sure all (local) HSE requirements are met at all times.

To start fracturing job operation if the following excess equipment for backup is not
available:
• 10% excess tank and storage capacity.
1. • 50% backup on power.
• 20-50% backup on pumps, depending on the number of pumps. If only one pump
will be used for job execution, then one additional pump should be prepared as
backup.
• sufficient backup on blenders and instrumentation (up to 100%).
2. To continue operation without adjusting the program/design, if the observed pressures
deviate significantly from the predicted pressures.
3. To change the designed pumping schedule if supervisor of Service Company and OMV
Petrom expert advisor have not been agreed .
4.
To locate of the frac/production ports without using properly recorded well logs.
5. To use fracturing fluid which is not compatible with the formation rock and fluids at in-situ
temperature and pressure.
To continue acid fracturing treatment if injection pressure lowers below the fracture
6. extension pressure.
Note: The fracture treatment pressure can be maintained by either increasing pumping rate
and/or pumping fluid loss control.
11.1 Introduction
Fracturing is the process of injecting a fluid into a well to create tensile stresses in a formation
exposed to the fluid pressure, causing local stresses in the formation to exceed the tensile strength
of the rock. This creates a crack, or fracture, propagating into the formation from the wellbore as
fluid continues to be injected at a high rate.
In some formations, acids may be used as the fracture fluid to etch the face of the crack, whereas in
others, a proppant such as sand may be injected with the fluid so that upon cessation of pumping
and crack propagation, the crack remains a conductivity pathway for fluids to flow from the reservoir
into the wellbore. These two processes are referred to as acid fracturing and proppant fracturing.
Acid fracturing is applicable in both damaged and undamaged carbonate formations. The initiation
and propagation of the fracture should be done by properly selected fracturing fluid and then walls
of the fractures are etched with acid to create a conductive flow channel of formation closure. Acid
fracturing is a treatment in which the fracturing and etching fluids are acid.
When the tensile forces created by the hydraulic pressure of fluid against the rock of the wellbore
become great enough, they literally part the rock and start ruptures the fracture. This fracture is then
extended from the wellbore by continued pumping of the fracturing fluid. Usually, inert proppant
(sand, resin coated sand, intermediate strength proppant, high strength proppant) are proportioned
into the fracturing fluid and forced down the tubing or casing into the opened fracture. When the
treating pressure is released and the pressure of the surrounding rocks (called "fracture closing
pressure") starts to seal the fracture, the proppant holds it open. This permits reservoir fluid to flow
along the high conductivity fracture to the wellbore. The fracture conductivity in particular provides
the important permeability contrast into that of the reservoir. The larger the ratio of the fracture
conductivity (fracture permeability-width product) to that of the virgin reservoir (taking into account
the geometry of the generated fracture), the higher the productivity increase.
11.2 Fracturing Stimulation Technology Overview
Fracturing is successfully applied in low to moderate permeability reservoirs, whereby the

productivity is improved from effectively increasing the wellbore radius. It can be applied in almost
any formation, although commonly in carbonate reservoirs acid fracturing is applied.
The principal reasons for fracturing a well:
• Bypass near-wellbore damage (skin),
• Extend a high conductivity flow path into the reservoir,
• Alter the fluid flow pattern in the reservoir,
• Increase the rate or productivity and/or to improve the ultimate recovery, and
• Aid in secondary recovery operations and to assist in the injection or disposal of waste water.
If a well has a large skin effect, then a relatively small fracture may increase productivity as much as a
few hundred percent. Fracturing is also attractive in very tight sands where the production rates may
be normally too low to permit economic drainage of the formation hydrocarbon. In these cases long,
conductive fractures may help to increase the ultimate recovery of hydrocarbon by extending the
time before the economic limit of a well is reached.
A neat fluid (“pad”) is pumped to initiate a two-wing fracture and establish fracture propagation. This
is followed by a viscous fluid mixed with propping agent (“slurry”), further extending the fracture.
The fluid breaks down to a low viscosity, and flows back out of the well. Propping agent prevents the
fracture from closing after the treatment. A highly conductive flow path is thus created. A propped
fracture can be from tens to several hundred meters long, and it usually has a width of some 5-35
mm. Depending on the formation permeability and the presence of damage, the productivity
improvement may be tenfold or more.
Hydraulic Fracturing alters the flow pattern around the well by creating a pathway (fracture), which
has higher permeability than the formation. Early in the well life, linear or bilinear flow could occur as
gas flows from the formation to the fracture (Figure 11-1). Later in the well’s life, pseudo-radial flow
occurs.
Figure 11-1 Fracturing Alter Flow Patterns
Finite conductivity in the fracture or the reservoir is limited to the extent that pressure drop in the
fracture occurs. Infinite conductivity means that the conductivity is very large, so, extremely small
pressure drop occurs in the fracture.
An effective wellbore radius, rw’, can be estimated from skin factor or fracture half-length such that
stimulated well production behavior can be approximated with radial flow by using rw in place of rw’.
With acid fracturing, no uniform acid etching or differential etching, of the fracture face creates
lasting conductivity. Unfortunately, despite rapid technology development, still there is no reliable
and accurate prediction of an acid fracturing outcome. Acid fracturing lacks the higher degree of
predictability associated with HDF with nonreactive fluids. There are several factors suggest the use
of acid fracturing:
• A predominantly naturally fractured carbonate formation, potentially leading to propped-
fracture complications.
• A heterogeneous formation, with porosity and permeable streaks that are conductive to a
higher degree of differential acid etching of the fracture walls.
• Good formation permeability, but with existing formation damage.
• A well that will not mechanically accept proppant.
Acid fracturing is the more conservative treatment design because proppant is not pumped. The risk
of failing to complete the treatment is also much lower. There is no risk of premature screen-out,
which can leave the fracturing tubing string full of proppant. Also, there is no risk of proppant
flowback, with all its troubles consequences. Acid fracturing is usually less expensive than propped
fracturing especially in deeper wells which are often dismissed from consideration because of
anticipation that closure pressure will overcome acid-etched fracture conductivity. If effective etched
fracture can be created, flow turbulence in the fracture is expected to be less in an open acid fracture
than in a fracture that contains proppant. A disadvantage of acid fracturing is that controlling the
leak-off rate of reactive acid in a fracture is very difficult. Without benefit of field experience in a
particular formation, prediction of etched conductivity and fracture length with a high degree of
confidence is not possible. This is due to unknown leak-off characteristics. Acid fracturing must be
used only where good differential etching is probable. The rock strength and closure pressure must
indicate that good conductivity will remain after fracture closure. Formation mechanical properties
and their response to contact different acid types and systems must always be evaluated as best as
possible in advance of a treatment program.
11.2.1 Selection of Candidate for HDF and Acid Frac in OMV Petrom SA
Well candidate selection for fracturing is a process of identifying wells with low productivity
compared to what they are capable of producing, and then examining these wells for mechanical
problems.
As integral part of the well selection process, the minimum analysis requirement should include
evaluation of the designed performance improvement as it is shown on Figure 11-2.
Post frac production is the best indicator of performance improvement. Post frac analysis provides
data about the fracture size and configuration (length, width and height, and vertical position) which
can be used to match the fracture size to the actual performance improvement.
If the actual performance gap after fracturing job is equal to predicted, then used model and applied
technique of job execution were according to the bottomhole conditions. If the actual performance
gap is less than predicted, then either the data used for the design were wrong or the treatment was
not placed optimally (TSO mode and in the zone of interest). If the actual Performance gap is more
than predicted, the data used for the design were wrong but the treatment was placed optimally.
Results of matching procedure for any case should be used for as lessons learned for the better
designing and execution of the next fracturing job.
The critical step in a process of candidate selection is data preparation and data quality check before
and or planning and execution.
The need for a fracturing treatment must be determined prior to getting too involved. The factors
involved in the decision must include, but should not be limited to, the cost of the treatment vs.
incremental productivity and feasibility.
Figure 11-2 Performance gap evaluation
The most important information and data should be collected during the process of the best
candidate selection are:
• Wellbore inclination survey,
• Wellbore configuration,
• Casing Integrity,
• Completion configuration,
• Perforation configuration,
• Surface equipment,
• Well Logs,
• Cement bond evaluation,
• Production data analysis,
• Near-wellbore damage: Skin,
• Pressure Build-Up (PBU) Well Tests,
• Previous fracturing treatment data, and
• Other operations: Water and/or Gas injection.
The implications of fracturing well candidate selection are critical and if a data are not properly
gathered, analysed and checked, a risk is high and chances to have unsuccessful operations are
increasing.
1. OMV Petrom Best Practice Candidate Selection
• Well candidates are usually selected by Asset and they are send for evaluation.
• Stimulation and Fracturing team is making candidate evaluation in six steps as follows:
 Step 1 - Make PVT matching,
 Step 2 - Identify an approximate saturation status and remaining reserve,
 Step 3 - Identify an approximate damage from history data (skin from steady state
flow equation - using Resestim 7 in house made software or Prosper),
 Step 4 - Predict IP increase after stimulation job based on IP increase after fracturing,
 Step 5 - Make production forecast based on material balance, and

 Step 6 - Estimate operation cost and calculates Cash Flow based on production
forecast.
• If candidate is feasible economically than it is selected.
The general workflow for candidate selection is shown in Figure 11-3. The final step of the process of
manual candidate selection involves gathering and organizing well data in order to estimate potential
of each individual zone and plan operation according to results of this analysis, as shown in
Figure 11-4.
Figure 11-3 Candidate selection workflow

Figure 11-4 Individual Zone/Well Evaluation for fracturing
11.2.2 Data Preparation required for hydraulic and acid fracturing design
Wellbore Configuration
A large number of variables, which are of extreme importance to job design and execution can
generally be supplied or obtained from the well file. Included in this list are:
Tubular configuration - Is the job pumped through tubing or casing? (additional data required about
tubular size, weight and grade, packer depth).
Perforations - In existing completions, the perforations are already in place, and an analysis should
indicate whether these can be used for the planned fracture treatment, or whether remedial actions
are needed (re-perforation, recompletion, cement squeezes, etc.). For newly completed wells,
perforation planning for fracture stimulation treatments, should be taken into consideration already
in the completion design. If more information is known about how the well was perforated, various
analytical model or software like SPAN can be run to determine the actual geometry of the
perforations (See Chapter 6).
Hole Survey - This is used only for proper frictional and hydrostatics calculations in 3D models
(FracCADE).
Cement Bond Log (CBL) - A cased hole bond log can be used to verify zonal isolation. A weak bond
could allow unrestrained height growth behind casing.
Formation Properties
Reservoir and rock parameters are required to arrive at a properly calculated design.
Permeability (K) - Formation K is a measure of the ease with which a formation permits a fluid to flow
through it. While the global term, K, is entered into fracturing design models; it should be noted that
effective permeability to oil and water are always lower.
Permeability can be estimated using various methods (empirically, derived from porosity and
irreducible water saturation- Swi read from logs, using well tests including pressure build-
up/drawdowns, short flow tests and drill stem tests, Repeat Formation Test –RFT etc., core testing
and analytical procedure/software, like PROSPER, can be used to obtain a well test match from a
pressure build-up or drawdown).
Porosity (φ) – Formation (φ) is a measure of the ratio of void space in a rock, compared to bulk
volume of the rock. The most frequent tools used for porosity estimation are:
• Sonic log, density log, or a neutron log can be used provided the formation lithology is
known. The depth of investigation for these logs is very shallow, on the order of inches.
• Core testing can again be used depending on the sampling method.
• Resistivity logs are another tool to be used.
Formation Stress (σ) A hydraulic fracture will orient itself in a plane normal to the direction of least
compressional stress. This stress is the closure stress (σcl) used in fracturing design. Dynamic
measurements can be obtained from shear velocities on a sonic log. This data in conjunction with a
bulk density can be used to calculate in-situ stress. The most frequently used test to estimate closure
stress in OMV Petrom is so called MiniFrac (sometimes called data - or calibration frac, or fracture
efficiency). If formation core sample are available, then static laboratory measurements on core can
be used to get closure stress.
Fracture Gradient (FG) - Obtained by dividing the closure stress by the well True Vertical Depth (TVD).
Also, FG can also be estimated with the in-situ correlation in different software (like ProCad,
FracCADE).
Reservoir Pressure (Pr) - The current pressure of the zone of interest is important in estimating the
well performance, production rate and payout of the well.
Reservoir Temperature (BHST) - Fluid selection and design primarily needs BHST as a design
parameter.
Skin (S) - Skin is the pressure drop across the near wellbore matrix. It will have a positive value for
damaged zones (up to 20), and negative values for stimulated zones (down to - 7). Skin estimated
after fracturing job is direct measure how much the executed operation was successful or not.
Oil, Water and Gas Saturation (So, Sw and Sg) - Determining oil, water and gas saturation is one of the
basic objectives for proper design fracture job.
Gas/Oil Ratio (GOR) - Measured/test production data and history of oil and gas production are the
most reliable sources for GOR.
Lithology – Various logs could be used to define the material makeup of the rock, to indicate
boundaries, correlate zones and give an indication of lithology, particularly, to define shale beds.
Zonal production contribution should be evaluated using PLT measurement.
Fluid Properties
The selection of the actual composition of fracturing fluid, in principle, depends on a number of
aspects, such as reservoir mineralogy, well completion, operational considerations, compatibility
with reservoir fluids and environmental concerns.
Rheology (n’, k’). It is important to consider fluid rheology as a function of time and temperature.
Double check rheology tables and make sure that included information extends to temperatures
greater than the BHST of the well. If the fluid temperature exceeds the last defined point, it can
default to the rheology of the last defined point, which is generally water. The actual n’ and k’
numbers can be obtained from published information (Fracturing Fluids Manual) or from the lab
testing of the individual fluid.
Because there is little information on the rheology of foamed or energized fluids, these should be
calculated from the developed foam rheology spreadsheet as shown in Appendix 11.
Wall Building Leak-off Coefficient (Cw) - Cw is a function of polymer and Fluid Loss Additive (FLA)
concentration, as well as formation permeability. For non-wall building fluids, Cw should be set to a
large number.
Total Leak-off Coefficient (Ct) - This is basically the minimum of Cw and Cvc (filtrate and reservoir
compressibility controlled leak-off). Cvc is automatically calculated by the program. The only control
over this parameter on the fluid screen is the leak-off viscosity and it is a function of temperature.
For fluids with essentially water leaking off (wall building fluids) the viscosity starts at 1 cp, and
decreases with increasing temperature. If the leak-off viscosity is greater than 5 to10 cp, it will begin
to become a leak-off control factor. The other important factors are reservoir fluid factors and
reservoir properties (permeability, porosity, compressibility, and viscosity). For known formations, an
excellent source of Ct is from previous evaluations. When performing a pressure match analysis,
leak-off is generally adjusted with only Ct and spurt. If this information is cataloged in the user
database, a value of Ct from the database can be very accurate. Total leak-off coefficient is very
important for TSO design in high permeable formation requesting sand control.
Spurt - For wall building fluids, the spurt is the leak-off that occurs before the deposition of the filter
cake. Obviously, this occurs at a faster rate than after the filter cake is in place. It can be visualized as
shown in Figure 11-5.
Figure 11-5 Spurt valuation
Fluid Friction -This is also easily obtained from published information. The most reliable results,
however, can be obtained from short field tests (ISIPs in pad). When doing post-job analysis, this
information can be very important. If these ISIPs are done on several jobs, at different rates, they can
be compiled to generate personal friction curves for the exact fluids which are regularly pumped.
When using this method, care must be taken to eliminate “extra pressures” (perforation,
tortuosity…) from the database. If these pressures are quantified during the evaluation process, the
fluid data is still valid.
N2/CO2 Quality - The foam quality (% by volume of gas, excluding proppant) from the fluid design. A
decision needs to be made prior to the job, whether constant downhole or surface rate is going to be
used.
Retained Factor - This is the fraction of the proppant pack permeability that remains after the fluid
damage has occurred. The only place to obtain this is from published breaker curves. This number is
of great importance when calculating the fracture conductivity. If no breaker is used in a polymer
based wall building fluid, which leaves a great deal of residual mass in the fracture, this number can
easily approach 0.15, making the default value of 1.00 very inaccurate. Typical values range from (0.5
to 0.75).
Additives - These will generally be determined from the frac fluid selection. A previous experience in
a field can be an important indicator of needed additives. Clay control, iron control, surfactants, non-
emulsifiers, etc. are indicated by formation type and previous experience in a particular formation.
Other additives such as temperature stabilizers and breakers are determined from the requirements
for fluid rheology against time. Additives should be kept to an absolute minimum (apart from some
essential additives, like buffers, breakers), and their inclusion should be clearly
demonstrated/justified.
Proppant
A propping agent should be selected that can provide sufficient fracture conductivity under the
expected fracture closure stress.
The optimum fracture conductivity and thus the appropriate proppant can be estimated using the
dimensionless fracture conductivity:
CfD = Kfwf/Kxf, where:
• Kf- propped fracture permeability (mD),

• wf – fracture width (mm, inch),
• K – reservoir permeability (mD), and
• xf – fracture half length (m, feet).
The optimum CfD can range from less than 1.6 to 30 depending on the design limitations and
reservoir characteristics. It has been proposed that, when the proppant volume is fixed, the optimum
CfD is 1.6 and for gas condensate reservoirs the optimum CfD could be less than 1.6.
Values for permeability and retained factor are excluding any fluid effects. The database proppants
should generally maintain the retained factor of 1.00, as the permeability is already adjusted based
on the closure stress.
11.2.3 Hydraulic Fracturing (HDF) Key Technology Parameters
Fracture design considerations included fracture length, fracture conductivity, and interval coverage
(staging). An extensive reservoir simulation study are required to determine the optimum fracture
half-length and conductivity and predict the future well behavior and production rate.
Fracturing pressures
In many applications of hydraulic fracturing it is essential to ascertain, if at all possible, the

orientation of the fracture. The first question to be answered regards whether or not the fracture is
vertical or horizontal. Generally, horizontal fractures are preferred, but in deeper formations they
are, as will be evident, most often vertical. One of the important measurements that can help
distinguish between horizontal and vertical fractures is the bottomhole pressure measured during
fracture treatment. The overburden stress is normally 22.3-24.6 kPa/m (0.99-1.08 psi/ft). If the
fracture gradient is less than this, it will be easier to part the earth (formation) than to lift it. In
hydraulic fracturing, enough pressure must be applied to initially break down or fracture the
formation and enough pressure must continue to be imposed to allow the fracture to continue to
grow or propagate. Normally, more pressure is required to initially breakdown a formation than is
required to propagate a fracture. Once a fracture is formed, the fluid in the fracture acts as a wedge,
forcing the fracture to grow. A fracture is more easily created using a low viscosity, penetrating fluid
than with a high viscosity nonpenetrating fluid. A penetrating fluid pressurizes a larger area, and the
total force on the formation is greater than if a nonpenetrating fluid, which acts only on the area
near the wellbore, is used. Pressure behavior during a fracturing treatment is illustrated by
Figure 11-6.
The fluid injection rate is constant, except that at some time injection is stopped to obtain the
instantaneous shut in pressure. The bottomhole pressure is shown versus time from the initial
injection of fluid until the treatment has been completed. The surface pressure is, of course, different
from the bottomhole pressure because of the weight of the fluid and the friction losses in the
wellbore. The critical portions of the pressure history during fracturing shown in Figure 11-6 are:
• Breakdown Pressure
The pressure required to break down the formation and initiate fracture. This pressure is
abnormally high due to the concentration of stresses around the wellbore at the time of
drilling. Sometimes this pressure is used incorrectly to calculate formation fracture gradient.
• Fracture Extension (Propagation) Pressure
The pressure required to continually enlarge the fracture;
• Instantaneous Shut in Pressure(ISIP)
The pressure response at the moment pumping stops, when the extension pressure has an
instantaneous drop, which is a measure of the total friction pressure;
• Fracture Closure Pressure
The pressure recorded at time the fracture closes. The fracture closure pressure is equal to
the minimum effective stress and is the pressure that should be used to calculate the true
formation fracture gradient.
• Net Fracture Pressure
The pressure which is differential between instantaneous pressure and fracture closure
pressure.
The instantaneous shut in pressure measured by stopping the flow will depend on the width of the
fracture at this point and the pore pressure surrounding the fracture. If large quantities of fluid have
been injected and the fracture width at the wellbore is large, then a larger shut in pressure will be
observed. If it is desired to measure the intrinsic tectonic stress, the shut in pressure should be
measured after only a small amount of low viscosity fluid has been injected to create a fracture. At
this stage the fracture width will be narrow and will have little effect. Even if larger quantities of fluid
are injected, the effect of fracture width is normally less than 30 bars. After shut in, stresses in the
earth squeeze the fluid in the fracture until the fracture walls close on the proppant or on the etched
walls of an acid fracture. When the walls close, and support the earth's stresses, the pressure will
decrease rapidly as more fluid leaks off into the formation.
The described pressure behavior is highly idealistic. Seldom all the described pressures will be
observed during a fracture treatment. For example, if the reservoir had been previously fractured,
there may not be any difference between breakdown pressure and fracture propagation pressure. If
the reservoir pressure is very low, the well will go on vacuum when the fracture closes, and a static
reservoir pressure will not be measured at the surface. If Pisip is the instantaneous shut in pressure
measured at the surface, then the bottomhole shut in pressure (Pbisip) is given by:
𝑃𝑏𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑝 = 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑝 + 𝜌𝑓𝑙 ∙ 𝑔 ∙ 𝐻𝑚𝑝 (11-1)
Where:
Hmp is the formation depth (to the middle of the perforated interval). This equation is precise
because when flow is stopped, the friction pressure vanishes.
Fracture Gradient (FG) can be calculated using Pbisip as follows:
𝐹𝐺 = 𝑃𝑏𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑝 ⁄𝐻 (11-2)
𝑚𝑝
Figure 11-6 Idealized bottomhole pressure during fracturing job
Fracture Geometry
Available computer programs for fracture modeling allows the user perform sensitivity studies with a
design limit on either length or volume. Varying the fluid pumped, height growth, leak-off, modulus,
pump rate, spurt loss, and formation toughness yields comparisons and sensitivities of the input
values. If good data is available for some of those parameters, it is not required to sensitize on them.
Sensitizing should only be used for data that is questionable, or is a limiting factor in the design; such
as pump rate. This module can also be used in the post-job evaluation for a quick check of the
fracture geometry. If delta Pnet is known, the geometry can quickly be analyzed.
To use 3-D fracture models, vertical reservoir and rock mechanical properties must be developed.
Assigning properties to layers is the critical step in the process of developing 3-D fracture model data
sets. If these properties are properly measured and estimated, the data set will be both useful and
accurate. The profiles in Figure 11-7 and Figure 11-8 are examples of this process.
Zone information and changes in lithology should be taken from available well log data (Gamma Ray
log). Rock types can be picked from software that roughly describes formation characteristics. This
will assign default values for Poisson’s ratio, Young’s modulus, and Fracture Toughness. Assign pore
pressures to each zone based on reservoir pressure gradient for pay zone. If the well has been
producing the current pore pressure should be used in the pay zone and original pressure to create
the gradient. Use Minimum Insitu-Stress Correlations to calculate stresses.
Figure 11-7 Well lithology, permeability/thickness product and cumulative hydrocarbon in place
Figure 11-8 Well lithology and mechanical properties distribution
11.2.4 Fracturing Fluids and Additives Selection
The purpose of fracturing fluids is basically:

• To transmit the pressure from the surface to the bottom of a well, to initiate a fracture,
• To hydraulically extend (or propagate) the fracture into the formation,
• To transport and distribute the proppant along the fracture, and
• In acid fracturing, to create unevenly etched flow channels.
The fluids selected for a fracturing treatment can have a significant influence on the resulting
propped fracture length and fracture conductivity. Fluids that leak-off rapidly into the formation will
not extend the fracture to the desired length, and may result in a premature screen-out. Moreover, if
a significant amount of residue of the gelled fracturing fluid remains either in the proppant pack,
and/or as a filter cake at the fracture face, the fracture conductivity and production performance of
the fracture may be considerably less than the design value.
When choosing a fluid, it is important to take into consideration the well bottomhole static
temperature and formation properties. Some conditions to consider are: water sensitivity, low
reservoir pressure, extra viscosity required, high proppant pack conductivity, short length (< 90 m
/300 feet), and low conductivity. These should not be the only factors used in making a decision. The
fluid selection chart in Figure 11-9 is a good gauge of where to start. Choose a fluid which will give
large conductivity and the lowest polymer damage. Optimize according to the leak-off coefficient
(Cw, Ct), retained factor, whether or not flowback is in the design, good clean-up, Bottomhole Static
Pressure (BHSP), Bottomhole Pressure (BHP), formation sensitivity, friction data, and formation
permeability (K).
Extensive laboratory rheology (Fann-50) and retained conductivity tests should be performed on a
variety of fluid systems, including both borate and zirconium crosslinked fluids, to identify the
optimum fluid for the treatments. Reservoir brine, freshwater and seawater base fluid systems also
can be considered. Seawater has the advantage of minimizing logistical issues and is less expensive
particularly in offshore hydraulic fracturing operations and this is usual case in OMV Petrom.
Sometimes, depending of the seawater composition the lower viscosity can be obtained in
combination with polymer and, in that case higher polymer concentration is required, particularly for
the wells with higher temperature (> 150 °C). In addition, at such conditions (high temperature) there
is possibility of scales precipitations.
Actual fracturing fluids will always leave some residue in the proppant pack in the form of polymer
residue, unbroken gel particles, fluid-loss material, filter cake etc., thus reducing the conductivity of
the propped fracture. The problem is most pronounced when the volume of residue from the
polymer is high, when polymer concentration is high, when the concentration of proppant in the
closed fracture is low and when the stress on the fracture is high, causing lower porosity. In
laboratory testing of several fluids, the reduction in fracture flow capacity was found to be greatest
for crosslinked HPG fluids and least for emulsion fluids, as shown below in Table 11-1. The damage
percentages are dependent on temperature, and the numbers in Table 11-1 were determined at
around 60°C. Since higher proppant concentrations increase proppant volume, while simultaneously
reducing the fluid volume, fluid residue plugging is mitigated by higher proppant concentrations.
Figure 11-9 Fracturing Fluid Selection Workflow
Table 11-1 Proppant pack damage from fracturing fluids
11.2.5 Propping Agent Selection
Propping Agents are required to “Prop Open” a created fracture and to increase flow capacity.
Choosing a proppant depends on closure pressure (Pc), mesh size, mean diameter (Dpmin),
preferences, cost, availability, compatibility, pack porosity and permeability. Optimizing
Dimensionless Fracture Conductivity (Fcd) is a must.
The increase of oil/gas production after hydraulic fracturing can be achieved only if the fracture is
adequately filled with proppant and has a designed conductivity which is strongly influenced by the
following proppant properties:
• High Strength,
• Size, sphericity and roundness,
• Corrosion Resistant,
• Low Specific Gravity,
The most frequent proppant types used for fracturing operation are:
• Quartz Sand,
• Sintered Bauxite,
• Ceramic Material, and
• Resin Coated Sand, Bauxite or Ceramics.
Fracture permeability is a function of proppant type, proppant concentration, reservoir temperature,

fracture closure stress and the amount of fines, gel residue, etc. that are in the proppant pack. The
key criteria for selecting the proper proppant size is to get high conductive fracture. The best results
in OMV Petrom have been obtained with proppant size 16/30 or 16/20 mesh. The recommended
proppant selection workflow is shown in Figure 11-10.
Figure 11-10 Proppant selection workflow
11.2.6 HDF Pre-Job Evaluation Practice in OMV Petrom
Design for proper fracturing operation evaluation

The key to successful evaluation requires proper treatment planning and execution. The ability to
complete an accurate evaluation depends on the quality and quantity of data. In addition, requiring
rigorous treatment practices on every treatment ensures that the proper data is gathered regardless
of whether or not an evaluation is performed on location. There are the different tools available on
location to aid in the analysis process. These pumping practices, used in conjunction fracturing
software modeling, provide valuable pieces of information regarding the formation. These tools are
Step Rate Test (SRT), Rate Step Down Test (RSDT) and Mini Frac test. Not only can a successful and
correct pressure match be obtained using these tools, but the success of the treatment can also be
maximized with effective “on location” evaluation. In some cases, if it is needed, after perforating
and before fracturing, acid breakdown can be performed to ensure that injection is established and
that the perforations are open. Particularly, acid breakdown of perforation can be effective in
carbonate formation and sometimes is used as proved best practice in OMV Petrom. Standard
practices usually involve establishing an injection rate before any acid are pumped. Also, this could
be a good opportunity to perform a quick Instantaneous Shut-In Pressure (ISIP). After the initial
break, increase the rate to 5+ BPM, and after the pressure has stabilized, shutdown and calculate the
formation fracture gradient and a rough estimate of closure. If at all possible, an ASCII data file with
time, rate and pressure should be generated. Regardless of which company pumped the breakdown,
the operator should always have this information. The breakdown is also an ideal time to perform a
flow back test. After the balls have been wiped or surged, start the step-rate/flow-back test. This
technique will be discussed in the next section.
Step Rate Test
Exact rates are not important when performing a step rate test, constant rates are. This test is usually
done with workover fluid such as 2% KCl, brine or slickwater, however gelled fluid can also be used. It
is desirable to have a uniform weight fluid in the hole, so that hydrostatic pressure is known. In high
permeability areas crosslinked systems may be used to limit leak-off. This test is recommended as
the first for determining Fracture Extension Pressure (FPE). The step rate ensures that anomalous
pressures are not encountered during the closure test. Performing a valid step rate test ensures that
the zone has been fractured, provides an upper bound of closure and defines the required rate for
fracture extension. For purposes of defining closure, the duration of the individual steps should be
equal. The time span does not have to be long. One or half minute is sufficient to change rates and
level of pressure. Depending on the formation permeability the rate at which the fracture propagates
is usually greater than 500 lit/min (3 bpm), but in tight rock the rate is generally much smaller. The
recommended rates are 80, 120, 160, 320, 480, 640, 960, 1280, 1600 lit/min (0.5, 0.75, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8,
10 bpm). The rate should be adjusted depend on injectivity characteristics of formation. Such a wide
range of rates typically ensures that at least three rates fall above and below the fracture extension
pressure as shown in Figure 11-11. The best the time at each step should be the same length. The
last rate should be held for 5 to 10 min to ensure enough fluid to perform an adequate flow back.
The break point of the step-rate test in the curve or change in slope is the Fracture Extension
Pressure (FEP), which is larger than the closure pressure because of fluid friction in the fracture and a
finite resistance to extension. Intersection between straight line, drawn by regression between
points of curve before slope change, and Y axis gives as an approximate value of reservoir pressure
(Pr). Intersection between straight line, drawn by regression between points of curve after slope
change, and Y axis gives as an approximate value of Fracture Closure Pressure (FCP).
Figure 11-11 Step Rate Test
Once an adequate amount of data has been collected, the data can then be interpreted by standard
pressure transient analysis for the permeability and skin factor.
Rate Step Down Test
The rate step down test is highly valuable in determining near wellbore pressure effects such as
tortuosity or perforation friction. Load the hole with a known fluid (i.e., 2% KCl, slikwater, preferable
linear gel with low gelling agent concentration). Linear gel is recommended to be in the wellbore and
near-wellbore region for the RSDT, because, the viscosity is not affected as much by the shearing
rate. There are cases where a fracture cannot be initiated; because of the low efficiency of linear
fluids (linear gels), and only short superficial fractures can be created. In such cases, the fracture
entry geometry is very different, so, crosslinked gel provides the necessary efficiency, thus, using
crosslinked gel is recommended instead of linear gel.
In cases where downhole pressure is not available, it is recommended to overdisplace with linear gel
prior to starting the RSDT. Only after linear gel has passed the perforation near-wellbore area the
RSDT can be started.
Friction numbers are extremely important in the analysis, so it is imperative that it is known what is
in the hole and nearwellbore in order to correctly use models for calculating all friction components
(wellbore, perforation and nearwellbore zone). Also, both, density and viscosity of the fluid used for
RSDT must be uniform, so the hydrostatic pressure and the wellbore friction will be constant and can
be used for proper matching of calculated and measured Total System Friction (TSF).
Once fluid has been pumped through the perforations, bring the rate up to the designed rate.
Typically 3-4 drops in rate are sufficient (2.4, 1.8, 1.2, 0.6, 0 m3/min or in API units 15, 11.5, 7.5, 3.5
bbl/min). It is not required that all flow rate reductions be equal, however, they have to be abrupt. It
is easiest and most convenient to pump with four pumps at about equal rate each, and take out one
pump at a time. Drop the rate until the pressure settles, repeat until the rate is zero (this is
mandatory and record the ISIP which is used in calculating TSF. Also, to record hydraulic transient
harmonic response (water hammer), the last rate must be zero. The procedure is shown in
Figure 11-12.
If downhole pressure gauges are not used, then Bottomhole pressure should be calculated. For
calculation of BHP an accurate determination of friction losses in tubing is necessary. In many
experiments developed worldwide, if a BHP gauge was used, revealed that real friction losses in
tubing are in the range of 30-60% (most frequently around 50%). To be sure that friction losses in
tubing is not overestimated, bottomhole pressure can be compared with BHP corresponding to ISIP
which is not depending by friction. Minimum BHP during pumping (at minimum rate) should be
bigger that BHP at ISIP. Calculated or measured bottomhole pressure minus ISIP for all rates gives the
near wellbore friction and perforations frictions versus injection rate.
Figure 11-12 Rate Step Down Test procedure
Each step of the flow rate reductions should be about 10-20 seconds long what should be enough for
stabilization of the flow rate and pressure. Fracture geometry should change very little during the
RSDT. It should be avoided to pump a small volume ahead followed by long steps, or, pump first
small volume and then a following rates in short steps. Therefore, the volume pumped prior to
initiation of the abrupt flow rate reductions must be fairly large followed by abrupt flow rate
changes. The improper and proper way RSTD design is shown in Figure 11-13.
Figure 11-13 Improper and proper design of RSDT
The RSDT is used to accurately make the difference in friction pressure behavior between the
perforations and near wellbore friction and to exactly define Fracture Entry Friction (FEF). Near-
wellbore friction is a result of near-wellbore fracture tortuosity, existence of multiple fractures in
near-wellbore zone and perforation connectivity with fracture.
The magnitude of the FEF components has served as guidance to design and/or modify the
placement procedure and treatment schedule, in order to reduce unplanned terminations
(screenout) of propped hydraulic fracture treatments.
The perforation friction changes with the square of the flow rate, whereas the near-wellbore friction
changes with the square-root of the flow rate. As shown in this figure, this difference can be
determined when several abrupt flow rate changes are applied to accurately measure near-wellbore
friction. It cannot be predicted, but only can only be quantified field observations.
The general empirical equation to quantify near-wellbore friction is:
∆𝑃𝑓𝑛𝑤𝑏 ≅ 𝐾 × 𝑄𝛽 (11-3)
Where are:
• K – constant, and
• β –exponent between 0.4 and 2 (OMV Petrom best practice: 0.5-0.6)
As it is shown in Figure 11-12, perforation friction is dominant over near-wellbore friction. In the case
that near wellbore friction is larger the entire plot will be above the perforation friction plot. In the
perforation friction dominated regime, it can be seen that the bottomhole pressure changes most for
the higher flow rates. All of these cases are shown in Figure 11-14.
Ref 1
Figure 11-14 Perforation friction dominates (left side) and near-wellbore friction dominates (right side)
• If the rate exponent equals or greater than 2.0 then near wellbore friction is purely a
function of perforation damage and well need to be reperforated.
• If the rate exponent equals or less 0.5 then near wellbore friction is purely a function of
tortuosity (near wellbore fracture restrictions). In this case a proppant slug should be
pumped during minifrac in order to check the formation response to proppant injection.
• If the rate exponent is in between 0.5 and 2 then, both, near wellbore friction and
perforation damage exist.
As it can be seen, the value of the near-wellbore friction coefficient exponent, β, is not always 0.5.
For shallow depth (less than 1200 m) it is slightly larger than 0.5, for hard rock and high stress
conditions it is less than 0.5. For tough rock at great depth, the value of β = 0.5 is used as good
approximation. If the inertial effect is high, what is usually case with complex fracture geometry and
high injection rate then rate β is higher than 1 and it is very difficult to distinguish perforation friction
and near-wellbore loses. In such cases the plots of near-wellbore friction is concave upwards and the
most of pressure loss will be attributed to perforation friction what cause that pressure loss due to
near-wellbore friction will be underestimated and potentially erroneous operation decision can be
made. Results of proper FEF interpretation are used for decision making timely and properly in order
to prevent or reduce unplanned fracture termination (screenout) and therefore to reduce risk that
operation be technically and economically unsuccessful. Additionally, one FEF can be used for
diagnostics of proppant slug response and hydraulic transient response (water hammer). Generally
each field and formation has its own special characteristics; so, it is advisable to establish guidelines
by field, but as well as by geologic formation. The proposed general guidance based on analysis of
over 400 RSDT from all around the world is shown in Table 11-2.
Table 11-2 General guideline based on ranges of FEE component values
Common practice is that step rate test is followed rate step down test, as can be seen for one
selected case in OMV Petrom in Figure 11-15.
Figure 11-15 Step Rate and Step Down test sequences
MiniFrac test
The most important test on the location before the main treatment is known as a Minifrac
(sometimes called Data - or Calibration frac, or Fracture Efficiency) is a series of pump-in tests at or
near main treatment rate followed by a shut-in period or flow-back period, as shown in Figure 11-16.
The best practice in OMV Petrom is to use Pump-In/Shut-in test, as is shown in Figure 11-17. Various
rates and fluids can be used depending on downhole conditions and some technical constraints at
the surface. The tests are performed on a formation to determine hydraulic fracture treatment
design parameters.
Figure 11-16 Typical Micro test Data*
*1)Formation Breakdown; 2) Propagation; 3) Instantaneous Shut-In; 4) Closure Pressure from Fall-Off; 5)

Reopening; 6) Closure Pressure from Flowback; 7) Asymptotic Reservoir Pressure; 8) Closure Pressure from
Rebound
The design goal for the minifrac is to be as representative as possible of the main treatment. To
achieve this objective, sufficient geometry should be created to reflect the fracture geometry of the
main treatment and to obtain an observable closure pressure from the pressure decline curve. The
most representative minifrac would have injection rate to the main treatment and fluid volume
injected as pad volume which is in the most cases equal to the maximum 50 m3. In practice, several
conflicting design criteria must be balanced (created fracture geometry, designed proppant mass,
damage to the formation, a reasonable closure time, and cost of materials and personnel) in order to
optimize fluid volume required for executing minifrac.
The purpose of Minifrac analysis is to get data for estimation the following parameters:
• Fracture Closure Pressure and time (Pump-in/Shut-in test).
• Fracture Net Pressure (Pump-in/Shut-in test).
• Stress profile and fracture geometry using net pressure matching (Pump-in/Shut-in test).
• Fluid loss characteristics (total leak-off coefficient Ct and fluid efficiency) with respect to the
formation, fracture geometry and fracture parameters (Pump-in/Shut-in test).
• Minimum insitu-stress or ISIP (Pump-in/Flow-back test).
Also, by interpretation of the MiniFrac data some additional information about reservoir like
permeability and reservoir pressure can be obtained.
These field calibrated parameters are derived prior to the main fracture treatment, to allow
optimization of its design. Therefore, a minifrac test is always carried out prior to a hydraulic fracture
treatment. Although downhole data is preferred during a minifrac test, accurate surface pressure
recording is adequate. This will reduce costs and avoid the risk of cable parting due to viscous drag
forces by the frac fluid pumped down. The surface pressure data can be entered into evaluation
software packages. A minifrac should be performed by pumping the same fluid to be used for the
main fracture treatment at the designed rate. The injection rate during minifrac test should be
maintained at constant level and for the most performed jobs for off-shore wells injection rate was
not higher that 3000 lit/min, primary because of technical limitation of the pumps injection capacity.
Once the fracture has been initiated, it will propagate with a lower fracturing fluid pressure, since the
stress distortion will rapidly vanish away from the borehole. The downhole propagation pressure
must be higher than the sum of the effective horizontal stress and the reservoir pore pressure. After
pumping is stopped, the wellhead pressure drops rapidly to the ISIP. Pressure losses due to friction
are then eliminated.
Figure 11-17 Typical Micro test Data
The pressure decline is monitored to determine the closure pressure of the perforated interval.
Leak-off coefficient can also be determined by analyzing the pressure falloff data
A MiniFrac can be done to get an approximation of the stresses downhole. If the reservoir is
multizone and if several intervals are perforated then the pressure response will yield the closure
pressures and associated fracture gradients for the all of the zones. Once all of the stresses are
known, the stresses within the zones in the job design are much more reliable, and it is important
that they are not vastly modified at any time during the design or evaluation process.
Flow Back Test
This test, in conjunction with a step-rate test, is the preferred method of determining the closure
pressure. Flow back should start immediately after the step rate test. A typical rig up will employ a
high pressure flow meter to ensure a constant rate. This rate is typically 1/4 to 1/6 the final pumping
rate, and must remain constant. A variable choke and a visual display of the flow allows the
individual flowing the well back to continuously monitor the flow rate to make any changes
necessary. The combination of injection and flow back should be repeated in order to validate the
first test, although the step rate does not have to be done if a clear fracture extension pressure and
closure were determined in the first test. In addition to a choke and a flow meter, another
configuration may be to utilize a fixed choke, pressure gauge and a variable choke. The gauge is
placed between the two chokes and the pressure is kept constant.
Workflow shown in Figure 11-18 gives detailed sequences of HDF data preparation and required test
for planning, designing and execution of HDF operation.
Figure 11-18 HDF data preparation workflow
11.2.7 Rate Changes During the Job and MiniFrac data interpretations
Whenever there are designed rate changes during a frac job (i.e., step-rate-test, step-down-test or
step down at the end of the job, or rate changes during the pumping of the job), they should be
made as quickly as possible. These rate changes should be discussed during the pre-job meeting to
ensure validity of the data, and so the pump operators will understand the necessity and importance
of quick rate changes. Exact rates are not the goal, constant rates are. If a particular rate is desired,
get as close to it as quickly as possible and leave it alone until it is time for the next rate adjustment.
The same holds true during the pumping of the frac job and the step-down at the end of the job. The
rate changes need to be as quick and clean as possible.
MiniFrac data interpretations
Various methods developed for transient well test analysis are used for interpretation of recorded
data during execution of MiniFrac test. The most frequent used are:
• Square Root of Total Time/Time Since Shut-in,
• G-Function Plot,
• Horner Plot, and
• Log-Log Diagnostics.
Square Root of Total Time/Time Since Shut-in
Figure 11-19 illustrates pressure decline during decline versus the square root of pumping time plus
shut-in time. This plot proves to be a more accurate analysis for closure when non-wall building fluids
are used. With field data, closure can be approximated by the intersection of the two straight lines.
Square root of total time is used to magnify slope changes.
Figure 11-19 SQRT MiniFrac data analysis
G-Function Plot
This plot (Figure 11-20) is used to analyze the pressure decline after shut-in and to assist in
determining closure pressure and closure time. Fracture closure is indicated by a deviation from the
straight line. This plot graphs the range of points defined as decline on the job data plot.
Figure 11-20 G-Function Plot for MiniFrac data analysis
Theoretically, the fracture closure period for a pressure independent wall building fluid will appear as
a straight line on the G-function plot. The slope of this line is directly related to the fluid loss
coefficient, closure time is related to fluid efficiency and the net pressure at shut in is related to
Young's Modulus and gross fracture height. Three options are available on this plot to determine the
slope of the straight line portion. Graphic line fit allows the user to place the tangent at any point on
the curve. Forced range allows the user to fit the line between adjustable max and min points on the
curve. The 3/4 rule places a tangent at a point 3/4 of the way between ISIP and the user input
estimate for closure. This is the preferred method as it takes into account non-ideal behavior.
P* is the Nolte Match Pressure, and is proportional to the leakoff coefficient and is determined from
the decline analysis.
𝜋𝐶𝐿 𝑟𝑝 𝑡 0.5
𝑃∗ = 2𝐶𝑓
(11-4)
Where:
• CL – fluid-leak-off coefficient,
• rp – ratio of permeable (or fluid loss) are to fracture area,
• t – injection (pumping) time, and
• cf – fracture compliance (constant of proportionality expressing depends of fracture net
pressure and fracture width – Wf=cfPnet).
Fluid efficiency can also be generated from the G-Function plot, as it is a function of closure time
derived from P* and the net shut-in pressure
Horner Plot
The pressure during decline versus the log of the Horner time, which is defined as [the pumping time
(tp) plus the time since shut-in (Dt shut-in)] divided by the time since shut-in (Dt shut-in), is shown in
Figure 11-21 illustrates Horner plot. This plot is used to identify radial flow which occurs after
fracture closure, and to provide a lower bound of closure. This point is located at the point at which
the curve deviates from a straight line. If radial flow is observed, the data will not deviate from a
straight line, and this line can be extrapolated to obtain an estimate of the reservoir pore pressure.
Figure 11-21 Horner plot for MiniFrac data analysis
Log-Log Diagnostics
This plot considers the difference from the shut-in pressure and the pressure derivative, plotted
against the time since shut-in (Δtshut-in). This plot can be used to identify closure pressure by
investigating linear flow through the fracture after shut-in.
When using field data, closure can be obtained from the intersection of two straight lines, with a
straight line on both the shut-in pressure and the pressure derivative, as shown in Figure 11-22.
Figure 11-22 MiniFrac Log-Log Diagnostic plot
11.3 Fracturing Methods Technology Workflow
After the selection of suitable candidates for a fracturing treatment and preparation of the data
required for designing HDF, a number of steps have to be considered by the designer, when planning
the "ideal“ fracturing treatment. Generally speaking, the design of fracture treatments has three
basic requirements. One is to determine what oil or gas rates and recoveries might be expected from
various fracture lengths and fracture conductivities for a given reservoir. The second is to determine
the fracture treatment design requirements to achieve the desired fracture geometrical parameters
(lengths, width and height) and conductivities. The third is to maximize economic returns.
11.3.1 Propped Fracture Operation Workflow
1. Propped fracturing design elaboration.

• Proppant and fluid is selected based on reservoir stress and rock proprieties.
• Lab testing;
 Proppant crush test,
 Resin coated proppant hardening test,
 Mechanical rock proprieties testing on core, and
 Fluid test;
 Crosslink test at average temperature in tubulars (for crosslinked fluid),
 Rheology test,
 Breaking test,
 Caring capacity test,
 Rehealing after sharing test,
 Compatibility test with reservoir fluid, and
 Retained permeability test on core.
• Propped fracture design tool.
Based on computer simulation the best pumping schedule is chosen.
2. Economic evaluation.
Based on more accurate cost estimation and production forecast cash flow is calculated.
3. Program elaboration.
Program has the following main chapters:
• Well and reservoir data.

• Well preparation recommendation (workover plan, tubing movement and stress analysis /
see Chapter 5).
• Pumping schedule, job hydraulic parameters, simulated fracture parameters.
• Surface facility placement and technical setup (P and ID).
• Production forecast and recommendation for production regime.
• Cash flow.
4. Job execution and QA/QC.
• Tank and chemicals inspection.
• Fluid retesting on well location.
• Execution of SRT/RSDT - Near Wellbore Friction interpretation in order to define an optimum
operating parameters in order to avoid screenout during execution SDT.
• Main frac execution;
 Real time net pressure matching,
 Fluid sample inspection and breaking test, and
 Material balance checking for on fly pumped chemicals (difference must be less than
10%).
5. Report elaboration.
6. Production monitoring and history matching for different fracture geometry (it needs
6 months of production).
7. Cash flow monitoring function of production data.
The general workflow developed using OMV Petrom best practices examples are shown in
Figure 11-23.
Figure 11-23 General Workflow for Well Fracturing Design Process
11.3.2 HDF Design Process
The general workflow of HDF design process (Figure 11-28) shows that data preparation, design
model selection, production increase estimation and economic evaluation are four steps that should
be applied to achieve the final objective of design process. These steps are:
Data preparation (Step Rate Test, Rate Step Down Test and Mini Frac)
Model Selection (fracture propagation model, proppant selection and transport model, heat transfer
simulation, wellbore hydraulic and perforation model, fracturing fluid and additives selection, post
fracture well performance evaluation),
Fracture Parameter Optimization, Sensitivity analysis and Economic and Risk Evaluation
As the fracturing is one of the most costly workover/stimulation operations one of the key objectives
is to design a fracturing treatment with optimized values producing the most cost effective job. By
inputting the design constants half-length and geometry model, and varying formation permeability,
maximum proppant concentration, fluid type, proppant type, fracture height, fracture length,
leak-off coefficient, retained proppant permeability and maximum pump rate, optimize the design
vs. cost. If any variables are constrained, especially the costly variables they will strongly impact NPV
and cash flow analysis should be done to choose the most effective fracture parameters.
11.3.3 Model Selection of fracture propagation
A model must be chosen that fits the formation properties and at the same time, the formation
stresses have to be known to choose a model. The fracture propagates perpendicular to the axis of
least stress. An experienced designer can estimate the geometry model from logs and field history.
The model that gives the smallest width is the proper choice. This will be the model generating the
least amount of net pressure.
Horizontal - the overburden stress is less than in-situ stresses causing horizontal growth, confined to
a single zone. The fracture initiation is from the wellbore diameter. This is the primary model when
the depth is approximately less than 600m (2000 feet).
In order to determine the most likely fracture geometry, ideally, detailed information (in-situ stress
and mechanical properties measurements at top and bottom for relevant zones) is required. This can
be obtained from, minifrac tests or from logs. Also, (extended) casing leak-off tests may provide
information on in-situ stress levels. The calculation of a detailed treatment design can be done with
choosing appropriate fracture model and software.
Two dimensional models are closed form analytical approximations assuming constant and known
fracture height. For petroleum engineering applications, two mutually exclusive models have been
used. For a fracture half length much larger than the fracture height (xf > > hf), the Perkins and Kern
(1961) and Nordgren (1972) or PKN model is an appropriate approximation. The net pressure varies
along the height resulting in elliptical width development. It is a fixed height 2-D model where the
properties of all zones are averaged together. The fracture half-length is much greater than the
fracture height. This model is typical for thin zones
For xf < < hf the appropriate model has been presented by Khristianovic (h) and Zheltov (1955) and
Geertsma and de Klerk (1969). This is well known as the KGD model. The fracture height remains
constant, net pressure decreases and the properties of all zones considered are averaged together.
The fracture half-length is much less than the height. This model is used for very thick zones.
A limiting case, where hf = 2xf, is the radial or "penny shape" model. The fracture height, hf, used
here is the dynamic value, that is, the fracture height at the time that the fracture length is equal to
xf .
Two general groups of models are available: two dimensional (2D) and three dimensional (3D)
models.
The most frequently used 3D models are:

• Full 3D models (all aspects of fracture initiation and propagation are included)
• Planar 3D models (Fracture grows perpendicular to horizontal stress)
• Pseudo 3D models
 Lumped models
 Cell-based models
Full 3D model
The fracture is discretized, and within each block calculations are done based on the fundamental
laws and criteria for propagation. The fracture is allowed to propagate laterally and vertically, and
change plane of original direction, depending on the local stress distribution and rock properties.
Such fully 3D models require significant amounts of data to justify their use and they are extremely
calculation intensive. Full 3D modeling is the best option for modeling fracture propagation in
horizontally and highly deviated wells because the fracture initiation, usually aligned with the well
trajectory, is likely to be different from the direction of fracture propagation, which must be normal
to the minimum, "far field" stress.
The key features of the Full 3D fracturing are:

• 3D elastic equations solved using finite element methods (Figure 11-24),
• 2D fluid flow coupled with linear elastic equations and solved with finite difference models,
• Fracture shape evolves with both time and space,
• Need detailed description of layers to take full advantage of these models, and
• Need powerful computer to solve real problems efficiently.
Figure 11-24 Full 3D model grid
Planar three dimensional (PL3D)
Commonly used PL3D models available on market are: GOHFER (Grid Oriented Hydraulic Fracture
Extension Replicator), a planar 3D finite difference model of Marathon Oil, marketed by STIM-LAB,
Inc..), TerrFrac (Arco) and HYFRAC3D.
Pseudo 3D model
The p-3D models allow vertical fracture migration along the fracture path, and this migration
depends on the stress contrast between the target and adjoining intervals, as it is shown in
Figure 11-25.
Figure 11-25 Lumped p-3D model
Basically, there are two common used pseudo 3D models, lumped and cell based.
Lumped p-3D frac model
The model was proposed and developed by Keck et al. Model used 3D integral equations for crack
opening and fluid flow. The fracture horizontal length and wellbore vertical tip extensions are
calculated at each time step. Vertical profile assumed to be two half-ellipses joined and all variables
are lumped into coefficients that are spatially averaged along ellipses which are shaped to match
these points. 2D models are used to for fluid flow modeling and proppant transport (convection and
settling). Lumped p-3D model has capabilities to allow incorporation of more complex fracturing
mechanisms (dilatancy, multiple fractures, permeability barriers etc.) as it is illustrated in
Figure 11-26 to match observed net pressures in the field and fracture geometry parameterization.
Figure 11-26 Fracture propagation simulated p-3D lumped model
Various commercial hydraulic fracture design programs are available, some of which are:
• FRACPRO, a p-3D fracture model, now marketed by Pinnacle Technologies under name
FracproPT.
• MFrac, a p-3D hydraulic fracturing simulator, of Meyer and Associates.
• FIELDPRO (RES)
Lumped 3D model has been using intensively in OMV Petrom for designing fracturing jobs.
Cell-Based p-3D models
Cell-Based p-3D models are based on 2D-models, but fracture height adjustment along fracture is
based on local fracture pressure. Fluid flow and proppant transport including settling and convection
are modeled by 2D mathematical models. As in the case of lumped models net pressure matching
allowed corrections of design model during job execution.
Commonly industrial used computer programs are:

• STIMPLAN, of NSI Inc, a state of the art 3D hydraulic fracture simulator, now being used in
Shell to design fracturing job under name ENERFRAC.
• Schlumberger uses a proprietary program, called FracCADE (case shown in Figure 11-27)
Figure 11-27 Fracture modeling by FracCADE Cell Based p-3D model
Figure 11-28 The general workflow of HDF design model selection
11.3.4 Net Pressure History Matching and Design Correction
In order to use any fracture model for history matching the net pressure to estimate fracture
geometry, an accurate pay zone closure pressure is needed.
The difference between the ISIP and the closure pressure is net pressure (Figure 11-29). Net pressure
over 70 bars (1000 psi) for a minifrac is rare. If the net pressure is considerably higher than 70 bars,
the closure pressure selected may actually be the reservoir pressure. Another possibility is that the
ISIP is high due to near wellbore problems. When near wellbore problems are encountered the ISIP
may increase representing the near wellbore problem and not the true BHTP inside the main body of
the fracture. From that reason is important to take account the effect of near wellbore friction and to
quantify Fracture Entry Friction (FEF). If quantification of FEF components can be done and if it is
considered in conjunction with fracture tip effects (dilatancy), history matching of net- pressure is
possible. Based on the results of fracturing jobs performed in OMV Petrom, the common value of the
net pressure is around 50 bars.
Figure 11-29 Shut-in Pressure Decline and Observed Net Pressure (ONP)
Net pressure can be expressed in the following form:
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃𝑏ℎ − 𝐹𝐸𝐹 = 𝑃𝑠𝑡 + 𝑃ℎ − �𝐹𝑚𝑤 + 𝐹𝑚𝑝 + 𝐹𝑚𝑛𝑤 � − 𝑃𝑐𝑙 (11-5)
Where:
• Pbh - Bottom hole pressure (bar),
• FEF - Fracture Entry Friction (bar),
• Pst -Surface Treating Pressure (bar),
• Ph - Hydrostatic Pressure (bar),
• Fmw = Measured Wellbore Friction (includes local loses) (bar),
• Fmp = Measured Perforation Friction (bar),
• Fmnw = Near-wellbore Friction (bar), and
• Pcl = Closure Pressure (bar).
Recorded pressure data during minifrac test and RSDT are used to estimate Observed Net Pressure
(ONP). In order to obtain a net pressure history match, a 3D fracture propagation simulator is
required. Real-time monitoring, recording, and analysis features are a distinct advantage, as the
“true” ONP can be calculated while the fracturing treatment is in progress. It enables the engineer
on-site to monitor and determine if the treatment is being placed as per design (safely and
effectively), and, to be able to re-design the treatment in real-time if required and adjust the
operating parameters. Older 2D fracture propagation simulators have some limitations:
• Underestimate the ONP, thus, a Net-pressure history match is not possible.
• Lack real-time monitoring and analysis capabilities, thus, real-time decision making is not
possible.
Net pressure during job execution should not have abrupt changes and if it is happened it might be
indication that wellbore and a nearwellbore friction are not properly determined and has to be
corrected, as shows Figure 11-30. If the ONP is calculated with surface pressure data, it is very likely
that most of the error is introduced at the wellbore friction component. If actual BH Pressure is used
to calculate the ONP, then most all the friction “seen” by the gauge is near wellbore friction.
Figure 11-30 Net-pressure plots showing how to correct for friction in real-time
There are two typical situations:

1. If the ONP goes up, not enough friction is being subtracted.
2. If the ONP goes down, excess friction is subtracted.
To achieve good matching of modeled and measured pressure net-pressures, the friction
components should be calculated accurately and adjust using recorded data during job execution.
Workflow, shown in Figure 11-31 shows the OMV Petrom best practice methodology for net pressure
history matching.
Input model parameters should be changed to obtain a match between observed and modeled net
pressure. Once this is obtained and a good estimate of fracture geometry is obtained, the treatment
may be redesigned for frac treatment optimization and selection optimum geometry of fracture and
its uniform propagation. Example in Figure 11-32 shows results of the first multi-stage fracturing job
completed in OMV Petrom. It has obtained good matching of designed (modeled) data and recorded
data.
Nolte-Smith has published the procedure on how to interpret net pressure during injection. Net
pressure can be used to estimate fracture geometry during design, on site analysis and for post-frac
diagnosis. A graph of log (pn) vs. log (∆t) will produce shapes that can be interpreted. The slopes are
characteristic of various types of fracture geometries and modes of propagation. Therefore, the log-
log plot, its associated slopes and the pressure derivative provide a diagnostic tool for interpreting
the fracturing process. The analyses presume that the pressure measurement represents the actual
fracturing behavior, corrected for near-wellbore effects.
Figure 11-31 Methodology for matching observed and model net pressure
Figure 11-32 Matching of observing and modeled fracture net pressure (OMV Petrom well)
In Figure 11-33 schematically is shown Nolte-Smith diagnostic plot with characteristic shapes of the
curves representing fracture propagation type.
If the fracture is confined by barriers, the net pressure increases as predicted by the PKN model, with
the range from about 1/8 for low efficiency to about 1⁄4 for high efficiency (Model I). As the fracture
pressure increases, it can reach the pressure capacity of the formation. This leads to a regulator
effect, resulting in nearly constant pressure with zero slopes (Model II) because of accelerated fluid
loss primarily near the wellbore. A nearly constant pressure measurement that is equal to the
overburden stress indicates a T-shaped fracture. Controlled fracture height growth into a barrier is
characterized by a gradually decreasing log-log net pressure slope and a constant pressure derivative.
Net pressures steadily decrease if uncontrolled fracture height growth beyond a pinch point occurs.
Fissure-dominated fluid-loss behavior regulates the pressure to a constant value when the fissures
are mechanically opened. If the fissure permeability increases before the mechanical opening occurs,
this response will be preceded by a gradually decreasing log-log slope which is being negative
(Model IV). A significant pressure increase (Model III - two active wings and slope 1 and Model III-a –
one active wing and slope 2) indicates restricted extension with or a screenout near the fracture tip,
whereas a significantly higher slope (1 to 2) should be expected for a restriction nearer the wellbore
than the fracture tip. The log-log plot with its characteristic slopes provides a diagnostic tool
analogous to the log-log plot for identifying flow regimes within a reservoir.
Figure 11-33 Nolte-Smith net pressure interpretation
Uniform fracture propagation and geometry simulated by using 3D fracturing model is shown in
Figure 11-34 and Figure 11-35 (simulated fracture geometry and conductivity is correlated with stress
distribution based on well log interpretation).
Figure 11-34 Simulated Fracture propagation
Figure 11-35 Fracture geometry correlated with log.
Optimization include an NPV and rate return evaluation for various and the most sensitive fracture
geometry parameters (length and width), as shown in Figure 11-36.
PROCESS TECHNO-ECONOMICAL OPTIMISATION OF HIDRAULIC

FRACTURING DESIGN
Nodal Analysis
Forecast Production
Cumulative oil&gas
decrease in function of
production Present value of
time
income
Reservoir
Characteristics
Net income from
cumulative oil and gas
Net present value
production decreased
for interest rate
Calculated Fracture
Fluid Selection
geometry
Xf
Wf
Total fracturing fluid
volume
Fracture geometry (3D Optimization Cost of standard
or 2D model PKD or of process performing hydraulic fracture
KGD) operation operation
Propant Weight
Limitations
Propant selection
NPV
Cost of service
provider
Xf
Figure 11-36 Fracture optimization workflow
11.3.5 Methodology of Acid Fracturing
Acid fracturing, to be applied in inhomogeneous carbonates (over 60% , involves the use of a non-
reactive- "conventional"- low or high viscosity preflush to initiate and propagate a fracture, followed
by the injection of low-viscous acid, usually HCl. As the acid flows along the fracture, portions of the
fracture face are dissolved. Since flowing acid tends to etch the fracture walls in a nonuniform
manner, conductive channels are created which usually remain open when the fracture closes. The
basic principles and objectives of acid fracturing are the same as for propped hydraulic fracturing
treatments in sandstones. In both cases the goal is to produce a conductive fracture with sufficient
length, to allow more effective drainage of the reservoir. The major difference is how fracture
conductivity is achieved. In propped fracturing treatments, sand or other propping agent is placed in
the fracture to prevent closure when pressure is released. Acid fracturing in carbonates relies on
nonuniform etching of fracture faces to provide the required conductivities (Figure 11-37).
Figure 11-37 Mechanism of Acid Fracturing
For homogeneous carbonates, a highly viscous gel preflush is required. This will cause the low viscous
acid to displace the high viscous preflush in a finger-type pattern, as it shown in Figure 11-38, thus
creating high-conductivity flow channels. To prevent these fingers from merging, special perforation
schemes should be applied, e.g. 0.6 m (2 ft) of high-density perforations (4 spf or more) every 1.5 m
(5 ft), and a viscosity ratio between the preflush and acid of around 300 should be maintained. This
process was patented by Shell in the late seventies as the WISPER process (Widely Spaced Etched
Ridges)
Figure 11-38 Schematic of Wide Spread Etched Ridges (WISPER) technology of acid fracturing
Propped acid fracturing
In very soft carbonates, the walls of the etched channel may be too weak to withstand the closing
pressure of the fracture under producing conditions. The channel may lose its conductivity, which
will render the stimulation totally ineffective. To prevent this, proppant may be used to keep the
channels open. Such a treatment then comprises an acid fracturing treatment, followed by a
proppant stage. The advantage of this approach over conventional propped fracturing is that
relatively high fracture conductivity can be obtained with relatively low proppant concentrations.
However, practical results (offshore Denmark and Norway) show a rapid decline of production after
the initial increase in production. With the introduction of more sophisticated fluids and equipment
for conventional fracturing, allowing more aggressive designs with higher sand concentrations, the
application of propped acid fracturing has virtually been abandoned, being replaced by
"conventional" propped hydraulic fracturing in such soft carbonates.
Closed fracture acidizing (CFA)
The injection of a low viscosity acid at a pressure just below the fracture closure pressure of a
previously, or naturally fractured (soft) carbonate formation, is a possible solution for the above
described problem of fracture closure. Although the fracture is closed, it still forms a preferential
flow path for the acid. This causes a wormhole type penetration of the acid along the original
fracture plane, when acid is injected in the closed fracture. Since only a small portion of the overall
fracture face will be dissolved into relatively deep channels or grooves, the remaining unetched
fracture face can hold these channels open under very severe formation closure conditions, without
completely collapsing the etched channels. This is especially beneficial in chalk formations.
Selection candidate for acid fracturing
There are no set guidelines for choosing between acid fracturing and propped fracturing. Historically,
the choice often has been based on individual or collective logic. This results from experience with
previous treatment response in the same field or under conditions that might be considered similar.
Production response is the best criterion for deciding between the two stimulation methods. Relative
cost-effectiveness (value) is also a factor, as it should be. Unfortunately, despite great strides, our
industry is not yet able to accurately model or predict the outcome of an acid fracturing treatment.
Acid fracturing lacks the higher degree of predictability associated with hydraulic fracturing with
nonreactive fluids. However, knowledge of formation conditions can provide guidance for choosing
the type and size of the stimulation treatment.
Several factors suggest the use of propped fracturing:

 Low HCl solubility (<65%-75%).
 A homogeneous carbonate formation (e.g., pure limestones).
 Low acid reactivity (e.g., low-temperature [<150°F] dolomites).
 Very low formation permeability, thus requiring a long fracture.
 Significant softening or creeping of rock under closure after contact with acid, resulting in
poor retention of acid-etched fractures.
The following factors suggest the use of acid fracturing:

 A predominantly naturally fractured carbonate formation, potentially leading to propped-
fracture complications.
 A heterogeneous formation, with porosity and permeability streaks that are conducive to a
higher degree of differential acid etching of the fracture walls.
 Good formation permeability, but with existing formation damage.
 A well that will not mechanically accept proppant.
In general, acid fracturing is the more conservative treatment design because proppant is not
pumped. The risk of failing to complete the treatment is also much lower. There is no risk of
premature screen-out, which can leave the fracturing tubing string full of proppant. Moreover, there
is no risk of proppant flowback, with its troubling consequences.
Another advantage of acid fracturing is that an acid frac can create conductivity to—but not within—
an undesirable sandstone or shale interval. Furthermore, if effective etched conductivity can be
imparted, flow turbulence in the fracture is expected to be less in an open acid fracture than in a
fracture that contains proppant.
Acid fracturing has to be used only where good differential etching is probable. The rock strength and
closure pressure must indicate that good conductivity will remain after fracture closure. Formation
mechanical properties and their response to contact by different acid types and systems must
always be evaluated as best as possible in advance of a treatment program.
A disadvantage of acid fracturing is that controlling the leak-off rate of reactive acid in a fracture is
very difficult. Without the benefit of field experience in a particular formation, prediction of etched
conductivity and fracture length with a high degree of confidence is not possible. This is due to
unknown leak-off characteristics.
Decision which fracturing method should be applied considering advantages and disadvantages of
the conventional fracturing with creating propped fracture and acid fracturing, as well as results of
application in OMV Petrom, the best practice workflow shown in Figure 11-39 is developed.
INPUT DATA
K- Permeability (mD);
E – Young Module of Elasticity (Psi);
Carbonate Content (%);
Solubility (%);
Bottomhole temperature (°C);
No
Solubility in
Acid >75%
Yes
No
K < 10 mD
Yes
No
E >3x106 Propped Frac
Yes
Rock Exposed Yes

to Acid
Release Fines
No
Yes
BHT > 120°C
No Use Highly Retarded Acid

‘’GelFis TM‘’
Standard Acid Frac is

Aplicable
Previous Yes
Propped Frac
was
Successful
No
Acid Frac
Figure 11-39 Acid Frac vs. HDF
11.3.6 Workflow Design Procedure for Acid Frac
There are two general methods of acid fracturing:

• Viscous fingering (pad acid)
• Viscous acid fracturing (used in OMV Petrom)
Viscous fingering
Viscous fingering is a method in which the formation is first hydraulically fractured with nonreactive,
high-viscosity gel, normally cross-linked gelled water. This is used to create the desired fracture
geometry (i.e., length, height, and width) and to cool the formation to slow subsequent reaction of
the acid injected. Next, lower-viscosity acid (HCl or an HCl-organic acid blend) is pumped into the
created fracture.
The acid presumably ringers through the higher viscosity pad because of the viscosity contrast and
consequent mobility difference. This phenomenon is called viscous fingering. It has been posited that
if the viscosity difference is at least about 50 cp, sufficient viscous fingering occurs.
Acid may be viscous or non-viscous. Most often, it is a good idea to thicken the acid to some extent,
especially if HCl is used. Common viscous acid systems are acid-oil emulsion, foamed acid, and gelled
acid (polymer gelled and surfactant gelled). However, viscosity contrast between the acid and the
pad must be significant.
The basic treatment design sequences and typical injection rate using viscous fingering is given in
Table 11-3.
Table 11-3 Basic treatment design using viscous fingering
The acid most commonly used is 15 -20% HCl. Higher concentrations, above 20% or 28% HCl, can also
be used. Higher HCl concentrations have the advantage of being more viscous than 15% HCl, both
initially and after spending. This can help reduce leak-off. HCl-organic acid blends and totally organic
acid blends can be used in place of HCl Organic acids are useful in higher-temperature applications.
Viscous acid fracturing
Viscous acid fracturing uses viscous acid systems such as gelled, emulsified, and foamed acid or
chemically retarded acids and this is the most applicable acid fracture method in OMV Petrom. These
systems are used both to create the fractures and to differentially etch the fracture faces.
Treatments with viscous acid are applicable in heterogeneous carbonates, such as dolomites and
impure limestones.
The basic viscous acid fracturing treatment design includes the following:
• Preflush,
• Viscous acid stage, and
• Overflush.
Preflush
The preflush is used to initiate a fracture and lower the temperature around the fracture. The
preflush is typically slightly gelled (slick) water.
Viscous acid stage
The purpose of the acid stage is to simultaneously propagate the fracture and differentially etch its
walls. The acid stage is typically gelled, emulsified, or foamed acid. Combinations of the three are
possible.
As in all carbonate acid treatments, 15% HCl is most common. Higher-strength HCl, organic acids, and
HCl-organic acid blends are also used. Most acid fracturing treatments are conducted with gelled
acid. Xanthan gum is an excellent gelling agent for up to 15% HCl. The only problem with Xanthan
gum is that, at those concentrations, it does not degrade appreciably at temperatures below 93 oC
(200°F). However, it degrades very rapidly-too rapidly-when HCl concentration is greater than 15%.
Most gelled acids use a polyacrylamide gelling agent. Polyacrylamides can be used at low and high
temperatures. They can also be cross-linked to attain higher viscosity and gel stability. The polymer
cross-link can be established initially for maximum-viscosity acid injection, or the cross-link can be
delayed (temperature induced) to enable low-viscosity, high-rate injection, with viscosity generation
at the formation face or in the formation. Also, there are polymer gelling agent systems that trigger
viscosity in the formation as acid thins or as acid spends (increasing pH). These systems then thin
again as acid spends further, to higher pH, enhancing flowback which is following treatment.
Depending on the commercial system, viscosity development is triggered at a pH in the range
of 2-4.5. These systems are better suited to viscous fingering, as is surfactant-gelled acid, which is
primarily applicable in matrix acid applications. Viscosity (or sustained viscosity) of these systems
may not be sufficient for most applications using viscous acid fracturing.
Overflush
The purpose of the overflush is to displace acid from the wellbore and push the acid volume forward,
thereby increasing the penetration distance. When viscous acid is used, a large overflush can
effectively increase the etched fracture length. The overflush is a critical step in the treatment
design. A high rate is beneficial.
It is possible to pump plain acid in such a treatment. When plain acid is used, acid reaction is very
fast. The acid will dissolve large amounts of rock near the wellbore but will create a short penetration
distance. If a treatment is designed simply to bypass fairly shallow formation damage, plain acid may
be sufficient. If plain acid is used, a large overflush is not needed, because it cannot increase
penetration distance. If the intent of the treatment is to stimulate the formation, viscous acid must
be used.
More complex methods of viscous acid fracturing include alternating stages and alternating acids.
With the alternating-stage technique, acid and gelled water are alternately pumped.
The alternating gelled-water stages serve three purposes:

• Gelled-water stages create greater fracture width, because of higher viscosity.
• Gelled-water stages cool the fracture, thereby increasing depth of acid penetration. (Acid
reaction is exothermic; therefore, localized temperatures in the fracture can become high.)
• Alternating pumping increases penetration distance if the acid is retarded, because the
gelled water reduces acid leak-off from the fracture to the matrix.
With the Alternating-Acid Technique (AAT), two acids with opposite characteristics can be pumped
alternately. One acid mixture typically contains reaction-retarding additives. The other acid mixture is
nonretarded and will react faster, especially near the wellbore. The key purpose is to enhance
differential etching and to increase dissolution of rock near the wellbore.
The basic method of viscous acid fracturing is sufficient for most applications. Alternating-stage and
alternating-acid techniques could be potentially solution in some cases if basic acid fracturing were
unsuccessful and when there are enough information about the previous jobs.
For the stimulation of a new well or a well in a field with no previous acidizing history, though, it is
best to keep the treatment design as simple as possible.
Acid fracturing best practice design workflow in OMV Petrom is based on the following the three
requests:
Proper reactivity control
Use various synthetic polymer gels, surfactant gels and foams, emulsified acid and self diverting
agent to retard chemical reaction and control mass transfer). If straight acid is used then due to
high reaction rate the acid could be spent in relatively short distance from the wellbore
(not more than 10 m) and as results irregular caverns will be created without bypassing damage
and creating high conductivity fracture.
Fluid loss control
To increase fracturing fluid efficiency the acid (HCl) should be viscosified by using linear or
crosslinked gels. Usually the viscosity of acid with linear gel is around 20 cP and this could be
increased to 300 cP with using crosslinked gel. To plug created wormholes (see the
Chapter 9 – Acidizing) dispersed solids can be used . Using various diverting agents (SDA or VDA) can
increase fluid efficiency and losses.
Controlling acid fluid loss and rapid reaction rate, with attention to the other governing parameters
provides the best opportunity to create a long, conductive fracture.
Reason for acid leak-off:

• Natural fissures and fractures.
• Wormholes growth (Viscosifying the acid decreases the leak-off rate and this, in turn,
decreases wormhole length).
• Fluid leakoff into porosity.
100 mesh resin, 100 mesh sand or fine salt are used to first bridge the inlet of the fissures and can
serve as a base for a wall building fluid loss additive to building upon. Fluid loss additives should be
added to gelled fluid stages. The gelled fluid leakoff into the porosity will form a layer of viscous fluid,
functions as a viscosity controlled fluid. Beneficial only where viscosity controlled leak-off coefficient
< compressibility controlled coefficient.
Fracture Conductivity
The conductivity of the fracture is determined by the volume of rock dissolved, the roughness of the
etched rock surface, rock strength and closure stress. If the reaction rate is too high, then the acid
will tend to spend excessively at or near the wellbore, resulting in poor conductivity closer to the tip
of the fracture. High reaction rates can also result in too much rock volume being dissolved, which
may not necessarily lead to higher conductivities once the fracture closes, especially in soft
carbonates. On the other hand, if the reaction rate is too slow, then the amount of rock dissolved
may be insufficient to prevent fracture closure.
Various techniques and materials have been developed, aimed at maximizing fracture conductivity.
The technique most commonly used involves the injection of a viscous pad ahead of the acid. The
presence of this higher viscosity fluid in the fracture promotes viscous fingering of the thinner acid
which follows. This selective acid flow also increases penetration distance and tends to create deep
channels with good conductivity. Propping agents have also been used in acid fracturing treatments
to obtain higher conductivities.
Using acid etched fracture flow tests results can be more realistically estimate required injection rate
and total volume and acid concentration. The results of such test suggest using for the minor acid
frac around 3 m3 of acid/m of perforated interval at injection rate of 100 l/min. The total volume of
acid can be double (6 m3/m) or even triple (9 m3/m) if serious (major) treatment are required.
Generally, acid frac design consists of the flowing main steps:

1. Fluid selection (based on reservoir proprieties).
2. Data preparation (SRT, RSDT, MiniFrac).
3. Laboratory testing is done for carbonate rock - and acid - rock interaction;
 Solubility,
 Capacity to release fines after reaction,
 Young modulus,
 Retardation,
 Acid etching, and
 Compatibility test between acid fluids and reservoir fluid (compatibility test with crude
and formation brine).
4. Computer modeling and simulation is used for selecting the optimum pumping schedule
(injection rate and total volume).
5. Job Execution, monitoring and on site design justification.
6. Post job Analysis.
7. Production Forecast and matching measured production data and predicted.
8. Reporting.
The general workflow of acid fracturing job is shown in Figure 11-40.
Detailed workflow for estimating volume of fluid to be injected per each meter of perforated interval
for various rock type and downhole temperature is shown in Figure 11-41.
Obtain stress magnitude and Young’s

Modulus1 versus depth from logs, cores. Also
Improved or expanded stress
collect other well and formation information:
and modulus data.
lithology, natural fracture locations, porosity.
Check offset well data.
If appropriate fracture geometry model not

Test for different fracture known, do minifrac ( 1/3 to 1/2 length of
model or less length. actual job, no proppant ) to select fracture
geometry model (2D, 3D, MLF).
Select fluids and additives that minimize

Fracture skin or lower
formation and proppant damage and
fracture conductivity?
environmental impact.
Frac model revision

Different reservoir model
Stress revision.
permeability? Is reservoir Obtain permeability and reservoir pressure
Fluid revision
anisotropic? Layered? from well test; porosity fromlogs.
Stress sensitive?
If not done earlier, use SRT, RSDT and

minifrac data to determine correct model, fluid
loss coefficient and treatment efficiency Iteration for revisions.
(volume of fluid pumped versus volume of
fracture, determined mainly by leakoff).
Use net present value (NPV) calculation to

Different fracture geometry
select proppant optimize pump schedule and
model or length?
fracture length, and predict production.
Finalize pump schedule with PLACEMENT

program. The program gives pressure
required during job, frac length at end of job
and distribution of proppant.
Execute job.
Do well test and use program

No Is well producing
to evaluate fracture treatment
as expected?
and reservoir characterization.
Yes
Was bottomhole
Analyze bottomhole pressure Yes
No pressure during Fracture treatment
during execution with various
execution as design is optimal.
fracture models.
expected?
Figure 11-40 Acid Fracturing Best Practice Workflow
Figure 11-41 Acid fracturing workflow for estimating required injecting volume of the fluid
11.3.7 Planning, Execution and Real Time Control of Well Fracturing
Planning Fracturing Job
Planning, execution and evaluation of a fracturing treatment, as in the case of matrix acidizing
treatment requires proper planning of the each stages shown in Table 11-4. The assumptions used in
Chapter 9 are used for fracturing planning, also.
As it can be seen from the table, planning should not only look at the execution, but also include
proper timing for design and evaluation.
Table 11-4 Well Fracturing Planning Schedule
Site Layout Preparations
Fracturing operations require a large plot space to allow all the equipment to be placed on-site at
suitable distances from the wellhead. Site preparation should take place well before mobilization of
the contractor to ensure that equipment requirements can be catered for. For example, if large silos
are used to store several hundred tons of proppant, the ground below the silos may need to be
compacted. A pre-job site inspection should be arranged, so that the service company personnel can
view the layout and equipment placement can be decided upon. Any piece of equipment that may be
a source of fire, should be positioned well away from the wellhead. An open path to the wellhead
and off location should be kept. It is also recommended to keep an open path to the storage tanks, in
case any fluids need to be hauled to or from the location after rigging up. Moreover, a path should be
kept clear behind the pump trucks to allow a tank truck to supply the pump units with gasoline
during the job, if necessary. For a large treatment, it is recommended to measure the dimensions of
the wellsite and to make a scale drawing of the location with the pumps, blenders, tanks, etc.
indicated. Such a scale drawings, will facilitate planning, organization and are shown in Figure 11-42
to Figure 11-47 (HDF off-shore well- Figure 11-42, Acid Fracturing off-shore –Figure 11-43 and
Figure 11-44, HDF in onshore well – Figure 11-45 and Figure 11-46, Acid Frac in on-shore well –
Figure 11-47). The actual distances between the various pieces of equipment, including lines and
wellhead, should take account of local HSE requirements and legislation. The contractor should
supply drawings of the equipment layout with respect to the site dimensions. High pressure area
should be marked.
Equipment and documents needed on job site:

• Oil company workover procedure with data sheet containing the reservoir properties, such
as bottomhole pressure, porosity, permeability, temperature,
• Service company stimulation recommendation,
• Logs with perforations and collars premarked,
• Tank strap,
• Sand sieves,
• Service company reference tables,
• Containers for samples,
• Quality Control Forms,
• Hardhead and steel-toed boots,
• Farm 35 or equivalent viscometer or availability of same from service company, and
• Water test equipment (or obtain from the service company);
 pH meter or paper,
 Thermometer,
 Iron test kit,
 Phosphate test kit,
 Total dissolved solids tester,
 Reducing agent tester, and
 Chloride test kit.
Figure 11-42 Surface facility and site layout for HDF (off-shore well)
Figure 11-43 Surface facility and site layout for acid frac( off-shore well )
Figure 11-44 Real technical setup on boat and site layout for acid frac(off-shore well )
Figure 11-45 Surface facility and site layout for HDF (on-shore well)
Figure 11-46 Real technical setup for HDF (on-shore well)
Figure 11-47 Surface equipment and site layout for Acid Fracturing (on-shore well)
The frac tanks are usually the first to arrive on location. Ideally, tanks should be lined (epoxy coated)
and steam cleaned, to prevent iron from contaminating water and interfering with proper gelatin
and crosslinking of fracturing fluids. If this is not feasible, the tanks that are available, should at least
be steam cleaned. Tanks that arrive at location should have the hatches open, and be inspected
visually to ensure their cleanliness and to certify the integrity of linings (if applicable). To further
ensure stimulation fluid cleanliness, all transport tanks should be cleaned in the same manner.
To assure that in case of failure job operation can continue without excess Non-Productive Time
(NPT) the following excess equipment for backup, is recommended for fracture treatments:
• 10% excess tank and storage capacity.

• 50% backup on power.
• 20-50% backup on pumps, depending on the number of pumps. If only one pump will be
used for job execution, then one additional pump should be prepared as backup.
• Sufficient backup on blenders and instrumentation (up to 100%).
As job size and complexity increases, more backup equipment, specifically pumps, is required. Some
pump trucks have two pumps, but only one power source for both. Check to make sure that the
stimulation contractor understands that backup means both in pumps and in power.
Execution Fracturing Job
• Check continuously the proper functioning of the pumps, blenders, monitoring equipment,
etc.
• Alert all personnel.
• Continuously check the quality of the fracturing fluid and the proppant.
• Take samples of the fracturing fluid and proppants at all stages of the treatment for later
reference.
• Continuously observe the pressures, rate, and density proppant concentration.
• If the observed pressures deviate significantly from the predicted pressures, adjust the
program, preferably based on basic contingency plans worked out before the treatment.
• In case of a premature termination of the job, immediately inform the rig/installation
supervisor to take appropriate action (e.g. circulate out any proppant laden fluid). Make sure
all (local) HSE requirements are met at all times.
Real Time Control
When executing fracturing treatments the most important is to be open to respond to occurrences
that go on during the treatment. Very often, it is required to vary pump rate and/or sand
concentrations and not strictly followed the recommendations and results generated through the
comprehensive and complex computer simulation of fracturing process. Ideal fracture world in the
most of occasions different than real world as it is illustrated in Figure 11-48.
Figure 11-48 Fracture geometry and propagation changes
Knowing that the majority of input data information in fracturing treatments are estimated, it
strongly recommended to react on recorded real time data and to change the scheduled pump rate,
proppant concentrations or even stop the operation if it is not safe to continue. With this in mind,
when pressures start turning upward in opposition to what is has normally seen, it is preferable to
increase the pump rate rapidly, but within pressure limitations. By doing this, in the majority of cases
it will be able to change the slope of the pressure and get the treatment away. Also, in the case of
multiple-stage concerning to the sand concentrations, it is mandatory to be open to change sand
concentrations built around pressure responses seen down-hole. If a highly conductive propped
fracture in near wellbore is trying to be created, many times sand concentrations at a more rapid
mode than what is shown in design will be increased, even design has been done by ourselves. For
obtaining long, highly conductive fractures in very tight reservoirs, it must be taken into account the
effects of increasing sand concentrations on negating propped fracture length.
Experienced and knowledge supervisor of a fracturing treatment should always respond to pressures
that he sees during the treatment, rather than depend on design information that is many times
estimated, based around offset well information.
It is preferred to utilize surface treating pressures and monitor increases and decreases of that
pressure in relationship to what is going on in the tubulars or casing. Most of the information that
gives us calculated bottomhole treating pressures is erroneous, and the variations and changes in
pressure that occur in relationship to net pressure can be misinterpreted. In fact, these changes are
misinterpreted regularly by personnel who simply don't understand what is going on downhole or
who are not aware of changes that may be going on with the fracturing fluid in real time. Because of
that application of Nolte-Smith plots using calculated bottomhole pressure data for on-site real time
HDF diagnosis could potentially cause mistaken diagnosis.
One of the biggest mistakes made in fracturing is trying to follow designs without utilizing
information from the formation during the actual treatment. The best is if during the fracturing
treatment bottomhole pressure data can be recorded and used for making intelligent decision. One
of the biggest mistakes is to try to make intelligent decisions based upon calculated bottomhole
pressure data.
Examples in Figure 11-49 and Figure 11-50 shows monitored and design parameters for the selected
OMV Petrom well’s which has been hydraulically fractured. Job parameters were monitored in real
time by using control and command center (Figure 11-51). According to the best practice and lesson
learned collected during long history of fracturing application, the designed pumping schedule can be
changed only if supervisor of Service Company and OMV Petrom expert advisor have agreed.
Figure 11-49 Job execution data – Design versus recorded data
Figure 11-50 Job execution data – Main frac design versus recorded data
Figure 11-51 Command and control system during HDF job execution
11.4 Downhole Completion Well Schematic for Fracturing
The type of downhole completion depend on the number of intervals which are fractured and well
geometry (vertical, slant and horizontal). In the case of new wells in which they are planned for
fracturing, completion method should be considered before drilling to allow single trip without thru-
tubing intervention. Usual case of offshore fractured wells in OMV Petrom is that a relatively long
open-hole section has been multistage fractured. Multi stage fractured wells have been equipped
with production liners, hydraulic or swellable external casing packers and frac or frac and production
ports between them. The maximum number of stages fractured on OMV Petrom SA offshore wells
was eight, but there is a plan to do up to twelve frac stages.
Chapter 5 describes in details all downhole completion tools and here are selected the cases/wells
illustrates the best practice of fractured offshore and onshore wells.
Packers Plus System
Allows multistage frac job and selective selection of production intervals after frac job by closing
some of frac ports if results of fracture job are not as expected.
Figure 11-52 Multi-zone multi stage fractured well completion (Open hole with liner)
The location of the frac/production ports should be defined using well logs, as shown in Figure 11-53.
Figure 11-53 Well log correlated with packer and port placement
In some case it is needed to fracture a cased vertical well with several open intervals with high water
cut. The applied final recompletion method with isolation of the lower interval/s with high water cut
and fractured upper interval is shown in Figure 11-54 and Figure 11-55. The conventional completion
types with single tubing string and packer (mechanical or hydraulic) set above fractured interval.
Figure 11-54 Recompleted (plugged and fractured) vertical well with one open interval
Figure 11-55 Recompleted (plugged and fractured) vertical well with two or more open intervals
In the case that horizontal well is completed with a liner and open-hole packers (inflatable ECP or
swellable packer) for multistage fracturing, then the completion system shown in Figure 11-56
should enable a single trip, multistage fracturing with operation sequences as shown in Figure 11-57.
Figure 11-56 Final well completion after multistage fracturing
Figure 11-57 Operation Sequences of multistage fracturing using open-hole packer
The same system is applicable to vertical and high-angle deviated well, also. The main completion
components of this system are:
• Liner hanger or liner packer in cased hole.
• Open Hole External Casing Packer (OHECP)
• Zonal Isolation Sliding Sleeve (ZISS)
• Zonal Isolation Toe Sleeve (ZITS)
• Balls
Operation sequences are:
1. Run-in string, set the liner hanger or packer and the open-hole packers.
2. Start pumping the frac, hydraulically open ZITS.
3. Continue pumping the fracturing fluid, drop the smallest ball to seat in the lowest ZISS and
hydraulically open the sleeve.
4. Drop the next-largest ball to seat in the next ZISS isolating the wellbore and hydraulically
open the sleeve.
5. Drop the last ball and complete fracturing job.
6. Produce the well to clean up proppant and balls.
7. Mill-out balls that remain and all ball seats.
8. Run the well in production.
11.5 Surface Equipment for Fracturing
The most frequent surface equipment for fracturing job and summarized technical information are
shown in Table 11-5. Detailed technical specification of equipment of various service companies is
shown in Appendix 11- A.
Counter 11-5 Specifications of surface equipment
Equipment Characteristics
Blender Fully automated. All
TACROM proppant and chemical
additions are strictly
controlled and recorded.
Blending Capacity
3
10 m /minute
2 sand augers ( each 50 to
3500 kg/minute)
2 liquid chemical pumps.
(both 0.5 to 28 l/minute)
2 dry chemical screws.
(0ne 0.1 to 4 kg/min, 0ne
0.5 to 8 kg/min)
2 turbine and 2
electromagnetic flow
meters for exceptionally
accurate volume
measurement.
Blender Slurry Tub - 4 Bbl
Halliburton operating volume
Automatic Remote
Control (ARC) System
Proppant System: 2-12”
screws - Range 56-
20,000 lb/min
Engines: Centrifugal Skid
- 490 HP, Mixing Skid -
490 Hp
Blender Pumps at rate to 25-70

SLB bbl/min or 18,000 psi with
optimal plunger size
Blends at rates to 35-70
bbl/min
Precisely controls the
solid/liquid ratio at design
values
Offers fully automated mode
for use in conjunction with the
FracCAT fracturing computer
aided
treatment system with set
points received from a host
system
Communicates with FracCAT
system
Loads and pumps two liquid
additives into the suction or
discharge of the mix
Meters dry additives into
mixer
Pump unit Triplex or
Stewart Quintuplex
Stevenson Trailer or Skid
Mounted. There is
bodyload type.
Engine rating: 500—
3000 BHP
Control system: Stewart
and Stevenson AccuFrac
Transmisson:Allison
Maximum ambient
operating temperature:
o
Pump unit 60 C
Stewart
Stevenson
Pump unit Two Engines Type

Halliburton Caterpillar with Allison
Transmission
Break Horsepower –
1250 HHP each engine
Hydraulic Horsepower:
1000 HHP each
Pump plunger size:
4” (2.6-15.3 bpm, max.
pressure: 14000psi) and
4.5” (3.3-19.4 bpm,
Max. pressure 11200
psi)
Electrical 800HP
Powered
Proppant Silo
25 t and 34 t
Proppant
Delivery Truck
Schlumberger
Fluid tanks
Mobile filtering
and heating
unit
Manifold
11.6 Fluids and Materials Used for Fracturing
Fracture fluids are designed to accomplish the following requirements:

1. Compatible with the formation rock and fluids at in-situ temperature and pressure, to
prevent reduction in overall performance.
2. Must generate adequate fracture width to accept the proppant.
3. The friction losses in the tubulars should be small, to keep the horsepower requirements as
low as possible.
4. The fluid loss to the formation should be as low as possible, i.e. it should be an efficient fluid
(the fluid efficiency is the fraction of fluid leaked off to the formation, compared to the total
amount of fluid pumped).
5. Capable of suspending proppants and transporting them deep into the fracture.
6. Ability to adjust viscosity on location and maintain viscosity during the treatment and break
afterwards. After breaking, they should (ideally) be residue-free, to prevent damage of the
propped fracture.
7. Ease of blending on location.
8. They should not create a hazard to personnel and/or the environment.
9. Cost effective.
The fulfill some of above requirement, sometimes the low viscosity fracturing fluid will be required,
but very often a high viscosity fracturing fluid will be needed. Therefore, the fluid system for a
treatment should be carefully selected and usually a significant amount of laboratory testing is
needed to quantify the fracturing fluid behavior under in-situ conditions.
11.6.1 Fracturing Fluids used in OMV Petrom
The first frac fluid utilized in the industry was fresh water mixed with a polymer or acrylamide based
friction reduce, known as slick water. Slick water is the most economical and from operation point of
view simple for application. It is recommended to use in very low permeability formation such as
unconventional shale.
Water based fluids (linear and crosslinked gels) are the most common fracturing fluids because of
cost and ease in preparation.
Foams are used in underpressured applications to aid in cleanup and also in cases where water
damage is a concern.
Linear Gels
Linear Gels are a mixture of of polymer in water at concentrations of up to 20 to 60, typically

between 20-30, pounds per thousand gallons, (pptg). They can be used, in both, high and low
permeability formation to aid in placement of higher proppant concentrations. Through the use of
gelling agents and other additives, water-based fluids can be made to satisfy most requirements for a
suitable fracturing fluid. They are versatile, usually cheaper than other types of fracturing fluid, give
few handling problems and are virtually hazardless to personnel and/or environment. Water-based
fluids are readily available, give low friction losses and can be used over a wide temperature range.
However, they are not always compatible with the reservoir fluids and rock.
Viscosity is one of the most important qualities associated with a fracturing fluid. There are two basic
viscosity-producing, or gelling, agents for a water-based fracturing fluid to produce a linear gel.
There are:
Guar gum: Natural, branched chain, polysaccharide polymer. It provides a very good reduction in
friction pressure, degrades fairly rapidly above 80°C, but it contains 5 - 10% insoluble residue upon
breaking.
• Guar.
Guar derivatives - Their properties and viscosity developments are similar to that of guar, but they
hydrate faster at lower temperatures, give less residue (about 1%) and have higher temperature
stability. Water containing high concentrations of methanol, will be viscosified, also.
• HydroxyPropylGuar (HPG)
• CarboxyMethylHydroxyPropylGuar (CMHPG)
Ceullulose derivatives -They provide a good reduction in friction pressure and they do not degrade at
temperatures up to 200°C. The cellulose fluids are very clean (low residue), and are used when
fracture conductivity is important.
• HydroxyEthylCellulose (HEC)
• CarboxyMethylHydroxyEthylCellulose (CMHEC)
• CarboxyMethylCellulose (CMC)
Water-based fracturing fluids, which are polymer-free, can be prepared using viscoelastic surfactants
(VES). Entanglement of the micelles results in a network that makes the fluid viscous, and gives the
fluid proppant carrying characteristics. The micellar structure of VES fluids is permanently disrupted
by contact with liquid hydrocarbons or formation water. The principal advantage of VES fluids is that
no residue is left in the proppant pack. Their main disadvantages are their current limited
temperature application, of up to 95°C and they cannot be used in dry gas wells and with resin
coated proppant. The costs are increasing as more processing is required. Guar is the most cheapest
and CMSHEC the most expensive polymers.
The Table 11-6 presents the most common used fracturing fluid type, composition and for what they
should be used.
Table 11-6 Fracturing fluids summary
Crosslinked Fracturing Fluids
Crosslinkers were first introduced in the 1960’s to increase the fluid viscosity and improve proppant
transport above what could be obtained from linear gels. Delayed crosslinkers were introduced in the
1970’s to reduce friction pressure.
Crosslinked fluids achieve high viscosity at relatively low polymer loadings. This minimizes the
amount of gel residue in the formation. The trade-off of using a high viscosity crosslinked fluid is the
concern of “breaking” the fluid after the treatment.
Linear gels can be crosslinked with a multitude of metal ions in order to increase viscosity of linear
gel. Crosslinking results in an increase in viscosity from 5 to 100-fold in the range of shear rates
important for fracturing and they are added at low concentrations (0.5-5 gallons/1000gal. The most
popular ones currently used in the industry is boron (B), followed by zirconium (Zr), and to smaller
extent, titanium (Ti), antimony (Sb) and aluminum (Al). To prepare these fluids, guar gum or guar
derivatives are commonly used to viscosify the low viscous fluids. Maintaining the right pH is
essential for optimal crosslinking. The friction pressures lie between those of gelled and ungelled
water, the fluid loss control is better than with low-viscosity fluids, and proppant transport is
excellent. In Table 11-7 are summarized commonly used crosslinked water-based fracturing fluids
Table 11-7 Crosslinked water-based fracturing fluids
11.6.2 Fracturing Fluid Additives
Fluid additives are materials used to produce a specific effect, independent of fluid type. When using
additives, however, their relative compatibility needs to be carefully verified. And in general, the
question should be asked whether the additive, mostly advocated by the service companies, is really
required. The basic principle of using additives in fracturing fluids should be to keep it as simple as
possible.
There are many additives that are required for a fracture fluid, as shown in Table 11-8.
Table 11-8 Summary of the common used additives
Biocide -Prevents viscosity loss to bacterial degradation; protects formation from anaerobic bacteria
growth. Aerobic bacteria grows in the presence of oxygen. It will reduce the base fluid viscosity
significantly, possibly jeopardizing the fracture treatment. It can also affect the chemical reactions
between gel and crosslinker in tanks.
Anaerobic bacteria grows in the reservoir where there is no free oxygen and can affect reservoir fluid
properties as well as generate hydrogen sulfide gas creating serious problem with corrosion of
downhole equipment. Biocides are required to control growth of both aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria. The best practice is to always use properly selected biocide if water based fracturing fluid
will be used for operation. Usually, bacteria attack the organic polymers, destroy the bonds and
reduce the viscosity.
Breaker - Enables viscous fracturing fluids to be degraded controllably to a thin fluid that can be
produced back out of fracture and enhances proppant distribution. Breaker systems in use include
enzymes, persulfates and high temperature oxidizers. In encapsulated form, they can be used in
higher concentrations for delayed, but more complete breaking. Their use depends on the prevailing
pH and temperature (Table 11-9) and polymer loading.
Table 11-9 Conditions for breakers application
Laboratory tests and pilot on breakers should be carried out before incorporating them in a
fracturing treatment. Also, on site laboratory analysis of the frac fluid sample with breakers is
mandatory. One not broken fluid sample is shown in Figure 11-58.
Unbroken Fluid Sample Broken Fluid Sample
Figure 11-58 Unbroken and broken fluid sample
Buffer- Controls the pH for specific crosslinkers and crosslink time; speeds up or slows down the
hydration of certain polymers. Typical products are sodium bicarbonate, fumaric acid (a weak organic
acid), combinations of mono and disodiumphosphate, soda ash, sodium acetate and combinations
thereof.
Clay stabilizer - Prevents fines migration; prevents clay swelling; prevents clay/sand matrix from
desegregating and provides temporary compatibility of fracturing fluid with water-swelling clays. The
most commonly used clay stabilizing agent is KCl. Almost all treatments in sandstone reservoirs are
designed to contain KCl. Other clay-stabilizing agents are ammonium chloride and calcium chloride,
which act like KCl. Other chemicals that also prevent migration of fines are certain modified
polyamines, polymeric clay stabilizers and polymeric solutions of hydroxyaluminium.
Diverting agent - Diverts flow of the fracturing fluid to a different perforated interval by plugging off
either the perforations of some part of the formation.
Fluid loss additive- Improves the fracturing fluid efficiency. The most common water-based fluid-loss
additive is finely ground silica flour, with particles ranging from 0.1 to 50 microns. Starches, diesel,
gums, resins and soaps are also being used and they tend to plug the face of the fracture with very
little penetration into the formation matrix.
Friction reducer - Reduces the friction resistance due to fluid flowing in pipe.
Iron controller- Keeps under-earth iron ion products in solution; prevents formation damage from
iron ion products.
Surfactant- Assists in fluid cleanup by lowering surface tension; minimizes emulsion problems;
enhances maintenance of relative permeability. They are usually included in most fracturing
treatments.
Gel stabilizer- Protects the fracturing fluid from degradation at high bottomhole temperatures by
removing free oxygen from the system.
Using different types of additives and selecting the proper mixture and concentration of additives
always should be in balance in order to maintain required viscosity of the fracturing fluid.
In Table 11-10 are listed the additives which directly affects or not the fracture fluid viscosity as the
key fluid properties that has to provide proper carrying properties.
Table 11-10 Additives vs. Viscosity
Affect Viscosity Doesn’t Affect Viscosity

Polymers Biocides
Crosslinkers Surfactant
Breakers Clay Stabilizers
Buffers Friction Reducers
Foamers Diverting Agents
Temperature Stabilizers Fluid Loss Additives
11.6.3 Foams/Energized fluids
Foamed fluids generally contain 60-80% vol. nitrogen and 40-20% vol. water with surfactants (to
stabilize the emulsion) and sometimes with a gelling agent and a fluid loss control agent. Their
application is attractive in shallow, low-permeability gas wells and zones containing water-sensitive
clays. They give high fracturing surface pressures but rapid well clean-up due to low hydrostatic
head, and the inherent energizing capability of the fluid, caused by the entrained gas. Foam also has
the advantage in that it places the minimum amount of fluid on the formation. However, proper
foam stability during the entire treatment is operationally difficult to achieve, and blending of
proppant concentrations of over 4 lbs/gal is not advisable.
11.6.4 Proppants
The propping agents currently in use by the industry are sand, intermediate strength proppant
(ceramic material) and high strength proppant (e.g. sintered bauxite). All of these proppants can be
coated with a resin. Sand can be used up to a maximum closure stress of 276 bars (4000 psi).
Intermediate strength proppant can be used up to a closing stress of 8000 psi. High strength
proppant can be used up to 15000 psi or higher.
The specification of fracturing sand size of the most frequently used in OMV Petrom according to API
RP 58 is shown in Table 11-11.
Table 11-11 Fracturing sand characteristics
Proppant particle size has a significant effect on packed fracture permeability, and, in principle, the
larger the size, the higher the permeability of the proppant pack. However, as stress levels increase,
larger sand grains will crush earlier than smaller sand grains, which will result in a poorer sorting and
thus in a lower conductivity.
Resin-Coated Proppants (RCP)
The objectives of using resin-coated proppant are to provide increased strength to the proppant pack
and to prevent the back production of proppant. It is recommended to use final stage of packing
process. There are various types of RCPs (precured-tempered, curable and stress bonding or partially
cured).
Precured RCP - Improve strength and crush resistance of the proppant. It is especially used in
combination with sand as a cost-effective alternative for intermediate strength ceramic proppants.
Precured RCPs are not being used for the prevention of proppant back production.
Curable-RCP – It will form strong proppant packs, but the resin coating of these proppants has a poor
fluid compatibility, and the resin will interact with the fracturing fluid chemistry. The resin will cure
without confining stress and it will therefore consolidate in the wellbore after under displacement or
premature screen-out.
Stress Bonding RCP - This type of RCP is less reactive with fracturing fluids, but compatibility should
always be checked. The fact that also stress is required for consolidation, could be a potential
disadvantage, however. If the proppant is not homogeneously distributed over the fracture, a poorly
consolidated pack could exist in low stress regions. Stress bonding RCP is the most commonly applied
type resin-coated proppant at present.
As the proppant-carrying fracturing fluid is a complex mixture of several additives, many of additives
can react with the resin coating of RCP, resulting in a reduced strength and/or poor frac fluid
performance.
Crosslinker - Titanate and zirconate based crosslinkers can severely reduce the strength of the
proppant pack, since the crosslinker reacts with the active sites of the resin. Hence, less crosslinker is
then available for crosslinking of the fluid, which leads to a reduced viscosity. It is recommended to
use borate crosslinkers as this effect is significantly less.
If borate crosslinker is used with RCP, then a high pH is required to form crosslinks. As phenolic resign
tend to dissolve in high pH solutions, the strength of RCP can quickly decrease when the pH is
approaches 12. At the same time, dissolved resin lowers pH of the fluid, which causes the gel to
become less viscous, or even change it into a non-crosslinked linear gel that has no proppant carrying
capacity. The mutual interaction between RCPs and fracturing fluid becomes very important at
elevated temperatures (above 100°C) when a high pH is required to maintain proppant carrying
capacity of the frac fluid. Partially cured RCPs have been successfully used in combination with
borate fracturing fluids in reservoir temperatures as high as 150°C.
Phenolic coatings have a tendency to interact with the oxidizing breaker that is added to break the
crosslinked fluid after the treatment. The breaker can be consumed by the RCPs, thereby leaving less
breaker to break the gel, which results in a more viscous fluid remaining in the fracture, poor cleanup
and a lower fracture conductivity. It can therefore be required to increase the breaker concentration.
However, the strength of the RCP pack is generally not affected by the interaction with the breaker.
In general, RCPs cannot be used with viscoelastic surfactants (VES) fluids.
Proppant Back Production
Considerable amounts of proppant (up to 25-30%) can be produced back from a created fracture.
The most frequent of proppant back production is at high rate during well clean up. Also, at lower
rate there is persistent proppant back production without affecting well productivity. Proppant back
production is the cause of major operational problems, especially in offshore environments. It can
lead to hazardous situations due to erosion of pipelines and surface equipment.
How to cure proppant back production?
If possible, width of created fracture should be less than 1 cm, an optimum is 0.5 mm, assuming that
sufficient fracture conductivity is achieved. If more fracture width is required, what is generally
common case, then other prevention method should be used, like RCP or installing screen/s. Limiting
production by choking the well is always possible, but it is strongly depend on target production. If
RCP is used to prevent proppant back production, it is it is strongly recommended to use 100%
coated proppant instead of tailing-in only the last 10- 25% of the treatment, as practiced by some
operators. It should be matched with costs and expected revenue of fracturing operation.
11.7 Quality and Safety Requirements for Fracturing
11.7.1 Quality Assurance and Control of Fracturing Operations
A fracturing treatment is always challenge because of the existence of many unknowns This is
especially true if the well is a little deeper or a little hotter than usual or if a new procedure is
attempted, pumping a new fluid, or trying out a new system. What was going on downhole during
and after fracturing remains without proper answer and explanation?
Hydraulic fracturing, even in shallow wells, is a risky and potentially dangerous process and every
efforts should be made in the following procedure to ensure the safest procedures to be followed, a
specific checklist has to be supplied which will be filled out on every treatment. It is strongly
recommend that this be supplied ensure the safest procedures to be followed. A specific checklist
will be supplied which will be filled out on every treatment. It is recommended that this be supplied
to the service company so that the treatments will be done in a mutually cooperative manner.
On site quality control
Good quality control by the oil company and the service company will assure that fracturing
treatment is executed as designed.
The Material Safety Data Sheet for all the chemicals to be used during the fracturing has to be on
site. No chemical spillage is accepted or trashes on site are allowed (Figure 11-59). All the fluids
produced during the cleanup have been disposed.
Figure 11-59 Do not trash materials on site
In the case that there is deviation of the agreed design program, it will likely be necessary from time
to time, to make "on-the-job" decisions, mostly based on results of the minifrac test, or when
treatments do not proceed as planned. The best practice is that responsibility for such a program
change lies with the company appointed representative. The best practice in OMV Petrom is that
company appointed representative is the person who has prepared fracture design. The optimum
decision, however, requires familiarization with the design rationale and treatment objectives.
Consequently, in such a situation, the person best placed to make decision and change the scheduled
design in agreement with authorized contractor staff, is the person who designed the job. The best
practice in OMV Petrom is that this individual is on -site. Where this is not possible, he still has the
responsibility to ensure that the company representative has the necessary background
information/knowledge to make the appropriate decision, possibly in consultation with relevant
contractor staff, which has the necessary knowledge/expertise. This may be facilitated through a
properly documented contingency plan and/or a thorough pre-job briefing of the CAR/Operations/
Contractor personnel, who will be involved in the operation. To ensure the most successful result of
a fracture stimulation treatment, a stimulation specialist familiar with the treatment design and with
all the necessary background information, should be on-site during a fracturing operation, or at least
be reachable.
QC Prior Treatment
During fracturing, the well will be exposed to much higher pressures than during production.
Therefore, the well conditions need to be checked before starting job.
Laboratory testing
Laboratory testing is to be carried out in the field prior to, and during the treatment. Although
perhaps more difficult because of poorer working conditions, it is most important to ensure that the
fluids prepared on location and pumped into the well, have similar properties to the fluids selected
on the basis of the initial laboratory tests and to the parameters used in the design. Failure to carry
out those quality control checks will almost certainly result in the treatment not being pumped
exactly as designed. These tests should be performed on samples of the chemicals supplied to the
field. This will initially certify that each individual material meets the specifications laid down and will
pass the final quality control check. After each material has been tested individually, they should
then be tested as collective fluid using location water. Field testing will identify any incompatibilities
due to contamination.
Prior to the treatment

• Source Water (Mineral content of mix water -iron, calcium, magnesium, boron, Presence of
bacteria in the mix water etc.).
• Gel System (s) Base gel viscosity variation over time (bacterial degradation!).
• Proppants.
During the treatment

• Collect samples every 10 minutes during a large treatment, every 4 – 5 minutes during a
small treatment.
• pH (for borate crosslinked systems).
• Base gel viscosity (for liquid gel concentrates).
Source water testing
Source water should be quality-tested and rated acceptable before it is used for a fracturing job.
Analysis and testing of source water allow the detection of components that could alter fracturing
fluid properties. The degree of alteration depends on several factors:
• Fluid system,
• Concentration of the contaminant,
• Expected temperature,
• Contact time between the contaminant and the fluid system, and
• pH of the system and other factors.
Minimum frac water quality standard is shown in Table 11-12.
Table 11-12 Water Quality Standard Requirements
Parameter Limit
Bacteria < 105 ml
pH 6-8
Temperature 4-38 °C (40-100 °F)
Bicarbonates <300 ppm
Calcium and Magnesium <2000ppm
Iron <10 ppm
Phosphates <5ppm
Reducing Agents 0 ppm
Sulfates 0 ppm
Gel System
Purpose of gel system testing is to determine the crosslink time of a fluid system. Gel crosslink time is
defined as the time elapsed from addition of the crosslinker to the development of viscosity
characteristics of a crosslinked gel.
The crosslink time test should be performed with base gel and addition of crosslinker. The
established methods are the vortex closure test in a Waring blender, and the gel lipping test (the
standard procedures for such tests are available with the contractor). The values for the crosslink
time should be long enough to ensure that crosslinking does not occur until the fluid is at least
halfway down the tubing (for delayed crosslinked systems). Since shear conditions in the vortex
closure test, using a Waring-type blender, are significantly different from those in the lipping test,
lipping crosslink times are 1.5 – 2 times longer than those determined in the vortex closure test.
The required data for testing are:
• Initial fluid temperature.
• Perforation temperature estimated with computer program such as WTEMP.
• Pipe time (time for the fluid to flow from the surface to perforations).
• Bath temperature to obtain correct heating rate
Vortex closure time procedure is:

1. Place 200 ml of the base gel in a 500 ml blender jar.
2. Set the speed of the blender so the depth of the vortex is to the hub of the blender blade
assembly.
3. Add on-the fly additives (breaker and buffer) and then the crosslinker and start the timer.
4. When the vortex closes, the surface of the fluid becomes domed and/or no longer circulates
distinctly to the middle (vortex moves around and doesn’t stay centered), stop the timer.
5. The time determined from step 4 above is the crosslink time as determined by vortex
closure.
6. Record the time on QC form.
Lipping time procedure (without hot water bath) is:

• Place 200 ml of the base gel in a 500 ml blender jar.
• Set the speed of the blender so the depth of the vortex is to the hub of the blender blade
assembly.
• Add on-the fly additives then the crosslinker and start the timer.
• Continuously stir the fluid at a moderate rate until you observe the fluid’s viscosity has
increased sufficiently to close the vortex. Check the fluid for lipping characteristics by tilting
the sample slowly until the fluid reaches the top edge of the container. Carefully tilt the
container farther, allowing the fluid to slowly fall out of the container. The fluid will start to
creep over the edge and pull back when tilted back. If the fluid has any crosslink
characteristics, it will tend to hang, or lip.
• Continue to circulate the fluid until the desired lipping characteristics are achieved then stop
the timer.
• The time determined from Step 5 above is the crosslink time as determined by the Lip Test.
• Record time on QC form.
Gel emulsion tendency test
In order to test gel emulsion tendency it is required to mix 50 ml broken gel and 50 ml crude and
monitor separation in hot water bath. In one hour should separate 90%.
Proppant settling test
Proppant settling tests are useful to monitor fluid gel viscosity breakback and proppant settling
properties, which correlate closely with the breaking of the crosslinked viscosity. These data can be
used for comparison with service company viscosity break data, correlation of proppant settling with
fracture closure times and required shut-in times. Proppant settling tests are conveniently run in 50
ml graduate cylinders placed in a constant temperature water bath. Proppant settling is monitored
by observing the level of the top of the settling proppant. The settling time is taken as the time,
during static settling, when proppant settling is nearly complete and the top of the settling proppant
column appears to be nearly stationary. Percent of proppant is settled and monitored during time at
reservoir temperature. Minimum time for settling is equal to pumping time.
Recommended Practices for Testing Sand Used in Hydraulic Fracturing Operations, API RP 56, First
Edition, March 1988.
Recommend Practices for Testing High-Strength Proppants Used in Hydraulic Fracturing Operations,
API RP 60, First Edition, February 1989.
11.7.2 Safety Considerations
Hydraulic fracturing must be carried out with a great attention to safety. Special attention will be
given to pre-job safety meetings.
Safety considerations should be discussed in details. Everyone should know where to go in the event
of a disaster. Everyone needs to know the maximum operating pressure. The supervisor should count
the people at the location.
The major purpose of this meeting is that each individual needs to know his part, his responsibility,
what to do during the job.
The most important points for the safe treatment of fracturing operation are:
• Consider all safety rules according to Government and OMV Petrom documents and
standards
• Designate a gathering area in the event of a disaster.
• Establish a maximum treating pressure.
• Each person should be assigned a specific responsibility.
• Assign leadership (one person in charge from the oil company and one from the service
company).
• The oil company representative should point out the persons responsible for each task.
• Make sure a good communication network is set up. Have alternate visual commands.
• Have a fire extinguisher placed on the ground for easy access.
• Have two individuals given the responsibility of transporting injured persons to the nearest
clinic/hospital.
• Have a designated vehicle set aside for transporting injured personnel.
• Do a complete head count of all personnel on location.
• Set up a gathering area in case an accident occurs.
11.7.3 Personnel
Properly trained personnel are the keys to success. The wellsite personnel must understand the
fundamentals of the stimulation technique that will be used and must know how to use the
equipment, software and techniques.
The fracturing contractor shall ensure the availability of the following:
1. Organogram of all contractor personnel on call-out.
2. Personnel CVs submitted and qualifications as per contract.
3. HSE documents submitted as per contract.
4. All personnel to be aware of the hazards of toxic chemicals, emergency procedures, designated
first aider on site.
5. Personnel to be aware of emergency procedures and contact numbers.
6. All personnel to comply with s training course requirements for contractors.
7. Suitable (dry chemical type) fire extinguishers to be available on site.
8. Journey management system in place.
9. Set up refreshment program for personnel who are in the sun all day (if applicable).
10. Check all personnel are fit and aware of any safety hazards (personal jewelery such as rings,
slippery surfaces on gel tanks, etc.).
11. Ensure tidiness of site at all times during rig-up and rig-down operations.
Appendix 11 - A Surface Equipment for Fracturing (Various service

companies).
Baker
Table 11-13 Baker Pumps (API Units)
Table 11-14 Baker Pumps (SI Units)
Table 11-15 Baker Blenders (API Unit)
Table 11-16 Baker Blenders (SI Unit)
Appendix 11 - B Commercial fracturing fluid systems

Table 11-17 Commercial Fracturing fluid system
Appendix 11 - C Proppant Specifications and characteristics

Table 11-18 Proppant specification and characteristics
Appendix 11 - D Fracture Stimulation Checklist
Fracture Stimulation Supervision Checklist

Well Name: Date:
I. Equipment Needed on Job Site
Oil company workover procedure with data sheet containing the reservoir properties, such as
1.
bottomhole pressure, porosity, permeability, temperature
2. Service company stimulation recommendation
3. Logs with perforations and collars premarked
4. Tank strap
5. Sand sieves
6. Service company reference tables
7. Containers for samples
8. Quality Control Forms
9. Hardhead and steel-toed boots
10. Farm 35 or equivalent viscometer or availability of same from service company
Water test equipment (or obtain from the service company)
a) pH meter or paper,
b) Thermometer,
c) Iron test kit,
11.
d) Phosphate test kit,
e) Total dissolved solids tester,
f) Reducing agent tester, and
g) Chloride test kit.
II. The Day Before the Job
Tanks
Are there enough tanks on the location to store all fluids? Figure that 50 bbl/tank will be
1.
unpumpable. Recommend at least 10% extra base gel on location.
2. Have the tanks been cleaned prior to the job?
Does the water have the proper amounts of potassium chloride, sodium chloride, and other
3.
compounds?
4. Are all of the tanks full? Get on the tanks yourself—do not take anyone's word!
Where did the water come from? Does it appear to be clean? Check each tank yourself. Do
5.
not pump dirty fluid down a well.
Check the valves on the tanks to ensure that they are not leaking. If a valve has a trickle leak,
6. replace it before the next job. If the tank has a large leak, consider having the tanks switched
out prior to any pumping.
7. Conduct pre-gel quality control on frac fluid.
8. Fill out Quality Control Tables
Sand Storage
Get on top of the sand storage unit yourself and see if they contain enough proppant to do
1.
the job.
2. Is the proppant in ouch compartment the correct size?
3. Check the proppant for fines. Sieve samples from each compartment.
Are you using the correct proppant?
4. a) Take samples and establish if the proppant is the proper quality (i.e., Ottawa, Brady,
Interprop, etc.).
Fracture Stimulation Supervision Checklist (Continued)

Well Name: Date:
Find the Service Company Treater and/or Treatment Supervisor
1. Go over sand and fluid schedules with him.
2. Are the proper additives going to be on the location?
Is a standby blender going to be on location and in position to be usable? A standby is
3.
needed on treatments with pump time exceeding 1 hour.
4. Make sure a sand densimeter is going to be available on the job.
If the job is going to take more than 4 or 5 hours pumping time, request that a service
5. company mechanic be on the location to repair any equipment that malfunctions. Also
request an electronic technician to repair electrical problems on jobs with long pump times.
6. Go over rig-up checklist with service company representative.
Arrange for testing of all gelled fluids and test crosslink time if applicable. (Quality Control
7.
Table 1)
Establish rapport with frac treater and give the person guidelines on what you expect before,
8.
during and after the treatment.
Establish maximum treating pressure and calculate surface treating pressure with service
9.
company function charts.
III. Just Before the Job
1. Go over sand and fluid schedules. Receive and discuss Quality Control Tables
Specify whether he will be recording volumes in clean or dirty volumes. Clean volumes are
fluid volumes with no sand. Dirty volumes are the slurry volumes. Also check to see if the
volumes will be displayed in barrels or gallons.
Dirty volume, bbl. - Clean volume, bbl. + (lb. sand x 0.00109)
- bbl. * ( lb. x 0.00109)
2.
- bbl.
or
Dirty volume, gal - Clean volume, gal + (lb. sand x 0.0456)
- gal + ( lb. x 0.0456)
- gal.
3. Finalize the pumping schedule.
Get on top of the tanks yourself and gauge all frac tanks using a tank strap. Have the treater
present. Having the treater gauge the tanks with you will prevent any disagreements about
4.
fluid volumes after the job is finished. This stop should be completed only after all tanks
have been rolled and viscosified. Finalize volumes table.
Set up a system with the treater for numbering the tanks in the order that they will be
5.
drained. This helps keep track of the fluid volumes during the job.
Fill in the Frac Tank Tracking Chart (Table 6). This will help you keep track of how much fluid
6.
is left at any point during the job.
Arrange with the treater to have someone knowledgeable and dependable on top of the frac
7. tanks and the sand storage units. He or she should be there all the time that the job is being
pumped to insure a smooth uninterrupted flow of the proposed pumping schedule (Table 2).
Fracture Stimulation Supervision Checklist (continued)

Well Name: Date:
Impress upon the treater the adverse consequences if the pumps lose prime during the job
because the tanks were sucked too low. When the fluid level in the frac tank drops below
the suction valve, air is sucked into the pumps, causing the blender pumps to lose prime. The
8.
sand density goes extremely high and the rate has to be reduced. The sand density then
tends to drop very low while the pumps regain prime. This chaos normally takes 5-10 mins.
to correct—10 mins, is a lot of fluid at 50 bbl./min.
Get on top of the sand storage unit with the treater and gauge the volume of proppant in
9. each compartment. Remember to check any 100 mesh sand that is being pumped in the pad
as a fluid loss agent.
Set up a system with the treater on numbering the sand storage unit compartments in the
10.
order they will be pumped.
Complete the Proppant Tracking Chart. This will help you keep track of how much proppant
11.
is left at any point during the job.
Complete the Crosslinker Tracking Chart. This will help you keep track of how much
12.
crosslinker is left at any point during the job.
Complete the Breaker Tracking Chart. This will help you keep track of how much breaker is
13.
left at any point during the job.
Complete the Fluid Loss Additive Tracking Chart. This will help you keep track of how much
14.
fluid loss additive is left at any point during the job.
Find the Service Company Field Chemist or District Engineer
Have the chemist complete for each tank of gel. This is in addition to your own quality
1. control work. For legal and other reasons, always have the service company confirm your
tests—you might have erred!
Check with the chemist to find which additives (such as cross-linkers, fluid loss additives, and
2.
breakers) will be added on the fly during the job
3. Check with the chemist to see that all tanks have been premixed with the necessary additives.
If running a crosslinked gel, catch a sample of gel from each tank and add the appropriate
4.
amount of crosslinker to see if the gel crosslinks.
Equipment
1. Is all equipment fueled up, and is there enough fuel on the location to complete the job?
2. Were all pumps and lines flushed with clean water before the job started?
3. Are all injection lines staked down?
4. Is a standby blender rigged up or in an immediately usable position?
Is the blender located close enough to each tank so that sucking the fluid at a high rate will
5.
not be a problem?
To be assured of sufficient suction between the blender and the tanks, you should have 1
6. suction hose per 10 bpm for thin fluids and for thick fluids use 1 suction hose per 5 bpm. For
example, a 40 bpm rate would require 8 suction hoses for 60# viscous gel.
Safety Equipment Checklist
Locate pumping trucks and tanks cross wind and a reasonable feet from the well. Head all
1.
vehicles away from the well and keep access roads clear.
Each discharge line should have a full swing at the well and at the truck manifold and be
2.
staked at each end. Additional staking should be based on judgment.
3. Install check valves in each discharge linear as near wellhead as possible.
No one should stand on or near discharge lines under pressure and never pass lines under
4.
trucks or other equipment.
Fracture Stimulation Supervision Checklist (continued)

Well Name: Date:
Safety Equipment Checklist
Pressure test discharge lines from pump to well at 70 bar (1000±) psi greater than maximum
5. treating pressure.
5b. Inspect wellhead for any low pressure connections that may have inadvertently been added
during well servicing.
6. Bleed off lines should be staked and in a safe direction (downwind, downhill, and/or to a pit).
7. Insure that adequate firefighting equipment is in good working condition strategically
located.
8. Conduct pumping operation in daylight. Do not pump during electrical or severe dust storms.
9. All personnel and equipment not necessary to the operation should be moved to a point at
least 150 feet from well.
10. If flammable materials (crude oil. diesel, xylene, methanol, etc.) are pumped, all persons
within at least 150 feet from the well should remove matches, lighters, and cigarettes from
their pockets.
11. Prior to pumping, all company and contract supervisors and crew should meet to discuss job
procedures, work signals, hazards, and safety precautions. At this time, an emergency
assembly area should be designated in an upwind direction from well. Also, a head count
and a buddy system should be established so that all personnel can be accounted for.
12. If pumping flammable material, have the service company wrap all discharge hoses from the
blender to the pump trucks with canvas or other material. This will negate spraying of
flammable material should the hoses leak or burst.
List of Figures
Figure 11-1 Fracturing Alter Flow Patterns,
Figure 11-2 Performance gap evaluation,
Figure 11-3 Candidate selection workflow,
Figure 11-4 Individual Zone/Well Evaluation for fracturing,
Figure 11-5 Spurt valuation,
Figure 11-6 Idealized bottomhole pressure during fracturing job,
Figure 11-7 Well lithology, permeability/thickness product and cumulative hydrocarbon in place,
Figure 11-8 Well lithology and mechanical properties distribution,
Figure 11-9 Fracturing Fluid Selection Workflow,
Figure 11-10 Proppant selection workflow,
Figure 11-11 Step Rate Test,
Figure 11-12 Rate Step Down Test procedure,
Figure 11-13 Improper and proper design of RSDT,
Figure 11-14 Perforation friction dominates (left side) and near-wellbore friction dominates (right
side)Ref 1,
Figure 11-15 Step Rate and Step Down test sequences,
Figure 11-16 Typical Micro test Data*,
Figure 11-17 Typical Micro test Data,
Figure 11-18 HDF data preparation workflow,
Figure 11-19 SQRT MiniFrac data analysis,
Figure 11-20 G-Function Plot for MiniFrac data analysis,
Figure 11-21 Horner plot for MiniFrac data analysis,
Figure 11-22 MiniFrac Log-Log Diagnostic plot,
Figure 11-23 General Workflow for Well Fracturing Design Process,
Figure 11-24 Full 3D model grid,
Figure 11-25 Lumped p-3D model,
Figure 11-26 Fracture propagation simulated p-3D lumped model,
Figure 11-27 Fracture modeling by FracCADE Cell Based p-3D model,
Figure 11-28 The general workflow of HDF design model selection,
Figure 11-29 Shut-in Pressure Decline and Observed Net Pressure (ONP),
Figure 11-30 Net-pressure plots showing how to correct for friction in real-time,
Figure 11-31 Methodology for matching observed and model net pressure,
Figure 11-32 Matching of observing and modeled fracture net pressure (OMV Petrom well),
Figure 11-33 Nolte-Smith net pressure interpretation,
Figure 11-34 Simulated Fracture propagation,
Figure 11-35 Fracture geometry correlated with log.,
Figure 11-36 Fracture optimization workflow,
Figure 11-37 Mechanism of Acid Fracturing,
Figure 11-38 Schematic of Wide Spread Etched Ridges (WISPER) technology of acid fracturing,
Figure 11-39 Acid Frac vs. HDF,
Figure 11-40 Acid Fracturing Best Practice Workflow,
Figure 11-41 Acid fracturing workflow for estimating required injecting volume of the fluid,
Figure 11-42 Surface facility and site layout for HDF (off-shore well),
Figure 11-43 Surface facility and site layout for acid frac( off-shore well ),
Figure 11-44 Real technical setup on boat and site layout for acid frac(off-shore well ),
Figure 11-45 Surface facility and site layout for HDF (on-shore well),
Figure 11-46 Real technical setup for HDF (on-shore well),
Figure 11-47 Surface equipment and site layout for Acid Fracturing (on-shore well),
Figure 11-48 Fracture geometry and propagation changes,
Figure 11-49 Job execution data – Design versus recorded data,
Figure 11-50 Job execution data – Main frac design versus recorded data,
Figure 11-51 Command and control system during HDF job execution,
Figure 11-52 Multi-zone multi stage fractured well completion (Open hole with liner),
Figure 11-53 Well log correlated with packer and port placement,
Figure 11-54 Recompleted (plugged and fractured) vertical well with one open interval,
Figure 11-55 Recompleted (plugged and fractured) vertical well with two or more open intervals,
Figure 11-56 Final well completion after multistage fracturing,
Figure 11-57 Operation Sequences of multistage fracturing using open-hole packer,
Figure 11-58 Unbroken and broken fluid sample,
Figure 11-59 Do not trash materials on site.
List of Tables
Table 11-1 Proppant pack damage from fracturing fluids,
Table 11-2 General guideline based on ranges of FEE component values,
Table 11-3 Basic treatment design using viscous fingering,
Table 11-4 Well Fracturing Planning Schedule,
Table 11-5 Specifications of surface equipment,
Table 11-6 Fracturing fluids summary,
Table 11-7 Crosslinked water-based fracturing fluids,
Table 11-8 Summary of the common used additives,
Table 11-9 Conditions for breakers application,
Table 11-10 Additives vs. Viscosity,
Table 11-11 Fracturing sand characteristics,
Table 11-12 Water Quality Standard Requirements,
Table 11-13 Baker Pumps (API Units),
Table 11-14 Baker Pumps (SI Units),
Table 11-15 Baker Blenders (API Unit),
Table 11-16 Baker Blenders (SI Unit),
Table 11-17 Commercial Fracturing fluid system,
Table 11-18 Proppant specification and characteristics,
References

• Presentation of HDF operation (Hydraulic Fracturing Treatments)
• Acid Frac overview presentation (Acid fracturing design)
• Best practices to avoid screenout in tough carbonate reservoirs (Best practices to
avoid screenout in propped fracturing by using SDT)
• HDF Fluid Systems Specifications in Petrom OMV/ Hydraulic Fracturing Treatments -
QA QC
• Proppant and Additives Specifications for HDF applied in OMV Petrom
• Selection Criteria Between Acid Frac and Propped Fracturing
• HDF Treatment Design and Execution Petrom OMV/Report LV03
• HDF Treatment Design and Execution Petrom OMV/Report Lv10 Lebada
• HDF Treatment Design and Execution Petrom OMV/Report 517 Burcioaia
• HDF Treatment Design and Execution Petrom OMV/Report 4289 Slavuta
• Acid Frac Treatment Design and Execution Petrom OMV / 60 Pescarus job execution
• Acid Frac Treatment Design and Execution Petrom OMV/Report 5025 Bibesti
• Acid Frac Treatment Design and Execution Petrom OMV/Report 3016 Bulbucenii
• Acid Frac Treatment Design and Execution Petrom OMV/Report 60 Pescarus
• Acid Frac Treatment Design and Execution Petrom OMV/Report 2360 Glogoveanu
• Quality Assurance and Checks for HDF used in OMV Petrom
2. Abou-Sayed, I.S., Schueler, S., Ehrl, E. and Hendricks, W.: “Multiple Hydraulic Fracture
Stimulation in a Deep Horizontal Tight Gas Well,” paper SPE 30532, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA (October 22–25, 1995).
3. Chambers, M.R., Mueller, M.M. and Grossmann, A.: “Well Completion Design and Operations
for a Deep Horizontal Well with Multiple Fractures,” paper SPE 30417, presented at the
Offshore Europe Conference, Aberdeen, Scotland (September 5–8, 1995).
4. Chen, Z. and Economides, M.J.: “The Effect of Near- Wellbore Fracture Geometry on Fracture
Execution and Post-Treatment Production of Deviated and Horizontal Wells,” paper SPE
39425, presented at the SPE International Formation Damage Control Conference, Lafayette,
Louisiana, USA (February 18–19, 1998)
5. Cinco-Ley, H. and Meng, H.Z.: “Pressure Transient Analysis of Wells with Finite Conductivity
Vertical Fractures in Double Porosity Reservoirs,” SPE 18172, (October 2–5, 1988).
6. Clifton, R.J. and Wang, J-J.: “Multiple Fluids, Proppant Transport, and Thermal Effects in
Three- Dimensional Simulation of Hydraulic Fracturing,” paper SPE 18198, presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, USA (October 2–5, 1988).
7. Dowell Schlumberger: “Proppant selection guide”.
8. Economides, J. Michael, Nolte, G. Kenneth et al., “Reservoir stimulation”, Schlumberger
educational services, 1987.
9. Economides Michael J. , Kenneth G. Nolte: Reservoir Stimulation (3rd Edition)
10. Ely, J.W.: Stimulation Treatment Handbook, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, PennWell Publishing Co.
(1985).
11. Enhanced Fracture Entry Friction Analysis of the Rate Step-down Test, SPE 106058, Enhanced
Fracture Entry Friction Analysis of the Rate Step-down Test
12. Fracturing, Monograph Series, Richardson, Texas, USA, Society of Petroleum Engineers
(1989).
13. Gidley, J.L., Holditch, S.A., Nierode, D.E. and Veatch, R.W. Jr.: Recent Advances in Hydraulic
14. Gulbis, J.: “Dynamic Fluid Loss Study of Fracturing Fluid,” paper CIM 82-33-18, presented at
the 33rd Annual Technical Meeting of Petroleum Society of CIM (1982).
15. Howard. G.C., and Fast, C.R., “Hydraulic fracturing”, Mono. Ser. 2, Society of Petroleum
Engineers, Richardson, Texas, 1970.
16. Nordgren, R.P., “Propagation of vertical fracture”, SPEJ, pp. 306-314, August 1972.
17. Khristianovich, S.A., and Zheltov, Y.P., “Formation of vertical fractures by means of highly
viscous liquid”, Proc., Fourth World petroleum Congress, Sec.II, pp. 579-586, 1955.
18. Kalfayan L., Production Enhancement With Acid Stimulation, 2008
19. Mayerhofer, M.J., Economides, M. J., and Nolte, K.G., “An experimental and fundamental
interpretation of filter cake fracturing fluid loss”, SPE paper 22873, 1987.
20. Nolte, K.G., and Smith, M.B., “ Interpretation of fracturing pressures”, JPT, pp. 1767-1775,
September 198
21. Nolte, K.G., Maniere, J.L. and Owens, K.A.: “After- Closure Analysis of Fracture Calibration
Tests,” r SPE 38676, October 5–8, 1997
22. Penny, G.S., “ An investigation of the effects of fracturing fluids upon the conductivity of
proppants”, Final report STIM-LAB, Duncan OK, 1988.
23. Penny, G.S., “An investigation of the effects of fracturing fluids upon the conductivity of
proppants”, Final report STIM-LAB, Duncan OK, 1986.
24. Perkins, T.K., and Kern, L.R., “Widths of hydraulic fracture”, JPT, pp. 937-949, September
1961.
25. Recommended Practice for Standard Procedures for Evaluation of Hydraulic Fracturing Fluids
(RP 39), second edition, Dallas, Texas, USA, American Petroleum Institute (1983).
26. Recommended Practices for Testing High Strength Proppants Used in Hydraulic Fracturing
Operations (API RP 60), American Petroleum
27. Institute, Washington, D.C. (1989).Recommended Practices for Testing Sand Used in
Hydraulic Fracturing Operations (RP 56), first edition, Dallas, Texas, USA, American Petroleum
Institute (1983).
28. Smith, J.E., “Design of hydraulic fracture treatments”, SPE 1286.
29. Prats, M., “Effect of vertical fractures on reservoir behavior-incompressible fluid case”, SPEJ,
pp. 105-118, June 1961.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Contents

12. ZONAL ISOLATION ........................................................................................................................ 12-3
12.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 12-3
12.2 Reasons and Objectives for Zonal Isolation ....................................................................... 12-4
12.3 Zonal Isolation Workflow ................................................................................................... 12-6
12.4 Remedial Cementing Technology ..................................................................................... 12--6
12.4.1 Squeeze Cementing under Pressure below Formation Fracturing Pressure ............. 12-8
12.4.2 Factors Impacting on Selection of Placement Techniques for Remedial Cementing .......
................................................................................................................................ 12-12
12.4.3 Best Practices for Design Cement Slurry .................................................................. 12-12
12.5 Remedial Cementing Placement Techniques .................................................................. 12-13
12.5.1 Cementing Plugs ....................................................................................................... 12-13
12.5.2 Technology Workflow for Cement Plug Placement ................................................. 12-16
12.5.3 Squeeze Cementing Placement Techniques ............................................................ 12-18
12.5.4 Pumping Techniques ................................................................................................ 12-23
12.5.5 Squeeze Cementing Placement Techniques ............................................................ 12-28
12.6 Materials Used for Remedial Cementing ......................................................................... 12-30
12.6.1 Cement Types (Standard and Special Types) ........................................................... 12-30
12.6.2 Foamed Cement ....................................................................................................... 12-33
12.6.3 Cement Additives ..................................................................................................... 12-33
12.6.4 Spacers and Washes ................................................................................................. 12-35
12.6.5 Laboratory Procedure for Testing Cement, Slurry, Foamed Cement....................... 12-36
12.7 Models for Planning and Designing Remedial Cementing Jobs in OMV Petrom............. 12-37
12.7.1 Chemical Methods for Water Control ...................................................................... 12-38
12.8 Downhole Equipment for Remedial Cementing .............................................................. 12-39
12.8.1 Squeeze Cementing Tools ........................................................................................ 12-41
12.8.2 Cement Retainers ..................................................................................................... 12-42
12.8.3 Squeeze Packers (Retrievable Packers) .................................................................... 12-44
12.8.4 Drillable Bridge plug ................................................................................................. 12-44
12.9 Surface Equipment for Remedial Cementing .................................................................. 12-46
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12.9.1 Mixing Equipment..................................................................................................... 12-47

12.9.2 Pumping Equipment ................................................................................................. 12-48
12.10 Quality Assurance and Safety Requirements for Remedial Cementing........................... 12-49
12.10.1 Remedial Cementing Quality Control and Job Evaluation ........................................ 12-49
Appendix 12 - A Cement Retainers and Bridge Plugs Specifications (used in OMV Petrom) .... 12-53
List of Figures.............................................................................................................................. 12-56
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 12-57
References .................................................................................................................................. 12-58
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 12. ZONAL ISOLATION

1. Take representative samples for laboratory testing prior to pumping the cement.
If the reservoir pressure is low and there is high possibility to lose circulation of the cement
2.
slurry during the job, use lightweight cement in consultancy with service company.
The density of cement slurry must be within narrow range (+- several %) of the density
3.
designed in the laboratory.
Assure that the cement is of the correct weight, that all additives are added correctly and
4.
the pump rates follow the predesigned schedule.
Assure that all cement additives, designed for the job, are used during cement operation.
5.
Check the list of additives before and after cement operation.
6. Determine accurate bottom-hole temperature and bottom-hole circulating temperature.
The casing and tubing string should be internally clean as much as possible (free of rust,
7.
paraffin, scale, perforation burrs, etc.).
Whenever possible, the bridge plug should be pressure tested after it has been set. This will
require a packer in the string to be set just above the bridge plug for the test. When there is
8.
no packer, or a drillable retainer is used, the bridge plug cannot be isolated for a pressure
test.
Perform Negative Pressure Test as the universally recognized technique for confirming
whether the cement in place will hold the formation fluids under producing conditions. It
consists of applying a negative differential pressure on the face of the plugged perforations.
9. The following steps accomplish this:
• Circulating a light fluid (i.e., through a concentric pipe)
• Swabbing the well
• Running a dry test
Use of the temperature survey to determine the top of cement bond.
10.
If acidizing or fracturing operations are going to be conducted and if there is possibility that
11. channeling, fracturing, or etching occur, then it is necessary (if possible at all) to utilize
cements that will approach the strength of the formations which are being isolated.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: 12. ZONAL ISOLATION

1.
To use foam cement to accomplish zonal isolation.
2. To squeeze perforated interval above fracture pressure which lead to insufficient zonal
isolation what could cause serious problem if the well has to be fractured later on.
3. To execute Positive Pressure Test as a method to diagnose a gross failure of the squeeze
treatment above the formation fracturing pressure.
4. To start pumping the cement before obtaining representative samples for laboratory
testing.
5.
To use blowout preventer (BOP) if it is not tested to the maximum expected pressure.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12.1 Introduction
The flow of fluids along the cement sheath is invariably an undesirable occurrence. For a producing
well, this is manifested either by the loss of reservoir fluids through crossflow along the cement
sheath, or by the influx of underground fluids from other formations into the active layer. For an
injector, the injected fluids may escape into unintended layers through the cement sheath. During
hydraulic fracturing, escape of fluids through an imperfect cement sheath may result in either
undesirable fracture-height migration or screenout of the intended fracture in the targeted
formation because of the fracturing fluid loss.
Almost all oil or gas reservoirs produce water. In mature or old fields which are typical for OMV
Petrom, the most of produced fluid is water, with oil or gas representing a few percent of total
production. A continuous increase in water production is thus a normal behavior in the lifetime of a
field.
Water flow paths in the reservoir, especially close to the wellbore, are often irregular, by-passing
large hydrocarbon saturated zones and inducing undesirable high water-cut levels. In such situations,
we are dealing with "bad" undesirable water, as opposed to "good" water produced under normal
conditions.
Undesired water production is one of the major technical, environmental, and economical problems
associated with oil and gas production. This water production can limit the productive life of the oil
and gas wells and can cause severe problems including corrosion of tubular, fines migration, and
hydrostatic loading. Also, upward gas flow or “gas migration” through and along the cement sheath
has received particular attention and often presents a problem that should be treated
Water shut off/zonal isolation (plugging of high water cut zone and perforating new intervals)
represents around 30-50% of the all workover operations in OMV Petrom to recomplete well and
provide continuation of production with lower water and gas cut.
Gas shut off is rarely performed and estimated frequency, based on collected statistical data, is
around 5%.
There is probably nothing more critical to the completion of a well, or in fact, stimulation of a well
than having good zonal isolation. Shortchanging in the quality of the cement and the cement/casing
or cement/formation bonds on primary cementing can cost huge sums of money in later stages of
the well, and could not be justified.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12.2 Reasons and Objectives for Zonal Isolation
Isolate formation intervals

• Temporarily abandon production zone to test other intervals.
• Permanently abandon nonproductive zones.
• Resolve problem of unwanted water and gas production.
• Seal off lost-circulation zones opened during cementing or completion.
• Seal off depleted zones from production intervals in multizone completions (Figure 12-1).
• Stop lost circulation in open hole during drilling.
Figure 12-1 Depleted zone abandonment
Alter formation characteristics

Reduce the producing gas/oil ratio (GOR) by isolating the gas zones from adjacent oil intervals:
• Gas coning (Figure 12-2a): When the flowing pressure gradients become large enough to
overcome the gravitational forces, gas will form an unstable cone, which advances into
the wellbore. Coning tendencies are inversely proportional to density difference and
directly proportional to viscosity. The density difference between gas and oil is normally
larger than the density difference between water and oil.
• Gas Fingering: Preferential flow of gas through high permeability layers.
In stratified reservoirs, premature fingering of gas may occur with high pressure
drawdown at the wellbore, casing leaks, cement bond failure, natural or induced
fractures communicating with gas zone, or acidizing into gas zone. Fingering is more
prevalent in reservoirs where permeability varies appreciably between zones (Figure
12-2b).
• Moving of the G/O contact in solution gas reservoir due to reservoir depletion (Figure
12-2c).
Figure 12-2 a) Gas Coning; b) Gas Fingering; c) Moving G/O contact
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Reduce water-oil ratio.

• Oil/water contact moving up
Typically, this is associated with limited vertical permeability, usually less than 1 mD.
This problem can be considered as a subset of coning, but the coning tendency is so low that
near-wellbore shut-off can be effective (Figure 12-3).
• Water Coning (Figure 12-4a)
Water coning problem in vertical wells is defined as vertical movement of water across
bedding planes in a producing formation.
• High-permeability layer With/ Without crossflow (Figure 12-4b)
With crossflow: Water crossflow can occur in high –permeability layers that are not isolated
by impermeable barriers.
There is no barrier to stop crossflow in the reservoir and that is difference in comparison
with the water-out without crossflow.
Without crossflow: A common problem with multilayer production occurs when high –
permeability zone with a flow barrier (such as a shale bed) above and below is watered out
(“FINGERING”). The water source may be from an active aquifer or a waterflood injection
well.
Figure 12-3 Moving oil/water contact
Figure 12-4 a) Water coning; b) Water fingering
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12.3 Zonal Isolation Workflow
Figure 12-5 Zonal isolation Workflow
Zonal isolation methods:
• Squeeze cementing,
• Plug cementing,
• Selective cementing,
• Mechanically isolating by bridge plug,
• Mechanically isolating by retrievable packer,
• Mechanically isolating by cement plug,
• Mechanically isolating by sand plug, and
• Chemically isolating.
Mechanical tolls for zonal isolation are covered in Chapter 5 (Well Recompletion).
12.4 Remedial Cementing Technology
Before any remedial application, the existing downhole conditions, the cause and magnitude of the
problem, and the expected results from the application must be determined. Then the necessary
planning, design, and placement procedures can be engineered to match downhole conditions and
enable the operation to be completed. Whenever downhole problems, wellbore conditions, and
expected results cannot be defined or controlled, time and money will be wasted and the repair will
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
probably be unsuccessful. In addition, more well damage or total well loss may occur if the wrong
decisions are made.
Remedial cementing operations consist of two broad categories: plug cementing and squeeze
cementing.
Cement plug
The process of setting a cement plug involves the placement of a relatively small amount of cement
slurry an open or inside casing. Cement plug is a volume of cement designed to fill a length casing or
openhole and to seal vertical fluid movement.
Cement plugs are usually placed to:
• Abandon lower depleted zones on cased hole.

• Plug and abandon an entire well.
• Provide a kick off point sidetrack drilling operation.
• To provide a seal for open hole testing.
• To cure a lost circulation zone .
There are three common techniques for placing cement plugs:
• Balanced-plug method,
• Dump-bailer method, and
• Two-plug method.
Squeeze cementing is defined as the process of forcing cement slurry, under pressure, through holes
or splits in the casing/wellbore annular space. When the slurry is forced against a permeable
formation, the solid particles filter out on the formation face as the aqueous phase (cement filtrate
enters the formation matrix). A properly designed squeeze job causes the resulting cement filter cake
to fill the opening(s) between the formation and the casing. Upon curing, the cake forms a nearly
impenetrable solid. In cases where the slurry is placed into a fractured interval, the cement solids
might cause a filter cake on the fracture face and/or bridge the fracture.
Normally, the slurry injection is performed through casing perforations. There are two different
squeezes can be performed:
• Low-pressure squeeze: The bottomhole treating pressure is maintained below the formation
fracturing pressure.
• High-pressure squeeze: The bottomhole treating pressure exceeds the formation fracturing
pressure.
Within these two classes, there are two basic techniques (the Bradenhead (no tool) squeeze and the
squeeze tool technique) and tree pumping methods (the running squeeze, staged squeeze and the
hesitation squeeze). Each of these classifications and techniques is explained in the sections below.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
REMEDIAL
CEMENTING
Squeeze Cementing Plug Cementing
Low-pressure High-pressure
squeeze squeeze Placement Techniques
P < Pfrac P > Pfrac
Balanced plug Dump Bailer Two-plug
No Tool Squeeze Tool

Placement Techniques Placement Techniques
Retrievable Drillable
Bradenhead Bullhead Squeeze Cement
Packer Retainer
Pumping Methods
Continuous Staged Hesitated
Figure 12-6 WF Remedial cementing classification
12.4.1 Squeeze Cementing under Pressure below Formation Fracturing Pressure
Low-Pressure Squeeze
The aim of this operation is to fill the perforation cavities and interconnected voids with dehydrated
cement. The volume of cement is usually small, because no slurry is actually pumped into the
formation. Precise control of hydrostatic pressure of the cement column is essential, because
excessive pressure could result in formation breakdown.
With the development of controlled fluid loss cements and retrievable packers, the low-pressure
method has become the most efficient technique of squeeze cementing (Figure 12-7).
Low pressure, where the formation- is not broken down, is illustrated by the following equation:
𝑃𝑠 + 𝑃ℎ < 𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐 (12-1)
Where:
Ps - Surface pressure, psi
Ph - Hydrostatic pressure of all fluids, psi
Pfrac (BHTP) - Fracture pressure (Bottomhole treating pressure), psi.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Figure 12-7 Low pressure squeezing
With this technique, formation breakdown is avoided and pressure achieved by shutting down or
hesitating during the squeeze process. In this hesitation method, the cement is placed in a single
stage, but in alternate pumping and waiting periods. The controlled fluid loss properties of the slurry
cause filter cake to collect against the formation or inside the perforations while the parent slurry
remains in a fluid state inside the casing.
In low-pressure squeezes, it is essential that perforations and channels are clear of mud or other
solids. If the well has been producing, such openings may already be free of obstructions; however,
for newly completed wells, it may be necessary to clean the perforations before performing the
squeeze job.
Properly designed slurry will leave only a small node of cement filter cake inside the casing.
Improperly designed systems can result in excessive development of cement filter cake. This can
result in a complete bridging of the inside of the casing, with loss of pressure transmission to the
formation, and insufficient contact of the cement filter cake with the formation.
A low-pressure squeeze should be run whenever possible since this technique gives has the highest
success rate. The low-pressure squeeze requires only a small amount of cement slurry, while the
high-pressure technique usually involves a larger volume of slurry.
Squeezing low-pressure fractured zones
Low-pressure fractured zones are often difficult to squeeze because conditions are nearly always
considerably above the BHTR. This is shown by the equation:
𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐 ≪ 𝑃𝑠 + 𝑃 ℎ − 𝑃𝑓 (12-2)
Where:
Pfrac-fracture pressure, bar (psi)
Ps - Surface pressure, bar (psi)
Ph - Hydrostatic pressure of all fluids, bar (psi)
Pf - Friction pressure, bar (psi).
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Usually, more than one stage of cement is required. It is extremely important to squeeze with the
least possible standing pressure.
In order to control the process properly, a packer should be used and the best is to load backside
with clear fluid and maintain about 70 bar (1000 psi). Pump into the formation to establish an
injection pressure. As soon as all the cement slurry is properly mixed, open the valve to the
displacement tank and let the displacement flow by gravity into the tubing until flow almost stops.
Then start pumping very slowly.
Perhaps a better approach than over displacing cement would be to allow the slurry to gravitate
down the tubing until some amount of displacement fluid is in the tubing behind the slurry. The
surface valve between the pump and tubing could be closed, slowing the fall of slurry. The valve
could be opened to allow more displacement fluid. Once cement is over displaced, the only thing
that is certain is that another squeeze will have to be performed.
Return in four to six hours for another stage. A hesitation type squeeze (i.e., an alternate hesitation
and pumping where the hesitation is to encourage cement filter-cake buildup) will probably be
required to attain squeeze pressure. The first hesitation probably will not decrease the bleed-off
rate. At this point in the squeeze, it becomes an art rather than a science. Continue to alternately
pump and hesitate until pressure bleed-off rate decreases and until a standing pressure is finally
attained. The amount of slurry to pump and the hesitation time is a matter of judgment. Hold a
standing pressure for about five minutes (varies with conditions) then flow back. Pressure-up to the
original standing pressure and hold for another five minutes. Flow back, then unseat the packer and
reverse out the excess cement. Be careful not to exceed the squeeze pressure when reversing.
Zones taking fluid on a vacuum are probably naturally fractured or have extremely high permeability.
Fractures may rake cement indefinitely with hesitations during the squeeze process, causing nominal
pressure buildups, while extremely high permeability may require very few hesitations before a
cement filter cake has been formed.
Figure 12-8 Squeezing fractured zones
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
High-Pressure Squeeze
In some cases, a low-pressure squeeze of the perforations will not accomplish the objective of the
job. The channels behind the casing might not be directly connected to the perforations. Small cracks
or micro-annuli that may allow flow of gas do not allow the passage of cement slurry. In such cases,
these channels must be enlarged to accept a viscous solids-carrying fluid. In addition, many low
pressure operations cannot be performed if it is impossible to remove plugging fluids, or debris, from
ahead of the cement slurry or inside the perforations.
Placement of the cement slurry behind the casing is accomplished by breaking down the formation at
or close to the perforations (Figure 12-9). Fluids ahead of the slurry are displaced in the fractures,
allowing the slurry to fill the desired spaces. Further application of pressure dehydrates the slurry
against the formation walls, leaving all channels (from fractures to perforations) filled with cement
cake.
Figure 12-9 Probable result of high-pressure cement squeeze job
However, during a high-pressure squeeze, the location and orientation of the created fracture cannot
be controlled. Sedimentary rocks usually have an inherently low tensile strength, and are held
together primarily by the weight or the compressive forces of overlying formations.
These cohesive forces act in all directions to hold the rock together, but do not have the same
magnitude in all directions. When sufficient hydraulic pressure is applied against a formation, the
rock fractures along the plane are perpendicular to the direction of the least principal stress. A
horizontal fracture is created if the fracturing pressure is greater than the overburden pressure,
while a vertical fracture occurs if overburden pressure is greater than the formation fracture
pressure. The extent of the induced fracture is a function of the pump rate applied after the fracture
is initiated. The amount of slurry used depends on the way the operation is performed. High pump
rates generate large fractures; thus, large volumes of cement are required to fill them. A properly
performed, high-pressure squeeze should leave the cement as close to the wellbore as possible.
Drilling muds or other fluids with low fluid-loss rates should not be pumped ahead of the slurries. A
wash with a high fluid-loss rate, such as water or a weak hydrochloric acid solution, not only opens
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
smaller fractures but also cleans perforations and the cement path. The fracture initiation pressure is
lower using this type of spearhead than using non-penetrating fluids.
12.4.2 Factors Impacting on Selection of Placement Techniques for Remedial Cementing
Regardless of the technique used during a squeeze job, the cement slurry is subject to a differential
pressure against a filter of permeable rock.
The resulting physical phenomena are filtration, filter cake deposition and, in some cases, fracturing
of the formation. The slurry, subject to a differential pressure, loses part of its water to the porous
medium, and a cake of partially dehydrated and cement is formed.
The cement cake, forming against a permeable formation, has a high initial permeability (Figure
12-10). As the particles of cement accumulate the cake thickness and hydraulic, resistance increase;
as a result, the filtration rate decreases, and the pressure required dehydrating the cement’s slurry
further increases. The rate of filter-cake buildup is a function of four parameters:
• permeability of the formation,
• differential pressure applied,
• time, and
• capacity of the slurry to lose fluid at downhole conditions.
Figure 12-10 Cake permeability and dehydration rate of slurry
12.4.3 Best Practices for Design Cement Slurry
Lab tests are run prior to pumping cement in a well. Collecting accurate data prior to designing the
cement ensures a good cement design. The following factors will affect the cement slurry design:
• Well depth,
• Well temperature,
• Viscosity and water content of cement slurry,
• Strength of cement require to support the pipe,
• Quality of available mixing water,
• Type of workover fluid and density,
• Slurry density,
• Cement shrinkage,
• Permeability of set cement,
• Fluid loss requirements, and
• Resistance to corrosive fluids.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12.5 Remedial Cementing Placement Techniques
The type of plug to be placed dictates the plug length, cement composition performance parameters,
and placement technique. The plug length mainly varies with placement techniques. The balanced-
plug method, requires the most volume since the method is the most prone to cement
contamination. The dump bailer method, usually used for temporary zonal isolation, requires short
lengths since cement is accurately placed over a solid base created by the bridge plug.
12.5.1 Cementing Plugs
Balanced-plug method
The balanced plug method is one of most frequently used methods (Figure 12-11). It is a simple
method and requires typical cementing service equipment. This method begins by placing a desired
quantity of slurry into the workstring and displacing it near the bottom of the workstring. The slurry
is often batch mixed for better density and rheology control. In addition, an appropriate volume of
spacer or chemical wash is pumped ahead of and behind the cement slurry to avoid any detrimental
contamination of the cement by the well fluid.
The volumes of spacer or wash are such that their heights in the annulus and work string/ tubing are
the same. When the height of cement inside the workstring is calculated to be equal to the height of
the cement that has exited the work string and traveled up the annular space, displacement is
stopped. Thus, when spacer fluid density is taken into consideration, the fluid inside and outside the
work string is calculated to be at a balance point. Once the cement is placed, the work string is slowly
pulled from the plug (27 to 43 m/min, 90 to 140 ft/min) to minimize disturbance of the cement. The
work string is retrieved to a point 10 to 15 stands above the calculated top of the cement, and
reverse circulation is started to displace any cement clinging to the pipe. It is common practice to
slightly under displace the plug (usually by 300 to 500 liters) to avoid well fluid flowback on the rig
floor when breaking the pipe connection after placement. This also allows the cement plug to reach
hydrostatic balance. Once the plug is balanced, the pipe is slowly pulled out of the cement to a depth
above the plug, and excess cement is reversed out, a shown in Figure 12-11.
Figure 12-11 Cement plug placed by balanced-plug placement method
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Setting a proficient plug is difficult because the cement slurry is usually much denser than the well
fluids. This density difference produces a gravitational instability that, in turn, allows the cement to
migrate downward through the well fluid(s) where the cement becomes contaminated.
Measures that can reduce the severity of cement contamination include:
• Improvements in hole-cleaning and/or slurry design.

• An increase in slurry volume.
The cement should be of such kind to gel quickly, and sufficient volume should be pumped to
minimize contamination.
Dump-bailer method
A dump bailer is a cylindrical container that holds a measured quantity of cement slurry and is run
into the well on wireline. A mechanically or electrically triggered mechanism on the bottom of the
device can open the bailer, releasing its contents into the wellbore at any specified depth. This
method (Figure 12-12) usually requires a mechanical packer, which is placed at the point of the plug
bottom to minimize migration of the small volumes of cement The method is limited by the volume
of cement that can be placed and by the depth at which placement can occur. However, the dump
bailer method has the advantage of accurate placement of small quantities of cement (an interval
length in the range 3 to 20 m ).
Placing plugs with dump bailers has generally not been very successful because of contamination
with borehole fluids and inability to dump viscous/ gelled slurry (standard neat cement) from the
bailer. There does not seem to be any significant difference in plugging success between gravity and
positive displacement type bailers. Dilution and contamination by wellbore fluids causes most of the
small slurry volume from each bailer run to be ineffective. Short plugs can sometimes be effective,
but long ones requiring multiple bailer runs usually are not.
However, unless coiled tubing is used, through-tubing plugging must be done with a bailer, requiring
multiple runs. These slurries must be mixed at the proper density and be designed with certain
properties.
Since placing a long plug in the hole so that it will be competent and stay in place cannot normally be
done with a dump bailer, it should be done through a workstring by either the balanced or two-plug
method.
The dump-bailer method involves setting a cement basket, permanent bridge plug or sand pack
below the desired plug location. The bailer then dumps the cement above the basket, bridge plug or
sand pack. The dump-bailer method is generally used at shallower depths. Present day retarders,
however, have increased the depth range to over 3500 m. These special slurry systems are
engineered to assure "dumpability" after long descents in severe well conditions. Dump-bailer
cement slurries are also engineered to provide maximum hydraulic seal with excellent anchoring.
Since the bailer is run on a wireline, the advantages of this method are low cost and depth control.
The disadvantages are adapting the method for setting deep plugs, contaminating the cement and
the slowness of the method.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Figure 12-12 Cement plug placed by Dump Bailer
Two-plug method
The two-plug method involves running a top and a bottom wiper plug during placement of the
cement slurry (Figure 12-13). The bottom plug precedes the cement and wipes the inside of the
workstring, preventing contamination. The wiper plugs isolate the cement from wellbore fluids in the
work string.
When the bottom plug reaches the end of the workstring, it exits into the wellbore and the cement
moves up the annulus.
A special tool, called a plug catcher, can be run on the bottom of the workstring. The goal is to place
the plug catcher at the depth where the cement plug is desired. As the last of the cement exits the
plug catcher, the top plug seats in the plug catcher, resulting in a pump pressure increase, which
indicates that cement placement, is complete.
The design of the plug catcher allows the workstring to be pulled up after placing the cement. In that
way the cement is placed at the desired depth. Applying more pressure into the work-string will
pump the top plug down into a setting cage inside of the plug catcher. This then allows circulation
through the workstring.
To minimize contamination, centralizers and rotating scratchers can be put at the lower end of the
bottom work string or tail pipe. The rotation of the scratchers cleans bypassed working fluid or mud
and allows it to mix uniformly with the cement, thus eliminating fluid channels in the unset cement.
The two-plug method offers five main advantages:
• Minimizes the possibility of over displacing,

• Reduces mud and cement contamination,
• Produces a tighter, harder cement structure,
• Establishes the plug top more accurately,
• Costs less than other methods that may require several attempts to get a good plug.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Figure 12-13 Two plug method
12.5.2 Technology Workflow for Cement Plug Placement
The workflow for placement cement plug/bridge is shown in Figure 12-14 .
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
PROCEDURE / WORKFLOW FOR PLACEMENT

CEMENT PLUG OR BRIDGE
No Yes
RIH Tubing with Seating Nipple to
RIH Tubing with Seating Nipple to Cement Bridge? the dept of minimum 10m above the
the bottom of the open interval top of open interval
Set up the Plug in Seating Nipple

with Wireline tool
Test Tubing mechanical sealing

integrity with Pressure
Pi= 0.05Ht
(Ht- tubing depth)
Yes No
Pressure drop after
No 15 min
Tubing Test is OK
Yes Close preventer and rise pressure

in the well by Pi=0.05Ht
With WL Tool, Pull out the Plug
from Seating Nipple
Replace damaged part of Tubing

String Test Is OK, Well is sealed, WO can
be continued
Pump the Water, Cement slurry No

and Working fluid through the
Yes
tubing Fluid Inflow is
detected after 2
hours
No
Washout Cement slurry
by reverse circulation
Displace fluid from the well by
swabbing so Ph=0.5Ph
Yes POOH Tubing string, Scraper and
Bit
Very slowly rice up the tubing so Yes
the bottom of the tubing string be
at the depth of the top of cement No
plug Test mechanical sealing
Drill Cement Plug/Bridge and integrity by swabbing the well
Wash out the Well by Reverse
Circulation
By Reverse circulating with
working fluid wash out the
excess volume of Cement slurry.
Test cement bridge mechanical
The volume of the working fluid
RIH Tubing string, Scraper and sealing integrity
is V=1.5Vt(M3)
Bit
Yes
POOH 10 Pieces of Tubing

No
Good quality of cement plug/
POOH the Tubing string
bridge is placed on target/
designed depth
Allowing the cement enough time
to develop its bonding and
sealing properties
RIH Tubing, Check the Depth and Consistency

of the Cement Plug/Bridge – Procedure for
checking plug/bridge quality
Figure 12-14 Cement plug placement workflow

12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12.5.3 Squeeze Cementing Placement Techniques
Bradenhead Placement Technique
This technique, illustrated in (Figure 12-15), is normally used when low-pressure squeezing is
practiced, and when there are no doubts concerning the capacity of casing to withstand the squeeze
pressure. No special tools are involved, although a bridge plug may be required to isolate other open
perforations further downhole.
Open-ended tubing is run to the bottom of the zone to be cemented. Blowout preventer (BOP) rams
are closed over the tubing, and the injection test is performed. The cement slurry is subsequently
spotted in front of the perforations.
Once the cement is in place, the tubing is pulled out to a point above the cement top, the BOPs are
closed, and pressure is applied through the tubing. The Bradenhead squeeze is very popular because
of its simplicity.
The bradenhead squeeze technique is most aptly applied when repairing split or corroded casing. The
technique involves placing a cement plug below, across and above the interval to be squeezed. Then
the workstring is extracted to some distance (60-120m) above the cement plug. After reverse
circulating to assure that no cement is around the workstring, pressure is applied to the cement
column for dehydration until the cement is set and achieves approximately 100 psi compressive
strength. The maximum surface pressure to be put on the cement column should not exceed bottom
hole fracturing pressure less the hydrostatic pressure. The pressure may then be bled off while the
cement attains desired compressive strength prior to drilling out.
Bradenhead squeeze technique is very often applied when squeezing off perforations and
abandoning a depleted zone.
Figure 12-15 Braden head placement technique

12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Bullhead method
This technique can be used with or without downhole tools on the tubing. The wellhead annulus is
closed at the beginning and cement is pumped down the tubing by displacing into the formation
whatever fluid happens to be in the well.
When downhole problems prevent the hole from being circulated and cleaned, or the problem
cannot be addressed by conventional perforating and squeezing, the cement may have to be
bullheaded down the annulus. Although bullheading is not a true squeeze technique, it may be the
only way to seal off a troublesome zone. Bullheading pushes everything ahead of the cement into the
formation; therefore, care must be taken to ensure that incompatible fluids are not forced into
potential producing formations. Often, low-density, high-yield, inexpensive slurries are used, because
large slurry volumes and multiple attempts may be necessary to complete this process.
The detailed workflow of squeeze cementing without using squeeze tolls by pumping the cement
slurry direct through tubing is shown in Figure 12-16.
Squeeze Tool Placement Technique
This technique can be subdivided into two parts: the retrievable squeeze packer method, and the
drillable cement retainer method. The main objective of using squeeze tools is to isolate the casing
and wellhead while high pressure is applied downhole.
Tool selection and placement are critical since using the wrong tool may cause more problems to
occur after the squeeze. Two basic types of tools are used for squeeze cementing: retrievable and
no-retrievable (drillable). A wireline or mechanical bridge plug seals off the zone below the squeeze
interval to keep the slurry from being pumped, or from freefalling down the casing. Most plugs are
drilled after the job; however, some can be retrieved if they are not cemented in place. Sand is often
placed on top of the plug to prevent it from being cemented and to allow retrieval after the job. This
technique is especially useful for squeezing multiple zones. When they plan to reverse-circulate
excess cement after placement, operators use a retrievable packer above the zone. Retrievable
packers are equipped with bypass valves that permit complete circulation of the wellbore (1) while
the tool string is being run in the hole, (2) after the packer has been set, or (3) during reverse
circulating after the job. This circulation capability prevents excessive pressure from being applied to
the formation while the tool string is being run into in the hole, and it prevents the well from being
swabbed when the packer is released and retrieved. Retrievable packers can be either tension- or
compression-set and can be run on wireline or a workstring. Drillable packers or retainers can also be
used; however, double check-valves are built into these tools to prevent unwanted flow from either
direction. Once the packer is set, a workstring is strung into the retainer, and then cement is pumped
and squeezed below the retainer. The workstring is then pulled out, and the retainer is closed.
Retainers are often used to help prevent pressure reductions in the wellbore from causing cement
flowback either after the squeeze job or when the cement is separating zones that have a high
pressure differential. Setting a retainer between the zones isolates the intervals and permits to
squeeze the lower zone and the upper zones in one application.
Retrievable Squeeze Packer Method
Retrievable packers with different design features are available (Chapter 5, WELL RECOMPLETION).
Compression- or tension-set packers are used in squeeze cementing. As shown (Figure 12-17), they
have a bypass valve to allow the circulation of fluids while running in the hole, and once the packer is
set. This feature allows the cleaning of the tools after the cement job, and the reversing out of excess
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
slurry without excessive pressure; it also prevents a piston or swabbing effect while running in or out
of the hole.
Procedure of Squeeze Cementing Through

Tubing with Pressure Lower than Fracturing
Pressure Squeeze cement slurry in open
Interval with pressure lower than
fracturing pressure
RIH Tubing with seating nipple
to the bottom of the interval witch
should be closed
Leave the well under final treatment
pressure for period 4-6 hours
Set up plug in seating nipple with
wireline tool
Bleed of pressure, open preventer
and POOH tubing string
Test tubing mechanical sealing integrity
with maximum pressure witch is expect at
the wellhead during cementing job
RIH tubing string, scraper and
drilling bit
Yes
Tubing test OK
No After cement thickening (typically 4-6 hours-
at least minimum 30 min greater than time
required to place cement and reverse out
Replace damaged part of the tubing
excess cement slurry volume) check the depth
string and consistency of the cement plug by
increasing the weight up to 5tons
With wireline tool pull out the plug from

D seath No
Is cement plug
consistent?
Connect cement displacement pump
Yes
and Well
No
Is the depth of
Test mechanical integrity of surface cement OK?
injection lines with maximum pressure
witch is expect at the wellhead during Yes
cementing job
Test mechanical sealing integrity by
No swabbing the well Ph=0.5Pr
Surface injection
lines test OK
Yes Drill cement plug and repeat
cementing job
Set up cement plug No
Depth
of cement
Replace damaged part of the surface plug is shallower
injection lines than designed
dept
Yes
Yes Wash Drill cement plug to the designed

Pull up tubing to dept of out the excess depth
cement slurry flushing volume of cement
slurry
Test
No No
By reverse circulating with mechanical
working fluid, wash out sealing integrity
Pull up tubing above is OK
the excess volume of
the depth of cement
cement slurry. The volume Yes
slurry and water
of the working fluid is
column
V=1.5Vt(M3)
Perforate new interval and
POOH tubing string,
complete the well for
scraper and drilling bit
Close preventer and production
casing valve
Figure 12-16 Squeezing cement through tubing with pressure lower than formation fracturing pressure
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
The principal advantage of the retrievable packer over the drillable retainer is its ability to set and
release many times, thus allowing more flexibility. Retrievable bridge plugs can be run in one trip
with the packer, and retrieved after the slurry has been reversed or drilled out. Most operators drop
one or two sacks of frac sand on top of the retrievable bridge plug before the job, to prevent the
settling of cement over the releasing mechanism.
Another important advantage of using retrievable packers is that they are usually full-opening tools.
This allows for running wireline and other tools through and below the packer (i.e., perforating and
logging tools, wiper balls, etc.).
Figure 12-17 Bridge plug with cement packer
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Drillable Cement Retainer
Cement retainers are used instead of packers to prevent backflow when no cement dehydration is
expected, or when a high negative differential pressure may disturb the cement cake. In certain
situations, potential communication with upper perforations makes the use of a packer a risky
operation. When cementing multiple zones, the cement retainer isolates the lower perforations, and
subsequent zone squeezing can be performed without waiting for the slurry to set. Cement retainers
are drillable packers provided with a valve which is operated by a stinger at the end of the work
string and can be set either on wireline, tubing or coiled tubing (Figure 12-18).
A drillable retainer gives the operator more confidence in setting the packer closer to the
perforations. This is also advantageous in that a lower volume of fluid below the packer is displaced
through the perforations ahead of the cement slurry.
Drillable bridge plugs are normally used to isolate the casing below the zone to be treated. Their
design is similar to that of cement retainers. They can be run with a wireline or with the work string.
Bridge plugs do not allow flow through the tool.
Figure 12-18 Drillable cement retainer set and/or operated on wireline, tubing or coiled tubing
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12.5.4 Pumping Techniques
Running Squeeze Pumping Method
During a running squeeze procedure, the cement slurry is pumped continuously until the final
desired squeeze pressure (which may be above or below the fracture pressure) is attained. After
pumping stops, the pressure is monitored and, if the pressure falls due to additional filtration at the
cement/formation interface, more slurry is pumped to maintain the final surface squeeze pressure.
This continues until the well maintains the squeeze pressure for several minutes without additional
injection of cement slurry. The volume of slurry injected is usually ranging from 1.5 to 15 m3 (10 to
100 barrels).
Staging Technique
Staging is sometimes referred to as the batch method. When the pumping process fails to result in
reaching the desired squeeze pressure, it is usually over displaced (put away) and allowed to set up
(harden, or at least develop sufficient gel strength until it cannot be pumped). Then another
stage/batch of cement is used to try again. The process is repeated until the squeeze pressure is
obtained, which may or may not happen after many successive attempts.
Hesitation Squeeze Pumping Method
In this process, pumping is stopped occasionally for short periods of time during the pressure
building process to allow the cement slurry to dehydrate slightly and build a filter cake against the
exposed rock. As these voids are plugged, they allow pressure to be increased in the next
pressurization period, so that the liquid cement slurry that remains can be placed into new voids at
the higher pressure. This maximizes the opportunity to get slurry into all the voids, which in turn
helps achieve the desired squeeze pressure with the first batch of cement and eliminate the need for
additional stages. It is a useful technique in all wells, and is usually required for low permeability
formations where cement filter-cake buildup is very slow.
This procedure involves the intermittent application of pressure (at a rate of 1.5 to 3 m3/min, 1/4 to
1/2 bbl/min), separated by an interval of 10 to 20 minutes for pressure leak-off due to filtrate loss to
the formation. This allows time for the cement which has been placed into the perforations tunnel to
dehydrate against the formation. After the pressure has stabilized or after 10 minutes, pressure up
on the cement plug again. Continue to pump until the pump pressure begins to move the cement
again i.e. the pump pressure will stabilize. Pump 3 to 6 m3 bbl after the cement begins to move, and
then shut down the pump. It is required to wait until the pressure bleeds back and begins to stabilize
or a maximum of 10 minutes. Continue this staging process until the cement will no longer move (i.e.
the pump pressure reaches the fracturing pressure of the zone or the burst strength of the tubulars).
The initial leak-off is normally fast because there is no filter cake. As the cake builds up, and the
applied pressure increases, the filtration periods become longer and the difference between the
initial and final pressures become smaller, until at the end of the job the pressure leak-off becomes
negligible (Figure 12-19). The volumes of slurry necessary for this technique are usually much less
than those required for a running squeeze.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Figure 12-19 A typical pressure chart of a hesitation squeeze
Building Final Squeeze Pressure
In reality, the conditions within the formation being squeezed will determine which is most likely to
occur. A properly executed injection test will reveal this. A loose injection profile indicates that
hesitation and pump cycles are probably needed to achieve a successful squeeze. A loose injection
profile can also be a candidate for a running squeeze in cases when injection is the consequence of
high permeability. Frequently it is difficult to distinguish between permeability and fractures from
the surface. A tight injection profile will indicate a running squeeze is likely. However, these trends
are not hard and fast rules.
A competent hesitation designed and tested slurry can easily obtain a running squeeze, if the
formation is conducive to a running squeeze and is not damaged in the process. Slurries without
sufficient fluid loss control and/or not tested on a hesitation schedule are not effective when
hesitating and may dehydrate prematurely. These type slurries are also not effective at obtaining a
running squeeze. They may dehydrate prematurely and block slurry from reaching the tighter areas
within the squeeze zone. Surface indications can show a high final pressure and what appears to be a
good squeeze. Often the pressure is exerted against a bridge of dehydrated cement, preventing the
transmission of pressure to the formation.
The hesitation test verifies that the slurry can be stopped and started again any number of times
while remaining fluid and pumpable. Even when it is certain that a running squeeze is going to occur,
the first thing to be done after reaching the maximum allowable pressure is to stop the pump. The
pressure is monitored to see if it is going to hold or leak off. If it holds, a running squeeze has
occurred and it is time to reverse out the excess cement in the workstring.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Figure 12-20 Squeeze cementing through tubing, packer or cement retainer
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Figure 12-21 Squeeze cementing through tubing, packer or cement retainer (continuation)
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Figure 12-22 Squeeze cementing through tubing, packer or cement retainer (continuation)
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12.5.5 Squeeze Cementing Placement Techniques
Figure 12-23 Isolating of the production interval (one zone)
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Figure 12-24 Isolating of the production interval (two or more zones)
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12.6 Materials Used for Remedial Cementing
Cement
Portland cement is used during almost all well cementing jobs. It is a finely divided and highly
reactive powder. The vigorous hydration of Portland cement during initial mixing, as well as the
changeable slurry properties during placement, complicates the design of cement mixing and
pumping equipment.
Portland cement is usually stored in silos at a central storage location. Alternatively, it is packaged in
metric (50-kg) sacks, and in so-called “big bags” (1 to 1.5 metric tons generally), or in larger
quantities (truck, railway car, or ship).
Water
Fresh water is normally used for cementing onshore wells, and seawater for offshore locations.
However, one must be aware that fresh waters are often not very “fresh.” Inorganic salts and organic
plant residues are frequently present in significant quantities. Such materials are known to affect the
performance of Portland cement systems.
Additives
Additives modify the behavior of the cement system, ideally allowing successful slurry placement,
rapid compressive strength development and adequate zonal isolation during the lifetime of the well.
12.6.1 Cement Types (Standard and Special Types)
Portland cement
Portland cement is by far the most important binding material in terms of quantity produced; indeed,
it is possible that it may be the most ubiquitous manufactured material. Portland cement is used in
nearly all well cementing operations.
Portland cement is the most common example of Hydraulic cement. Such cements set and develop
compressive strength as a result of hydration, which involves chemical reactions between water and
the compounds present in the cement, not upon a drying-out process. The setting and hardening
occur not only if the cement/water mixture is left to stand in air, but also if it is placed in water. The
development of strength is predictable, uniform and relatively rapid. The set cement also has low
permeability, and is nearly insoluble in water; therefore, exposure to water does not destroy the
hardened material. Such attributes are essential for a cement to achieve and maintain zonal
isolation.
API Classification System
• Class A: Intended for use from surface to a depth of 1830 m (6000 ft), when special
properties are not required.
• Class B: Intended for use from surface to a depth of 1830 m (6000 ft), when conditions
require moderate to high sulfate resistance. Has a lower C3A content than a class A.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
• Class C: Intended for use from surface to a depth of 1830 m (6000 ft), when conditions
require high early strength. Class C is available in all three degrees of sulfate resistance. To
achieve high early strength, the C3S content and the surface area are relatively high.
Classes D, E and F are also known as“retarded cements,” intended for use in deeper wells. The
retardation is accomplished by significantly reducing the amount of faster-hydrating phases (C3S and
C3A), and increasing the particle size of the cement grains.
• Class D: Intended for use at depths from 5,000 ft (1,520 m) to 10,000 ft (3,050 m), under
conditions of moderately high temperatures and pressures.
• Class E: Intended for use from 6000 ft (1830 m) to 14,000 ft (4,260 m) depth, under
conditions of high temperatures and pressures.
• Class F: Intended for use from 10,000 ft (3,050 m) to 16,000 ft (4,870 m) depth, under
conditions of extremely high temperatures and pressures.
Classes G and H were developed in response to the improved technology in slurry acceleration and
retardation by chemical means. The manufacturer is prohibited from adding special chemicals, such
as glycols or acetates, to the clinker. Such chemicals improve the efficiency of grinding, but have
been shown to interfere with various cement additives.
• Class G: Intended for use as a basic well cement

• Class H: surface to 8,000 ft (2,440 m) depth as manufactured, or can be used with
accelerators and retarders to cover a wide range of well depths and temperatures. No
additions other than calcium sulfate or water, or both, shall be blended with the clinker
during manufacture of Class G and H well cements.
The chemical compositions of Classes G and H are essentially identical. The principal difference is the
surface area. Class H is significantly coarser than Class G, as evidenced by their different water
requirements.
Table 12-1 Application of API Classes of Cement
Thixotropic Cement
Thixotropic cement is intended to control loss of whole cement into a fractured or highly permeable
zone, such that a seal around the wellbore can be obtained. It consists of a mixture of API Class G
cement modified with about 6 to 8% sulfate, which provides pumpable slurry as long as it is being
moved but which develops high gel strength rapidly when not agitated. In application, it is usually
spotted over the zone to be sealed off, and a shortened ‘’hesitation squeeze’’ technique used to
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
obtain a pressure buildup. A more recent thixotropic type cementing formulation contains about
896.364 kg/m3 (1 Ib/sk) of gum cross linked with an organic material, dry-blended with API Class G
Cement. Also, thixotropic cement can be used to squeeze a low-pressure zone. This special slurry is
pumpable as long as tie slurry is moved, but its thixotropic (or high gel strength) properties provide a
rapid set and strength buildup when it is not agitated or moved. This property may initiate bridging
or plugging of fractures resulting in a rapid pressure buildup, especially during a hesitation squeeze.
Thixotropic cement may be used as lead slurry followed by high fluid loss slurry.
Two-Stage Sodium Silicate-Cement System
A second technique designed to plug a fractured or highly permeable zone involves a two-stage
treatment. The first stage is a sodium silicate-like polymer solution containing fibrous material
and/or sand for bridging. This mixture forms a stiff gel when it comes in contact with formation
saltwater (or injected saltwater). This, in effect, temporarily seals the formation permeability, such
that the second stage, consisting of normal squeeze cement slurry, is contained in the vicinity of the
wellbore to provide a permanent shut-off.
Silica Flour, or Silica Sand, is normally used at a concentration of 35% by weight of the cement when
the cement slurry will be exposed to flowing temperatures of 110°C (230°F), or greater. At 110 -
176.6°C (230-350°F), silica flour reacts faster than silica sand. Above 176.6°C (350°F), reaction rates
are practically the same, but silica sand is easier to mix.
Diesel Oil Cement (DOC)
The purpose of diesel oil cement is to control extraneous formation water. DOC consists of Portland
cement mixed in diesel oil or kerosene (no water) with a surfactant to improve wetting of cement
particles. The cement will not set up until it is contacted with water, hopefully from the extraneous
water zone. Successful application of DOC requires that it be properly placed in contact with the
water zone and that it not contact water from the producing zone. As a practical matter, this
requirement limits the usefulness of diesel oil cement systems.
Ultrafine Cement
Ultrafine cement or Micro Matrix (trade name) has an average particle size of about 4-5 microns,
compared with about 100 microns for normal Class A or G cement. In laboratory tests ultrafine
cement particles penetrate opening as small as 5 microns (0.002 in)—or clean sands as fine as 100
meshes. Thus, ultrafine slurries may have possibilities for squeeze cementing small-opening casing
leaks, small channels or fractures, and gravel packs. With greater particle surface area strength
buildup is more rapid than normal cement slurries under similar curing conditions.
It should be recognized that in formations having larger pore openings or fractures, the cement
particles (not just the filtrate) may enter the pore channels to plug off some distance away from the
wellbore. With a normal cement particle size, the particles bridge off or form filter cake on the
formation face. All that enters the formation pore system is the cement filtrate which is usually
considered to be non-damaging. This may not be true with ultrafine cement slurries.
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12.6.2 Foamed Cement
Foamed cement is a fine dispersion of gas (usually nitrogen) in cement slurry, which contains a
foaming surfactant and foam stabilizer. Foam quality is the ratio between the volume occupied by
the gas and the total volume of the foam, expressed as a percentage. Foamed cements are dilute
foam where spherical bubbles are separated by viscous film and the quality is less than 50%.
Foam density is dependent on final slurry property requirement. Cement slurry with normal water
density ranges between 1761.45 - 1977.14 kg/m3 (14.7 to 16.5ppg) require high nitrogen volume
whereas extended slurries need less gas. Common foam densities applied in the field are from 838-
1437 kg/m3 (7 to 12 ppg) with compressive strengths of 35-83 bar (500 to 1200 psi, respectively.
Because of the thixotropic nature of the foamed cement, it resists in-flow from the formation. The
cost of these treatments compares favorably with those using perlite or microsphere cements. Major
savings are achieved resulting from reductions in rig time, because the need for the setting of lost-
circulation plugs is eliminated.
12.6.3 Cement Additives
Eight categories of additives are generally recognized:

1. Accelerators: chemicals which reduce the setting time of a cement system, and increase the
rate of compressive strength development.
Calcium Chloride is the most common accelerator used. Calcium Chloride does not increase
the final strength of cement and may perhaps lower the final compressive strength a little.
Most fluid loss additives do not work well with Calcium Chloride in the cement slurry. Sodium
Silicate is recommended if low fluid loss is required with fluid loss control in most cases.
Special mixing is required for sodium silicate slurries:
• if accelerator is used then the accelerator must be added first.
• if a retarder is to be used then the Sodium Silicate should be added first and
the retarder must be added last.
Accelerated slurries are also used as a restriction to help attain a squeeze. Slurries can be
accelerated to set in 15 minutes using control-setting gypsum cement. Two-phase slurry can
be used with accelerated lead slurry followed by high fluid loss slurry. The intent is to slow
down or restrict the accelerated slurry squeeze with the high fluid loss slurry. Fluid loss
characteristics may be adjusted on the tail-in slurry depending on the permeability of the
formation. Accelerated slurries increase the risk of premature setting, so use them
cautiously.
2. Retarders: chemicals which extend the setting time of a cement system.
Lignosulfonates and their derivatives make up the majority of the cement retarders for use in
low and medium temperatures. (25°C– 105°C) Higher temperature retarders are composed
of Polyhydroxy Organic Acids and sugar derivatives.
3. Extenders: materials which lower the density of a cement system, and/or reduce the
quantity of cement per unit volume of set product (decreasing the total cost).
Pre-hydrated Bentonite is the best example of cost saving of neat cement slurry. However, if
low fluid loss is required, the cement can become more expensive as the increased water in
the system requires more chemicals to prevent it from escaping from the slurry. Sodium
Silicates have also been used to lower the density of cement but are more expensive than
pre-hydrated Bentonite.
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4. Weighting Agents: materials which increase the density of a cement system.

Hematite (a form of Iron Oxide) is normally used to densify cement, but manganese
tetraoxide is also available (Micromax). This product has a lower specific gravity than
Hematite but is spherical and small in size. It has two primary advantages:
• it is ground small (less than 1 micron) which allows it to be blended in the
mix water,
• it is spherical which makes the gel strengths much lower, thus reducing the
viscosity.
Weighting Materials should be used only if additional cement density is required to contain
abnormally high formation pressures. It is not recommended at all to use thin slurries when
using weighting materials due to excessive settling problems.
5. Dispersants (Friction Reducers): chemicals which reduce the viscosity of cement slurry.
The functions of dispersants are:
• to thin the slurry in order to reduce the turbulent flow rate or enable
easy mixing of slurry.
• to densify cement slurry (increase the solid-to-liquid ratio).
• to aid in fluid loss control.
Dispersants, and/or friction reducers, should be used only if the slurry must be thickened
without the use of weighting materials.
6. Fluid-Loss Control Agents: materials which control the loss of the aqueous phase of a cement
system to the formation.
This class of cement chemicals and gas migration additives are generally the most expensive
part of the cementing invoice. If high fluid loss occurs the following can happen:
• Premature dehydration of slurry, which can cause annulus plugging and incomplete
placement of slurry.
• Changes in slurry flow properties (rheology) and increased slurry density.
• Damage to production zones by cement filtrate.
7. Lost Circulation Materials (LCM): materials which control the loss of cement slurry to weak
or vugular formations.
8. Specialty Additives: miscellaneous additives, e.g., antifoam agents, fibers, bridging agents
etc.
Anti-Foaming agents are used only if slurry aeration is expected to present a mixing problem,
or a downhole density problem. Anti-Foaming should be used when mixing salt cement
systems or using sea water as mixing water.
Bridging agents, such as Gilsonite (a natural, resinous hydrocarbon or natural asphalt),
perlites (naturally occurring as siliceous rock, that when heated to a suitable point in its
softening range, expands from four to twenty times its original volume) and sand has been
used with good success. Perhaps the best of these is Gilsonite. Many combinations have
been tried and they all may be acceptable for a particular situation. For instance, two-phase
slurry may be used. The lead blurry may have 5 lb of Gilsonite per sack, followed by neat
cement. The intent here is to bridge oil with the lead slurry and squeeze with its tailin slurry.
Some people take an entirely different approach. They run the neat slurry ahead of the
bridging agent. The intent is to be sure to get some cement into the formation before a
squeeze occurs. If this is the situation, then the design was proper.
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9. Non-Foamers
The function of non-foamer (defoamers) in cement slurry is to release trapped air in the
slurry as it is being mixed. Entrapped air causes viscosity increases, which make the cement
slurry more difficult to mix. Entrapped air also makes the density of the slurry more difficult
to measure. The addition of excess non-foamer can stabilize foam. Bentonite cement slurries
usually require twice much non-foamer than conventional cements. Latex cements may
require as much as five times more non-foamer than conventional cement slurries.
12.6.4 Spacers and Washes
There are two major concerns related to the success of cement placement. Cleaning of perforations
and surrounding voids. Solids-carrying fluids or drilling mud must be removed from the perforation
channels and the formation face to allow a proper dehydration process and complete fill-up.
Slurry properties, such as fluid loss, thickening time, and viscosity, can be modified by cement
contact with completion fluids. A small quantity of contaminated slurry, having a high fluid-loss rate
or high viscosity, may readily block channels and prevent optimum slurry placement.
In low-pressure squeezing, treatments related to the first point are performed as a separate stage.
Usually, cement slurry contamination is avoided by pumping a compatible water spacer ahead of and
behind the cement. If the cement is not spotted, a chemical wash or weak acid solution may be
squeezed ahead of the slurry, separated by a compatible fluid.
Cement properties for various squeeze and plugging applications are outlined in Table 12-2 and Table
12-3.
Table 12-2 Cement properties for various types of squeeze application
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Table 12-3 Cement properties for various types of plug application
12.6.5 Laboratory Procedure for Testing Cement, Slurry, Foamed Cement
Types of Tests
The cement lab routinely performs the following test on all field cement jobs:
• Thickening Time (pumping time),
• Fluid Loss (only if the slurry contains fluid loss additives),
• Free Fluid (free water, vertical or 45 degrees),
• Rheology (determine turbulent flow rate),
• Sonic Strength (compressive strength), and
• Slurry Density (pressurized density balance).
The cement lab can perform the following additional tests at the special request:
• Static Gel Strength,
• Settling (density settling),
• Expansion (both linear and radial),
• Cement-Spacer-Mud compatibility,
• Gas Migration Potential, and
• Cement ROP (Kick-off/Sidetrack Plugs).
Cement Samples should be sent for testing for the following reasons:
• Forman or Engineer suspects a problem with cement additives or mix water.
• Service company lab not functioning.
• BHST > 100°C.
• Abnormal well conditions that may adversely affect the cement job.
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12.7 Models for Planning and Designing Remedial Cementing Jobs in OMV
Petrom
Squeeze Job Planning
Planning is the most important single step in any squeeze operation. Well conditions should be
studied and objectives should be carefully established as squeeze cementing can be complicated and
expensive. Once the need for a squeeze cement job has been confirmed, planning, design, and
execution procedures can be combined into a successful program. The fourth and final step in any
squeeze-cementing operation is a proper evaluation of the successful application. The guidelines
presented in Table 12-4 can be used to complete these processes.
Table 12-4 Remedial cementing planning, designing and executing processes
Process of Designing a Cement Squeeze Treatment

Process What to do Notes
Planning • Determine the problem and reason The most important basic rule in job
to squeeze and/or plug. planning is to determine the problem.
• Analyze the wellbore conditions. This is absolutely essential. If some sort
• Select the appropriate squeeze and of understanding about the problem
plug placement technique. cannot be reached, a diagnostic
procedure should be initiated.
Designing • Select the proper tools for squeeze Many factors affect squeeze
and plug. applications; however, when the
• Select all other fluids used in the problem is diagnosed properly and a
process, i.e., perforating. good plan is prepared, a squeeze and
• Fluids, acids, cement spacers, plug cement design can be a fairly
completion fluids, etc. simple process.
• Design the cement slurry to correct The design of the job starts with the
the problem. definition of the objective. Setting a plug
• Prepare a detailed job procedure. for lost circulation is quite different from
setting a plug to abandon a depleted
zone or to plug back a well.
Executing • Prepare the wellbore and clean all Once the plan has been established and
voids to be squeezed. the calculations have been double
• Set the squeeze tools at the desired checked, the last phase of the squeeze
locations. program is the implementation of
• Set equipment and mix the slurry squeeze and plug workflows and
properly. procedures.
• Place the cement and apply the The detailed workflows and detailed
squeeze pressure. procedures for squeeze cement or using
• Hold the cement in place until it cement plugs should be applied.
hardens.
• Allow enough WOC time to test or
log the squeeze job.
Evaluating • Perform positive and negative The primary quality control and job
pressure test. evaluation for a of remedial cementing
• Perform bond log. operation is the application of hydraulic
• Acoustic log. pressure to the treated interval. A
• Temperature profile. cement bond-log (CBL) or evaluation
• Radioactive tracers. tool (Cement-Sheath Evaluation) can
measure annular cement fill,
compressive strength, and the bond
integrity of the cement.
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12.7.1 Chemical Methods for Water Control
Alternative approach to Workover is to squeeze (bullheading) all zones with one of the available
Organic Crosslinked Polymer (OCP) - Sealants or Relative Permeability Modificator (RPM).
Polymer gels often represent a valid and economic alternative to mechanical isolation, but, their
application requires the water zones to be identified and isolated. Therefore, in micro-layered
formations, excessive water rates can determine a premature abandonment when no efficient and
low-risk water control technologies are identified.
Water Shutoff by Relative Permeability Modifier (RPM) Polymer Treatments
An option, that can be considered when conventional approaches cannot be applied, is the injection,
into all open intervals, of chemicals that selectively reduce the permeability to water (RPM
bullheading treatments).
The systems that are most commonly used for this purpose are solutions of water-soluble, high
molecular weight polymers that adsorb onto the pore surface and change the flow properties of the
porous medium. The main advantages of this approach are:
• Low cost (the chemical is used in limited quantities and the treatment does not require zone
isolation).
• Low risk (the polymer reduces the water permeability without plugging the formation).
• Low environmental impact.
Although the application of these treatments in the field is relatively simple, field tests generally can
be carried out in the absence of reliable criteria to select candidate wells and chemicals. This trial-
and-error approach is responsible for the moderate success ratio and for the difficulties in
interpreting filed-test results.
Starting from the main operative questions key mechanisms that operate at the different scales in
the reservoir should be defined and analyzed.
Well Candidate and Chemical Selection

From the operator’s point of view one of the most important needs in the field application of RPM
treatments is to be able to formulate reliable answers to the following key questions:
• Will selected well respond to an RPM treatment?
• What chemical system and operating conditions (volumes, flow rates, etc.) will give optimal
results?
This implies the availability of rules to be applied in each particular case on the basis of field data.
The development of such reliable criteria requires systematic study of the key physical and chemical
mechanisms that operate in the different phases of a treatment (selection of the chemical, injection,
post-treatment).
The best candidates are wells in multi-layered matrix formations with one or more layers that are still
saturated with hydrocarbons. If water is mobile in all productive layers the benefits from an RPM
treatment can be of limited duration because it may cause significant reductions in bottomhole
pressure.
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Water Shut-off by Organically Crosslinked Polymer (OCP) Treatments

The OCP system is based on a copolymer of acrilamide and t-butyl acrylate (PAtBA) crosslinked with
polyetylenamine (PEI). It is applied as solutions for water coning, / cresting, high-permeability
streaks, fracture shut-off and or casing-leak repair. The OCP system has been successfully applied to
sandstone, carbonate, and shale formation in need of conformance treatment.
This method is applied in the cases where water and hydrocarbon zones are clearly separated.
The principle of operation of this technique is to pump the polymer system into the formation
around the wellbore and allow it to propagate through the rock matrix. In-situ gelation takes place,
plugging pore spaces and channels, thus, limiting undesired water flow.
This system has a temperature range from 21 to 177oC. The sealant system components are easily
diluted in the mixing brine. The cross-linking process is activated by the temperature of the well. The
crosslinking rate is dependent on temperature, salinity, pH, and base polymer and crosslinker
concentrations. The sealant system offers the following advantages:
It is low-viscosity fluid system (20-30 cP) that can be easily injected deep into matrix of the formation
without underground hydrolysis and precipitation. It is well-known that chrome-based system tends
to hydrolyze and precipitate, especially with increasing pH and temperature. It provides adequate
pumping times in environments up to 177 °C to obtain adequate placement time before the system
undergoes the phase change from liquid to a three-dimensional gel structure. This transition time is
completely controllable and predictable with the crosslinker concentration for a given temperature.
It provides effective permeability reduction and sufficient strength for resisting drawdown pressure
inside the wellbore and stopping water. The system provides sufficient strength for resisting
differential pressure of at least 172 bar (2500 psi). Thermal stability of OCP has been tested up to
191oC and it is not sensitive to formation fluids, lithology, and/or heavy metals.
This kind of polymer tends to selectively enter and seal off the more permeable zones, which are
probably producing the highest volume of water.
12.8 Downhole Equipment for Remedial Cementing
Remedial cementing tools are mechanical and/or hydraulic devices that are used down-hole to assist
in cement slurry placement, isolation, fluid control and pressure control during the remedial
cementing process (especially when performing the various functions of squeeze cementing). They
are used to expedite the placement of relatively small volumes of cement slurry through large
volumes of well fluids into a specific, targeted area within a long interval of cased or open wellbore.
Downhole tools are used to isolate this specific area from the rest of the wellbore or to isolate, or
protect, other areas in the well from the cementing process performed in that area. They are used to
control the flow path of cement slurry; spacer fluids and well fluids during the placement and
pressure building phases of the squeeze job. Tools are used to direct the pressure application to the
squeeze zone and prevent its application where it is not needed.
The basic tools in a squeeze tool operator's arsenal are squeeze packers. As mentioned previously,
squeeze packers are grouped in one of two main categories: retrievable squeeze packers and
drillable squeeze packers.
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Retrievable squeeze packers are run, set and retrieved on a workstring. They are constructed of
mostly non-drillable steel alloys. They could be millable, if there is enough time and money (but, then
again, maybe not). Rubberize or rubber-like elastomer sealing elements provide the annular
isolation. Retrievable squeeze packers are intended to be released and pulled from the well after the
job is complete. The cementing process must be planned and executed with their removal being
paramount in importance. Retrievable squeeze packers are often referred to as simply packers.
Drillable squeeze packers, also known as cement retainers, can be run and set on a workstring or
wireline. Obviously, the drillable squeeze packers are constructed of all drillable materials, usually
aluminum alloys, brass, rubber or rubber-like materials, etc. Packer slips are commonly made of
materials like cast iron that are hard so they will bite against the casing wall but will break up into
small pieces when drilled by a bit or mill. When well conditions or required procedures threaten the
ability to remove a retrievable packer, a drillable packer should be used instead.
Drillable squeeze packers (cement retainers) are not to be confused with more recently developed
drillable service packers. Drillable service packers were developed to fill the need for a drillable
packer that performs multiple service functions generally undertaken with retrievable and
permanent packers. Drillable service packers offer the advantage of larger bore sizes with the
running and operational conveniences of the cement retainer. This includes squeeze cementing.
However, they have not replaced the highly reliable retrievable squeeze packers or cement retainers.
For 90% or more of squeeze jobs that utilize a squeeze packer, the job can be completed using either
a retrievable squeeze packer or drillable cement retainer. There are, however, a small percentage of
squeeze jobs where the downhole conditions demand the use of one over the other and selecting
the wrong one can yield disappointing results.
There is a vast array of complimentary and accessory tools that have specific functions, which can be
employed on remedial cement jobs. Most should not be run routinely but only be used when the
need exists. Bridge plugs are mechanical isolation tools that are available in retrievable or drillable
models. Bridge plugs are just that and cannot be pumped through. There is a wide assortment of
products and brand names for service tools that perform the same or similar functions. Care must be
exercised to prevent the misapplication of a particular tool.
A wireline or mechanical bridge plug seals off the zone below the squeeze interval to keep the slurry
from being pumped in, or from freefalling down the casing. Most plugs are drilled after the job.
However, some can be retrieved if they are not cemented in place. Sand is often placed on top of the
plug to prevent it from being cemented and to allow retrieval after the job. This technique is
especially useful for squeezing multiple zones.
When the plan is to reverse-circulate excess cement after placement, operators use a retrievable
packer above the zone. Retrievable packers are equipped with bypass valves that permit complete
circulation of the wellbore (1) while the tool string is being run in the hole, (2) after the packer has
been set, or (3) during reverse circulating after the job.
This circulation capability prevents excessive pressure from being applied to the formation while the
tool string is being run into in the hole, and it prevents the well from being swabbed when the packer
is released and retrieved. Retrievable packers can be either tension- or compression-set and can be
run on wireline or a workstring/tubing. A fiberglass or aluminum tailpipe can be attached to the
bottom of the packer to allow the cement slurry to be spotted close to the zone while the packer is
set well above the zone.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Drillable packers or retainers can also be used. However, double check-valves are built into these
tools to prevent unwanted flow from either direction. Once the packer is set, a workstring is strung
into the retainer, and then cement is pumped and squeezed below the retainer. The workstring is
then pulled out, and the retainer is closed.
Retainers are often used to help prevent pressure reductions in the wellbore from causing cement
flow back, either after the squeeze job or when the cement is separating zones that have a high-
pressure differential. Setting a retainer between the zones isolates the intervals and permits
operators to squeeze the lower zone and the upper zones in one application.
Bridge plugs. These tools are used to establish a new well bottom anywhere up hole from the
existing total depth (TD). A permanent type tool will establish a new and semi-permanent plugged-
back total depth (PBTD), since it must be drilled out if it is to be removed in the future. When this is
not desirable, a retrievable type is used so that it can be removed by picking it up with the tubing
string at any time. In this case, a few feet of sand fill is placed on top of the bridge plug so the
retrieving neck will not be exposed to the cement. The sand and the cement on top of it must be
circulated or drilled out to expose the tool for retrieval.
Whenever possible, the bridge plug should be pressure tested after it has been set. This will require a
packer in the string to be set just above the bridge plug for the test. When there is no packer, or a
drillable retainer is used, the bridge plug cannot be isolated for a pressure test.
12.8.1 Squeeze Cementing Tools
Remedial cementing tools are mechanical or hydraulic devices which are used downhole to assist in
the placement of cement during plug back or squeeze cementing operations. They are generally used
to isolate areas of the casing from treating pressures and cement. Some are available in retrievable
or drillable designs, each being suited for a particular set of well conditions. Remedial cementing
tools are generally provided with service. Details of a specific tool operation, or limitations, should be
obtained from the Service Company or manufacturer.
The choice between a retrievable and a drillable squeeze tool largely dependents on well conditions
and squeeze-pressure requirements.
The main advantage of a retrievable squeeze tool over a drillable/ permanent squeeze tool is its
flexibility.
The advantages of retrievable squeeze tools are:
1. Retrievable squeeze tools can be set and released numerous times in one trip.
2. Less rig time if cement is to be drilled out.
3. Downhole corrections can be made.
4. No setting tools employed.
5. Rugged design.
The disadvantages of retrievable squeeze tools are:

1. Non-drillable metals, sour environment susceptible.
2. No flowback control must use fluid pressure.
3. Reversing of excess cement can potentially disturb the squeeze zone.
4. More complicated in nature than drillable tools.
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12.8.2 Cement Retainers
These tools (Figure 12-25) can be set on wireline, tubing, coiled tubing or slick line. They are placed
above the interval to be squeezed and are drilled out following the waiting on cement (WOC) time.
They should have an internal valve that holds pressure from both directions. Their primary function is
to lock the cement in place during WOC, preventing backflow of cement from the formation or
casing/hole annulus, and preventing feed in of the wellbore fluid. This allows die hole above the
retainer to be wasted clean and tubing pulled before the cement sets.
They are best suited for jobs when:
• Cement slurry may backflow after the squeeze (i.e., placing a column of cement in the
casing/hole annulus or in high-pressure formations).
• Holding squeeze pressure is not obtained and it is desirable to have that stage of cement
set up before trying a second stage.
• Permanently abandoning a zone.
• Weak casing (which can be a problem or either type packer) or other perforations are
nearby.
To set a cement retainer on a wireline, an adapter is used to connect the cement retainer to the
wireline setting tool. The cement retainer is lowered to the proper position and set by electrically
firing a slow burning charge in the setting tool. When the cement retainer is completely packed off,
the setting tool shears free and is retrieved with the wireline. The stinger is connected and run in the
hole with tubing to perform the squeeze. After the tool is set, tubing to allow pumping into the well
below the tool. It is not possible to spot cement. The tool is usually set fairly close to the interval to
be squeezed.
When set on tubing, the cement retainer is connected to a tubing setting tool. The valve is open to
allow the tubing to fill as the cement retainer is lowered. Rotating the tubing to the right releases the
upper slips and initiates pack-off in some models. The tubing is then pulled to complete the pack-off.
When the proper setting tension is achieved, the setting tool shears free. The setting tension may
range from 18,000 lb (9 tons) for 4 ½ in. sizes to 48,000 lb (24 tons) for 9 5/8 in. sizes. The valve is
pushed open by lowering the tubing, and closed by raising the tubing.
Figure 12-25 One Trip Cement Retainer
Baker Hughes K-1 Cement Retainer
Application
The K-1™ cement retainer (Figure 12-26) is the most versatile squeeze tool in the industry. The K-1 is
available in most casing sizes and has an optional sliding valve or flapper valve pressure containment
device. The K-1 can be set on wireline or threaded pipe utilizing Baker Hughes successful line of
setting tools.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
The K-1 cement retainer’s two-way valve is controlled from the surface; no springs to cock or stick;
just pick up to close; set down to open. Maximum clearance for fast running plus improved drilling
ability and pressure ratings make it the right choice. Appendix 12-A (Table 12-5) gives technical
details of K-1 cement retainer.
Features/Benefits
• Tubing or electric line set — can be set by mechanical or hydraulic methods on tubing or drill
pipe or run and set on electric line.
• Faster, safer run-in–run-in speed is up to the operator — Baker Hughes’ locked construction
design and larger clearance make this possible.
• Tests tubing–tubing can be tested before squeezing by picking up to close the valve and
applying pressure.
• Holds final squeeze pressure — automatic closing of the valve when picking up or removal of
stinger, ensures holding the squeeze under final pressure as cement is circulated out.
• Isolates squeeze from hydrostatic pressure — keeping hydrostatic pressure off the zone just
squeezed is important, especially for cementing low-fluid-level wells in batch-squeeze
operations–Baker Hughes’ unique valve guarantees an effective seal.
• Fast drillout–new material specifications developed especially for the K-1 cement retainers
result in faster drillout.
The K-1 cement retainer is available with two different durometer packing elements for oilfield use.
For well temperatures up to 225°F (107.22°C) a 70 Hd packing element can be used. For well
conditions from 100°F (37.78°C) — 400°F (204.44°C) a 90 Hd packing element is recommended.
Figure 12-26 K-1 Baker Hughes cement retainer
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12.8.3 Squeeze Packers (Retrievable Packers)
These squeeze tools are run in the well at the end of the tubing. Once the squeeze job is performed,
the tubing and packer are pulled from the hole. The packer can be set and unset several times on a
single trip in the hole, such as when searching for a hole in the casing or when squeezing multiple
intervals. There are other advantages to using a retrievable packer, such as:
• Allowing cement slurry to be spotted (by using tailpipe).
• Permitting excess slurry to be reversed out after the squeeze is obtained.
There are two major limitations of this tool:

• If they are inadvertently stuck in the hole, they are difficult to drill up due to their design.
• A standing squeeze pressure must be obtained and cement mast be firmly held in place
by wellbore hydrostatic pressure before the tubing can be raised or pulled from the well.
This requires sufficient slurry dehydration to form a strong cement filter-cake that will
withstand the swabbing action of pulling the packer up hole, as well as the differential
pressure between reservoir pressure (or annulus fluid) and the head of the fluid inside
the casing.
Tension-type packers are often used in shallow wells (above 600 to 900m). They require downward
movement and rotation for release. So it is better to use compression (set-down) tools, which
require only a straight pick up for release. Tension packers should be reserved for those situations
where the combined tubing weight and annulus pressure are less than the anticipated squeeze or
pump-in pressure.
Generally 4500-8000 kg (10000 to 15000 lb) is the minimum weight or tension required to pack off
the elements of either compression or tension packers.
The detailed technical data for all packer used in OMV Petrom are described in Chapter 5 (Well
Recompletion Best Practice).
12.8.4 Drillable Bridge plug
Halliburton EZ Drill Bridge Plugs (Figure 12-27) are built from cast iron, brass, aluminum, and rubber
to provide unsurpassed drillability in general oilfield service operations. More technical details are
shown in Appendix 12-A (Table 12-7 and Table 12-8).
Operators can use one of the following types of equipment to set EZ Drill Bridge Plugs:
• Electric wireline setting tools,
• Slickline setting tools,
• Coiled tubing setting tools, and
• Mechanical setting tools.
Features and Benefits

• Downhole pressure control and drillability,
• Drill-up with conventional tricone drill bits or junk-style mills,
• Drilling technique and bit choice will affect drilling efficiency, and
• Top drilling.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Figure 12-27 Halliburton Bridge Plug
Baker Hughes N-1 Bridge Plug- Wireline and Mechanical Set

The N-1™ bridge plug (Figure 12-28) is a high performance drillable bridge plug suitable for almost
any temporary or permanent plugging operation. The plug is constructed from selected materials
which provide a combination of strength and drillability. It can be converted to a K-1™ cement
retainer by changing out the guide and replacing the bridging plug with the correct valve assembly.
Features/Benefits
• Easily convertible from wireline set to mechanical set by adding a shear screw and changing
the upper slip
• Swab resistant element design allows faster run-in speed
• Constructed from readily drillable materials to minimize drillout time
Baker Hughes NC-1 Bridge Plug Wireline and Mechanical Set

The NC-1 bridge plug (Figure 12-28), a modified “top venting” N-1, is for use primarily in gas wells.
The design of the bridge plug allows the upper portion of the body and the bridging plug to be drilled
out, permitting pressure equalization across the tool before drilling out the upper slips. A shear ring
mechanism is used in the wireline set to minimize the amount of material to be drilled out by the
center of the drill bit. Detailed technical specification is presented in Appendix 12-A (Table 12-6).
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Packing Element Selection for N-1, and NC-1 Bridge Plugs
The N-1, TV-10, S and NC-1 bridge plugs are available with two different durometer packing elements
for oilfield use. For well temperatures up to 107.22°C (225°F), a 70 Hd packing element can be used.
For well conditions from 37.77°C (100°F) — 204.44°C (400°F), a 90 Hd packing element is
recommended.
Figure 12-28 N-1 and NC-1 Bridge Plugs
12.9 Surface Equipment for Remedial Cementing
Squeeze Manifold
The squeeze manifold (Figure 12-29a) monitors and controls fluid pressure and movement during
squeeze cementing operations. It also puts all the valves and pressure gauges in one place so the
operation can be conducted with good control and communication.
They are rated for a standard pressure range of 0 to 16.000 psi (1100bar). Display resolution is +/- 10
psi with an accuracy of 0.5% of full scale over a temperature range of 14°F to 176°F (-10°C to 80°C).
A tubing swivel (Figure 12-29b) provides a means of rotating the tubing string with the high-pressure
pump discharge line connected to the swivel. This method is primarily used in conjunction with ser-
vice tools where circulating is required or other treatments performed with the treating line
connected (such as setting and releasing packers, opening and closing bypass tools and squeeze
cementing).
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Figure 12-29 a) Squeeze Manifold; b) Tubing Swivel
12.9.1 Mixing Equipment
Cement slurry may be mixed and pumped downhole continuously or semi continuously or it may be
batch-mixed. The mode chosen depends on the application. Continuous mixing refers to mixing and
pumping slurry at the same time. Batch-mixing refers to mixing all of the slurry first and then
pumping.
Figure 12-30 Cement Mixer
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Continuous mixers have been invented to eliminate cutting sacks and mixing by hand. The first of
these mixers was the jet mixer. Later improvements have given mixers such as recirculation mixer.
Continuous mixing sometimes allows cement that is not mixed correctly to be pumped downhole.
Batch-mixing has been designed to prevent this problem. However, batch-mixing requires more
surface equipment, which increases the cost. The latest move is to go back to continuous mixing, but
with computers automating the system to prevent improperly mixed cement from being pumped
downhole.
A typical continuous mixer is shown in Figure 12-30.
12.9.2 Pumping Equipment
Pumping Equipment
Cement is normally pumped with a triplex positive-displacement pump. Triplex pumps are boosted
with centrifugal pumps. Centrifugal pumps impart a great deal of shear to the slurry, which is
beneficial for mixing. Triplex pumps are low shear but pump at high pressures. Sometimes the
displacement pressures for a cement treatment can be several thousand psi and triplex pumps do
quite a good job in these cases. The number of pumps will depend on the required rate and
anticipated pump pressure. A typical mobile pumping unit is shown in Figure 12-31.
Figure 12-31 Pumping Unit
Bulk Equipment
For land operations in areas with existing oil fields, most cement is dry blended with additives that
give cement the required performance properties. The blended cement is hauled to the location,
mixed with water, and pumped downhole. For remote locations and offshore operations, the
additives are normally taken to the well as liquids, mixed with the water, and then mixed with the
cement. When liquid additives are used, the cement mixing equipment is normally equipped with a
liquid additive device that allows accurate metering of liquid additives into the mix water during
cement mixing operations. A typical bulk unit is shown in Figure 12-32.
Figure 12-32 Bulk Equipment
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
12.10 Quality Assurance and Safety Requirements for Remedial Cementing
12.10.1 Remedial Cementing Quality Control and Job Evaluation
The need to evaluate the results of a squeeze job is determined by the requirements of the
subsequent operations to be performed on well. Increased pressure response indicates that a seal
was obtained. This pressure can be applied either by pumping into the well (positive differential into
the well) or by reducing hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore through the use of swabbing or
introducing a lighter fluid into the wellbore (negative differential into the well).
Positive Pressure Test
After the WOC time has elapsed, it is a common practice to test the plugged perforations. However,
this must not be considered as a test of cement ability to hold the formation fluid in place: rather
that the test serves as a method to diagnose a gross failure of the squeeze treatment.
The pressure applied at the face of the perforations is predetermined at the job-design stage. It may
be the reservoir pressure, but should not exceed the formation fracturing pressure.
It is known that mud filter cake would withstand over 5,000 psi (350bar) of differential pressure
when applied from the wellbore toward the formation. Yet the same filter cake cannot withstand a
significant differential pressure when applied from the formation toward the wellbore.
Negative Pressure Test
The universally recognized technique for confirming whether the cement in place will hold the
formation fluids under producing conditions consists of applying a negative differential pressure on
the face of the plugged perforations. The following steps accomplish this:
• Circulating a light fluid (i.e., through a concentric pipe),
• Swabbing the well, and
• Running a dry test.
If sealing achieved in the perforations is complete, no inflow should be recorded on the test pressure
chart.
Acoustic log
When the objective of the squeeze is to repair a primary cementing job, the normal cement bond
logs (CBL) should be run to evaluate the effectiveness of the repair by comparing pre-squeeze and
post-squeeze jobs.
However, traditional cement evaluation using CBL tools and any Ultrasonic tool has severe limitations
when used to evaluate foamed cements. Foamed cement impedance values can be less than those of
annular fluids, such as mud or water. Conventional interpretation of this data might be misleading.
Temperature Profile
The temperature log measures the incremental temperature changes continuously while the tool is
lowered into the hole. This will result in a temperature curve with changes that may indicate
producing or non-producing perforations, cement tops or gaps, casing leaks, or fluid channeling. The
determination of cement tops is the most common use of the temperature survey.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Radioactive tracers
Radioactive materials can be added to the cement slurry while pumping. Then, subsequent tracer
surveys can indicate whether the cement is in the desired interval. Iodine, iridium and scandium (I131,
Ir192 and Sc46) are appropriate because of their short half-lives (8 days, 75 days and 85 days,
respectively). The iridium and scandium radioisotopes are preferable, because iodine (present as
iodide) is soluble and can be squeezed out of the cement with the filtrate.
Cement Quality Control Guidelines
Before sampling the cement, the real starting point for a successful cementing treatment is to
determine accurately the temperature of well bottom-hole. Then use that temperature and calculate
the bottom-hole circulating temperature. Accurate measurement of bottom-hole temperature and
bottom-hole circulating temperature can be the difference in a highly successful cementing
treatment and a complete failure. A matter of 20-30°F (11-22°C) can make a tremendous difference
in thickening time, compressive strength development, and/or the possibility of gas breakthrough of
the cement, negating the cement barrier.
Most cements are designed to be run with a specific amount of water. It is strongly recommended
not to exceed the ranges of the water ratio. If too little water is used, then the cement slurry will be
extremely viscous, and incomplete reaction will occur. If the water ratio is too high, then the cement
ends up very thin, and there will be free water and settling of the cement. Therefore, it is required to
stay within a recommended weight range during cementing operations.
Whatever the mixing system, the most important property of the cement is its density going
downhole. Nothing on the treatment is more critical than the cement density. The density of cement
slurry must be within narrow range (+- several %) of the density designed in the laboratory.
Once the blend has been selected, samples should be taken, mixed, and thickening-time tests
conducted on the cement and additives. After the lab samples have been evaluated and approved,
sample and evaluate field blending.
Recommendations should not necessarily just be accepted from the local salesman on cement in a
particular area. It is recommended to investigate lightweight cements as those created by the
addition of lightweight spheres and additionally, combined with these, new generation thixotropic
additives. There is available from service companies today good, high-compressive cements with
weights as low as 9 lbs/gal (1078.44 kg/m3). If hydraulic fracturing operations, acidizing or other
potentially destructive practices are going to be conducted, then it would be best, if possible at all,
to use very heavy, and conversely high-compressive, cement opposite the producing zone.
A good rule-of-thumb is to utilize across the producing interval as good quality cement as possible. If
acidizing or fracturing operations are going to be conducted and if there is a possibility of channeling,
fracturing, or etching is going to occur, then it is necessary (if possible at all) to utilize cements that
will approach the strength of the formations that they are being used to isolate.
Once the field blend is in place in bulk storage, obtain representative samples for laboratory testing
prior to pumping the cement.
Any loss of circulation needs to be controlled. If the lost circulation is due to fracturing, then redesign
the treatment so the hydrostatic head of cement is less than the fracturing pressure. Solutions to loss
circulation problems involve the use of lightweight additives, lightening the fluid column ahead of the
cement or to foam the cement.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
In every way possible, it is always advisable to accomplish zonal isolation without the use of foam
cement.
With the new microprocessor control systems available, it is absolutely essential that post-job
inventories are done to ensure that all additives have been pumped in the well.
Too light cement, along with the problems of free water and poor compressive strength, can cause
the well to be out of control if you are trying to cement in a balanced state, too heavy cement can
cause high-viscosity problems, poor quality cementing, and could cause the formation to be
fractured.
As in a fracturing treatment, check all bulk storage equipment and chemicals before the job begins.
Check after the treatment to be sure that all the additives that were to be pumped were indeed
used. Many jobs have been conducted where less than one-half of the cement or other additives
were pumped.
Some of the problems are related to the lack of any quality control or supervision of cementing
treatments. Although a great deal of care has been taken in measuring thickening time, compressive
strength of cements prior to the treatment, little or no supervision was done on the job site.
Primarily request is to assure that the cement is the correct weight that all additives are added
correctly, and the pump rates follow the predesigned schedule.
The casing and tubing string should be as internally clean as possible (free of rust, paraffin, scale,
perforation burrs, etc.). Blowout preventers (BOP) should be tested to the maximum expected
pressure.
If squeeze work is to be performed through casing, it is necessary to calculate the internal yield
pressure and joint strength of the easing. If squeezing is to be performed through tubing set inside
the casing, calculations must be made for the tubing and the casing, allowing the collapse resistance
of the tubing.
Since compressive strength is a function of the water/solids ratio, high-density (low water/solids
ratio) slurries are best suited for such plugs. Addition of sand or weighting materials will not improve
the compressive strength of lower water content slurry. On the other hand, lost circulation or plug-
back jobs may require viscous low-density slurries to avoid losing the plug in the formation.
A cement plug is best set in a competent hard rock. Shale should be avoided as it is often caved and
out of gauge. Ideally, the plug should extend from soft shale down to a hard formation. In any case,
the logs and the drilling rate record should be consulted when selecting a location to set a plug.
It is recommended that the slurry pumping time is equal to the anticipated job time plus 30 minutes.
Whenever possible, spacers and washers should be pumped in turbulent flow conditions. If turbulent
flow is not feasible, plug flow spacers are perfectly acceptable
It is recommended that the pipe is carefully centralized. This precaution can dramatically improve
mud removal. Pipe rotation is also cited as an advisable practice.
The slurries must be designed for a thickening time in accordance with well conditions and job
procedures, plus a reasonable safety factor. The recommended practice is that ample waiting on
cement time (WOC) be allocated in the range 12 to 24 hours. Since the well temperature for a
cement plug job is difficult to know accurately, a common practice is to allow longer WOC times.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Slurry densities usual range from 1.87 g/cm3 (15.6 lb/gal) to 2.10 g/cm3 (17.5 lb/gal) is preferable to
ensure good compressive strength development.
Design the cement slurry, optimizing thickening time, compressive strength and free-water content.
Conduct lab testing of the blend, using lab samples at bottomhole temperature and pressure (BHTP)
conditions.
Obtain samples of the field-blend cement and evaluate them at BHTP conditions.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Appendix 12 - A Cement Retainers and Bridge Plugs Specifications (used in

OMV Petrom)
Table 12-5 Baker / Hughes K-1 Cement retainer specification
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Table 12-6 Baker N-1 and NC-1 Bridge Plugs Specification Guide
N-1 AND NC-1 BRIDGE PLUGS SPECIFICATION GUIDE

Casing
Plug OD
OD Weight Size
in mm lb/ft kg/m in mm
4 1/2 * 114.3 9.5-16.6 14.1-24.7 1AA 3.593 91.3
5 127 11.5-20.8 17.1-31.0 1BB 3.937 100.0
5 1/2 139.7 14-23 19.3-34.2 2AA 4.312 109.5
14-26 20.8-38.7 2BB 4.937 125.4
6 152.4
10.5-12 15.6-17.9 3AA 5.410 137.4
6 5/8 168.3 17-34 25.3-50.6 3AA 5.410 137.4
32-44 47.6-65.5 3AA 5.410 137.4
7 177.8
17-35 25.3-52.1 3BB 5.687 144.4
7 5/8 193.7 20-39 29.8-58.0 4AA 6.312 160.3
8 5/8 219.1 24-29 35.7-72.9 5AA 7.125 180.9
9 5/8 244.5 29.3-53.5 43.6-79.6 6AA 8.125 206.3
60.7-81 90.3-120.5 6BB 9.000 228.6
10 3/4 247.6
32.75-60.7 48.7-90.3 7AA 9.437 239.7
60-83 89.3-123.5 7BB 9.937 252.4
11 3/4 298.5
38-60 56.5-89.3 8AA 10.437 265.1
85-102 126.5-151.8 8BB 11.562 293.7
13 3/8 337.7
48-72 74.1-107.1 9AA 12.000 304.8
109-146 162.9-217.2 11AA 13.915 353.4
16 440.4
55-84 81.8-125.0 11BB 14.585 370.5
* N-1: In 4-1/2 in. (114.3 mm ) 9.5 lb (14. 1 kg/m) casing, when a no. 10 setting
tool is not available, a size 20 setting tool and size 2AA adapter
kit may be used when well conditions permit.
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Table 12-7 Halliburton EZ drill Bridge Plug Specification Guide
EZ Drill Bridge Plug

Part Number Casing Casing Casing Casing Maximum Minimum
Tool Size Size Size Weight Weight Casing ID Casing ID
in. (mm) in. mm lb/ft kg/m in. (cm) in. (cm)
4 101.60 Line Pipe Line Pipe
100004414 4 1/2 114.30 9.5-13.5 14.1-20.09
803.639 4 3/4 120.65 16 23.81 4.18 (10.62) 3.92 (9.96)
4 1/2 (114.3) 5 127.00 20.3-24.2 30.2-36.01
5 1/2 139.70 36.4 54.16
5 127.00 Line Pipe Line Pipe
100004416
5 1/2 139.70 13.00-23.00 19.34 - 34.22
803.643 5.04 (12.80) 4.67 (11.86)
5 3/4 146.05 22.50-25.20 33.48-37.50
5 1/2 (139.7)
7 177.80 64.1 95.39
6 152.60 Pipe Line Pipe Line
100004417 6 5/8 168.40 17.00 - 24.00 25.29-35.71
803.649 7 177.80 20.00 - 38.00 29.76-56.55 6.46 (16.41) 5.90 (16.99)
7 (177.8) 7 5/8 193.80 45.30 - 55.30 67.41-82.29
7 3/4 196.85 53.52 79.64
Table 12-8 Drill Bridge Plug Operation (Halliburton)
EZ Drill Bridge Plug Operation

Nominal Nominal Maximum Maximum Recommended
Casing Casing Recommended Pressure Differential
Size Size Temperature psi (MPa)
in. mm °F (°C)
Applied Above Applied Below
4 1/2 114.3 425 (218) 10000 (68.95) 7000 (48.26)
5 1/2 139.7 425 (218) 10000 (68.95) 7000 (48.26)
7 177.8 425 (218) 10000 (68.95) 8000 (55.16)
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
List of Figures
Figure 12-1 Depleted zone abandonment,
Figure 12-2 a) Gas Coning; b) Gas Fingering; c) Moving G/O contact,
Figure 12-3 Moving oil/water contact,
Figure 12-4 a) Water coning; b) Water fingering,
Figure 12-5 Zonal isolation Workflow,
Figure 12-6 WF Remedial cementing classification,
Figure 12-7 Low pressure squeezing,
Figure 12-8 Squeezing fractured zones,
Figure 12-9 Probable result of high-pressure cement squeeze job,
Figure 12-10 Cake permeability and dehydration rate of slurry,
Figure 12-11 Cement plug placed by balanced-plug placement method,
Figure 12-12 Cement plug placed by Dump Bailer,
Figure 12-13 Two plug method,
Figure 12-14 Cement plug placement workflow,
Figure 12-15 Braden head placement technique,
Figure 12-16 Squeezing cement through tubing with pressure lower than formation fracturing
pressure,
Figure 12-17 Bridge plug with cement packer,
Figure 12-18 Drillable cement retainer set and/or operated on wireline, tubing or coiled tubing,
Figure 12-19 A typical pressure chart of a hesitation squeeze,
Figure 12-20 Squeeze cementing through tubing, packer or cement retainer,
Figure 12-21 Squeeze cementing through tubing, packer or cement retainer (continuation),
Figure 12-22 Squeeze cementing through tubing, packer or cement retainer (continuation),
Figure 12-23 Isolating of the production interval (one zone),
Figure 12-24 Isolating of the production interval (two or more zones),
Figure 12-25 One Trip Cement Retainer,
Figure 12-26 K-1 Baker Hughes cement retainer,
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
Figure 12-27 Halliburton Bridge Plug,
Figure 12-28 N-1 and NC-1 Bridge Plugs,
Figure 12-29 a) Squeeze Manifold; b) Tubing Swivel,
Figure 12-30 Cement Mixer,
Figure 12-31 Pumping Unit,
Figure 12-32 Bulk Equipment.
List of Tables
Table 12-1 Application of API Classes of Cement,
Table 12-2 Cement properties for various types of squeeze application,
Table 12-3 Cement properties for various types of plug application,
Table 12-4 Remedial cementing planning, designing and executing processes,
Table 12-5 Baker / Hughes K-1 Cement retainer specification,
Table 12-6 Baker N-1 and NC-1 Bridge Plugs Specification Guide,
Table 12-7 Halliburton EZ drill Bridge Plug Specification Guide,
Table 12-8 Drill Bridge Plug Operation (Halliburton).
12. ZONAL ISOLATION
References
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Low-Pressure Highly Permeable Formation," CIM. 89-40-81.1989.
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RO-EP-DA-PO-06-POL-001-02 OMV Petrom Exploration Production

Revision 1 2012 OMV Petrom Workover Best Practices

Title WORKOVER BEST PRACTICES

DA-PO-WO Ivan Vukov

Revision 1 2012 OMV Petrom Workover Best Practices

WORKOVER BEST PRACTICES

Revision 1 2012 OMV Petrom Workover Best Practices

1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1-1

1.1 Purpose of the Manual

1.2.1 Source of Information

1.3 Updating, Amendment and Control

2. WORKOVER BEST PRACTICES METHODOLOGY

2. WORKOVER BEST PRACTICES METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 2-1

2. WORKOVER BEST PRACTICES METHODOLOGY

Figure 2-1 WO process implemented in OMV-Petrom

2.2 Workover Process Definition and Description

2.3 Workover Objectives and Functions

• Repair or replace damaged equipment.

2.4 Workover Best Practices Methodology

Figure 2-2 WO Best Practices Methodology

2.5 Workover Categorization in OMV Petrom

Table 2-1 WO Categorization

Figure 2-1 WO process implemented in OMV-Petrom,

Figure 2-2 WO Best Practices Methodology.

Table 2-1 WO Categorization.

3. RIG SPECIFICATIONS ......................................................................................................................... 3-1

3.2 Overview of Workover Rigs Activities

Figure 3-1 Number of Workovers by job Type

Figure 3-2 Number of Jobs per Rig and Job Type

3.3 Workover Rigs Data Sheets

Table 3-1 WO Rig type TP 7.5 Specification

Table 3-2 WO Rig Type TP 10 Specification

Table 3-3 WO Rig Types EC 5 T/EL/ERT Specification

Table 3-4 WO Rig Type TW 30 Specification

Table 3-5 WO Rig type TW 32 Specification

Table 3-6 WO Rig Type TW 40 Specification

Table 3-7 Rig type TW 50 Specification

Table 3-8 WO Rig Type TD 80 Specification

Table 3-9 WO Rig type TW 100 Specification

Table 3-10 WO Rig type TD 125 Specification

Table 3-11 WO Rig Type AM 10 Specification

Table 3-12 WO Rig Type AM 12-50 Specification

Table 3-13 WO Rig type Rig 40 Specification

Table 3-14 WO Rig type AM 12-40 Specification

3.4 Selection of a Workover Rig

A number of factors will influence the selection of a workover rig including:

To use workover unit properly it is advisable:

Table 3-15 Workover services

Figure 3-1 Number of Workovers by job Type,

Figure 3-2 Number of Jobs per Rig and Job Type.

Table 3-1 WO Rig type TP 7.5 Specification,

Table 3-2 WO Rig Type TP 10 Specification,

Table 3-3 WO Rig Types EC 5 T/EL/ERT Specification,

Table 3-4 WO Rig Type TW 30 Specification,

Table 3-5 WO Rig type TW 32 Specification,

Table 3-6 WO Rig Type TW 40 Specification,

Table 3-7 Rig type TW 50 Specification,

Table 3-8 WO Rig Type TD 80 Specification,

Table 3-9 WO Rig type TW 100 Specification,

Table 3-10 WO Rig type TD 125 Specification,

Table 3-11 WO Rig Type AM 10 Specification,

Table 3-12 WO Rig Type AM 12-50 Specification,

Table 3-13 WO Rig type Rig 40 Specification,

Table 3-14 WO Rig type AM 12-40 Specification,