MATLAB SIMPLIFIED ALGORITHM FOR PRODUCTIVE INTEREST

FRACTURE CHARACTERIZATION IN OIL AND GAS RESERVOIRS FROM

STONELEY WAVES.

Carlos E. Escandón R.
escandoncarlos@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT

It is known that the Stoneley waves reacts to the presence of borehole surface
imperfections, generating chevron patterns and presenting energy attenuation
in permeable zones; phenomena that have been taken successful for the
detection of fractures in hard calcareous formations; but the technique presents
no good behaviour when is used in sedimentary formation (sandstones) due to
the great amount of imperfections on borehole of this kind of wells. The author
has created a simplified algorithm integrating the evaluation of reflection
coefficients, attenuation factor and energy analysis to locate fractures on the
borehole and using the permeability added Stoneley slowness criterion as
permeability indicator

The algorithm was implemented like an open algorithm in MATLAB 6.5 and
tested in a Colombian Eastern Mountain Range Foothills well. Where a known
fractured zone generated 4.000 fluid barrels during the open hole flow test;
algorithm results allowed to locate the fractured zone and indicated the
presence of permeability without giving rise to ambiguities in its interpretation.
Additionally, the algorithm located other fractures on the borehole, indicating
permeability non existence, which was corroborated by the previous service
company evaluation.

Key words: Stoneley waves, fracture characterization, fracture permeability,

Sonic logs, DSI logs

INTRODUCTION

The most known of the surface waves are the named Rayleigh waves, which
cause undulations similar to the waves of the sea, where each particle
describes a vertical ellipse of back towards ahead in direction of movement
(Figure No. 1.)

In case of surface waves generated in a well, these travel into the interface
formed by the fluid that fills it and serves like pressure control of formation and
the borehole (fluid saturated non-homogenous porous system).

For this specific case one kind of surface waves are the Stoneley waves, that
propagate parallel to the interface (borehole-fluid), without attenuation and with
lower velocity than the bulk velocity of the wave in the solid and the liquid.

The Stoneley wave has compressional and shear components and its
behaviour could be compared with the one of the denominated tube waves
when it works in low frequencies (Tube wave limit); when the Stoneley wave
cross in front of a fracture with continuity that intercepts the borehole, the fluid
in the well is pumped towards inside and outwards of the fracture, dissipating its
energy, this gives like result the attenuation of the wave, in addition, the
change in the acoustic impedance causes a signal reflection.

Thus, the effects of open fractures on the Stoneley waves (Figure No. 2) are:

a. Reduction of the wave amplitude (attenuation)

b. Wave Reflection

In the same way, when the Stoneley wave crosses a permeable formation
sector in borehole the wave is attenuated and diminishes its size (Figure No. 3)

Tezuka, Mikada et all ,Hornby, Brie et all, determine that Stoneley waves are
affected by the changes in the surface of borehole in different studies at last
two decades, thus, washout, breakouts, fractures, or changes in permeability
display visible events in variable density logs (Chevron Patterns) and suffers
energy lost; these ones make that Stoneley wave be useful to evaluate the
presence of fractures in the borehole and its quality. The commercial standard
methodology developed consists of two steps (Figure No.4)

In the first step (a) separation of direct and reflected waves, and transmissibility
and reflectivity analysis are made, in the second (b) forward modelling of the
Stoneley wave and the inversion of the fracture aperture is made.

In this investigation, the author developed an open simplified algorithm in which,

the separation of direct and reflected waves is made by means of
decomposition wavelet technique; reflection coefficients analysis (Hornby,
1985) is integrated with energy analysis (power spectrum and trapezoidal
integration), and attenuation factor (1/Q), for fractures localization and its
discrimination of events such as washouts, breakouts and lithology limits and
permeability added Stoneley slowness criterion is used like permeability
indicative (Latifa, Q. 2,001).

SIMPLIFIED ALGORITHM FOR PRODUCTIVE INTEREST FRACTURE

CHARACTERIZATION

The author implemented a simplified algorithm whose final mission is to

characterize a potentially producing fracture locating it and indicating its
permeability.

The development was made over WINDOWS XP, using high level package of
programming denominated MATLAB 6.5 allowing to create an open algorithm
for investigation that can be adapted and to be extended easily for specific
cases; in others words, an open code accessible to any user.
ALGORITHM DESCRIPTION

• Data load.

The load of data, is constituted by three matrices in three (3) ".las" format files,
the relation of the necessary data is as follows :

Ultrasonic Borehole Imager (UBI) (Matrix 1)

NAME DESCRIPTION
Dept. Depth
AWBK[0…139] Amplitude of Wave Attenuation
UPAZ UBI pad 1 corrected azimuth
P1AZ Pad 1 Azimuth

Dipolar Shear Imager (DSI) (Matrix 2)

NAME DESCRIPTION
Dept. Depth
PWF3 [0….512] y [0...4097] Packed Wave Front 3

DTST Delta T Stoneley

DT4S Delta T Shear
DT4P Delta T Compressional
CFVL Fluid Velocity
RCAV Corrected radius Average
RCMX Corrected radius Maximum
RCMN Corrected Radius Minimum
BS Bit Size

Additional Data Logs (Matrix 3)

NAME DESCRIPTION
RHOZ Formation Density
GR Gamma Ray
NPHI Neutron Porosity
POTA Potassium Contents
THOR Thorium Contents
URAN Uranium Contents

UBI process.

The Ultrasonic Borehole Imager tool (UBI), measures as much amplitude as

travel times , this tool works to high frequencies (250 to 500 KHz), it has a
transducer which acts like emitter and receiver at the same time, turning on the
same axis, the amplitudes are caught and the azimuth direction value is taken.
UBI image processing consists of two main steps:

• Directioning and normalization of the image

• Equalization of amplitude (Dynamic)

The directioning consists of locating each signal of amplitude in its

corresponding azimuth registered at the moment of signal receiving.

The normalization on the other hand consists of turning the amplitude on a

scale where the maximum corresponds to (1) and the minimum to zero (0)

A window (1% of total image vertical size) is run over the whole length of
image equalizing the colour histogram became this one to a single scale.

Any additional information on image processing technique including

mathematical support can be referenced in Palencia C, 2005.

DSI Process.

Normally, the maintenance company gives "packed" of the data, PWF3, which
consists of eight vectors chained one after another one and that contains the
information of the eight (8) receivers corresponding to the array tool (Figure No.
5)

The data processing can be made in two ways in according to the data type that
is loaded, in agree to the chosen procedure consumption of CPU time is
increased remarkably.

- Single receiver Processing (Annexed 1a)

- Multi-receiving Processing (Annexed 1 b)

Single receiver process

• Data Load:

In this processing, one single signal (512 samples) is taken from the receivers
to make the analysis of the Stoneley waves, on this case, the Number 1
receiver (SWF1) is used because of being the closest to the source (Figure No.
6)

• Wave separation:

Later, the direct wave is separated of the reflected one . The direct wave is
separated by means of a moving average filter with a average of 20 samples,
which is framed in a normal Hamming window, heightening the direct wave and
eliminating the reflected wave.
For the reflected wave, a double filtrate is made. Initially moving average filter
with a average of 20 samples is run, and after a single flank Hamming window
is used, which one is governed by the following equation.

H (k + 1) = 0.15 + 0.175 cos(π ( k / n − 1))

This window is applied to the whole trace length, eliminating the direct wave
and completing the separation process (Figure No. 7)

• First arrival picking:

The first arrivals picking is made on separated direct wave and it is conformed
by three steps.

Initially a Daubechies wavelet decomposition is used to find the limits when

direct wave is located; within these limits, the local minimum of the wave is
located, this one with the starting point of the decomposition create a window on
which the covariance is calculated, the point in which the value of the
covariance goes off towards values outside the covariance average, is
considered the first arrival time of the wave (Figure No.8)

• Reflection coefficients calculation

The calculation of reflection coefficients consists of two stages. In first the

power spectrum of both reflected and direct waves is calculate, later, the
reflection coefficients are calculated according to the procedure described by
Hornby, 1989. The maximum value of the reflection coefficients on frequency
domain is taken and plotted as a depth function. (Annex 2. Track 5 RC)

• Energy variations

The present energy in each trace is calculated like the area under the curve of
the power spectrum, the trapezoidal numerical integration method is used and
its value is plotted as a depth function and correlated with the reflection
coefficients. (Annex 2. Track 5 E)

• Attenuation Analysis

According to Literature (Gelinsky et all, 1988. Brie et all, 1988), attenuation of

the direct wave appears when this one cross in front of a porous permeable or
fractured zone. In order to discriminate fractures, permeable porous zones or
effects by lithology changes, the attenuation factor is calculated from the direct
wave for each depth and plotted; this calculation is made as follows.

 U (t ) 
1 / Q ≅ ln  
 U (t + τ ) 
Where:

τ = Period

U (t ) = The Maxima amplitude of the direct wave

U (t + τ ) = Amplitude of the wave a period later.

This calculation is carried out in two steps. In first from power spectrum the
base frequency of the signal is evaluated, which due to energy lost is not
exactly 600 Hertz but it is located near this point, with this frequency the period
of the signal is calc ulated.

Later, Attenuation factor is calculated, according to the equation above

mentioned for each depth value (Annex 2.Track 6-(1/Q)).

• Permeability evaluation::

In order to evaluate the permeability, "Permeability added Stoneley slowness” is

implemented (Annex 2. Track 6-(kStSlowness)).

When the Stoneley wave crosses in front a permeable zone by porosity or

fracturing, this one physically must travel by the fluid filling the porous or
fracture space and its slowness is increased.

According to Latifa Q, 2005, Stoneley slowness (s) can be expressed like:

S 2 = S e2 + S 2p

Where:

S= Measured Stoneley slowness

Se= Frequency zero Stoneley slowness
Sp= Permeability added Stoneley slowness.

“Se” corresponding to first terms of the following equation is.

 1 1
S e2 = ρ m  + 
Km G 

And it represents the effect of the wave into the well (tube wave) .

Now, considering that In DSI tool Se>> Sp ,

κ
2 S e ( S − S e ) = S 2p = (Cp ) 2
η
On this way, the value of Sp can be calculated, which one is a permeability
direct indicative .

Multi-receiver Process.

The processing with multiple receivers defers from the processing with simgle
receiver in its first stage:

• Data load:

The used data as given by service company are stored in a complete packed
PWF3, in other words, 4096 samples corresponding to the eight receivers.

First must be done, it is unpack PWF3 in eight matrices (512 samples by depth)
that represent the signal received by each one of the eight receivers of the array
tool.

• Wave separation:

For each receiver the wa ve separation is made with the same procedure for the
single receiver. This process duplicates the matrices by each receiver creating
one for direct and another one for reflected waves
.

• Stacking

Once separated the waves in two matrices for reflected and direct waves
respectively, the eight traces by depth are stacked. This stack is made in three
stages:

Initially, the first arrival on direct wave is found with the same technique used for
single receiver; On the second step, the slope formed by the arrivals of the eight
receivers is used as the slowness and a linear Move out correction is realized,
after an direct wave amplitude stack is conformed.; the inverse of linear move
out is used to correct and stack the reflected wave getting an improvement in
signal noise ratio eliminating no coherent noise and improving the amplitude of
both direct and reflected wave either.

Once the eight receivers signals are stacked to constitute a just direct trace
and reflected trace for each depth, the processing continues as a single
receiver process as explained previously.

RESULTS

The used dataset corresponded to 600 feet (11.500 to 12.100 feet of depth) of a
exploratory well in Colombian eastern mountain foothills, which the zones with
permeable fractures are known.
In the set of processed data, high values of reflection coefficients (RC) allowed
to detect the presence of fractures (individual or packages) and lithological
limits. Also, it is clear that maximum values of reflection coefficient over 4,
accompanied by maximums of energy over 5 x 10e6, with abrupt attenuation
changes in series greater –less -greater and associated to a maximum value of
permeability added Stoneley slowness indicates the presence of a fractured
zone with high permeability, located between 12.010 and 12.030 feet in agree
with the previous evaluation of the well; this zone presented a fracture
package with a main great size fracture, and 4.000 fluid barrels produced
before being cemented and cannonaded.

Two phenomena represented low quality fractures; these one must be

evaluated due to they can be by specify fracture characteristics.

• Values of relatively high reflection coefficients (2 to 5), accompanied by

also moderately high spikes of energy, (3 x 10e6 to 5 x 10e6) with values
of attenuation in greater-minor-greater series.

• High coefficients of reflection accompanied with high values by energy,

and a minimum attenuation change.

On other side, small spikes of reflection coefficients, (2) and small values of
energy, (2 x 10e6 or less), accompanied with changes in the attenuation in most
of the cases in a series less-greater -less, represent lithological contacts.

CONCLUSIONS

The methodology of Stoneley waves, was created and tested in calcareous

hard formation, in Colombia has been used in sedimentary formation
(sandstones), which implies greater effects by lithology and borehole
irregularities, as well as general attenuation of the wave, this would partly
explain the reason of low percentage of success in its use, and the necessity of
a improve knowledge of the processing.

The use of chevron patterns displayed in variable density log (VDL) from the
raw data (Single Wave Front 1), does not constitute a useful evidence of the
fracture location, if it has not been processed before to eliminate the effects of
borehole irregularities and lithological changes.

With respect to the methodology, high spikes in the energy and reflection
coefficients, indicate presence of fractures, as long as it is corrected by
irregularities and lithological changes as it were mentioned previously.

The changes in the curve of attenuation of the Stoneley wave, allowed to

confirm the fracture presence and to make possible discrimination of lithological
limits effects, as it were possible to be demonstrated in the processed logs.

The existence of reasonably important permeability in the fracture can be

determined using the permeability added Stoneley slowness, technique that
demonstrated to be effective, locating the greater permeability zone
corroborating its utility like a permeability indicator itself. Nevertheless, as the
fluid nature is not known (density or viscosity) is not possible to calculate the
direct value of permeability.

In spite of the results, also it is possible to be shown that for reasons that at the
moment are outside of the reach (process limits), fractures which they were
considered detected, by other techniques could not be located using the
simplified algorithm; differing of the results obtained by the service company for
the well at issue.

The comparison with previous well evaluation of simplified algorithm indicates

its effectiveness to detect fractures with significant aperture and permeability,
but is not efficient in all the cases of small fractures and he is even transparent
to the effects of the lithological limits.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIOT M.A. (1956) “Theory of propagation of elastic waves in a fluid saturated

porous solid. I. Low frequency range”. Journal of Accoustical Society of
America. 28, 168-178.

BIOT M.A. (1956) “Theory of propagation of elastic waves in a fluid saturated

porous solid. II. High frequency range”. Journal of Accoustical Society of
America. 28, 179-191.

BIOT M.A. (1962) “Mechanics of deformation and acoustic propagation in

porous media” . Journal Applied Physics. 33, 1482-1498.

ESCANDON C. (2005) Productive interest fracture characterization in oil and

gas reservoirs from Stoneley Waves. National University of Colombia, Faculty
of geosciences, Msc on geophysics. Bogotá 128 p.

Hornby B. E. Et al (1989) “Fracture Evaluation using reflected Stoneley Waves

arrivals”. Geophysics. 63, 800-808.

Schuster G.T. and Sun Y., (1993) “Wavelet filtering of tube and surface waves” .
SEG paper Annual meeting.

Schlumberger. Dipolar shear Imager (DSI).Technical editing services Ltd.1998.

Tezuka K. and Endo T. (1995) “Fast Stoneley modeling and its application for
permeability fracture evaluation”. Paper of First annual well logging symposium
of Japan , September 21-22.

Tezuka K. and Cheng C.H. (1997) “Modeling of low frequency Stoneley wave
propagation in irregular borehole”. Geophysics, 62, 1047-1058.
Edelmann I. and Wilmanski K.(1999) “Surface waves at an interface
separating a saturated porous medium and a liquid”. Weierstrase Institut.
Prepint No. 531.

Endo T., Brie A. and Badri M. (1999) “Fracture evaluation from dipole shear
anisotropy and borehole Stoneley waves”. Schlumberger Abstracts.

Palencia Clara (2005). Oil and gas image well logs processing and
interpretation algorithm. National University of Colombia, Faculty of
geosciences, Msc on geology. Bogotá
Annex 1.
Figures

Figure 1 Rayleigh waves . Reynolds, 1999

Figure 4. Standard Methodology for

Stoneley wave processing. Japex
Research Center, 1997
Figure 2. Stoneley waves behauvior
on fractures presence. Schlumberger 1998

Figure 3. Stoneley waves behauvior

On permeable formation presence. Schlumberger 1998
Figure. 5. Eight receivers packed wave front PWF3. The author

Figure 6. One receiver Single wavefront (SWF1) . The author.

Figure 7. Wave separation; raw , reflected and direct wave. The author
Figure 8. First arrival picking. The author.

Figure 9. Eight wave fronts af ter “unpacking ” and its correspond firts arrival time pciking in order to stacking. The
author
Annex 2.

Simplified algorithm for productive interest fracture characterization a)

single receiver flow process chart. b) multi receiver flow process chart

a) Single receiver process flow chart

Additional logs matrix

UBI Matrix input DSI Matrix inputI input

Variable Variable Variable

Identification Identification Identification

Vectors and Vectors and

Data vectors
datamatrix datamatrix
creation
creation creation

Orientation
and Wave
Normalization separation

Direct
Reflected
Equalization

First arrival Reflection

picking coeeficients
calculation

Permeability
added Stoneley Attenuation
slowness factor
calculation calculation

Plots ,
Processed Images,VDL's and
data files processed logs

The author
 b) Multi - Receiver processs flow chart

UBI Matrix input Additional data matrix

DSI Matrix input
input

Variable Variable Variable

identification identification identification

Vectors and Vectors and Data vectors

Matrix creation Matrix creation creation

Orientation Y
Wave
Normalization
separation

Direct
Reflected
Equalization

First arrival
time picking

Linear MoveOut 1/Linear

MoveOut
correction and
Stacking correction and
Stacking

Permeability Attenuation reflection

added stonely factor coefficients
slowness calculation calculation
calculation

Plots,
Processed
data files images,VDL`s and
processed logs

The autor
Annex 3.

a) Total depth - 600 feet (11500-12100)

The author
b) Proven fracture zone

The author