CHEMISTRY NOTES AS LEVEL SHAHID MEHMOOD

As Level:

Group 1 & 2 Reactions to be Focused

Reactions Group 1 Group 2

Carbonates Na2CO3 ---------- X
No Reaction, As group 1 Carbonates are
thermally stable, EXCEPT Lithium
Hydroxides NaOH ---------- X
No Reaction, As group 1 Hydroxides are
thermally stable, EXCEPT Lithium
Nitrates NaNO3(s) ---------- NaNO2(s) + O2
KNO3(s) ---------- KNO2(s) + O2
CaCO3(s) ---------- CaO + CO2
2Li(CO3)2 ---------- Li2O + CO2
Ca(OH)2 ---------- CaO + H2O
2LiOH ---------- Li2O + H2O
Mg(NO3)2(s) ---------- MgO +NO2(s) + O2
Ca(NO3)2(s) ---------- CaO +NO2(s) + O2

2LiNO3 ---------- Li2O + NO2 + O2

Group I cation has less charge than group II
cation Down the group thermal stability decreases, As down
Group I cation has bigger ionic size than Group the group ionic size increases and its polarizing power
II cations. decreases so its power to distort anion is decreasing.
Group II cations are more polarizing so distort
the bigger anion(Carbonates or Nitrates)which Lithium in group I has smallest size so its polarizing
is more complex ion and form a stable power is more and it behaves like group 2 cations.
compound having less complex anions(NO2 – OR
O–2 )

Chlorides NaCl ------------------- X

No Reaction, As group 1 Halides is thermally
stable.
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CaCO3(s) ---------- CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Lime stone Quick Lime

CaO(aq) + H2O(l) ---------- Ca(OH)2(aq)

Slaked lime(Colourless)
When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water , it turns milky, but if pass in excess then the milky colour turns colourless.

CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) ---------- CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) BUT in excess CO2(g) + CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) ---------- Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
(Colourless) Milky(Cloudy) Milky(Cloudy) (Colourless)

Solubility  Group 2 carbonates are insoluble
 Group 2 salts solubility decreases if
anion is of bigger size.(SO4-2 ,NO3-)
 Barium sulfate is insoluble that’s why it is
use as BRIUM MEAL.
Thermal Group 2 Carbonates and Sulphates thermal
Stability stability increases down the group.
BeCO3 needs less heat to decompose while
BaCO3 needs more heat to decompose.
 Group 2 salts solubility increases if the anions
are of smaller size. Eg Hydroxide ions(OH-)
 Mg(OH)2 is insoluble that’s why whenever it
forms it will give WHITE PPT.
 While barium hydroxide is strong base as it
ionizes to greater extent.

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HALOGENS. HALIDES are salt formers.

Elements Symbols Colour at ROOm temperature Colour in Vapours Colour in water Colour in organic
solvent

Fluorine F2 Yellow Gas Yellow Almost colourless -----------

chlorine Cl2 Green gas green Pale green Light green
bromine Br2 Dark red liquid brown orange brown
iodine I2 Dark grey Solid purple brown purple
ASTATINE At2 black Solid Dark purple ------------ -------------

Definition Balance the following equations and write down the

Oxidation numbers on elements involved in oxidation
and reduction.
Disproportionation A reaction in which one substance is oxidized as well
Reaction reduced. H2O2 ------------ H2O + O2

Cl2 + NaOH(cold and dilute) ----- NaCl + NaOCl + H2O

Cl2 + NaOH(Hot and Con) ----- NaCl + NaClO3 + H2O

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Halides are REDUCING 

agents, Fluoride and chloride cannot reduce NaCl + H2SO4 ------ NaHSO4 + HCl
Their reducing property
concentrated sulfuric acid and only gives
decreases down the
group.
steamy fumes(HX) with it.
 Bromide reduces sulfuric acid to sulfur NaBr + H2SO4 ------ NaHSO4 + HBr
dioxide. In the process, bromide ions are
oxidized to bromine.
Br2(g) : (Brown vapours) 2HBr + H2SO4 ---- Br2 + SO2 + 2H2O (Brown Vapours Br ) 2

Br2(aq) : (Orange solution) Write down the ionic Equation for the above equation and mention by oxidation
numbers which element is oxidized and which one is reduced?

SO2 : ( It turns filter paper soaked in

acidified potassium dichromate ORANGE to
GREEN).
 Iodide reduces sulfuric acid to a mixture of
products including sulfur dioxide,Sulphur and NaI + H2SO4 ------ NaHSO4 + HI
hydrogen sulfide. Iodide ions are oxidized to
iodine. 2HI + H2SO4 ---- I2 + SO2 + 2H2O (Purple Vapours (I ) 2

I2(g) : (Purple vapours) Write down the ionic Equation for the above equation and mention by oxidation
numbers which element is oxidized and which one is reduced?
I2(aq) : (Brown solution)
I2(s) : (black ppt)
SO2 : (It turns filter paper soaked in acidified
potassium dichromate ORANGE to GREEN).
Sulphur : (Yellow ppt)
H2S: (Rotten eggs smell)
6HI + H2SO4 ---- 3I2 + S + 4H2O (Yellow Solid (S)
 The reducing ability of halide ions increases Write down the ionic Equation for the above equation and mention by oxidation
down the group. numbers which element is oxidized and which one is reduced?

8HI + H2SO4 ---- 4I + H S + 4H O

2 2 2 (Rotten eggs smell (H2S)

Chemical Test for

Dip a glass ROD in con: ammonia and bring it near the Write down the ionic Equation for the above equation and mention by oxidation
numbers which element is oxidized and which one is reduced?
Hydrogen Halides hydrogen halide, white smoke(Ammonium Chloride) will

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form.

HCl(g) + NH3(g) --------------- NH4Cl(s)

Alcohols
Primary Alcohols: CH3CH2OH oxidized into Aldehyde CH3CHO which further Oxidized into Carboxylic acid CH3COOH.

CH3CH2OH + [O] CH3CHO + H2O ( Removal of Hydrogen is oxidation)

CH3CHO + [O] CH3COOH ( Addition is oxidation)

Primary alcohol can be oxidized to carboxylic acid in one step also.(Heating under Reflux)

CH3CH2OH +2 [O] CH3COOH + H2O

Oxidizing agent: Acidified Potassium dichromate (VI) i-e K2Cr2O7 and H2SO4

Conditions: Heating Under Reflux.(Vertical Condenser will be used to complete Oxidation reaction till to carboxylic acid.
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If we want to stop the reaction in the middle at aldehyde then we will use simple distillation apparatus.

Observation: Colour changes from ORANGE to GREEN.

Secondary Alcohols: CH3CH(OH)CH3 oxidized into Ketone CH3COCH3 which further cannot Oxidized.

Oxidizing agent: Acidified Potassium dichromate (VI) i-e K2Cr2O7 and H2SO4

Conditions: Distillation (Heat).

Observation: Colour changes from ORANGE to GREEN.

Tertiary Alcohols: (CH3)2C(OH)CH3 does not Oxidized.

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Test for Alcohols:

Add PCl5 into the given compound if misty fumes or steamy fumes are produced –OH group will be present. To further confirm add NaHCO3 or
Na2CO3 solution, if effervescence produced so it will be carboxylic acid, if no bubbles are formed then it will be alcohol.

Conversion of Alcohols to Halogenoalkanes:

Divide this Topic in Three steps: (Cl2, Br2, I2 )

(a) For Chlorine

(i) Primary Alcohol (ii)Tertiary Alcohol (b) For Bromine

Reaction of Primary Alcohol with PCl5
(b) For Iodine:
Reaction of Tertiary Alcohol with Con: HCl
Alcohol, (50%) Conc. H2SO4,
NaBr/KBr,H2O
H2SO4 has to be added drop by drop
BECAUSE the Reaction is Vigorous and If we
add rapidly then it will carry out other
reactions with inorganic reagent(NaBr) and
will produce different products (Br2,SO2).

P + I2 (They form PI3 which reacts with Alcohol to form iodoalkane and Phosphoric acid).

3CH3CH2OH + PI3 3CH3CH2I + H3PO3

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Dehydartion of Alcohol:

When alcohol is heated in the presence of phosphoric acid, water molecule is eliminated and an alkene is produced. Propanol and Butane-1-ol
on dehydration gives only single alkene in product but Butan-2-ol gives THREE products, i.e But-1-ene and CIS-TRANS But-2-ene.

Reactivity of Halogenoalkanes:

Tertiary halogenoalkane reacts faster than secondary halogenoalkane which reacts faster than primary.
Reason: Tertiary halogenoalkanes give tertiary carbocation which is more stable as the positively charged carbon is attached with three alkyl groups
which are electron donating groups and the positive charge spreads more, in secondary positive carbon is attached to two and in primary attached to
only one alkyl group so the positive charge spreads less.

In carrying out this test three different Halogeno Alkanes along with ethanol are taken in separate test tubes along with loosely fitted bungs in water
bath at 50C0 .Ethanol acts as a CO-SOLVENT which dissolves both halogeno alkanes and aqueous solution of silver nitrate. Silver nitrate aqueous
solution is also taken in separate test tubes at the same temperature(Water bath) and then mix with halogenoalkane, start the timer and note the time
when the solution gets cloudy. Tertiary halogenoalkane takes less time than secondary which takes less time than primary halogenoalkane.

Ter-Halogenoalkane ˃ Secondary Halogenoalkane ˃ Primary Halogenoalkane

Repeat the same experiment with the halogeno alkane containg Chlorine , Bromine and Iodine.1- Iodobutane will react faster than 1-Bromobutan
which will react faster than 1-Chlorobutane.

1- Iodobutane ˃ 1-Bromobutan ˃ 1-Chlorobutane.

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Reason: C-------------I C-----------Br C---------Cl

Bond length: Larger Short Shorter

Bond Energy: Small (238kJ/mol) Large(276kJ/mol Largest(328kJ/mol

Iodine has bigger atomic size ,so the bond length is greater and less energy is required to break this bond, that’s why in 1-Iodobutane
(C------I) bond will be weaker and will be broken easily, and react faster. While Bromine has smaller size than Iodine , its bond length
will be smaller and bond energy will be greater than (C------I) bond so will react slower, and 1-Chlorobutane will react the slowest due to
highest bond energy out of these three.

Reactions of Halogenoalkanes:

(a) CH3CH2CH2Br + NaOH(aq) ------------ CH3CH2CH2OH + NaBr

Type of Reaction: Substitution Reaction

Conditions: Heating Under Reflux

Solvent: Water.

(b) CH3CH2CH2Br + NaOH (ethanol) ------------ CH3CH=======CH2 + NaBr + H2O

Type of Reaction: Elimination Reaction

Conditions: Heating Under Reflux

Solvent: Ethanol.
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(c) Reaction with Ammonia:

CH3CH2CH2I + NH3 ---------------- CH3CH2CH2NH2 + HI (Nucleophilic substitution Reaction)

CH3CH2CH2NH2 can act as a base by accepting one (H+) and HI can act as an acid by donating proton (H+ ), so the products react
together and give propyl ammonium iodide salt.
-
CH3CH2CH2NH2 + HI ---------------- CH3CH2CH2NH3+I (Ethyl ammonium iodide)

The above two reactions can be written in one step as well like.
-
CH3CH2CH2I + NH3 ---------------- CH3CH2CH2NH3+I (Ethyl ammonium iodide)

- -
CH3CH2CH2NH3+I + NH3 ------------ CH3CH2CH2NH2 + NH4+I
_______________________________________________________________________ By adding the above two equations
-
CH3CH2CH2I + 2NH3 ---------------- CH3CH2CH2NH2 + NH4+I

In halogenoalkanes while writing the reaction first show the polarity between the carbon atom and the leaving group (Halogen, Halogen always gets
partial –ve charge and the carbon atom gets partial + ve charge), In primary halogenoalkane, the nucleophile (Nucleophile must contains a lone pair
of electron) attacks from the back side on the positively charged carbon atom and the product is always inverted to the original halogenoalkane.
(Reference Page 269 in students book AS level).

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EQUILIBRIUM:

Definition The system in which rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction is called equilibrium.

Features  The rate of forward is equal to the rate of backward reaction.

 The forward and backward reactions take place simultaneously.
 The concentration of reactants and products remains constant at equilibrium.
Factors Conditions Effect on Equil: Position Effect on rate of reaction
(1) Concentration Increase Conc of Reactant Equilibrium position will shifts to forward (Right) Increases (number of particles
increases , the number of
Remember the concept successful collisions per unit
of U-Tube time will increase which makes
the rate faster.
Decrease Conc of Equilibrium position will shifts to Backward (Left) Decreases (number of particles
Reactant decreases, the number of
successful collisions per unit
time will decrease which makes
the rate slower.
(2) Pressure Increase/Decrease
Pressure 1H2(g) + 1I2 ⇌ 2HI(g) Rate of reaction will increase as
Always compare the the particles get closer (increase
number of moles of conc) the number of successful
If the number of moles is same on both sides, then
Gaseous reactants and collisions per unit time will
there will no effect on the equilibrium position, as
products. increase which makes the rate
both sides will be equally affected.
faster and vice versa.
Increase Pressure Rate of reaction will increase as
1N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) the particles get closer (increase
conc) the number of successful
collisions per unit time will
Effect: The equilibrium position will shift forward.
increase which makes the rate
faster
Explanation: The system always from big number of

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moles to small number of moles.

Decrease Pressure 1N2 (g) + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3(g) Rate of reaction will decrease as
(g)
the particles move apart
(decrease conc) the number of
successful collisions per unit
time will decrease which makes
Effect: The equilibrium position will shift Backward.
the rate slower.
Explanation: The system always from small number
of moles to Big number of moles.

(3) Temperature Increase Temperature Increases ,the particles gain

Always take care of the 1N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ∆H= -92KJ/mol Kinetic energy, they move faster,
∆H If the forward reaction is EXO, the reverse reaction the number of successful
will be ENDO. collisions per unit time will
Effect: The equilibrium position will shift Backward. increase which makes the rate
faster.
Explanation: The forward reaction is EXO OR
The backward reaction is ENDO (Increase in
temperature always carries equilibrium to the
endothermic side.
Decrease Temperature decreases ,the particles lose
1N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ∆H= -92KJ/mol Kinetic energy, they move
If the forward reaction is EXO, the reverse reaction slowly, the number of successful
will be ENDO. collisions per unit time will
Effect: The equilibrium position will shift Forward. decrease which makes the rate
slower.
Explanation: The forward reaction is EXO OR
The backward reaction is ENDO (decrease in
temperature always carries equilibrium to the
exoothermic side.

(4) Catalyst Catalyst has no effect on Equilibrium as it equally

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speeds up the forward and backward reactions.

Rate of Reaction: The rate of change of concentration (Reactants or Products) is called rate of reaction.

Collision Theory When reactants particles are mixed they randomly move and collide with each other, as a result of
successful collision reaction takes place.
Factors making collision  Energy: Greater the energy, collision will be successful and vice versa.
Successful  Direction: Direction must be opposite.
 Orientation:
Factors affecting Rate  Concentration: when
of Reaction concentration is increased
number of particles is increased
per unit volume. Greater the
number of particles more will be
the successful collisions per unit
time (Collision frequency) and
faster will be the rate.
In case of concentration, the
graph will level off at different
levels as different amounts of
products are formed, low
concentration produces lesser
amount of products and larger
concentration gives larger
amount of products.

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 Temperature: When
temperature is increased the
particles gain energy, they move
faster, the number of particles
having energy equal or greater
than Activation energy is
increased so the number of
collisions per unit time increased
and rate will be faster and vice
versa.
The graph finishes at the same
level, only with different steep
level.

 Pressure (Only for Gas

reactants): When pressure is
increased the volume decreases
which cause to increase the
concentration and the particles
get closer, so the number of
collision per unit will be
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increased and the rate will be

faster.
 Surface area (Only for Sloid):
Smaller the solid reactant larger
will be the surface area and
faster will be the reaction, as
there will be more contact
between the reactants particles.
 Catalyst: Catalyst is a chemical
substance which increases the
rate of reaction without being
used up. It provides an
alternative path with low
activation energy which causes
to increase the collision
frequency and increase the rate

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Redox:
Oxidation Number: The charge on an atom of a compound is called Oxidation Number.

OXIDATION REDUCTION

 Addition of Oxygen  Removal of oxygen

C + ZnO ---------------- CO + Zn
Carbon is oxidized and Zn is reduced. CO + Zn --------------- C + ZnO
 Loss of electron OIL  Gain of electron RIG

Zn + CuO ZnO + Cu
Cl2 + 2e- ----------- 2Cl-
Zn + Cu +2
Zn+2
+ Cu
- - - -
30P+ = 30e 29P+ = 27e 30P+ = 28e 29P+ = 29e

Zn oxidized as it lost electrons, while Copper is reduced as it gained

electrons.  Addition of Hydrogen

 Removal of Hydrogen LiAlH4

CH3CHO CH3CH2OH
CH3CH2OH + [O] CH3CHO + H2O

Alcohol is oxidized as it lost hydrogen.

 Decrease in OXIDATION number
CH3CHO + [O] CH3COOH (Gain of oxygen)
Zn + Cu+2 Zn+2 + Cu
 Increase in OXIDATION number
while copper is reduced as its oxidation
Zn + Cu +2
Zn+2
+ Cu number is reduced.

Zn is oxidized as its oxidation number is increased.

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Disproportionation Reaction:

A reaction in which one substance is oxidized as well reduced.

H2O2 H2O + O2

Cl2 + NaOH(cold and dilute) NaCl + NaOCl + H2O

Cl2 + NaOH(Hot and Con) NaCl + NaClO3 + H2O

Cu2O(s) + H2SO4 CuSO4 + Cu(s) + H2O

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