Classroom Behavior

Management: 0
A Dozen Common
Mistakes and What
to Do Instead
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dllilt ....... . ,., ..... .. ti \'Ila ..
play\11 1" Ida . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
wa Mk billl wtt,. lie - , - , . . . . , .
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)' 'lac:auae lbll la■ar:l la., lliadlll,"W. •
- • . . . . fW dlfflral , _ . , our no1 lluly u, be pt.ad Wilb lb&. -
w ..
1 111111 ID . . . . . d.- bellavtora may
. . . . . . . AcUly , 1 lftlap Ulat will l114t.ad. ~HII th., B1hall1Dr Di,.cd y ID
. . . . . . . .a.ak bailaVlar of OM lllU D•t1rm ltw u, FUl!Ctltm
. . . . . . . . . . . . air-cut babavior of The runcdon or a behavior ii die parpoae :♦ las Sb •
--Pa r
.... .. Dalabta • lllilbllhavior by bow it Nl'YCI die ■tudcnl (i.l,, wbl& die lcadml
laalll 11111 111 aotbiq about why It
- - 111d ofla doua't help in our
pts from It). Aa ■talal !ftYloullY. - -
welb,_,
.,...,., ... _...111. .... ...
- - cleUilrf - - -~
milbch avion llefV& 1 puma or an avoidinl ___ lJllld c:.-.c
ac11 :&& ltw..- .
o01:
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_.. ,_, ,tna.. lfftlna. Jut beca111e two functio n. To d&lffllline a bdlmo r'• fvnc,,
1r..., ar . . _
,,111-.1ar1 look lbl wne. dOUD'l mean ....-- l'"'7" ~
tion. we need to 1tudy what II hAppalin1 in nilled i,,roli . ..., (« • - - . . . •
the cl.unu om before and after it occurn UICIIID CIIL
,......
...._. ,,.,.,.. Mishli allior By /r, Thu infonna uon-1al herina proced ure ii
called a ftuicrio ,,al a.s.1e1PMnl- An
aamr nc ea bl! lias ca■_ _._
ever. raeard l . , _ dlL I t •1111'
flam• pr.--diaF
-
'lb dewlo p I better llrltelY to manage
AnlllCCdcnt-Behavior-Comequeoce (ABC} prop■ml dnipr d --
chart can be ulled as a functio nal aueu- u, be moR dfeai¥ e dal dlole . . . . . .
lllilblb avion, we need to uk ounelve1, ment tool. All ABC chart ha■ three columo s
'"Wbal wu the function of this mi1be• out lbc c:omp tdlmlM
on which we record the behavior and wtw vllkdb ydm
ba._ r Or more simply . "What did the happened before and after it The ltandar d For additioa.
dlda t pin from tbe misbehavior?" way to malce this
chart is IO acparar£ a Ull:d I fuDctioDal
'Tlloq h our students' misbehaviors of paper
into three column s and label the Y1li1ing the C.mra for Etfa:a w Q
.,._ to occur for no reuon, they do first Anuced enl, the second Behavior, and ration and Practic e Web lilrc •
_.. • pupoae, otherwise they would the third Con.sequence.
When the misbe- cecpm .org/ft ,e/.
aot oacur. Althouah .some behavi or prob• havior occun. it is wriaen down in the
. . . ue tile reault of oraanic i11uea (e.g., behavior column. then Mial aka.3 : .... . _
!he oblcrvc r records
~C , ) moat misbeh aviors (unc- what happen ADanNlch llll't Wadd n 111.
ed immed iately before
lMl tor ooe of iwo foUowin& reuona: (1) (record ed in the anteced TryH ua._
ent column ) and
• . . IOIDedwl& <•·•·•
attention from
IIIQdlar al:lldat or r,eacher, pin a privi-
after its occumna: (recorded in the comc-
When I m■nagrmra' appa. :ll -
qucncc column ). To mm data collection workm g. our fira laldea y is ID try._ __
• •u -,) or (b) to avoid something
...., ,cboo bv• tNCber demands). For
simpler, a modified ABC chart can be used
that contains aeveral pmle(e nnined ~
The problem ia dJal - -ofn.., .....
er Dq;lliv ely. We make bat. 5 • pswiwg
tllillp) e. 1h two.otr•tu k students men- goriea of teacher or peer aoteccdmt bchav-
D.IDJII pmial llfy-(m c stucknt might be i.ut, wuJcuL IC.VlJll bQ, .wJ wuw:.t.(ucutw
stau:ments. iDcaale acp1i9 c ~ -
~ (A lelllllC 111(,K P'fflklc.L 1 -
• • • P4 our attention, wbereu the events (See F'tgure 1).
doea DOl do -,1bin g ID ll!a:b llfF fA
-• t
.._, _.,. offruk becauae his or her
-wu tao difficu lt for the
• -;du #Qitt111. studu t. we c;ould
A functional aucssment gives us a
more complete picture of the misbehavior
by includ ing the environmental ante-
behavior. lmrad . om ieca
saalll inimp liaalm ct
4 eeg th.,
.....
.... bit Gt la otr..- k behavior UJd lioDlbipl and iac • e a 4 -4
cedents and conaequenca in ill ~ ourlt Udm ll--.d drall l
• •,..._ em a.ttandan wbm he ii tion (Alber to & Troutman, 2003). Once
- - -
P«the acade m- we determine the function of a misbehav- lnnead: Tr:, Aaodwr'.,,
1_-!!l'!!!'J..\, . . . . in bia ior ("why" it ocam) , we aced IO tuch
~---:flO.... mad seiDforce ID appropriate i:epll"C
- 'eJbd',- behavior tlw Nrvea the ume fllactil0IIICIII
.- I at.,.. -.;
Wbea - .,.. di • - • --
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ll u WJCmrway. S - ·,· ..... .....
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f
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!-:r :.cui.h :r g pro111dc
·~k at t11r lnrn1ug cent:r, we ,tuden~ to prac.uc:
ulJ ...-ru.illy pram· tlicm 1111d pr'lviJe more mtermve mstrucll
1i.!Jmnnl rcmtorct'mcnt a~ needed {e g, lc:::1011$ mm J~ rr.-:rc rr
,•1~ker5, c:,.1rt1 frl.'c ume, On the other dec.reasmg the uu:. 'Jf)od e,f ct-.:-...,
lund, 1! the dasm.>um consequence for dem1c errors being rer~~tl. n-
c "-••.
.-n~e f'ghung with o peer 1s lhe loss of recess, muve approac.h 1s referred t, a:, pr::.:.- r
\\ 1th E,WU~- then we must make Ct!ndm rhat we follow rec11on (Colvrn. Sugai & Pat.;;- !' .;.
1crn ~~k-.::t rules thrnugh. We need to make clear the con- 1993) 1n contrast. when s-udents chr,;ir.,.
' we .... ,-uld h.1ve seled• sequen.:,:s for followmg
and not follow- cally rrusbehave. we are m:.,re m:l:r.ed
t,~,Jel.me,. students .ire
mg the rules tBabyak. Luze, & Kamps, remam reacuve. provide only ccrre.;.u
lI'.;in\ · rules. make 2000). procedures (simply tell them that the'r' il.L
,tnng::nL and make those
We often need reminders to praise our misbehaving), and increase che ID~.ISJ';
?CC.:':. enough.
students throughout the school day. One of our negauve consequences We w'Juj
·m r.::::; shoutJ ~ simple, spe
.__,.,.: :.~~ ar.d rnea,ur.i.ble The degree of way is to place a sign in the back of the be more effective 10 solvmg chron• .:- trus
-.....: s.r:if_, •:) .:ieper:ds on the age and room that says. ''Have you praised your behaviors 1f we moved into the prec.~r-
at-L:~' levels of cur students. For younger students lately?" Each time we notice the rective mode.
s:..:Jer:rs. .,_ e rr.ay v.ant to include pictures sign, we should praise a student or the The foUowmg are seven maJor precor
_.,~:!~.Le posters Rules are specific when group for following one of the classroom rection steps·
rules. Another way is to keep a running
the)' !..~ .::lear and unambiguous For
tally of our praise comments on an mde,- Step L Identify the context and the pre-
examtlle, the rule ·1,nng books paper, and dictable beha\tOr (where and when the
card or on a card clipped to a string that
pe:::d.:s t:i class'" ts much clearer than the misbehav10r occurs):
hangs from our necks (similar to those
n.:!e ·'!)e ready to learn." Clearly stated
used with many school ident1ficat1on Step 2 Specify expected behavior (what
n:;:es :u-e easily observed and measured. cards). we want mstead);
The .::lass.oom rules should be posted.
To summanz.e, the guidelines for class- Step 3 Systematically modify the context
A:iotber characteristic of effecuve (e g .. changes 10 mstrucuon. tasks.
room rules mclude the foUowmg: (a,
:u!es 1s t!iat they are stated posnively. schedules. seating arrangements\
develop 4-6 measurable. observable. pos-
'
?os1uvely st.ated rules are ..do" rules. Do
itive classroom rules and include students Step 4. Conduct behavior rehearsals
n:l~ ;>ro..,.1de mformallon as to how to (have students practice the appropna1e
in rule development: (b, teach the rules
beh2ve acd set the occasion for teacher and subrules dtrectlv: (q post the rules behavior);
;n15e An example is "Raise your hand and review them frequently; and, (d)
be Step S Provide strong reinforcement such
for pemu~ion to talk." Conversely. nega- sure to carry out the consequences for as frequent and immediate teacher
uvely stated rules or "don't" rules tell stu- rule compliance and noncompliance praise;
:!ents what oot to do and encourage us to Step 6. Prompt expected behaviors; and
a::.end to student rule breakrng. An exam- Mistake #S: Treating All S,ep 7. Monitor the plan (collect data on
;:ile of a don't rule is "Don't call out.'' Misbehaviors as '"'Won't Dos" student performance)
Some teachers develop subrules that \Vhen student.s misbehave, 1l ,ften Let's apply Uus step to a tradiuonal
correspond with each of the maJor class- seems as though it is ex.elusively a moti- classroom behavior problem--callmg out
room rules. For e1-ample, a classroom rule vational issue. At times, tlus is true. On during teacher-led
instrucuon. The nus-
might be. "Follow classroom expecta- those occasions, we need to mcrease the behavior occurs dunng guided instruction
uons" One of the corresponding subrules reinforcement for appropriate behavior (Step l). The behavior that we WdIJt
f~ tine behavior could be '"Keep your and eliminate It for mappropriate behav- tnstead is for our students to raise il'e.r
har.ds and feet to yourself" Once the sub- ior. However, several misbehaviors are hands and wait to be called on (Ster : j_
ru:es a:-e set, we need to teach or role play due to a lack of appropriate sk.i lls not a To accomplish this goal, we c· uld ·.e,-
aprrnpnate behavior by having min1- lack of motivation. We call these behav- bally rerrund our students to r.mt their
~~ lessor"5 (3-5 mmutes) several times a day iors "can't dos" hands prior to each quesuon an.:1 nc.i
f-:.r the first few weeks of school. Some longer respond to our students· call o.its
.- ~ # ~ tead:.ers 1.:~mLm.:e to review subrules pnor Instead: Treat Some Behaviors as Can't Also. we could model hand-rai,mg a.~ \\~
#~
~

w each .u.uv1ty or period1cally. depending Dos

1n the1r students' needs. A simple, quic k
wa'j to r~1ew 11 to have a srudent vo lun- skills not lack of motivation or reinforce

ask the quesuon to prompt students to d,·

Can't dos occur because of lack of the same (S!t:ps ~ and 6) Before l.'Ur
teacher-led le5s1., ns , we could h,in" a,!:$!
t.ecr to read the poned subrules pri <Jr to ment. We should dea l with can't do mis- review of the rules for appropnue hand-
each mnJor activity behaviors the same way that we deal with raising (Step 4' \'I hen our students r.i:sc
14 Pui'itrl'.i 'iOi'.l!l f&:Ui! 5in!li "
~- ---- --
 -
~ thc1I hsnds appnp1iately, we ~hould
praise 1mmcd1:1tdy and frequently nml dc11ts. We cnn 1.H• u1
perhaps give them bonus pomb ll • le1s:in~ It tl1r bC:il,llln
-Ins on 1c year IJl.;.1w:d t
'- sroom managcmem system (Step 5
Fmally, to dc:tcmune if our pl.in ,s cff; g;•od 1dc.1 to post t11c 11
Uve, v,e should ta,ly hc,w often students have I student vnlun
nppropnately rJ.Jsc: lhc:1r hands, Step 7J bcfo1c trans1Uomng
temly prnv1dc re:idmc
Although m1t1ally more 11me cons, 11 ;,.
for pcthhng trbns,u..:ns
mg, precorrec thin pw,etlures .11luw us to
le111ng ,,ur stud,·111s know 1h.1t m ~ rnm-
be more prnacuvc than reactive orn1 to
u1es tlte next act1v11y will bcg,n anti that
rc:du..:e or ehmmate behav,,n probkms
11 ,s ume to lintsh the wk ,11 hAnd W ,p;
bef0re they become v.·ell estJbhshed need to follow that statement by
rmsmg
This, in turn mcn.·ases the amount of ume students as we sec them ftmshmg theu
that we have to reinforce aprropriate tasks. It is important not to move to the ..:omp
behavior
next step of the trans1t10nmg process until ignt"nn
evel)one ha, tollo,.eu tl1e previous steps. behav10
Mistake #6: lack of Planning
for example ,t we. dSk our students to !Jon 111, lllC'lJVllll()II IS ("l/J','l/1
for Transition Time
return to their si:,1t anJ get out tl1etr math L0mpulc1 llowev~r. when he'
V.·hen plannmg uur tead,ing dJy, plan- b,)oks, everyon.: needs to have followed auc1111v11 seckmg 11
ning for trans,ucns cftt-n gets overlooked tl1ose J1rectiC1ns bc:fore we begm 0111 math unuousiy · every sm
Yet. a significant amount of class lime ,s le.sson. For groups thut h:ive II chf!kult we llcg111 u ignore c,ur s•ud:::!'
:-pent trans,uoning from one subj~~t to lime S'II nclung gcar5, such 11.S m:111y stu- h11v1or , he or she will Sc:t"k 11 el•;~wllrr
another or from one rlace to another denlS with learning d1s;1btl1tics or lidiav- most ltkely from peers ll c.in be d1fl
Without proper plannmg, transitioning 1or d1sonlers. prov1d111g 11 30-second fo1 peen to 1gn•HC 1111sbeh:1v1on llr"I
can be one of the most frustraung times of group silence at theiC' ~cats 1111ur tu begin- Jore, 1gr111r111g m1sbch,1v1or &hould be a
the day for teachers. These limes seem to ning the: nc.\ t activity promotes ca!mne~s d11s1oom rule 11\Jt receives powe,ful
invne behaYior problems. Why 7 At umes bc:fon: moving on . This L, parttculruly re1111>rccmcnt Also, we need IC> pl,111 for
students a.re not ready for the transiuon. useful"' hen students are returnmg from a the 1msbehavwr to get worse (happen
lncons,scent e~pectauons cause transiuon highly stimulating acttv1ty. such as phys- more often ond mC'rc mtemely I before 1t
problems. Furthermore, tiecause we are ical education. improves When t111s happens, we m11;L
~ often trans,uorung with the students, our Mmy students resrond posi11vely to
anenuon is diverted away from them. rransiuon urrung gJmcs. To do tl1is. tirst
contmuc to ignore.
Ignoring must be useu in combmuuon
making transitions longer and mvitmg set a time goal (e.g., everyone 5hould be with behav,or-buddmfi strateg1~s. s.id1 a
even more misbehavior. m line w1thm 20 seconds). Usin!' a stop- remforl·ement of apJ'rC•pr1ate bcltav11J!S,
watch, ume their transitwn and then reaching replacement behaviors, and rc111
Instead: Appropriattly Plan for praise mJ1v1dual students or the group ior forcmg peers. Ignoring teaches srudentS
Trans1rion Time meeting the goal. When tram1t1ons what not to do, bt..t docs nl't te!!ch them
Successful transitionmg requtres JUSl mvohe leaving the classroom, prior to what they should do mstend. Fc-1 e.1.W1•
as much planning as effecuve academic leavmg, we should have our students take pie, a preschool student. ~loniea. h:is a
instruction. but the ume 1s worth 11. \.\'hen out the materi:ils for the lesson that is tendency to tug 111 our clothmg or yell 10
transitions are done quickly and quietly. IL going to be conducted on their return get our attention. In this scenano. we
allows lessons to start on time and can set This will facilitate gettmg staned whc:n should ignore these m15behnv1ors. In
a posiuve tone for the lesson, whereas they rerum to the classroom. add1uon. we need to te.1ch Mo111c11 nppro-
unplanned, poorly done rransiuons can Our role as teachers uuring transit.ions pnate wny s to gam our attenuon (e g ,
waste valuable lime and cause negative should be to monitor studc:nts' perfor- raising her hand, saymg "ex.:use me"l
student-teacher mteractions. mance and to praise appropnate behavior and praise her each ume she uses these
Transition problems can be reduced To do tlm, we must have our matenals replacement behaviors 'lo ndd l.> the
s1gnilicaotly by following a few pracucal prepared ahead of ume When needed. we effecuveness, wc coultl also pr111se peers
procedures. First. 1t 1s best that our tran- should use students or aides to gather who, in her presence. approp11ately seek
sit.ion expectations are consistent, mean- materials or equipment. allowmg us to our attention
mg the same rules apply for each type of better attend to our students and provide There are occas1011s when 1gnonng ,~
transition. Consistency begins by de\·el- praise inapproprtate These mcluJe when there
oping transition rules with our studenlS are concerns for observational leammg of
(e.g.. quietly put materials away, keep Mistake #7: Ignoring All
m1sbchav1ors, v.hen our st..iuents are
your hands and feet to yourself.) or Nothing at All
engaging m extreme or dangerous behav-
Once we have developed our trans,uon lgnonng can be a valuable tool m iors. and. as stated earlier. when the mis•
rules, we should teach them to our stu- reducmg misbehaviors when used with behavior 1s not attention seeking.
j Vol 49, ~o J FRh'INllkG S(HOOI fAJlllil 15
 ....... ,.0 ,.. .. .. .
. . . . . . . . . Gu i
of
Mi1take #9: lnconsi1tent
b.p eda tio ns and
tf
Consequences
11
w
method 1
ans less◄
coopera~ Mistake # 10: Vie win g
and freq Ourselves as the On ly
:ed IOU ! Cla ssr oom Ma nag er
.o find a M
area.
1m
d
1ld ,e Clear Experninoru
tune out involves
and Rw1forced
,...,
1f rcinforcemen
time. One type
brief removal 01 1oc1
u attention or verbal interacuon
involves looking away
refrainin1 from any
remaining quiet. A
....~-
clus time out is tbollllf.. .. . ff
. ■·111,11 _ _ _ _ _ _ ,.. .. •
"
' llun n.
M:C
to http •, .Swickl As
, oo to lear n
ter-b:ised pro-
cn:-a1e and use aw.ire
1g mat ~na l
u,e cemplaie.,; \lde prai se or
self•ml'llllOT· nppropn
11 cards, cou n-
':-'e □ent ::an:b, mak e-a•
c,:im:rnct.s. To u,e. chis twJ rrust
nts eore-r mfo rma tlon
~, oel uno n mro a tem plat e
ed1a1e u,e
am! pnn t out the card fC'r unm
111 the clas sroo m.
can be
'The pow er of the pt"er gro up
iseJ to pro dt:~ po.s1ti\-e cha nge
s in sru-
= a_, acad e•
de::it bdu v10 r Peers can sen,1
rem forc e
:c t"Jtors am1 C.3ll mon itor and
o, gro up-
eac h oth er's beh avio rs. Als
pee r med1-
proc ess. coo fuct reso luuo n. or
wiu ch sru-
atw n mee ang s can be used tn
behavior
Jen ts pro ,ide each othe r with
g . " Igno re
man age men t sug gesu ons (e
. pnu se
1um when he call s you nam es")
ropr iate ly,
eac h othe r for beh imn g app
a curr er.t
and help eac h atbe r resc l\-e
(Barbetta,
dus roo m behavior problem
help
1990: 5011th &: Dau nic. 2002). To
we can use
faci litat e gro up coh esiv enes s.
in whJ ch
gro up- one nted con ting enc ies
ileg es and
the class earn s its leve l of pnv
relll forc ers as a grou p.
also incl ude othe r adu lts in
We sho uld
,,, ... 3
ltatc I' IUK n
his or her pl
ucna1
1d pnw1Jl· us with sc,me add1
find vJT
upp on or I sho rt break If we
!\'CS m n tead ung suun
trnn with one er
ulJ devel- Lin k
nwr e v.:ilaule stuJ ents . we shct Mis take # 11 : Mis sin g the
a clds s Be twe en Ins tru ctio n
1p a support plan w1lh a teac her in
k. 200 2) an d Be hav ior
room nearby (Lm dbc rg & SwK
nt that
nus pl.in ~ou !J 1nclude .an agre eme At umes ther e is 11 dire ct hnk
betw ee
in the
1:.ir coUeague will co, er our room our less om and scudent rrusbeha
v,,.1r Per
event ,11c h.we to esc cn II disr
uptive sru or d1ffic,uh
Ille pnn - hap s our less on 1s 100 easy
den1 out of the room or conta~t inef fecu ve. or non stim i.lau ng
wh1 th c.an
c:u mp k
c1pal or s,hc ol sec.un ty, Ano ther lead 10 stud ent m1sbehav1or
{Ce nter
r 1., by
f how we ,·an supporc each othe Deitz. & Kaufrnan. l9S 2l
iol w1ue
play ing an acti,·e role in scht
dbe rg & rwn as a
beh ano r man age men 1 (Lin Instead Use Aca dem ic lnsr nu
we mov e throughou1 the 8ehav1,Jr Managr.menc Tool
. cafe teria
school grou nds (e g.. hallway The lirst lme of defense in man
agm
nlu be
1ud1tonum. pl:lygroun.n, we sh,r stud ent beh avio r 1s effe ctiv e
mst rucu on
jusr
of all stud ents ' behaviors (no l kno wn this
and pro- Goo d teac hers hav e nlways
our own student.;) and prompt and rese arch sup por ts this nou
on (Ev ert•
negauve consequences as 991 ) found
son & lfarr is. I 992 ). Jon es ti
,lle leam mg,
ors in thar whe n teac hers dem ysu fy
\\'he n lnd udm g ndmin1sua1 rove dra
to mak e 11.:hievement and behavior imp
behavior man age men t, we tend mat ical ly Exa mpl es of how to
dem ysn fy
of
.!lkes that are at opp osit e end s blis hing h!S
rg & Swi ck, leam mg mcl ude stud ents esta
rh~ supp ort spec trum (Lin dbe mom torr ng
to them or her lear ning goa ls, stud ents
200 2). We eith er send stud ems olvmg stu-
long to get his or her own Jear nmg , UJV
too frrq uen tly or we wait too m rule s and
reso lve as den ts in dev elop mg clas sroo
them involved It 1s best to ons to Stu ·
cla.;s and proc edu res. and rela ung less
man y beh avio r prob lem s in our s.
mor e seri - den ts' own hve , and inte rest
only involve adm inis trato rs for mcl ude
l agg res- Effe ctiv e teac htng pra cuc es
ous mua uon s, suc h as phy sica 1on that 1s
{but are no1 limi ted to/ mstruct
~fon
fast pac ed, incl ude s high rate
s of acu ve
Parents and teachers who work
actively
mod elm g
. Mos t par• stud ent resp ond mg. invo lves
together make a powerful team guid ed prac -
uon about new beh3v1ors, and pro vide s
ents can prov ide useful informa ve feed bac k
. alle rgie s uce and pos itiv e and corr ecu
thei r chil d (1 e . med icat ions ai & Tin dal
can assi st 111 (Ew rrso n & HMr 1S 199 2; Sug
issues at hom e) Som e pare nts suat eg1 es
at home: I 993), Eff~ cuv e inst rucu ona l
our behavior management efforts s. guid ed
al prom pt- incl ude the. use of resp ons e card
by proVJ(fmg the1t dul d add mon war d, 200 3;
h, ther e are note s, and pee r tuto ring (He
mg and reinforcemenL Alth oug Bar bett a, &
pare nts. Hew ard et al. 199 6; Mil ler,
many benefits to wor kmg 11.1th of thes e
10 the cha l- Her on, 199 4). Con sisr en1 use
som e teachers are reluctant due re the cha r
ntial ben e- ~tratcg1es. anJ othe rs that sha
lenges th.at ofte n e.tis1. The pote , help s
m mosr ncteristics of effe ctiv e mstruCtJon
fits. however, make it worthwlule env iron -
y ways co create h1ghJy effe cuv e lear ning
situAtions, and there are man the hke h-
cuv ene ~ men ts, whi ch, in turn , redu ces
increase pare nt-t eac her team effe
end ix). As hoo d of beh avio r pro blem s
(See Jon es & Jones, 200 2 in app
l'RM~TING SOtOOL FAILURE 17
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