ARTICLE IN PRESS

Journal of Environmental Management 88 (2008) 1343–1349

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Anticipated Performance Index of some tree species considered for

green belt development in and around an urban area: A case study of
Varanasi city, India
Santosh K. Prajapati, B.D. Tripathi
Pollution Ecology Research Laboratory, CAS Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
Received 6 September 2006; received in revised form 21 April 2007; accepted 7 July 2007
Available online 20 August 2007

Abstract

It is well established that trees help to reduce air pollution, and there is a growing impetus for green belt expansion in urban areas.
Identification of suitable plant species for green belts is very important. In the present study, the Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) of
many plant species has been evaluated by analyzing important biochemical parameters. The Anticipated Performance Index (API) of
these plant species was also calculated by considering their APTI values together with other socio-economic and biological parameters.
Based on these two indices, the most suitable plant species for green belt development in urban areas were identified and recommended
for long-term air pollution management.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI); Anticipated Performance Index (API); Green belt; Management

1. Introduction particulate impactors than either twigs (stems) or leaf

In the context of environmental pollution abatement,
green belt has been defined as mass plantation of pollutant-
tolerant trees for mitigating the air pollution by filtering,
intercepting and absorbing pollutants in a sustainable
manner (Gareth et al., 1992; Andy, 1991; Parsons, 1990;
Ruth and William, 1994; Sharma and Roy, 1997). It is well
documented that plants remove air pollutants such as
hydrogen fluoride, SO2, and some compounds of photo-
chemical reactions, and collect heavy metals such as
mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) from the air (Hill, 1971; Lin,
1976; NEERI, 1993; Sharma and Roy, 1997; Brack, 2002;
Shannigrahi et al., 2003). Green belts in petroleum refining
industries have been found to reduce air pollution (Rao
et al., 2004). Plants remove air pollutants by three means:
absorption by the leaves, deposition of particulates and
aerosols over leaf surfaces, and fallout of particulates on
the leeward side of the vegetation (Tewari, 1994; Rawat
and Banerjee, 1996). Leaf petioles are more efficient
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sntshprjpt@rediffmail.com (S.K. Prajapati).
lamina (Ingold, 1971). Green belts also reduce noise
pollution (Pal et al., 2000; Fang and Ling, 2005;
Martı́nez-Sala et al., 2006).
Several researchers have designed models for green belt
development which include factors such as distance of the
green belt from pollution source, and density, width and
height of the green belt (Kapoor and Gupta, 1984, 1992;
Chaulya et al., 2001). The likely effectiveness of a green belt
in attenuating pollutant levels is given by the attenuation
factor, defined as the ratio of mass flux reaching a
particular distance in the absence of the green belt to the
mass flux reaching the same distance in the presence of the
green belt (Kapoor and Gupta, 1984). However, models for
green belt development also need to consider the selection
of tree species. Plants differ markedly in their responses to
pollutants, some being highly sensitive and others hardy
and tolerant (Singh and Rao, 1983; Shannigrahi and
Agrawal, 1996; Chaulya et al., 2001). Parameters used in
defining sensitivity or resistance of plants towards different
air pollutant concentrations are ascorbic acid content
(Keller and Schwager, 1977), relative water content
(RWC) (Sen and Bhandari, 1978), chlorophyll content

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doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.07.002
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1344 S.K. Prajapati, B.D. Tripathi / Journal of Environmental Management 88 (2008) 1343–1349

Table 1
Air Pollution Tolerance Index of tree species studied in Varanasi City

Sl. no. Name of the plant species A P T R APTI

1 Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees. 2.38 6.42 3.98 87.00 11.17

2 Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. 4.79 5.68 6.78 79.42 13.90
3 Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f. 4.60 6.40 2.90 72.00 11.48
4 Grewia asiatica L. 3.98 6.90 4.20 71.00 11.51
5 Acacia ferruginea DC. 3.80 5.80 2.20 80.00 11.04
6 Terminalia bellirica Roxb. 4.20 5.67 4.76 76.00 11.98
7 Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. 8.78 7.80 9.60 69.00 22.18
8 Bridelia squamosa (Lam.) Gehrm. 3.69 6.30 3.96 74.00 11.18
9 Zizyphus oenoplia Mill. 7.76 7.60 8.98 72.00 20.06
10 Pithocellobium dulce Benth. 2.78 6.30 3.78 76.00 10.40
11 Cassia fistula L. 4.84 5.80 3.87 74.48 12.13
12 Adina cardifolia Hook. f. 4.68 6.40 4.98 78.00 13.12
13 Madhuca indica Gmelin. 3.68 4.60 1.28 82.00 10.36
14 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. 5.78 5.80 8.79 77.80 16.21
15 Ficus benghalensis L. 7.36 8.16 6.56 83.25 19.15
16 Ficus religiosa L. 7.70 6.90 11.26 76.42 21.62
17 Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. 3.80 5.00 2.20 67.00 9.43
18 Tectona grandis L. 4.76 6.60 6.76 71.00 13.45
19 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 8.78 6.20 6.80 76.00 19.01
20 Ficus infectoria L. 7.90 7.80 12.20 81.30 23.93
21 Mangifera indica L. 6.78 5.76 9.78 91.18 19.65
22 Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. 1.98 4.80 2.41 83.70 9.78
23 Psidium guajava L. 7.80 6.20 7.00 79.00 18.20
24 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. 2.80 4.80 5.78 71.00 10.06
25 Cassia siamea Lamk. 7.20 4.80 5.60 70.20 14.50
26 Terminalia catappa L. 2.00 5.20 2.70 69.00 8.48
27 Nerium odorum Sonnad. 1.76 6.70 1.86 71.00 8.60

(Bell and Mudd, 1976), leaf extract pH (Chaudhary and
Rao, 1977) and peroxide activity (Eckert and Huston,
1982).
Categorization of plants as sensitive or tolerant is
determined by the level of these parameters in plants, and
thus plants show different susceptibility to different
pollutants. Interception and retention of atmospheric
pollutants depends on physical characteristics of particu-
lates, such as shape, size, moisture level, surface texture and
nature (soluble or insoluble) of plant parts (Ingold, 1971).
The level of mortality will be high in sensitive species and
low in tolerant species. Sensitive species are early indicators
of pollution, and the tolerant species help in reducing the
overall pollution load (Rao, 1983). Natural processes
that minimize the level of air pollution include precipita-
tion, chemical reactions, sedimentation and absorption
(Chamberlian, 1967; Rasmuseen et al., 1974). Plants act as
a sink and filter air pollution by absorption, adsorption,
detoxification, accumulation and/or metabolization (Hill,
1971; Robert, 1971; Bennett and Hill, 1975; Smith and
Dochinger, 1976; Rao, 1980; Sharma et al., 1994; Rawat
and Banerjee, 1996; Beckett et al., 1998).
Singh and Rao (1983) have developed the Air Pollution
Tolerance Index (APTI), which is based on four biochem-
ical properties of leaves: ascorbic acid, total chlorophyll,
relative water content and leaf extract pH. Plant sensitivity
and tolerance to air pollutants varies with these para-
meters. Chlorophyll content decreases due to production of
reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the chloroplast under
water stress (ROSs are very small reactive molecules that
can cause damage to cell structures during environmental
stress). Higher ascorbic acid content of leaves might be an
effective strategy to protect thylakoid membranes from
oxidative damage under such water stress (Tambussi et al.,
2000), as ascorbic acid is critically involved in the defense
against ROS produced by the photosynthetic apparatus
(Smirnoff, 1996). It limits the amount of ozone that can
penetrate through the cell wall and reach the more
vulnerable material inside the wall (Chameides, 1989).
Alkaline particles such as limestone may damage plant
surfaces (Brandt and Rhoades, 1972, 1973), and high pH
improves tolerance against air pollution (Agarwal, 1986).
The present study examines the selection of plant species,
which can be grown in and around the city of Varanasi,
India. Based on APTI (Table 1) and some relevant
biological and socio-economic characters (Table 2), the
Anticipated Performance Index (API) (Table 3), of various
plant species was determined.
2. Materials and methods
Varanasi is the oldest city of the world, located at
821150 E to 831300 E and 241350 N to 251300 N, India. It is
densely populated with around 2 million people, and the
resultant traffic density is also very high. The level of air
pollutants in the city, particularly SO2, NO2, SPM and
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Table 2
Gradation of plant species based on Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) as well as biological parameters and socio-economic importance

Grading character Pattern of assessment Grade allotted

(a) Tolerance APTI 9.0–12.0 +

12.1–15.0 ++
15.1–18.0 +++
18.1–21.0 ++++
21.1–24.0 +++++
(b) Biological and socio-economic Plant habit Small 
Medium +
Large ++

Canopy structure Sparse/irregular/globular 

Spreading crown/open/semi-dense +
Spreading dense ++
Type of plant Deciduous 
Evergreen +
Laminar structure Size Small 
Medium +
Large ++
Texture Smooth 
Coriaceous +

Hardiness Delineate 
Hardy +
Economic value Less than three uses 
Three or four uses +
Five or more uses ++

Table 3 Ascorbic acid content of leaf samples was determined

Anticipated Performance Index (API) of plant species using the method outlined by Keller and Schwager (1977).
Grade Score (%) Assessment category
Chlorophylls ‘a’ and ‘b’ content were calculated according
to the methods used by Maclachlan and Zalic (1963). To
0 Up to 30 Not recommended calculate leaf extract pH, 0.5 g of leaf sample was crushed
1 31–40 Very poor and homogenized in 50 ml de-ionized water, then the
2 41–50 Poor
mixture was centrifuged and supernatant was collected for
3 51–60 Moderate
4 61–70 Good detection of pH by a digital pH meter. Relative water
5 71–80 Very good content was calculated by using the method given by Sen
6 81–90 Excellent and Bhandari (1978).
7 91–100 Best By combining the resultant APTI values with some
relevant biological and socio-economic characters (plant
habit, canopy structure, type of plant, laminar structure and
economic value), the API was calculated for different species.
RSPM exceed the limit prescribed by Central Pollution Based on these characters, different grades (+ or ) are
Control Board (CPCB). allotted to plants. Different plants are scored according to
In the present investigation, the APTI of different plant their grades. The criteria used for calculating API of different
species was calculated by incorporating ascorbic acid plant species are given in Tables 2 and 3.
content, leaf extract pH, total chlorophyll content and
relative content of water into the following mathematical 3. Results and discussion
expression:
As shown in Table 1, the highest total chlorophyll
AðT þ PÞ þ R
, (1) content (in mg g1 fresh wt) was recorded in Ficus
10 infectoria L. (12.2) followed by Ficus religiosa (11.26),
where A is the ascorbic acid content in mg g1 of fresh Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. (9.6), Zizyphus oenoplia Mill.
weight; T is the total chlorophyll in mg g1 of fresh weight; (8.98), Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (8.79), respectively. Higher
P is the pH of leaf extract and R is the relative content of chlorophyll content in plants might favor tolerance to
water, in percentage. pollutants (Joshi et al., 1993). The values of leaf extract pH
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1346 S.K. Prajapati, B.D. Tripathi / Journal of Environmental Management 88 (2008) 1343–1349

ranged from 4.2 (Mangifera indica Gmelin.) to 8.16 (Ficus
benghalensis L.). However, the majority of plants showed
leaf extract pH in the range of 5–7. Higher pH is known to
improve tolerance to air pollution (Agarwal, 1986).
The maximum content of ascorbic acid was found in
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (0.878 mg g1 dry wt), followed
by F. infectoria (0.79 mg g1 dry wt), Psidium guajava
L. (0.78 mg g1 dry wt), Z. oenoplia Mill. (0.776 mg g1
dry wt), F. religiosa (0.77 mg g1 dry wt), F. benghalensis
L. (0.736 mg g1 dry wt), respectively. Ascorbic acid is an
antioxidant that is found in growing parts of the plant and
influences resistance to adverse environmental conditions,
including air pollution (Keller and Schwager, 1977). Soil
contamination and air pollution have been found to result in
a decrease in leaf ascorbic acid content in exposed Tibou-
china pulchra saplings (Klumpp et al., 2000), and together
with mineral deficiencies, are among the factors responsible
for the formation of ROS (Hippeli and Elstner, 1996). Given
that ascorbic acid decreases ROS concentration in leaves,
increased levels of ascorbic acid in leaves will increase air
pollution tolerance in plants (Chaudhary and Rao, 1977).
The relative water content was highest for M. indica
L. (91.18%). Other species with high relative water content
were Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees. (87%), Putran-
jiva roxburghii Wall. (83.7%), F. benghalensis L. (83.25%),
M. indica Gmelin. (82%), F. infectoria (81.30%), Acacia
ferruginea DC. (80%), D. sisso (77.80%), F. religiosa
(76.42%) and A. indica (76%). Higher relative water
content is advantageous for drought resistance (Dedio,
1975).
As shown in Table 1, plant species with higher APTI
values were F. infectoria (23.93), Z. mauritiana Lamk.
(22.18), F. religiosa (21.62), Z. oenoplia Mill. (20.06),
M. indica L. (19.65), F. benghalensis L. (19.15), A. indica
A. Juss. (19.01), P. guajava L. (17.40) and D. sissoo Roxb.
(16.21). In Table 4, tree species are evaluated and grade is
allotted considering their APTI and relevant socio-
economic and biological parameters.
Table 5 summarizes anticipated performance of different
plants and reveals that F. infectoria, M. indica L. and
F. religiosa are likely to be excellent performers.
F. benghalensis L. and D. sissoo Roxb. are anticipated to

Table 4
Evaluation of plant species based on their APTI values and some biological and socio-economic characters

S. no Name of the plant APTI Tree Canopy Type Laminar Economic Hardiness Grade allotted API
habit structure of tree importance grade
Size Texture Total %
plus (+) scoring

1 Dendrocalamus strictu + ++  + ++    6 35.29 1

(Roxb.) Nees.
2 Butea monosperma ++++ +   ++ + ++ + 11 64.70 4
(Lamk.) Taub.
3 Semecarpus anacardium + + +  ++ + ++ + 9 52.94 3
Linn. f.
4 Grewia asiatica L. + +   + + +  5 29.41 0
5 Acacia ferruginea DC. +  +  + + + + 6 35.29 1
6 Artocarpus lakoocha + ++ ++  + +  + 8 47.06 2
Roxb.
7 Zizyphus mauritiana +++++ + +   + +  9 52.94 3
Lamk.
8 Bridelia squamosa (Lam.) + + +   +   4 23.59 0
Gehrm.
9 Zizyphus oenoplia Mill. ++++ + +   + +  8 47.05 2
10 Pithocellobium dulce + +  +    + 4 23.59 0
Benth.
11 Cassia fistula L. ++ + +  +  + + 7 41.18 2
12 Adina cardifolia Hook. f. +++ ++ ++  ++ + + + 11 64.70 4
13 Madhuca indica Gmelin. + ++ ++  +  + + 8 47.06 2
14 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. +++ ++ ++ + + + + + 12 70.58 5
15 Ficus benghalensis L. ++++ ++ + + ++ + + + 13 76.46 5
16 Ficus religiosa +++++ ++ + + ++ + + + 14 82.30 6
17 Tectona grandis L. ++ ++ +  ++ +  + 9 52.94 3
18 Azadirachta indica A. ++++ ++ ++    ++ + 11 64.70 4
Juss.
19 Ficus infectoria +++++ ++ + + ++ + ++ + 15 88.20 6
20 Mangifera indica L. ++++ ++ ++ + + + ++ + 14 82.30 6
21 Putranjiva roxburghii ++++ + + + + + + + 11 64.70 4
Wall.
22 Psidium guajava L. ++++ + + + + + + + 11 64.70 4
23 Syzygium cumini (L.) + ++ ++ + +  + + 9 52.94 3
Skeels.
24 Cassia siamea Lamk. ++ + + + + + + + 9 52.94 3
25 Terminalia bellirica Roxb. + + +  +  + + 6 35.29 1
26 Nerium odorum Sonnad. + + +  + +   5 29.41 0
27 Terminalia catappa L. + ++ ++  +  + + 8 47.06 2
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.K. Prajapati, B.D. Tripathi / Journal of Environmental Management 88 (2008) 1343–1349 1347

Table 5
Anticipated performance of different tree species in Varanasi City

Plant species Grade API value Assessment

Total plus Percentage

Ficus infectoria L. 15 88.20 6 Excellent

Ficus religiosa L. 14 82.30 6 Excellent
Mangifera indica L. 14 82.30 6 Excellent
Ficus benghalensis L. 13 76.46 5 Very good
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. 12 70.58 5 Very good
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 11 64.70 4 Good
Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. 11 64.70 4 Good
Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. 11 64.70 4 Good
Adina cardifolia Hook. f. 11 64.70 4 Good
Psidium guajava L. 11 64.70 4 Good
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. 9 52.94 3 Moderate
Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f. 9 52.94 3 Moderate
Tectona grandis L. 9 52.94 3 Moderate
Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. 9 52.94 3 Moderate
Zizyphus oenoplia Mill. 8 47.05 2 Poor
Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. 8 47.05 2 Poor
Terminalia catappa L. 8 47.05 2 Poor
Madhuca indica Gmelin. 8 47.05 2 Poor
Cassia fistula L. 7 41.18 2 Poor
Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees. 6 35.29 1 Very poor
Terminalia bellirica Roxb. 6 35.29 1 Very poor
Grewia asiatica L. 5 29.41 0 Not recommended
Acacia ferruginea DC. 6 35.29 1 Very poor
Bridelia squamosa (Lam.) Gehrm. 4 23.59 0 Not recommended
Pithocellobium dulce Benth. 4 23.59 0 Not recommended
Nerium odorum Sonnad. 5 29.41 0 Not recommended

be very good performers, and A. indica A. Juss. and
P. roxburghii Wall. could be good performers. P. guajava
L., Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels., Semecarpus anacardium
Linn.f., Tectona grandis L., Z. mauritiana Lamk. and
M. indica Gmelin. are predicted to be moderate perfor-
mers. Six plant species are recognized as poor performers.
The remainder of the plant species either were very poor
performers or not recommended for plantation.
The main air pollutants in Varanasi city are SO2, NO2,
SPM and RSPM. The concentrations of all of these
pollutants exceeds the limit prescribed by CPCB (recorded
concentrations of SO2, NO2, SPM and RSPM in the city
are 149.8, 184.4, 345 and 174 mg m3, respectively).
Presence of trees in the urban environment can thus
improve air quality through enhancing the uptake of
pollutant gases and particles (McPherson et al., 1994;
Beckett et al., 1998; Freer-Smith et al., 1997). Dust
interception capacity of plants depends on their surface
geometry, phyllotaxy, leaf external characteristics (such as
hairs, cuticle, etc.), and height and canopy of trees (Nowak,
1994; Singh, 2000). APTI and API methodology can be
applied anywhere in the world as they are based on
biochemical parameters and universally relevant biological
and socio-economic characters. Care should be taken to
avoid planting large trees with dense canopy structures too
close to each other, as this may hinder the dispersal of
pollutants, thus aggravating the pollution problem. Simi-
larly, if large plants are planted in soil contaminated with
heavy metals, then the plant will be under severe stress and
thus may not be able to scavenge ROS.
Overall, F. infectoria L. ranks first among all the plants
and is a keystone species. A keystone species is one that has
a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its
abundance. An ecosystem may experience a dramatic shift
if a keystone species is removed, even though that species
was a small part of the ecosystem by measures of biomass
or productivity. Therefore, this will be an ideal species for
planting in the city to assist in alleviating pollution
and contributing significantly to the natural ecosystem.
M. indica L. was judged as excellent performer. It has a
dense canopy of evergreen foliage, and is well known for its
economic and aesthetic value (Shannigrahi et al., 2004).
F. religiosa L. was judged in the excellent category and was
also recommended for plantation. F. benghalensis L. and
D. sissoo Roxb. were designated very good performers,
and A. indica A. Juss., P. roxburghii Wall., P. guajava L.,
B. monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. and A. cardifolia Hook. f.
were anticipated to be good performers. Together with
these 10 well performing species, 4 tree species from the
moderate category may be recommended for plantation
due to their aesthetic value. The rest of the 16 species
naturally growing in the area were not recommended for
plantation due to their particularly poor pollution toler-
ance indices or their very low API values.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1348 S.K. Prajapati, B.D. Tripathi / Journal of Environmental Management 88 (2008) 1343–1349
4. Conclusions
Our study reveals that evaluation of anticipated perfor-
mance of plants might be very useful in the selection of
appropriate tree species for urban green belt development.
Plants with high APTI and API values are recommended
for the development of green belts in the area. Many of the
plants recommended are keystone species. Keystone
species are the species that play a key role in the
development and maintenance of the ecosystem. Other
species recommended were of high socio-economic and
aesthetic values. Therefore, these plants can be integrated
into a green belt design to assist in the long-term air
pollution management of these urban areas.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research, New Delhi for financial assistance.
The authors also acknowledge the constructive suggestion
and criticism of reviewers in improving the final version of
the manuscript. Authors are grateful of Prof. Mark
Burgman FAA, Director, Australian Centre of Excellence
for Risk Analysis, School of Botany, University of
Melbourne, and Bonnie Wintle for improving the quality
of manuscript.
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