Friction Wear and their Measurements

Chapter 2
Friction, Wear and Their Measurements
Friction
Definition of friction
Friction is a force that resists relative motion between two surfaces in contact.
Depending on the application, friction may be desirable or undesirable. Certain applications,
such as motion of automobile on road and braking or for the motion of human beings rely on the
beneficial effects of friction. In other applications, such as operation of engines or equipment
with bearings and gears, friction is undesirable because it causes wear and generates heat, which
frequently leads to premature failure.

The energy spent in overcoming friction is converted into heat and the same will be
wasted because useful work is not accomplished. This waste heat is a major cause of excessive
wear and premature failure of equipment. Two general cases of friction occur: sliding friction
and rolling friction.

1. Sliding friction
To visualize sliding friction, imagine a steel block lying on a steel table. Initially a force
F (action) is applied horizontally in an attempt to move the block. If the applied force F is not
high enough, the block will not move because the friction between the block and table resists
movement. If the applied force is increased, eventually it will be sufficient to overcome the
frictional resistance force f and the block will begin to move. At this precise instant, the applied
force F is equal to the resisting friction force f and is referred to as the force of friction.

F
θ
Lcosθ
W =L θ
(a) W =L
(b)

Figure 1

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In mathematical terms, the relation between the normal load L (weight of the block) and
the friction force f is given by the coefficient of friction denoted by μ. The normal load refers to
a load that is perpendicular to the contacting surfaces. For the example in Figure 1(a), the
normal load is equal to the weight of the block because the block is resting on a horizontal table.
However, if the block were resting on an inclined plane or ramp as shown in figure 1(b), the
normal load would not equal the weight of the block, but would depend on the angle of the
ramp.

Laws of sliding friction

Dry or unlubricated surfaces: - Three laws govern the relationship between the frictional
force F and the load or weight L of the sliding object for unlubricated or dry surfaces:

(a) “For low pressures (normal force per unit area) the friction force is directly proportional
to the normal load between the two surfaces. As the pressure increases, the friction does not
rise proportionally; but when the pressure become abnormally high, the friction increases at a
rapid rate until seizing takes place.”

𝐹 ∝𝐿 or
𝐹 = 𝜇𝐿 where, 𝜇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜇 = 𝐿

(b) “The friction both in its total amount and its coefficient is independent of the area of
contact, so long as the normal force remains the same. This is true for moderate pressures
only. For high pressures, , the friction increases at a rapid rate until seizing takes place.”
(c) “At very low velocities, the friction force is independent of the velocity of rubbing. As the
velocities increase, the friction decreases.”
The third law (c) implies that the force required to set a body in motion is the same as the
force required to keep it in motion, but this is not true. Once a body is in motion, the force
required to maintain motion is less than the force required to initiate motion and there is some
dependency on velocity. These facts reveal two categories of friction: static and kinetic. Static
friction is the force required to initiate motion (Fs). Kinetic or dynamic friction is the force
required to maintain motion (Fk).
Lubricated surfaces: - The friction laws for well lubricated surfaces are considerably
different than those for dry surfaces, as follows:
(a) “The frictional resistance is almost independent of the pressure (normal force per unit
area) if the surfaces are flooded with oil.”
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(b) “The friction varies directly as the speed, at low pressures; but for high pressures the
friction is very great at low velocities and afterwards increasing approximately as the square
root of the speed.”
(c) “For well lubricated surfaces the frictional resistance depends on the temperature,
because of the change in viscosity of the oil.”
(d) “If the bearing surfaces are flooded with oil, the friction is almost independent of the
nature of the material of the surfaces in contact. As the lubrication becomes less ample, the
coefficient of friction becomes more dependent upon the material of the surfaces.”
The coefficient of friction: - The coefficient of friction depends on the type of material. Often
coefficient of friction (μ) is considered a constant value for a pair of material. In addition, the
value of μ is accounted much lesser than 1.0. In practice μ greater than 1.0, as shown in Table 1,
has been observed. Generally coefficients of friction depend on parameters such as temperature,
surface roughness and hardness.
Table 1: Coefficient of friction for various metals sliding on themselves

Asperities: - Smooth surfaces, even those polished to a mirror finish, are not truly smooth on an
atomic scale. They are rough, with sharp, rough or rugged projections, termed "asperities".
Regardless of how smooth a surface may appear, it has many small irregularities called
asperities as shown in figure 2. The real or true surface area refers to the area of the points in
direct contact. This area is considerably less than the apparent geometric area.

Figure 2. The top image shows asperities under no load. The bottom image depicts the same
surface after applying a load.

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Adhesion: - Adhesion occurs at the points of contact and refers to the welding effect that occurs
when two bodies are compressed against each other. This effect is more commonly referred to as
“cold welding” and is attributed to pressure rather than heat, which is associated with welding in
the more familiar sense. A shearing force is required to separate cold-welded surfaces.
Shear strength and pressure: - As previously noted, the primary objective of lubrication is to
reduce friction and wear of sliding surfaces. This objective is achieved by introducing a material
with a low shear strength or coefficient of friction between the wearing surfaces. Although
nature provides such materials in the form of oxides and other contaminants, the reduction in
friction due to their presence is insufficient for machinery operation. For these conditions, a
second relationship is used to define the coefficient of friction: μ = S/P, where S is the shear
strength of the material and P is pressure (or force) contributing to compression. This
relationship shows that the coefficient of friction is a function of the force required to shear a
material.
Stick-slip: - The motion of sliding objects appears steady. In reality this motion is jerky or
intermittent because the objects slow during shear periods and accelerate following the shear.
This process is continuously repeated while the objects are sliding. During shear periods, the
static friction force Fs controls the speed. Once shearing is completed, the kinetic friction force
Fk controls the speed and the object accelerates. This effect is known as stick-slip. In well
lubricated machinery operated at the proper speed, stick-slip is insignificant, but it is responsible
for the squeaking or chatter sometimes heard in machine operation. Machines that operate over
long sliding surfaces, such as the ways of a lathe, are subject to stick-slip. To prevent stick-slip,
lubricants are provided with additives to make Fs less than Fk.
Friction Instability: - Friction instability generally occurs due to large difference in the
value of static and kinetic coefficient of friction. The difference between static and kinetic
friction coefficients, initiates a “stick-slip” process.
Possible reasons for stick-slip phenomenon:
• Interlocking of asperities during stick phenomenon but separation during sliding.
• Adhesion during stick action and breakage of weld joint during sliding.
• Electrostatic charge during stick event.
To avoid this stick-slip phenomenon either:-
• Increase operating speed or
• Reduce the difference between μs and μk.
To avoid friction instability:
• Increase, the system damping.
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• Lubricate or otherwise form a surface film (reduce gap between static and kinetic coefficient of
friction).
Rolling friction
When a body rolls on a surface, the force resisting the motion is termed rolling friction or
rolling resistance. Less force is required to roll an object than to slide or drag it. Because force is
required to initiate and maintain rolling motion, there must be a definite but small amount of
friction involved. Unlike the coefficient of sliding friction, the coefficient of rolling friction
varies with conditions and has a dimension expressed in units of length.
Laws of rolling friction: - The laws for sliding friction cannot be applied to rolling bodies in
equally quantitative terms, but the following generalities can be given:
(1) The rolling friction force F is proportional to the load L and inversely proportional to the
radius of curvature r, or F = μrL/r, where μr is the coefficient of rolling resistance, in meters.
As the radius increases, the frictional force decreases.
(2) The rolling friction force F can be expressed as a fractional power of the load L times a
constant k or F = kLn where the constant k and the power n must be determined
experimentally.
(3) The friction force F decreases as the smoothness of the rolling element improves.
Friction Coefficient of friction due to rolling (μ r) is generally smaller than that caused by
sliding action. Therefore wherever possible rolling friction compared to sliding friction is
desired. μr is defined as the force required to maintain steady rolling, divided by the load carried
by the roller. Rolling friction coefficients often depend on hardness of contacting solids. On
increasing hardness, elastic deformation under load decreases. Therefore, hysteresis loss and so
the value of μr decreases. For hard smooth steel rollers, the coefficient of rolling friction ranges
between 0.01 and 0.001.
Types of Friction: - There are two types of friction. They are (1) Static friction (2) Kinetic
friction
Let us consider a block on the surface getting pushed by a tangential force F. On load
application of 20 N, block does not move. This second point on the graph (Figure 3) shows that
on application of 40 N, still block does not move. There is static force equilibrium between
application force and friction force. On application of 50 N load, block just start sliding. At this
point of load application friction force remains equal to 50 N, but friction resistance decreases
subsequently to 40 N. In other words, static friction is higher than kinetic friction.

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Figure 3: Difference between the static and kinetic friction may initiate „stick-slip‟.

Scientific Explanation of Dry Friction: - There are two main friction sources: Adhesion and
Deformation. Force needed to plough asperities of harder surface through softer. In lubricated
tribo-pair case, friction due to adhesion will be negligible, while for smoother surfaces under
light load conditions deformation component of friction will be negligible. Figure 4
demonstrates the adhesion (cold weld) between two surfaces. Some force, Fa, is required to tear
the cold junction.

Figure 4 Adhesion
WEAR
Wear can be defined as undesired removal of material due to mechanical action. There
are many types of wear mechanisms, but we shall discuss about common wear mechanisms,
which are:

• Abrasive Wear: polishing, scouring, scratching, grinding, gouging.

• Adhesive Wear: galling, scuffing and scoring.
• Corrosive Wear (Chemical nature).
• Erosive Wear.
• Fatigue: delamination.
• Fretting Wear.

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Adhesive Wear

Adhesive wear is very common in metals. It is heavily dependent on the mutual affinity
between the materials. Let us take example of steel and indium [Figure 5(a)]. When steel pin
under load is pushed [Figure 5(b)] in indium block, and subsequently retracted Figure 5(c)], a
thin layer of indium transferred on the steel pin. Similar behavior is observed by pushing brass
metal in indium metal. This behavior demonstrates the loss of indium material, which occurs
due to high value of adhesive force between steel and indium. If steel pin is subjected to normal
load as well as tangential load [Figure 5(d)] then severe wear of indium material occurs. By
introducing a thin layer of lubricant at the interface of indium and metal, the severe wear can be
reduced to mild wear. Shear strength of lubricant layer is much smaller than shear strength of
indium metal, therefore weak interface between steel and indium occurs which can be sheared
easily and wear rate reduces to mild value.

Figure 5 Adhesive wear.

We can summarize the steps involved in adhesive wear as:

• Deformation of contacting asperities Fig. 6(a).
• Removal (abrasion) of protective oxide surface film.
• Formation of adhesive junctions Fig. 6(b).
• Failure of junction by pulling out large lumps and transfer of materials Fig.6(c).

Figure 6 Steps involved in adhesive wear

Laws of Adhesive Wear:

\• Wear Volume proportional to sliding distance of travel (L)-
• Wear Volume proportional to the load (W)

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• Wear volume inversely proportional to hardness (H) of softer material.

𝑘𝑊𝐿
Using these laws, wear volume is given by V = . This equation is known as Archard‟s Wear
𝐻

Equation.
The value of k depends on elastic plastic contacts, shearing of those contacts, effect of
environment, mode of lubrication, etc.

Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear, sometimes called cutting wear, occurs when hard particles slide and roll
under pressure, across the surface. Hard particle sources are: dirt in the housing, sand or scale
from castings, metal wear particles, and particles introduced into housing when filling with lube
oil. Scratching is a form of abrasive wear, characterized by short scratch-like lines in the
direction of sliding. This type of damage is usually light and can be stopped by removing the
contaminants that caused it. Figure 7 shows abrasive wear of a hardened gear.

Figure 7 Abrasive wear of gear.

Abrasive wear is caused by the passage of relatively hard particles/asperities over a

surface. Following are few well-known reasons of abrasive wear mechanisms:
- Micro-cutting: sharp particle or hard asperity cuts the softer surface. Cut material is removed
as wear debris.
- Micro-fracture: generally occurs in brittle, e.g. ceramic material. Fracture of the worn surface
occurs due to merging of a number of smaller cracks.
- Micro fatigue: When a ductile material is abraded by a blunt particle/asperity, the worn
surface is repeatedly loaded and unloaded, and failure occurs due to fatigue.
- Removal of material grains: Happens in materials (i.e. ceramics) having relatively weak
grain boundaries.

Mechanisms of Abrasive Wear

The first mechanism illustrated in Figure 7(a), cutting, represents the classic model
where a sharp grit or hard asperity cuts the softer surface. The material that is cut is removed as

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wear debris. When the abraded material is brittle, e.g., ceramic, fracture of the worn surface may
occur (Figure 7(b)). In this instance wear debris is the result of crack convergence. When a
ductile material is abraded by a blunt grit, then cutting is unlikely and the worn surface is
repeatedly deformed (Figure 7(c)). In this case wear debris is the result of metal fatigue. The last
mechanism illustrated (Figure 7(d)) represents grain detachment or grain pull-out. This
mechanism applies mainly to ceramics where the boundary between grains is relatively weak. In
this mechanism the entire grain is lost as wear debris.

Figure 7 Mechanisms of adhesive wear

Classification of abrasive wear: Basic modes of abrasive wear are classified as two-body
abrasion and three-body abrasion.

i. Two-body abrasion where a hard rough body plows into a softer body (Figure 9(a)) and

ii. Three-body abrasion where a third body (usually hard granular matter) placed between the
sliding surfaces gets crushed and cut grooves (Figure 9(b)).

Figure 9 Schematic representations (a) two-body abrasion (b) three-body abrasion

Two–body Abrasion: This wear mechanism happens between two interacting asperities in
physical contact, and one of it is harder than other. Normal load causes penetration of harder
asperities into softer surface thus producing plastic deformations. To slide, the material is

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displaced/removed from the softer surface by combined action of microploughing & micro-
cutting.
Three-Body Abrasion: Three-body abrasion is material removed from softer surface by hard
loose particles (Figure 8), which are free to roll as well as slide over the surface, since they are
not held rigidly. The hard particles may be generated locally by oxidation or wear from
components of tribological system. Due to rolling action, abrasive wear volume is lower
compared to 2-Body abrasion. Hence one can conclude that wear rate is lesser in three-body
abrasion than two-body abrasion. The reduction in 3-body abrasion occurs due to energy
consumed in rolling motion of free hard particles.
Corrosive Wear

• Chemical reaction + Mechanical action = Corrosive wear.

The fundamental cause of Corrosive wear is a chemical reaction between the material
and a corroding medium which can be a chemical reagent, reactive lubricant or even air.
Understanding the mechanisms of corrosive is important to reduce this kind of wear. Let us
consider a jaw coupling used for connecting shaft and motor, as shown in Figure 9. This
coupling is corroded, due to moist environment and its outer dimensions have increased. If we
rub this coupling with fingers, brown colour debris will get detached from the coupling surface.
In other words, after chemical reactions, mechanical action is essential to initiate corrosive
wear.

Figure 10 Jaw coupling. Figure 11 Corrosive wear

Stages of corrosive wear:

• Sliding surfaces chemically interact with environment (humid/industrial vapor/acid).
• A reaction product (like oxide, chlorides, copper sulphide) is formed.
• Wearing away of reaction product film.
The most corrosion films passivate (Figure 12(a)) or cease to grow beyond a certain
thickness. This is favourable as corrosion process stops its own. But most corrosion films are
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brittle & porous, and mechanical sliding wears away the film. The formation and subsequent
loss of sacrificial (Figure 12(b)) or short life-time corrosion films is the most common form of
corrosive wear.

(a) (b)

Figure 12 (a) Passivation of corrosion. (b): Continuous corrosion

Sliding surfaces may wear by chemically reacting with the partner surface or the
environment, or both. The oxide layers resulting from reactions with the environment are
typically 10 microns thick, and they may have a protective role unless the thickness tends to
grow during the cyclic contact process. If the oxide layer grows, it becomes liable to break in
brittle fracture, producing wear particles. Hard, broken-off oxide particles may then profoundly
affect subsequent wear life as abrasive agents. If soft, ductile debris results, it may form a
protective layer on the surface.

Erosive wear

Erosive wear caused by the impact of particles (solid/liquid) against a solid surface. For
example dust particles impacting on gas turbine blades and slurry impacting on pump impeller.
Erosive wear rate (Ve) is function of 1. Particles velocity (K.E.), 2. Impact angle and 3. Size of
abrasive.

Angle of impact decides the magnitude of transfer. Angle between eroded surface &
trajectory of particle immediately before impact can range from 00 to 900. If the speed is very
low then stresses at impact are insufficient for plastic deformation to occur and wear proceeds
by surface fatigue. When the speed is increased, it is possible for the eroded material to deform
plastically on particle impact. In this regime, which is quite common for many engineering
components, wear may occur by repetitive plastic deformation. If the eroding particles are blunt
or spherical, thin plates of worn material form as a result of extreme plastic deformation. If the
particles are sharp, cutting or brittle fragmentation prevail. Brittle materials on the other hand,
wear by subsurface cracking.

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Mechanisms of Erosive Wear

Erosive wear involves several wear mechanisms which are largely controlled by the
particle material, the angle of impingement, the impact velocity and the particle size. If the
particle is hard and solid then it is possible that a process similar to abrasive wear will occur.
Where liquid particles are the erodent, abrasion does not take place and the wear mechanisms
involved are the result of repetitive stresses on impact. The known mechanisms of erosive wear
are illustrated in Figure 13.

Figure 13 Possible mechanisms of erosion; a) abrasion at low impact angles, b) surface fatigue
during low speed, high impingement angle impact, c) brittle fracture or multiple plastic
deformation during medium speed, large impingement angle impact, d) surface melting at high
impact speeds, e) macroscopic erosion with secondary effects, f) crystal lattice degradation from
impact by atoms.

The angle of impingement is the angle between the eroded surface and the trajectory of
the particle immediately before impact as shown in Figure 13(a). A low angle of impingement
favours wear processes similar to abrasion because the particles tend to track across the worn

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surface after impact. A high angle of impingement causes wear mechanisms which are typical of
erosion.

The speed of the erosive particle has a very strong effect on the wear process. If the
speed is very low then stresses at impact are insufficient for plastic deformation to occur and
wear proceeds by surface fatigue. When the speed is increased, it is possible for the eroded
material to deform plastically on particle impact. In this regime, which is quite common for
many engineering components, wear may occur by repetitive plastic deformation. If the eroding
particles are blunt or spherical then thin plates of worn material form on the worn surface as a
result of extreme plastic deformation. If the particles are sharp then cutting or brittle
fragmentation is more likely. Brittle materials, on the other hand, wear by subsurface cracking.
At very high particle speeds melting of the impacted surface might even occur.

The size of the particle is also of considerable relevance and most of the erosive wear
problems involve particles between 5 and 500 [μm] in size. A low earth orbit (LEO) satellite
provides an example of erosive wear by minute particles. The satellite is subject to erosion by
impacting oxygen and nitrogen atoms from the outer atmosphere and this eventually causes
degradation of the satellite casing. In space, there are also innumerable meteorites cause erosion.
For both material degradation in the LEO satellites and planetary meteorite bombardment,
impact speeds of eroding particles are very high and the specific wear mechanism is different
from what is usually understood by erosive wear. During impact by atmospheric atoms, the
crystal lattice of the bombarded material is degraded to form an eroded structure. In erosion by
meteorites, the large size and speed result in a macroscopic damage process where effects such
as the eddying of the atmosphere around the impact site are also significant.

Fatigue Wear:

Figure 14 Fatigue wear of outer ring of roller bearing

Fatigue is attributed to multiple reversals (apply and release) of the contact stress,
occurring due to cyclic loading such as in rolling bearings, gears, friction drives, cam and
follower. Abrasive and Adhesive wear involve a large contribution from fatigue. Figure 14

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shows „surface fatigue‟ failure of outer ring of roller bearing. At the start of bearing operation,
the rolling bearings rely on smooth undamaged contacting surfaces for reliable functioning. A
certain number of rolling contact cycles must elapse before surface defects are formed, and their
formation is termed „contact fatigue‟. Once the rolling surfaces of a bearing are pitted, its further
use is prevented due to excessive vibration caused by pits passing through the rolling contact.

Figure 15 Fatigue wear during sliding.

Figure 15 illustrate the induced strains in top of the surface in the direction of sliding.
Thickness “t” depends on the coefficient of friction. For high value of sliding of friction,
material within 0.1 mm of the surface shifts in the direction of sliding due to deformation caused
by the frictional force. Also, close to the surface the grain structure is orientated parallel to the
wearing surface. Strains caused by shearing in sliding direction are present to some depth below
the surface. The strain induced by sliding eventually breaks down the original grain structure at
the surface to form dislocation cells. Materials vary greatly in their tendency to form dislocation
cells. For example, aluminium, copper and iron have a high tendency to form dislocation cells.
These dislocation cells are probable regions for void formation and crack nucleation. A primary
crack originates at the surface at some weak point and propagates downward along weak planes
such as slip planes or dislocation cell boundaries as shown in Figure 16. When the developing
crack reaches the surface, a wear particle is released.

Figure 16 Mechanism of fatigue wear.

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Fretting Wear

Fretting wear refers to small amplitude (1 to 300 μm), with high frequency oscillatory
movement mainly originated by vibration. This generally occurs in mechanical assemblies
(press fit parts, rivet / bolt joints, strands of wire ropes, rolling element bearings), in which
relative sliding on micron level is allowed. It is very difficult to eliminate such movements and
the result is fretting. Fretting wear and fretting fatigue are present in almost all machinery and
are the cause of total failure of some otherwise robust components.

Figure 17 Fretting wear.

Fretting occurs wherever short amplitude reciprocating sliding between contacting

surfaces (Figure 17) is sustained for a large number of cycles. The centre (Figure 17) of the
contact may remain stationary while the edges reciprocate with an amplitude of the order of 1
micron to cause fretting damage. One of the characteristic features of fretting is that the
produced wear debris is often retained within the contact due to small amplitude sliding. The
accumulating wear debris gradually separates both surfaces (Figure 18) and, in some cases, may
contribute to the acceleration of the wear process by abrasion. The process of fretting wear can
be further accelerated by temperature. Reciprocating movements as short as 0.1 micron in
amplitude can cause failure of the component when the sliding is maintained for one million
cycles or more.

.
Figure 18 Process of Fretting wear.

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Cavitation Wear

Localized impact of fluid against a surface during the collapse of bubbles is known as
cavitation wear. Cavitation wear generally damages equipment such as propellers or turbine
blades operating with wet steam, and valve seats. Wear progresses by the formation of a series
of holes or pits in the surface exposed to cavitation. The entire machine component can be
destroyed by this process. Operation of equipment is often limited by severe vibration caused by
cavitation damage.

Mechanism of Cavitation Wear: - The characteristic feature of cavitation is the cyclic formation
and collapse of bubbles on a solid surface in contact with a fluid. Bubble formation is caused by
the release of dissolved gas from the liquid where it sustains a near-zero or negative pressure.
The down-stream face of a sharp sided object moving in liquids, e.g., ship propeller, is
particularly prone to cavitation. The ideal method of preventing cavitation is to avoid negative
pressures close to surfaces, but in practice this is usually impossible.

When a bubble collapses on a surface the liquid adjacent to the bubble is at first
accelerated and then sharply decelerated as it collides with the surface. The collision between
liquid and solid generates large stresses which can damage the solid. Transient pressures as high
as 1.5 GPa are possible. The process of bubble collapse together with experimental evidence of a
hole formed in a metal surface by bubble collapse is shown in Figure 19. The cavitation crater,
shown in Figure 19, was produced on the surface of indium which is soft. Harder materials such
as ceramics are unlikely to form a deep hole under the same conditions. Cracking and spallation
are the predominant modes of wear for hard brittle materials.

Figure 19 Mechanism of cavitation wear: a) mechanism of bubble collapse and b) experimental

evidence of damage by cavitation to a metallic surface

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Cavitation Wear Resistance of Materials: - Cavitation can occur in components ranging from
propellers to dam spillways. For large-scale structures, concrete based materials are often used,
e.g., concrete reinforced with chopped steel fibers, polymer impregnated concrete or concrete
coated with epoxy resin.

Dry Sliding Wear of Polymers

In the rubbing of polymers (and also of dry bearing materials that include polymers) on metals, a
very thin film of polymer, invisible to the naked eye, is first established upon the metal surface;
the presence, and indeed the nature, of this thin transferred film can play a crucial role in the
subsequent wear behavior.

Wear of Metals Generated by Plastic. The friction of polymers is about the same as that of
metals (with the exception of PTFE), but the seizure resistance of plastics is superior to that of
soft metals. General uncertainty exists about the effect of surface roughness on wear rate, and
the astounding finding has been made that some polymers wear metals away without the
presence of abrasives.

The general state of understanding of polymer wear is that rubbing surfaces experience a
break-in period, followed by a steady-state behavior, which is often referred to as linear wear
(Figure 20).

Figure 20 Typical wear behavior of a polymer

Each polymer has a unique PV limit as measured by some test, most often a washer test.
The PV limit for polymers is often thought to be based on thermal behavior of the materials.

Transfer films of polymer control the wear process. If a film of polymer is transformed
on the metal counterface and remains firmly attached, the loss of the polymer from the system is
minimal. If, during sliding, a particle of polymer is removed from the polymer bulk but does not

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remain attached to the metal, it is lost from the system. An intermediate state of wear is the case
where a transfer film is formed, but fragments of the film are later lost, probably due to fatigue
or some other mechanisms.

In the early stages of sliding, the rate or buildup of the transfer film is dependent on the
orientation of surface finish relative to the sliding direction, and the rate varies depending on the
type of contaminant or dirt on the sliding surface. Surface finish appears to have almost no effect
on the steady-state wear rate, probably because the products of wear fill the grooves in the
surface.

Wear of Ceramic Materials

In general, ceramic materials are more brittle than metals and are often presumed to be
incapable of plastic deformation. In addition ceramic materials are chemically inert and
therefore a chemical component is not to be expected in the wearing of ceramics. The wear of
ceramic materials will not be similar to the wear of metals. There are indeed differences, which
are useful to list:

· Chemical reaction of a ceramic material with the environment does occur, often forming new
chemical compounds, such as oxides (except on the ceramics that are oxides such as Al2O3,
ZrO2, and others), sulfides, phosphides, and others; these compounds influence the coefficient of
friction just as they do in metals. These new surface compounds are often readily removed as
wear products.

· Some ceramic materials (for example, Si3N4), are more ductile than some untempered
martensite. In fact, white cast iron, although it is regarded as a metal, may contain well over
50% carbides of iron and chromium; these carbides are ceramic materials. However, such
ceramic materials as silicon carbide and alumina are clearly more brittle than metals.

· Brittle materials are much more prone to early failure due to cyclic stressing. In mechanical
engineering, a response to cyclic stress is described as a fatigue property, but this term has a
more technical meaning in material science. Clearly, though, the very brittle ceramics
disintegrate quickly in cyclic stressing. One manifestation of this behavior may be seen in the
pin-on-disk wear test. With pairs of ductile metals, the pin wears faster than does the disk; with
pairs of brittle ceramic material, the disk wears faster than does the pin. The reason is that a
position on the disk has the pin sliding over it repeatedly, imposing a cyclic stress on that
position.

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 Friction Wear and their Measurements

· In repeat-pass sliding, some wear debris appears to be crushed and reattaches very firmly as a
transfer film, which affects (often reduces) the wear rate by as much as a factor of 100. This
reattachment appears to be interrupted by the presence of water and other fluids, which increases
the wear rate by as much as tenfold.

Prevention of Adhesive Wear

The following guidelines are recommendations to prevent adhesive wear in metals,
polymers, and ceramics:

· Avoid sliding similar materials together, particularly metals

· If fatigue due to repeated high-contact pressure is not likely to be a problem, then high
hardness is a desired property. However, avoid sliding hard metals against hard metals in
lubricated systems to avoid scuffing and to accommodate debris;
The same applies to polymers, which seem rather soft relative to metals. However, wear-
resisting polymers often contain glass or some other hard filler that wears metal counterfaces
rather severely. These hard fillers may fragment and embedded in the counterface, which causes
abrasion.
Friction Testing
Friction and wear are not basic properties of materials but rather represent the response
of a material pair in a certain environment to imposed forces, which tend to produce relative
motion between the paired materials. Friction and wear behavior is, therefore, subject to the
considerations of testing geometry, the characteristics of the relative motion, the contact pressure
between the surfaces, the temperature, the stiffness and vibrational properties of the supporting
structures, the presence or absence of third bodies, the duration of contact, and the chemistry of
the environment in and around the interface. Friction is not a measure of wear or the tendency to
wear; therefore, it does not determine service life. Frictional heating sometimes causes a part to
fail, but this usually occurs when circumstances cause abnormal friction effects. Tables of
friction coefficients should not be trusted to provide applicable numerical values unless the
conditions used to develop the data closely mimic those of the application for which the data are
intended. Since frictional interactions occur under a wide variety of contact conditions and size
scales, selecting test methods for screening materials or lubricants for frictional behavior should
be done with care.
Standard test methods, like those produced by ASTM (American society for Testing and
Materials), can be useful not only as guides to friction testing procedures but also as a source of
information on which test variables should be controlled.

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Methods for Measuring Friction

Surface Preparation: - Before one conducts any kind of friction test, surfaces of the test pieces
should be properly prepared, and their method of preparation should be documented. Since
frictional behavior reflects the condition of the contact surfaces and the interface conditions
between them, it can be affected by the initial cleanliness of surfaces as well as the method used
to produce those surfaces (i.e., machining conditions, polishing methods, etc.).

Inclined-Plane Method: - Most commonly used friction coefficient measuring methods require
the measurement of both the friction force and the normal force, but not all friction coefficient
measuring methods do. For example, the inclined-plane static friction coefficient measurement
method depicted in Figure 21 and dating back over 400 years to Leonardo da Vinci's notebooks,
requires only a block of material resting on a flat surface which can be tilted gradually. The
weight of the block need not be known, only the angle of tilt. In this case, μs is obtained from
the following expression:
μs = tan θ
The specimen is placed on the plane in a horizontal position, and the plane is gradually
raised. At some angle, θ, movement of the specimen begins, and the static friction coefficient
can be determined. This simple and straightforward test lends itself to standardization.

Figure 21 Inclined plane measurement of the static coefficient of friction (μs)

Inclined-plane tests form the basis for ASTM D 3248 (for measuring cardboard friction)
and D 3334 (for measuring the friction of woven fabrics), but they can be used for a wide variety
of other solid materials. This method does not require the weight of slider block to be known,
but research on metals has shown that the results are not independent of the normal force, The
problem with this technique is that it does not simulate many real-life tribosystems.

Friction Test Methods Using Weights and Pulleys: - The friction coefficient can be calculated
for simple geometries using arrangements of weights and pulleys. Some typical arrangements

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for measuring static friction coefficients are shown in Figure 22. Mass is added until the block or
cylinder of known weight just begins to move. Equation 1 can then be used.

Figure 22 Friction measuring equipments

Like the inclined plane method, the problem with block and pulley methods is that the
precision and repeatability of the measurement tends to be not very high. One has to account for
such things as the stretching of the connecting wires or cords, the friction in the pulleys, pulling
any knots tight before motion begins, and more. It is thus, desirable when possible to use force
sensors. With force sensors and smooth motor drives, sledtype, block-on-plane methods can be
used to measure not only the static but the kinetic friction coefficient as well.

Measurement of Adhesive Wear

Adhesive wear typically occurs from sliding contact and is often manifested by a transfer
of material between the contacting surfaces. A transfer layer can build up on the harder surface
of a sliding pair in the form of a mechanically mixed material. The transfer layer can also
contain compacted wear debris. This layer will tend to break out and form wear debris.
Adhesive wear is a function of material combination, lubrication, and environment.

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Figure 23 Diagrams of contact types for various test machines

Adhesive wear testing can be carried out with a variety of sliding contact systems. These
include four-ball, block-on-ring, pin-on-disk, crossed cylinders, flat-on-flat, and disk machines.
Examples are shown in Figure 23. Adhesive wear testing (sliding contact wear, no lubrication,
slow motion, heavy load) may be chosen deliberately to investigate the resistance of a material
to excessive wear and material transfer for a given application.

Wear coefficient is a nondimensional number that is typically defined as the

proportionality k factor in the Archard wear formula:
W = kLD/H
where W is wear volume, L is normal load or force, D is distance of sliding, H is hardness, and k
is wear coefficient.
This equation assumes a linear process; that is, wear is proportional to the applied load
and distance, and inversely proportional to hardness. This equation is used extensively in
developing data from wear tests. Specific wear is similar to wear coefficient, except that the
hardness factor is not included. This is often used when determining the wear properties of
materials of similar hardness.

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Tribology
Q.1. What is wear constant and how it is related to coefficient of friction?
Ans: As per Archard‟s wear equation, wear volume rate (m3/s) is proportional to normal load
(N), relative speed (m/s) and inversely proportional to hardness (N/m2). Wear constant (non-
dimensional) is constant of proportionality relating wear volume rate with load, relative speed
and hardness. There is no established relation between friction-coefficient and wear rate, but
reduction in friction-coefficient means lesser resistant to relatively moving surface and as a
result lesser wear rate.
Q.2. What are the main criteria for classification of wear and what are various types of wear?
Ans: Failure mechanisms causing wear are used to classify wear. For example wear caused by
formation and rupture of adhesive junctions is known as “adhesive wear”. Wear caused by
abrasion of hard surface on soft surface is termed as “abrasive wear”. Formation of brittle layer
due to chemical action and removal of that layer by mechanical action is called “corrosive
wear”. Similarly formation of subsurface cracks and rapid propagation of those cracks to surface
due to friction is named as “fatigue wear”. There are more than 2000 wear equations to describe
the wear behavior. There are more than 35 mechanisms detailed as wear sources. This means
there are more than 35 types of wear.
Q.3. In a tribological system where two tribo-surfaces are moving at relatively high speed,
should the design of such system involve the use of similar metals or dissimilar metals to
prevent adhesive wear and seizure?
Ans: Whether low or high speed, molecular attraction, between similar materials will be higher
so resultant friction shall be higher. Therefore, from tribological point of view similar materials
shall never be recommended. However if overall cost (i.e. inventory cost and manufacturing
processing cost) of dissimilar metals is much higher compared to savings in friction loss, then
designers may select appropriate lubricant for similar materials tribo-pair.
Q.4. What is the difference between zero wear and measurable wear and how does zero wear
increases performance?
Ans: Removal of material which causes polishing of material surfaces may be known as zero
wear. Zero wear is basically a polishing process in which the asperities of the contacting
surfaces are gradually worn off until a very fine, smooth surface develops. On other hand
removal of material from surface that increases vibration; noise or surface roughness may be
treated as measureable wear. Zero wear is desirable for better life of tribo-pair. Due to zero wear

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significant reduction in friction, noise and vibration can be achieved which increases the overall
performance of the system.
Q.5. In a tribo-pair interaction, why does contact occur only at asperities?
Ans. Every engineered surface is rough on nanometer to micro meter level. In absence of full
film lubrication (thick lubrication), when surfaces come in contact, asperities (peaks on the
surfaces) interact. During the interaction tip of the asperities may break-off (reduce roughness)
or scratch opposite surface (increase roughness). However asperity contact can be avoided by
developing appropriate lubricant layer between tribo-surfaces.
Q.6. What is seizure and what causes it in a tribological system?
Ans. Seizure means “to bind” or “fasten together”. Seizure is an extreme form of adhesive wear,
which occurs as a result of mutual plastic deformation of materials. In ordinary cases after
seizure components do not get separated on their own. Manual force is required to separate the
parts. In other words, after seizure tribo-pair lose its utility and cannot be used without proper
reconditioning. Causes for seizure are:
• Poor heat dissipation.
• Poor lubrication or improper lubrication.
• Smaller clearances.
• Installation errors.
• The tendency of the metals to form strong bond in solid state.
Q.7. What is the optimum value of impingement angle to minimize erosive wear?
Ans. To minimize the erosive wear, it is important to estimate material (surface on which
particles are going to strike) hardness. Low value of impact angle results cutting wear, which
means material hardness help to reduce wear rate. On other hand large impact angle causes
fatigue wear, therefore soft (ductile) material may be suitable.
Q.8. Are there any general changes/improvements that can be incorporated in the design of
mechanical system to eliminate different types of wear?
Ans: Different types of wear can be eliminated by following these guidelines:
• Selecting right lubricant and ensuring optimum quantity of lubricant.
• Confirming surface finish of tribo surfaces to reduce friction, vibration, noise.
• Right material selection with appropriate surface hardness.
• Increasing heat dissipation from the system to avoid excessive operating temperatures.
• Replacing the lubricant to remove the debris after periodic intervals.
Q.9. Does suspension system in an automobile help in reducing or eliminating fretting wear?

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Ans: Suspension system in an automobile does help in reducing fretting wear by damping the
vibration and shocks generated by the interaction of tires and road surface.
Q.10. Is lubrication useful in reducing fretting wear?
Ans: Fluid lubricant reduces friction and takes away wear debris from source. The removal of
debris helps to control wear within mild regime. Therefore lubricants are useful in reducing
fretting wear.
Q.11. Can the use of tribology knowledge be made in metal removing operations in machine
tools?
Ans: Any material interaction where one material slides or rubs over another is affected by
complex tribological interactions. This means tribology plays an important role in
manufacturing. In metal-forming operations, friction increases tool wear and the power required
to work a piece. This results in increased costs due to more frequent tool replacement, loss of
tolerance as tool dimensions shift, and greater forces required to shape a piece.
Q.12. What specific design changes are implemented on piston rings and oil rings in order to
reduce wear?
Ans: Ring wear can be reduced by designing appropriate profile so that full film lubrication is
made. But excessive lubricant may enter in combustion chamber and cause incomplete
combustion and as result pollution. Therefore minimizing wear is achieved by appropriate
selection of (chemically inert) material and appropriate design with suitable hardness of piston
rings.
Q.13. Is there any method in tribology to separate the wear debris from the lubricants?
Ans: Separation mechanism of wear debris from the lubricants varies from application to
application. For example in ferrography wear particles are separated by magnetic (or similar)
arrangement. To recirculate the same lubricant in machine filtering system is used to separate
wear particles. For example in IC engine filtration is widely used to remove particles from oil in
the oil sump. The debris particle size that would be filtered depends upon the mesh size of the
filter membrane.
Q.14. If a tribological pair is brought up to the hardness and surface finish of the order of slip
gauge, would it help in reducing friction and wear?
Ans: Excessive smooth surface minimizes the abrasion but provides many locations for
adhesive wear. Sufficiently high hardness minimizes the plastic deformation and as result
minimizes adhesive wear. This means abrasive and adhesive wear and friction can be minimized
by very good surface hardness and roughness, but other wear mechanisms (pitting, fretting,
corrosive, etc.) may persist.
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Q.15. Is it possible to predict the fatigue life of a mechanical component like a passenger car
chassis or an I-beam in a commercial vehicle chassis due to fatigue wear?
Ans: The fatigue life of the any mechanical component can be predicted by simulating the real
life conditions inside a test chamber with the help of artificially generated operating conditions.
After extensive testing, curve fit equations may be generated, which may be used later to
estimate the fatigue life.

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