Netll, Bruno. THOUGHTS ON IMPROVISATION: A COMPARATIVE APPROACH

Thoughts on Improvisation: A Comparative Approach
Author(s): Bruno Nettl

Source: The Musical Quarterl , Vol. 60, No. 1 (Jan., 1974), pp. 1-19
Published b : O ford Universit Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/741663
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bOR
IL
Vol. LX, No. 1 JANUARY, 1974
HIR
THE MUSICAL
QUARTERLY
THOUGHTS ON IMPROVISATION:
A COMPARATIVE APPROACH
B BRUNO NETTL
IN 1938 E n Fe and p bli hed ha con in e o be he onl

la ge, chola l book on he bjec of m ical imp o i a ion.'
A a he ho o gh ea ch e eal ha hi book a b li le e-
ie ed and a ecei ed i h onl mild en h ia m.2 Al ho gh i
de elop man concep i h con ide able ophi ica ion, and gi e
m ch da a a o he na e of imp o i a ion in a io pe iod of
E opean m ic hi o , i eem no o ha e had g ea impac on
i o n ime, de pi e he fac ha , h o gh hi la e enc clopedia
a icle and an hologie , Fe and ha ob io l emained he ingle
o anding a ho i in in e na ional m icolog on hi bjec .
Pe hap hi o k a aken ligh l impl beca e he bjec of
imp o i a ion a aken ligh l b m icologi ; i eem o ha e
been ega ded a ome hing no ha ing ca dinal impo ance3 - a
no l a , b c af , hich e l in ch "mic oco mic" al e a-
ion o elabo a ion of compo ed m ic a o namen a ion o he
1 E n Fe and, Die Imp o i a ion in de M ik (Z ich, 1938).

2 Re ie appea ed in fe jo nal , among hem M ic and Le e , XX/3 (J l ,
1939), 337-39; and Ri i a m icale i aliana, XVII (1939), 425-26.
3 Fo an ill a ion of hi a i de, ee he a icle "E empo i a ion," in he fif h
edi ion of G o e' Dic iona of M ic and M ician .
Cop igh ? 1974 b G. Schi me , Inc.
2 The M ical Q a e l
eali a ion of fig ed ba , o in ch m ical ac oba ic a he

abili of a fe o gani o e empo i e f g e on heme g-
ge ed o hem on he p of he momen .
The concep of imp o i a ion ha become m ch mo e p om-
inen in m icolog ince ha ime, la gel beca e of he inc ea ed
a en ion gi en o m ic hich appea o depend m ch mo e hea -
il on imp o i a ion han doe E opean a m ic. The e a e no
man die of ja and of Indian, Indone ian, Middle Ea e n and
Af ican m ic ha deal e plici l o , mo e f e en l , implici l
i h imp o i a ion. Co e , bo h p ac ical and chola l , a e de-
o ed o hi bjec , a a e e ion a chola l mee ing .4 B in
he a ea of chola l concep ali a ion Fe and i ill he la o d;
and hile he made admi able e of he info ma ion a ailable o
him on non-We e n m ic, i i p obabl ime o begin o e hink
he idea of imp o i a ion, o ee he he i me i con ide a ion a a
ingle p oce , he he i ha in eg i a an idea epa a e f om
o he , ela ed idea abo c ea ing of m ic, and he he all he
hing ha e no call imp o i a ion a e indeed he ame hing.
In d ing he defini ion fo nd in m ic dic iona ie and en-
c clopedia , e enco n e o appa en l conflic ing ie of im-
p o i a ion. Some o ce , ch a MGG (in an a icle b Fe and),5
indica e he ele ance of he concep o non-We e n, pa ic la l
ibal, m ic , and a e ha , gi en he ab ence of no a ion, he e
a e ba icall imp o i ed. O he 6 confine he idea of imp o i a ion
onl o m ic fo hich he e i ba icall a no a ion em f om
hich he imp o i e depa ; in hi ie non-We e n m ic, in
4 Semina on compa a i e app oache o imp o i a ion ha e been held b he

a ho , fo e ample, a he Uni e i of Illinoi . Mee ing and mpo ia ange f om
e. g., he la ge, i -lec e e ie , o gani ed b Leona d Me e and Ella Zoni a he
Uni e i of Chicago in 1968-69, o ho e e ion a mee ing of ocie ie , e. g., he
Socie fo E hnom icolog ann al mee ing in 1973, a U bana, Illinoi .
5 Fe and, in an a icle in Die M ik in Ge chich e nd Gegen a , hich pa allel
hi hinking in Die Imp o i a ion in de M ik, a : "The di i ion - aken fo
g an ed in We e n m ical life of oda - ha pli he o iginal ni and im l-
anei of c ea ion and ep od c ion a and i fo eign o he m ical age of he
p imi i e and man o he non-E opean c l e ; he in en o and e ec o of a
compo i ion, he p od cing and ep od cing m ician, e e o iginall in mo ca e
one and he ame pe on" (Vol. VI, col. 1095).
6Fo 'e ample, Riemann M ikle ikon, Sach eil (Main , 1967), in an n igned
a icle a : "S ic l peaking, onl in he We , and e en he e onl beginning a a
a he la e hi o ical age, can one peak of imp o i a ion, ince non-We e n and
olde E opean m ic and o ide he di inc ion be een compo i ion and pe -
fo mance hich i e en ial o he concep of imp o i a ion" (p. 390).
Tho gh on Imp o i a ion 3
hich one canno eall di ing i h be een imp o i a ion and

compo i ion, canno be aid o ep e en ei he concep . The
Ha a d Dic iona 7 implie hi b en i el omi ing non-E opean
m ic f om i a icle. Ob io l he ela ion hip of imp o i a ion
o compo i ion and no a ion i a comple one, on hich he e i
no gene al ag eemen .
Specificall o implici l accep ed in all he gene al di c ion
i he ddenne of he c ea i e imp l e. The imp o i e make
np emedi a ed, p -of- he-momen deci ion , and beca e he a e
no ho gh o , hei indi id al impo ance, if no of hei collec-
i e ignificance, i ome ime denied. The abo e-men ioned enc -
clopedia a e p opo ioned o a o pend fa le pace on imp o-
i a ion and he kind of m ic ha e l f om i han on a io
kind of compo i ion; and, con onan i h he gene al We e n

ie of he p oce , he ea i a a mino a o c af of m ician-
hip.
The gene al li e a e on imp o i a ion deal la gel i h he
phenomenon in We e n m ic and a emp o gain a hi o ical
pe pec i e on he ole of he p oce in he pe fo mance p ac ice
of he pa . Onl b iefl men ioned a e he la ge n mbe and
a ie of non-E opean m ical em hich make ha p di -
inc ion be een imp o i a ion and he pe fo mance of anda d-
i ed piece , o ho e in hich he imp o i a o elemen i a majo
componen of all pe fo mance. Fe and a ell a a e of he
e i ence of he e em and efe o hem f e en l , i ho
making hem a majo b an i e componen of hi o k.8 A ne
edi ion of hi d , o a ne , l comp ehen i e book on he
bjec , o ld ha e o e amine he a io pe of imp o i a ion
ha a e ac all ecogni ed, ho gh pe hap no de igna ed b a
ingle pecific e m, in India. I o ld ha e o come o g ip i h
he pecial na e of he ma am and da gah em ( he modal
c e of he A abic o ld and I an) and commen on he in e -
ela ion hip of a io pe fo mance of an epic, b one pe fo me ,
in he Y go la he oic ong adi ion. I ho ld deal i h he kind
of g o p imp o i a ion fo nd in Af ican d m en emble and in he
m ic of he Indone ian gamelan . I ho ld, mo eo e , o
7 Willi Apel, Ha a d Dic iona of M ic, 2nd ed. (Camb idge, Ma ., 1969),
pp. 404-5.
8 Abo fo -fi e page in Die Imp o i a ion in de M ik a e de o ed o
"p imi i e" and o ien al m ic .
e plo e he no ion ha he imp o i a o p oce i p e en o

a ing deg ee in ibal m ic ch a ha of he Ame ican Indian;
and i ho ld e plain he imp o i a o ide of comm nal ec ea-
ion in E opean folk m ic.
The c oma pic e of imp o i a ion, hen, o ld and ho ld
be g ea l e panded b an nde anding of non-We e n c l e .
Unfo na el , he ecen e hnom icological li e a e con ib e
o hi end in onl a piecemeal fa hion, p o iding peciali ed die
of em and b em i ho gi ing m ch a en ion o he
na e of he concep , and ce ainl making li le a emp o be
compa a i e. (Indeed, hen i come o p o iding a compa a i e
ie , Fe and i ill he mo in igh f l chola .) The aim in he e
page ill be o p e en , e b iefl , ome ho gh of a compa a-
i e o on he na e of imp o i a ion a a concep and a a
p oce , ing ma e ial f om a n mbe of c l e , in. an a emp ,
if no o cla if , hen o po e ome e ion abo , he meaning of
hi el i e idea. If he concep of imp o i a ion can be aid o be
a all iable, i ho ld be con ide ed one of he fe ni e al of
m ic in hich all c l e ha e in one a o ano he .
Imp o i a ion and Compo i ion

Imp o i a ion and compo i ion a e oppo ed concep , e a e
old9 - he one pon aneo , he o he calc la ed; he one p imi-
i e, he o he ophi ica ed; he one na al, he o he a ificial.
B , on he o he hand, e a e al o gi en o belie e ha imp o i a-
ion i a pe of compo i ion, he pe ha cha ac e i e ho e
c l e ha ha e no no a ion, a pe ha elea e he dden
imp l e o m ic h o gh he di ec p od c ion of o nd. We hea
ha imp o i a ion end he e no a ion begin , e a he ame ime
e a e old ha ce ain non-We e n c l e hich do no e
no a ion di ing i h be een he o p oce e , if no e plici l ,
hen b he a he in e nall cla if hei m ic . Th , hile
e feel ha e kno in i i el ha imp o i a ion i , e find ha
he e i conf ion ega ding i e ence.
Fo e ample, le ake he idea of np epa ed and dden
c ea ion a he majo c i e ion and e amine i in he ligh of ha
e kno abo Ame ican Indian m ic, one of he be de c ibed
non-We e n m ical c l e . I i kno n ha he Plain Indian
9 Thi a emen i ba ed on Fe and and on o he p e io l ci ed a icle .
eek i ion in o de o lea n ong , and ha he e ong come o

hem d ing pe iod of ec a ome ime b o gh on b fa ing
and elf- o e. The dden c ea ion of a ong i in line i h
a emen f om Plain Indian ha ong can be and no mall a e
lea ned in a ingle hea ing."' A e he e ong imp o i ed hen he
a e fi ng? I o ld appea o. B e a e old al o ha he
i iona , pon lea ning a ong, ing i o him elf and, a i e e,
" o k i o " hen he alk back o hi band o ibe. Once he
ong e i ,i ake on he apping of e abli hmen , like a com-

po i ion in he We e n en e. The compo e i kno n, emem-
be ed, and named, and he ci c m ance of compo i ion a e ome-
ime eco n ed befo e inging. Repea ed eco ding ho ha he
ong emain ea onabl able. I hi compo i ion o imp o-
i a ion?
Fo he Pima Indian of he o h e e n Uni ed S a e , on he
o he hand, ong e i ed (in he pe na al o ld) b had o
be " n a eled" b h man in o de o be eali ed." He e e find
an idea hich ma app o ima e ha of We e n- le compo i ion
in i e o o calc la ion. B he e i no no a ion, and he le of
Pima ong , gene all peaking, i ac all no e diffe en f om
ha of Plain m ic.
A hi d No h Ame ican e ample come f om he E kimo, ho

ecogni e o a of making ong , a con en ional one and an
imp o i ed one - he la e being he pe of ong ep e en ed b
he famo ong-d el he ein a eling men e le di p e b
mocking each o he .12 The e of a epe o of anda d fo m la
i pec ed,13 b hi i ome hing ha ed i h a lea ome o he
c l e hich imp o i e. Again, he imp o i ed ong ho no
ba ic di imila i of le hen compa ed i h he compo ed o
adi ional ong .
10 B no Ne l, "S die in Blackfoo Indian M ical C l e, Pa II," E hno-

m icolog , XI/3 (Sep embe , 1967), 301.
11 Geo ge He og, "A Compa i on of P eblo and Pima M ical S le ," Jo nal
of Ame ican Folklo e, XLIX (1936), 333; and hi "M ic in he Thinking of he
Ame ican Indian," Peabod B lle in, Ma , 1938, p. 2.
12 A n mbe of o ce on E kimo compo i ion a e di c ed and mma i ed in
Alan P. Me iam, The An h opolog of M ic (E an on, Ill., 1964), pp. 175-77.
13 Se e al E kimo ong e dealing i h compo i ion a e gi en b La a Bo l on
in he bookle accompan ing he eco d alb m, The E kimo of H d on Ba and
Ala ka (Ne Yo k, Folk a Reco d FE4444, 1954), pp. 4-5. Among he mo in e -
e ing i hi one: "All ong ha e been e ha ed. / He pick p ome of all / And
add hi o n / And make a ne ong."
I he e, hen, an e en ial diffe ence be een he compo ed and

he imp o i ed Ame ican Indian ma e ial ? S li ic diffe ence a e
negligible, no a ion i no p e en , and i i onl he ddenne
of in pi a ion in ce ain ca e ha allo o make he di inc ion.
B hi kind of di inc ion can al o be made in We e n a m ic,
b compa ing, fo e ample, he pain aking and of en p o ac ed
me hod of Bee ho en i h Sch be ' ick, pon aneo c ea ion
of liede .14 Again, b oadl ie ed, he le a e no b an iall
diffe en . Sho ld e no hen peak pe hap of apid and lo
compo i ion a he han of compo i ion j apo ed o imp o i a-
ion? And o ld e no do ell o hink of compo i ion and
imp o i a ion a oppo i e end of a con in m, i h a Sch be and
a Bee ho en a he e eme , like i e i h he imp o i ing E kimo
a one e eme, he Pima a he o he , and he Plain Indian
ome he e in he middle?
Ha ing en ed he h po he i ha he j apo ing of com-

po i ion and imp o i a ion a f ndamen all diffe en p oce e i
fal e, and ha he o a e in ead pa of he ame idea, e can no
n o he concep of imp o i a ion in a io c l e . I ob io l
e i in We e n m ic of he p e en , and, a Fe and ho o e
and o e again, i ha e i ed (occa ionall pe hap i ho e -
plici fo m la ion) in he pa . I con cio accep ance among non-
We e n c l e i le ce ain. Alan Me iam,15 in di c ing com-
po i ion in a n mbe of ibal ocie ie , doe no b ing o ha
he e c l e ingle o he imp o i a o na e of an of hei
m ical p od c ; and hi applie e en o ho e among hem ha
a ic la e idea abo compo i ion. Simila l , an e plici e m fo
imp o i a ion eem no o be ed in a io A ian c l e . The e
i ome e idence, ho e e , ha he hinking of So h and We
A ian m ician doe diffe en ia e he kind of m ic hich e
o ld ega d a imp o i ed f om o he kind of m ic. In No h
Indian m ic ch e m a bada (g o h) and i a (e pan ion)
a e ed. In Pe ian m ic one pe of imp o i a ion, in hich a
m ician mod la e f om one da gah (mode) o ano he - ome-
hing ac all a he n al - i kno n a mo akkab-khani
(i. e., in he le of he compo e - inge ).16 The e m a im, hich
14 Fe and i , of co e, a a e of he ppo edl imp o i a o na e of Sch be '
compo i ional p oce , a lea in ce ain in ance . See Die Imp o i a ion in de M ik,
pp. 3-4, and he efe ence he ein.
15 The An h opolog of M ic, chap. 9.
16 Theodo e Soli , "The Sa od: I Ga -To a T adi ion" (M.A. he i , Uni-
deno e a no mall nonme ic imp o i ed olo fo m impo an in

A abic m ic, i de i ed f om he e m fo "di i ion," po ibl
impl ing a ia ion and pe hap , i h i , imp o i a ion. A n mbe
of pe o le of imp o i ed m ic in he So h Indian adi ion
ha e pecific name , and he pe fo me a e e al a ed acco ding o
he ali i h hich he b ing o he e le ; he e again he
fac indica e ha he concep of imp o i a ion i a lea no fa
belo he face. The a emen b Man le Hood ha membe
of a Ja ane e gamelan ge paid in acco dance i h ho impo an
hei in men a e in p o iding imp o i a o ela ion hip o he
main fi ed melod 17 gge he ame concl ion. E en he e fe
e ample a e eno gh o poin o he po ibili ha in ce ain A ian
c l e imp o i a ion i ecogni ed a one concep of m ical c ea-
ion. Ye i i in e e ing o ee ha he compo i ion-imp o i a ion
dicho om i no e idenced; a he , a e ie of diffe en poin
along o con in ma e ck. Th , ho m ch he a io
pe fo me a e e i ed o depa f om he fi ed melod in gamelan
m ic i a ma e of g ad a ion. Th al o in So h Indian m ic,
he e ome kind of imp o i a ion ( ch a ni a al) ha de i e
f om a compo ed piece a e di ing i hed f om o he ( ch a
alapana and anam) ba ed onl on he cha ac e i ic of he aga,
he di inc ion i nde ood o ignif diffe en deg ee of f eedom.
In Pe ian m ic he pla e ma (1) pe fo m he adif ( he
ma e ial lea ned a a ba i fo imp o i a ion) i h ela i el li le
change, (2) pe fo m a f ee fan a ia pon hi ma e ial hile lea ing
i e en iall in ac , o , again, (3) mod la e f om one mode o an-
o he ( he kind of pe fo mance efe ed o a mo akkab-khani) -
and he e h ee p oced e indica e a ing deg ee of independence
fo he pe fo me in o king f om a model, ha i , diffe en de-
g ee of compo i ional ac i i on he pa of he pe fo me .8 In
ho , he line ha diffe en c l e migh d a be een "fi ed"
compo i ion and imp o i a ion ill appea a diffe en poin of
a con in m.
Ho do he m ician ho imp o i e ega d he diffe ence
among hei pe fo mance ? A fe de ailed die concl de ha a
e i of Ha aii, 1970), p. 55; Nell Ca on and Da io che Saf a e, I an: Le T adi-

ion m icale (Pa i , 1966), p. 128.
17 Man le Hood and Ha dja S ilo, M ic of he Vene able Da k Clo d, In od c-
ion, Commen a , Anal e (Lo Angele , In i e of E hnom icolog , UCLA,
1967), p. 14.
18 Ca on and Saf a e, I an: Le T adi ion m icale , pp. 127-32.
m ician ho epea edl imp o i e pon he ame m ical model

doe o i e p edic abl . B of co e he ha dl e e doe e ac l
he ame hing ice. On he o he hand, imp o i ing m ician in
ce ain c l e end o main ain ha he do e en iall he ame
hing each ime and o denig a e he idea ha he a f om
pe fo mance o pe fo mance.
An e ample of hi a i de can be fo nd in he fi eac ion of
a Pe ian m ician ho a a ked o commen on he fac ha o
of hi pe fo mance of he ame da gah e e a he diffe en : he
denied ha he e a a diffe ence.'9 When conf on ed i h he
conc e e e idence of he eco ding , he admi ed he e i ence of
he diffe ence , b no hei ignificance, and implied ha he e -
ence of ha he pe fo med in a da gah i al a he ame. Hi
a emen ho ha in Pe ian m ic i i po ible o di ing i h
be een ha i e en ial and ha i no ; he fo me emain con-
an and i lea ned, hile he la e i impl a e l of he pe -
fo me ' mood of he momen . Thi ie i no nlike he pical
We e n ie of imp o i a ion in he e en een h- and eigh een h-
cen m ic, ha i , ha he compo ed piece i he e ence and
he imp o i e ' filling in of o namen and pa age i ome hing
of a m ch lo e o de of impo ance.
B Middle Ea e n m ician do no al a hold ch ie .
Ano he Pe ian m ician e ed he impo ance of ne e epea -
ing him elf, of ne e pla ing o inging a piece he ame a . A an
e ample he ci ed he nigh ingale, hich i e pec ed b Pe ian
m ician beca e i i ho gh ne e o epea i elf in i ong.
Simila l , an A abic m ician, in commen ing on he le of
a im, fel ha hi o n pe fo mance a ba icall n c ed
and ha he ne e pla ed an hing ice ( hich i co ec in a
na o l echnical en e), o he a p i ed a ho m ch hi
a io pe fo mance fell in o pa e n and pe , ho p edic able
hi o k a . On he o he hand, a ho gh empha i ing he pe -
onal cha ac e of a pe fo me ' in e p e a ion, ome Indian m i-
cian peak of a ela i el e , albei e indi id al a of im-
p o i ing b a ing ch hing a "I pe fo m Raga X in hi a ."
19 Mo of he ema k on Pe ian m ic in hi pape em f om m field o k
in I an d ing 1967, 1968-69, and la e . I i impo ible fo me o ackno ledge all he
help hich I ecei ed f om man Pe ian m ician and o he . I ho ld like o hank
he U. S. F lb igh Commi ion in I an fo ppo ing me, o he Uni e i of Illinoi
Re ea ch Boa d and he Cen e fo In e na ional Compa a i e S die fo f he p-
po , and o No -Ali Bo o mand, Ho mo Fa ha , William A che , and Mohammad
Ma o dieh fo man kind of help in I an.
Th , he a i de of Middle Ea e n and So h A ian m ician

o a d hei o n imp o i a ion a ie g ea l , hich onl add
conf ion o a delinea ion of he concep . A ho o gh d ha
compa e pe fo mance and concep ali a ion on he ba i of de-
ailed field e ea ch i badl needed. Ye al ead e ho ecogni e
he no ion ha he e i a diffe ence be een imp o i ed and com-
po ed ma e ial a e a a e ha he imp o i e , hen he pe fo m a
a ie of e ion of one mode ( aga, da gah, ma am, e c.) i
eall doing p eci el ha - pe fo ming a e ion of ome hing,
no imp o i ing pon ome hing. In o he o d , he i gi ing a
endi ion of ome hing ha al ead e i , be i a ong o a heo e i-
cal m ical en i . And i ba ic " able of con en " i e .
We ma again ha k back o he Ame ican Indian , of hom i
i aid ha he do no imp o i e, b impl pe fo m hei ong
in n me o a ian a i ed a b o al adi ion. I i ome ime
diffic l o ee h o a he diffe en pe fo mance ( i ho e en
he g idance of o d ) a e ega ded a a ian of he ame ong,
and h o o he ha o nd p ac icall alike a e aken o be
epa a e m ical i em . We can onl conjec e ha he Indian '
idea of m ical en i ie i diffe en f om o . Pe hap he a o
app oach he "imp o i ed" m ic of So h and We A ia i like-
i e o a ha pe fo me ing o pla he ame piece, b ha
hei idea of ha i a "piece," a m ical ni i hi o n in eg i ,
i impl diffe en f om o . In ome c l e he concep i na -
o , in o he b oad - he e he ni i a pecified ona a i h op
n mbe , he e i i a ma am o a aga. We ma hen find he
concep of imp o i a ion al oge he nnece a . In ead, e can
a ha each m ical c l e ha i e of m ical mac o- ni , e. g.,
ong o piece , o mode ( aga , ma ama , da gah ) a pe fo med
b a pa ic la m ician, and ha he deg ee o hich he o nd
eali a ion of he ni a e imila a ie i h he c l e, comp i -
ing he em of m ical concep ali a ion, he e ion of f eedom
fo he pe fo me , e c. Thi app oach i no el onl in ofa a i
allo o hink of all m ic a ha ing ba ic m ical en i ie
hich e i and a e pe fo med, a he han di iding m ic in o
"fi ed" and "imp o i ed" pe .
Le look b iefl a ano he a pec of he compo i ion-imp o-
i a ion ela ion hip. In ho e m ic hich a e aid o be imp o-
i ed a n mbe of compo i ional echni e and de ice a he
mic ocompo i ional le el appea o be cha ac e i ic. Among hem
a e epe i ion, imple a ia ion of ho ph a e , melodic e ence,
he endenc o a o cce i e ec ion i h he ame mo i e,

he endenc o inc ea e he leng h of ec ion a he pe fo mance
p og e e , and pe hap o he . No all of he e echni e a e al o
p e en in he " e " o "fi ed" compo i ion of ce ain c l e .I
hei di ib ion ignifican ? The "fi ed" compo i ion f om ome
of he c l e ha ha e ema ic imp o i a ion, ch a India and
I an, e hibi fea e fo nd in imp o i a ion. K i i , he long,
me ic de o ional ong ha a e cen al o he ocal and in -
men al conce m ic of he So h Indian adi ion, a e likel o
ha e epe i ion and mino a ia ion of ho line j a do he
imp o i a ion pon m ical heme aken f om hem. I i in e -
e ing, he efo e, o find a gi en c l e ing e en iall he ame
compo i ional echni e , he he he ma e ial i , b o anda d ,
compo ed o imp o i ed. Thi fac ma e en all hed ome ligh
on he l ima e gene i of m ical em . I i po ible ha ho e
c l e hich ed ce ain compo i ional echni e e e d i en
b he e na e of he e echni e o de elop em of im-
p o i a ion? O did ome c l e , pe hap millennia ago, begin
hei m ical adi ion b allo ing pe fo me g ea f eedom in
hei endi ion of a model, and hen pe mi m ician , ing he
echni e de eloped in he "f ee endi ion" pe iod of hei m ic
hi o , o de i e mo e abl fi ed melodie ? Thi i an a ea in
hich, e en mo e han el e he e in hi pape , e can do li le
o he han pec la e.
A final ob e a ion conce n he e in We e n m ic of he
pecial echni e ho e f e en occ ence in imp o i a o
le i cha ac e i ic. I appea ha ome of he e echni e a e
e peciall common in ce ain pe iod of m ic hi o , pa ic la l
he Ba o e, and like i e in he o k of ce ain compo e ( ch
a Mo a , Chopin, and Sch be ) ho e e kno n o o k apidl
and pon aneo l , and ho e o p a g ea . I i h con-
cei able ha , m a i m andi , he m ical ho gh p oce e of a
Sch be a e m ch mo e clo el ela ed o he imp o i a ion of
Indian and Middle Ea e n m ician han a e ho e of a Bee ho en.
The fac ha Sch be o e do n ce ain of hi o k apidl and,
if e a e o belie e ome de c ip ion ,20 i ho o king and e-
o king hem e m ch, co ld lead o ega d hi m ical hink-
20 See, fo e ample, Alf ed Ein ein, Sch be :AM ical Po ai (Ne Yo k,

1951), p. 92. Fe and, Die Imp o i a ion in de M ik, p. 4, efe o he po ibili ha
ce ain o k b Li , Chopin, and Sch be ma ac all be "Fi ie ngen on Im-
p o i a ionen."
ing a ba icall imp o i a o . Th , a he han making he p e -

ence o ab ence of no a ion he majo c i e ion fo imp o i a ion
and compo i ion, and di iding m ic in o o phe e , ha of im-
p o i a ion-o al adi ion and ha of compo i ion-no a ional, e
co ld pec la e pon he di i ion of he o ld' m ical c l e
and of hei b em - gen e , pe iod , compo e - in o o
g o p . One of he e o ld be he m ic hich i ca ef ll ho gh
o , pe hap e en o ked o e i h a con cio ie o in od cing
inno a ion f om piece o piece and e en f om ph a e o ph a e;
he o he , ha hich i pon aneo b model-bo nd, apidl
c ea ed, and impl concei ed. The fi gi e p pon anei fo
delibe a ion, hile he econd e che a ea ch fo inno a ion in
fa o of gi ing a o dden imp l e. Nei he need be con ide ed
imp o i a ion, and nei he i e ic ed o an pa ic la le el of
m ical o c l al comple i .
Imp o i a ion and he Model

Ha ing appa en l done ha e co ld o demoli h he idea of
imp o i a ion a a concep epa a e f om compo i ion, e m
no ein a e i fo he p po e of e amining ce ain a pec of
pe fo mance he ein he m ician i f ee o con ib e ma e ial
of hi o n pon aneo making. The imp o i e , le h po he i e,
al a ha ome hing gi en o o k f om - ce ain hing ha a e
a he ba e of he pe fo mance, ha he e a he g o nd on hich
he b ild . We ma call i hi model. In ome c l e pecific
heo e ical e m a e ed o de igna e he model: aga and ala
( he ba ic concep of melodic and h hmic o gani a ion in India),
and o he , ba icall modal config a ion - pa e in Ja ane e and
Baline e gamelan m ic, da gah in I an, ma am in A abic and
T ki h m ic. In he e c l e o o he , name of m ical pe -
fo mance-fo m a e ed o de igna e he model: he bl e e ence
of cho d in ja , he nonme ic a im in A abic m ic. On he
o he hand, he model ma be a pecific compo i ion, and a c l e
ma in effec de igna e he model b gi ing he name of ne in
ja , of k i i in So h India, of pecific ong in he Y go la epic
adi ion. O , again, le indica ing ome pecific pi ch o h hmic
con en (fig ed ba in We e n m ic, o abadja and kpanlogo,
h hmicall di inc i e le of We Af ican d mming) can
e eal he e i ence of an imp o i a o model and i ecogni ion
a ch b i c l e. The ame i e of ch le a alap and
ga (nonme ic o me ic) in No h India, and in So h India

anam, ni a al, and a a kalpana ( h ee pe of imp o i a ion
di ing i hed mainl b he ea men of e and he h hm),
each le he e being defined b a ce ain pe of o nd. In he
ela i el a e in ance of pol phonic imp o i a ion he model ma
be a ne ng b one oice (again hich he o he i o im-
p o i e) and a e of allo able ha monic in e al a ell a hei
cha ac e i ic e ence . The e a e, hen, e di e e kind of
model ed in he o ld of imp o i a ion. The e e o ld ne
like o e amine compa a i el , in acco dance i h hei po i ion
in he o con in a of den i and a dibili .
The e o ld appea o be a ide g lf be een a ho ne,
hich i ba icall a empo al e en i h beginning, middle, and
end, and a aga, ma am, o da gah, hich i a fi glance aken
o be a heo e ical con c , ome hing a pe fo me m hink of
a a ni , keeping all i elemen mo e o le in mind all he ime.
B o he e " heo e ical" model of A ian m ic i n o ha
m ician ake a ime-o ien ed app oach, con ide ing hem objec
ha ha e beginning and ending , and ha con i omeho of
e ence of ho gh . Th e ma ake i ha each model, be i
a ne, a heo e ical con c , o a mode i h pical melodic
n , con i of a e ie of obliga o m ical e en hich m
be ob e ed, ei he ab ol el o i h ome o of f e enc , in
o de ha he model emain in ac . Fo e ample, in a ja im-
p o i a ion ba ed on a e ie of eigh cho d , he e cho d m
hem el e appea in ome accep able fo m, and in o de . In a pe -
fo mance of Pe i ian a a , he nonme ic imp o i a ion ha i cen-
al in a comple e pe fo mance of Pe ian cla ical m ic, ce ain
ignpo o poin of efe ence m appea ;21 he e a e ce ain
cen al one , opening and clo ing mo if , melodic indica ion ig-
nalling he coming of clo ing ec ion , e c. I i po ible o make a
li of he e poin of efe ence - a kind of able of con en of he
mode. All of hem need no appea in a pe fo mance, b ome
m be e iden , in o de fo he pe fo mance o a an c edi-
bili . Simila poin of efe ence appea in he a a im of A abic
m ic. The e incl de no onl beginning and caden ial mo if b
21 The be e plana ion of he e ignpo appea , pa im, in Ho mo Fa ha ,

"The Da gah Concep in Pe ian Cla ical M ic" (Ph.D. di ., UCLA, 1966). See al o
B no Ne l, i h Bela Fol in, J . Da amad of Chaha gah: A S d in he Pe fo mance
P ac ice of Pe ian M ic (De oi , 1972), pp. 25-28, and he j p bli hed o k b
Ella Zoni , Cla ical Pe ian M ic: An In od c ion (Camb idge, Ma ., 1973).
al o he leng h of ec ion , ignpo of a diffe en kind, indeed,

hich, a e a lea o a deg ee obliga o ; h , a long ec ion m
come a he end of a a im, and po ibl abo he middle of he
hole piece a ell. The imp o i e and he li ene e leng h of
ec ion a a a of ga ging he p og e of he piece. On he o he
hand, in he model of Indian alap ( he nonme ic in od c o
e po i ion of a aga) a in Pe ian a a and A abic a im, he
g ad al in od c ion of highe one f nc ion a poin of ef-
e ence.
Di e e ho gh he e poin of efe ence ma be in na e, ho

clo e oge he o fa apa he a e ma be mea ed, a lea e
o ghl . We can efe o hi mea emen a den i . In com-
pa ing a io pe of model , e find ha ho e of ja a e ela-
i el den e, ho e of Pe ian m ic, of medi m den i , and ho e
of an A abic a im o an Indian alap, ela i el lacking in den i .
Fig ed ba , and Ba o e m ic in hich a oloi imp o i e
o namen a ion, a e pe hap he den e model of all. Doe he
den i of a model ha e an effec on a pe fo me ' f eedom? I
eem likel ha a pe fo me of imp o i a ion ing a den e model
end o a le f om pe fo mance o pe fo mance han one ho e
model lack den i , and ha he kind of imp o i a o hinking
ha goe on in a io m ical c l e , diffe en ho gh he a e
in le and con en , can he efo e be compa ed.
A m ical epe o , compo ed o imp o i ed, ma be ie ed
a he embodimen of a em, and one a of de c ibing ch a
em i o di ide i heo e icall in o i componen ni . The e
ni a e, a i e e, he b ilding block hich adi ion acc m -
la e , and hich m ician i hin he adi ion make e of,
choo ing f om among hem, combining, ecombining, and e-
a anging hem. The e b ilding block a e, e en i hin a ingle
epe o , of man diffe en o de . The a e he one elec ed
f om a one em; he a e melodic mo if ; he a e ha monic
in e al and in e al e ence in imp o i ed pol phon ; he
a e pe of ec ion (e. g., he e po i ion of ona a fo m ). The e
fe e ample ho ho g ea l a ied he a e in e en and i e.
S d ing he b ilding-block componen of imp o i a o le
i imila o d ing den i , ince he "poin of efe ence" ha
go e n den i a e in ome ca e iden ical i h he block , o i h
dema ca ion be een hem. Among he a io imp o i a o
le al ead men ioned, b ilding block ma be ill a ed b
he follo ing: (1) In ome We Af ican d m en emble each of
e e al pe c ioni pla a ingle ho mo if epea edl , j a-

po ing i o he o he in a highl comple pol h hmic e e.
The ma e d mme e he e mo if , mi ing hem, combining
hem, d a ing on hem, one b one; he he efo e a e hi b ild-
ing block , and he a e of a ela i el ho d a ion o mall
i e. (2) In he Y go la epic adi ion ho m ical ph a e ha
accompan he indi id al en- llable line a e he ele an ni .
A inge ing one line again and again, ho gh i h mino a ia-
ion , n il fo a n mbe of ea on a ne b e all adi ional
melod i aken p. The e heme a e among he b ilding block
of he Y go la adi ion. (3) In No h Indian d mming a imila
ole i filled b he heka, he pecific a dible fo m la a ocia ed
i h a ala, he heo e ical me ic pa e n.
In he A abic a im, a in ome o he le , a io le el of
b ilding block can be ob e ed.22 We ha e, fi of all, he one
of he ma am, f om hich he pe fo me d a mo e o le a ill,
in an o de a long a he melodic mo emen i la gel cala . A
a highe le el he e a e mo if of h ee o fi e one ha a e a -
ocia ed i h each ma am; he e e iden l m appea a lea
occa ionall . Be ond hi he a im i compo ed of diffe en pe
of ec ion , mo ea il iden ified b leng h; he ec ion- pe , and
e en hei leng h, a e b ilding block , fo a m ician can a ange
hem in ce ain kind of o de and ca o in each a cha ac e i ic
m ical f nc ion-- he long ec ion con ain mod la ion o b-
idia ma am , he ho e one e e o e abli h he main ma am,
and he ho e one p o ide a kind of d ama ic elief.
The poin o be made i ha in bo h folk and a m ic epe -
o ie compo e e imila kind of b ilding block . A b ief d
of C ech folk ong , fo in ance, p o ided e idence ha a mall
n mbe of mo if appea o e and o e again, a a io poin in
he ong ; in fac , he en i e epe o can be ed ced o a limi ed
e of ho ph a e f om hich compo e eem o ha e d a n.
And, on a la ge cale, compo e of We e n a m ic can be ho n
o ha e ed imila p oced e .
Ho e e , one ce ainl ecei e he imp e ion ha he ppl
of b ilding block in an imp o i ed le i m ch le e en i e
han in "compo ed" m ic, and ha pe hap an imp o i a o
22 Thi info ma ion i ba ed in pa on a d of i een a a im in he ma am

Naha and a pe fo med b Jihad Rac , ca ied o b he a ho and Ronald Riddle
i h pon o hip of he Uni e i of Illinoi Re ea ch Boa d in 1971-73.
epe o can be de eloped onl if he op ion a e limi ed. In-

e e ingl eno gh, he b ilding block ome ime ope a e mic o-
co micall in he manne of he en i e model in mac oco m. Wha
a Pe ian m ician doe in a ingle g heh (a ec ion of a da gah
i h pecific ange and hema ic con en ) i a good deal like ha
ake place in he en i e pe fo mance; he ela ion hip of he com-
ponen of a g heh e m ch e emble he ela ion hip of he
g heh in he hole piece. In he A abic a im and he Ca na ic
alapana he a in hich a one ac a he ba i fo embelli hmen
and he eb ac i e empha i i imila o he a in hich one
le el and ange ch a e acho d a e e plo ed and e abli hed
a focal poin in he en i e model. La ge b ilding block allo he
pe fo me con ide able f eedom fo in e nal a ia ion. Th , he
ec ion pe of he a im i bjec o m ch mo e a ia ion han,
a , he o namen ed no e in a e en een h-cen piece. The de-
g ee o hich he imp o i e ac all make deci ion , i h he
dden in pi a ion ha ome ega d a he hallma k of imp o i a-
ion, i pa iall dependen on he i e of he b ilding block . The
la ge he block , he g ea e he in e nal a iabili .
Poin of efe ence and b ilding block a e defini i e cha ac e -
i ic of he model on hich imp o i a ion ma be ba ed. Wi h e-
ga d o bo h, imp o i a o m ic ho i elf o be diffe en in
deg ee, b no in e ence, f om he adi ion on hich "com-
po ed" m ic i ba ed. The ame i e he e "a dibili " of he
model i in ol ed. We a e dealing i ha ide ange of model
pe : no e , caden ial fig e , ec ion pe iden ified b leng h,
melodic ph a e , o line , h hmic line o fo m la , en i e ne ,
cho d e ence , and modal concep o hich a e a ached a la ge
g o p of ai - cale , mo if , and pical e ence of focal poin
in ange and onali , a ell a h hmic endencie . A o all of
he e a e ion a i e : o ha e en doe he model comp i e
he ma e ial ha i ac all hea d b he den o pe fo me ?
Thi e ion di ec of co e o he ole of eaching. In
each of he imp o i a o le ha e ha e con ide ed, he -
den m in ome a lea n he model befo e he can imp o i e
pon i , ho gh he fo mali of hi in c ion a ie . In Indian
and Pe ian cla ical m ic i i in en e; in a lea ome A abic
m ic and in ja i i mainl a ma e of li ening and ial-and-
e o pa icipa ion; in Y go la epic- inging i i in e media e o
he e me hod , fo ong a e lea ned f om a pecific eache ho e
ole i c i ical.23 B mo e impo an fo he e i he na e of

he model i elf. In ome em i i ac al m ic ha ma al o
be pe fo med i ho imp o i a ion, in ome i i ba ic o nd
ma e ial ha he m ician lea n b doe no e ec e in a e
pe fo mance, and in ill o he i i la gel heo e ical bjec
ma e , con i ing of e bal in c ion and e e ci e .
Model e hibi ing mo e o le comp ehen i e a dibili a e
e emplified b he ho ne ha become he ba i fo ja
imp o i a ion and b he Y go la epic ong ha i lea ned in o o
befo e i become bjec o a ia ion b he pe fo me . Sligh l
le "a dible," in he en e ha i i a el ega ded a ome hing
o be ac all pe fo med, i he adif of Pe ian cla ical m ic, a
long e ie of compo i ion ha a e in le no diffe en f om he
imp o i a ion , ha a e de eloped b each eache f om he com-
mon adi ion and a gh o den ho m memo i e hem
befo e going on o imp o i e. Pe fo mance of Pe ian m ic can
ea il be cla ified acco ding o ho m ch he depa f om he
adif, o eaching e ion (and ome pe fo mance depa e li le
f om i ).
Of medi m a dibili a e he kind of model ha con i
pa l of heo e ical concep ha a e a gh , and pa l of ho
b ilding block ch a mo if . The imp o i e doe no pe fo m
in hi o n a a piece ha al ead e i , b e ma e ial ha
ha e been lea ned o ome e en in i ola ion, o a lea in a fo m
hich make i impo ible impl o ei e a e hem. T o e ample
of he e p ac ice a e (1) ome a pec of he cla ical m ic of
India ( ho e model a e inc edibl comple , n me o , and m l i-
face ed) in hich e e ci e ha p o ide in igh in o he cha ac e -
i ic of a aga a e a gh , and (2) ce ain face of A abic m ic,
in hich he p ac i ione ma lea n he heo of he ma ama ,
b foc , in hei p ac ical d , on m ical mo if and o he
ma e ha a e no b hem el e pe fo med a m ic.
"Ina dible" o "minimall a dible" model e i in a n mbe
of c l e , b pa ic la l in We e n m ic. Fo e ample, hile
he piani fo a ilen mo ie picall had a hi di po al ce ain
cho d , cho d p og e ion , and melodic ma e ial , he did no e
an adi ional model of hi '" co e" (hi pe fo mance a a hole)
o e en of ec ion of an con ide able leng h. Simila l , he o -
gani ho pe fo m a f g e e empo e on a heme gi en o him
23 Albe B. Lo d, The Singe of Tale (Camb idge, Ma ., 1960), pp. 13-29.
b he a dience ha , a ide f om he heme i elf (and ha ne o

him), no model mo e pecific han ha e e i gene ic o f g e.
Some imp o i e in a an -ga de m ic of he 1960 i hed o a oid
he e of an model, and if, pa odo icall , if he inno a ion i elf
i o be he model, i can ha dl be con ide ed an a dible one.
Th , hile a model of ome o i a nece a condi ion of an
imp o i a ion, he a dibili of he model, like i den i , a ie
f om c l e oc l e and f om epe o o epe o .
Imp o i a ion and he Pe fo me

I i a ioma ic ha imp o i ed m ic e i e a g ea e c ea i e
effo on he pa of he pe fo me han doe compo ed m ic, and,
indeed, one a e ma pe hap define imp o i a ion i b mea -
ing he deg ee o hich he pe fo me i c ea i el in ol ed. Le
con ide ha i kno n abo he a in hich pe fo me in
epe o diffe f om each o he in he pe fo mance of ma e ial
ba ed on one model, and o ha e en he pe fo mance of an
indi id al diffe f om each o he .
A n mbe of die ha e been made in e iga ing hi p oblem.

Among he mo ignifican o ele an a e ho e of: (1) Ka ,24
ho compa e o gene a ion ' pe fo mance p ac ice in one gen e,
i h pa ic la ega d o o namen a ion; (2) Ne l and Riddle,25
in ho e plo e he o k of one pe fo me and hi ange of p ac-
ice in one A abic ma am; (3) Ne l and Fol in,26 ho in e iga e
he ange of a n mbe of pe fo me of one Pe ian mode, in-
cl ding onl he nonme ic imp o i a ion ; (4) Ma o dieh,27 ho e
a k i imila b in ol e a diffe en , malle ample; (5) Wil-
ken ,28 ho compa e one ama e and one p ofe ional m ician
in he Pe ian adi ion; (6) To ma,29 ho ie o comp ehend he
cope of pe fo mance of one A abic ma am, Ba a i, a ed in e -
e al fo m and b e e al m ician ; (7) Zo ana E cego ac,30 ho e
24 R h Ka , "The Singing of Ba a ho b Aleppo Je :AS d in M ical
Acc l a ion," Ac a M icologica, XL (1968), 65-85.
25 B no Ne l and Ronald Riddle, "Ta im Naha and, a S d of Si een Pe -
fo mance b Jihad Rac ," np bli hed pape .
26 B no Ne l and Bela Fol in, J ., Da amad of Chaha gah.
27Mohammad Taghi Ma o dieh, A a -e-S (Regen b g, 1968).
28 EckaWilken , Kiin le nd Ama e e im pe i chen San piel (Regen -
b g, 1967).
29 Habib To ma, De Ma am Ba a i im a abi chen Ta im (Be lin, 1968).
oZo ana E cego ac, "The Song of Baghdad: A Compa i on of Nine Pe fo m-
ance " (M.A. he i , Uni e i of Illinoi , U bana, 1973).
np bli hed ma e ' he i deal i h e ce p of pe fo mance of

one ong b h ee inge , on nine occa ion , in he adi ion of
Y go la epic poe ; (8) Reicho ,"1 ho ie o comp ehend he
no ion of a ma am on he ba i of bo h compo i ion and pe fo m-
ance; (9) Ge on-Ki i,32 ho e plo e he Pe ian da gah em
on he ba i of one m ician' o k; and (10) R c of ,33 ho die
he o k of one Ea Af ican g i a i . Thi i b no mean a com-
ple e li , b i ep e en m ch of he o k done h fa ha
foc e on he deg ee of a ia ion in pe fo mance b one m ician
o one igh l kni g o p, o on he ba i of one model. The maj-
o i of ch die ha e been ba ed on Middle Ea e n m ic; and
c io l fe dealing i h Indian m ic o ja ha e been p o-
d ced. B pe hap he na e of model pe fo mance fo m , heo-
e ical em, o he oloi ic ali of he Middle Ea e n le
i he ea on fo hi imbalance.
In an e en , clea l e hnom icologi a e onl a he begin-

ning of hei d of imp o i a ional echni e. Mo e info ma-
ion on indi id al pe fo me and on pe fo mance ba ed on one
model, and hen compa i on of he e, a e needed befo e m ch
in igh can be gained. B ha e al ead ha e a hand indica e
ome end fo hich f e chola ma a ch. Fi , pe fo m-
ance b a gi en m ician o king i h one model a fa le
ho e of diffe en m ician . Thi i ob io l ha a ea onable
g e o ld ha e been; i i appa en ha an indi id al m ician
e abli he a pe onal p ac ice f om hich he doe no depa
e m ch. C o e amina ion of Indian m ic34 ho hi .
Second, mo c l e ha e a a he pecific e of e pec a ion of
he pe fo me , incl ding he e i emen of icking ea onabl
clo e o he model. The m ician ho i highl c ea i e and ie
o a oid ing he poin of efe ence and he b ilding block of
he model i cha i ed fo hi igno ance of he model; an iden ical
31 Jan Reicho , Die En fal ng eine Melodiemodell im Gen Sikah (Regen -

b g, 1971).
32 Edi h Ge on-Ki i, The Pe ian Doc ine of Da ga Compo i ion (Tel-A i ,
1963).
33 Da id R c of , "The G i a Imp o i a ion of M enda Jean Bo co," Af ican
M ic, III/1 (1962), 86-102.
34 I1 am indeb ed o Daniel Ne man fo info ma ion and di c ion of he con-
cep of imp o i a ion in No he n Indian m ic. See, ho e e , N. A. Jai a bho , The
Rag of No h Indian M ic (Middle o n, Conn., 1971), p. 31, hich implie ag ee-
men i h he poin made he e, b hich al o indica e ha " hen he m ician i
pe fo ming be ond hi no mal capaci . . . he m ic become ali e."
pe fo mance each ime i almo e all naccep able, b pe -

hap no i e a c lpable, and hi poin i of g ea impo be-
ca e i eng hen o ie ha he imp o i e i eall impl
he pe fo me of a adi ional piece, e abli hing hi o n a of
ende ing i . Thi d - and he e he diffic l of gene ali ing become
pe hap mo e iden - pe fo me end o feel ha he a e pla ing
an e an piece, no imp o i ing i h me e efe ence o ome hing
e an . An e cep ion eem o occ in ce ain imp o i a o le
of We e n m ic, hich i m ic ha ha all along ingled o
imp o i a ion a a epa a e, mino a , he phe e of he compa a-
i el fe m ician compe en o engage in i .
We migh clo e i h he ob e a ion ha he ecen die of
non-We e n m ic ha e indeed added eno mo l oo nde -
anding of imp o i a ion. B mo of he e die - ho e li ed
abo e a e he e cep ion - conce n hem el e i h he iden ifica-
ion and e plica ion of model , no i h he a in hich m i-
cian deal i h a model and depa f om i . E en ho e die
ha a e conce ned i h he la e opic ake a p e c ip i e a i-
de, indica ing ha ma be done; fe e amine, h o gh a com-
pa i on of field eco d , ha ac all i , o ha been, done.
B he concl ion hich ec again and again in o ho gh
i ha pe hap em abandon he idea of imp o i a ion a a
p oce epa a e f om compo i ion and adop he ie ha all
pe fo me imp o i e o ome e en . Wha he piani pla ing
Bach and Bee ho en doe i h hi model - he co e and he
acc m la ed adi ion of pe fo mance p ac ice - i onl in deg ee,
no in na e, diffe en f om ha he Indian pla ing an alap in
Rag Yaman and he Pe ian inging he Da gah of Sh do i h
hei .35
35 Thi d a ca ied o i h he help of he Uni e i of Illinoi Re ea ch

Boa d hich p o ided e ea ch a i ance. I am g a ef l o Do i D en Roo fo
compiling bibliog aph and ab ac ing li e a e hich a in pa ed he e. The
pape a i en hile he a ho a an A ocia e of he Uni e i of Illinoi
Cen e fo Ad anced S d .

Netll, Bruno. THOUGHTS ON IMPROVISATION: A COMPARATIVE APPROACH

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Netll, Bruno. THOUGHTS ON IMPROVISATION: A COMPARATIVE APPROACH

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Thoughts on Improvisation: A Comparative Approach

Author(s): Bruno Nettl

Vol. LX, No. 1 JANUARY, 1974

IN 1938 E n Fe and p bli hed ha con in e o be he onl

1 E n Fe and, Die Imp o i a ion in de M ik (Z ich, 1938).

Cop igh ? 1974 b G. Schi me , Inc.

eali a ion of fig ed ba , o in ch m ical ac oba ic a he

4 Semina on compa a i e app oache o imp o i a ion ha e been held b he

hich one canno eall di ing i h be een imp o i a ion and

kind of compo i ion; and, con onan i h he gene al We e n

e plo e he no ion ha he imp o i a o p oce i p e en o

Imp o i a ion and Compo i ion

9 Thi a emen i ba ed on Fe and and on o he p e io l ci ed a icle .

eek i ion in o de o lea n ong , and ha he e ong come o

ong e i ,i ake on he apping of e abli hmen , like a com-

A hi d No h Ame ican e ample come f om he E kimo, ho

10 B no Ne l, "S die in Blackfoo Indian M ical C l e, Pa II," E hno-

I he e, hen, an e en ial diffe ence be een he compo ed and

Ha ing en ed he h po he i ha he j apo ing of com-

deno e a no mall nonme ic imp o i ed olo fo m impo an in

e i of Ha aii, 1970), p. 55; Nell Ca on and Da io che Saf a e, I an: Le T adi-

m ician ho epea edl imp o i e pon he ame m ical model

Th , he a i de of Middle Ea e n and So h A ian m ician

he endenc o a o cce i e ec ion i h he ame mo i e,

20 See, fo e ample, Alf ed Ein ein, Sch be :AM ical Po ai (Ne Yo k,

ing a ba icall imp o i a o . Th , a he han making he p e -

Imp o i a ion and he Model

ga (nonme ic o me ic) in No h India, and in So h India

21 The be e plana ion of he e ignpo appea , pa im, in Ho mo Fa ha ,

al o he leng h of ec ion , ignpo of a diffe en kind, indeed,

Di e e ho gh he e poin of efe ence ma be in na e, ho

e e al pe c ioni pla a ingle ho mo if epea edl , j a-

22 Thi info ma ion i ba ed in pa on a d of i een a a im in he ma am

epe o can be de eloped onl if he op ion a e limi ed. In-

ole i c i ical.23 B mo e impo an fo he e i he na e of

23 Albe B. Lo d, The Singe of Tale (Camb idge, Ma ., 1960), pp. 13-29.

b he a dience ha , a ide f om he heme i elf (and ha ne o

Imp o i a ion and he Pe fo me

A n mbe of die ha e been made in e iga ing hi p oblem.

np bli hed ma e ' he i deal i h e ce p of pe fo mance of

In an e en , clea l e hnom icologi a e onl a he begin-

31 Jan Reicho , Die En fal ng eine Melodiemodell im Gen Sikah (Regen -

pe fo mance each ime i almo e all naccep able, b pe -

35 Thi d a ca ied o i h he help of he Uni e i of Illinoi Re ea ch

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