Chapter 3b - Development of Truss Equations: Stiffness Matrix For A Bar Element

CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 3 - Truss Equations - Part 2 1/44
Chapter 3b – Development of Truss Equations
Learning Objectives
• To derive the stiffness matrix for a bar element.
• To illustrate how to solve a bar assemblage by the direct
stiffness method.
• To introduce guidelines for selecting displacement
functions.
• To describe the concept of transformation of vectors in
two different coordinate systems in the plane.
• To derive the stiffness matrix for a bar arbitrarily oriented
in the plane.
• To demonstrate how to compute stress for a bar in the
plane.
• To show how to solve a plane truss problem.
• To develop the transformation matrix in three-
dimensional space and show how to use it to derive the
stiffness matrix for a bar arbitrarily oriented in space.
• To demonstrate the solution of space trusses.
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Inclined, or Skewed Supports
If a support is inclined, or skewed, at some angle  for the
global x axis, as shown below, the boundary conditions on
the displacements are not in the global x-y directions but in
the x’-y’ directions.

Inclined, or Skewed, Supports
We must transform the local boundary condition of v’3 = 0
(in local coordinates) into the global x-y system.

Therefore, the relationship between of the components of the
displacement in the local and the global coordinate systems
at node 3 is:
u '3   cos  sin   u3 
   
v '3    sin  cos   v 3 
We can rewrite the above expression as:
 cos  sin  
d '3   [t3 ]d3  t3     sin cos  

We can apply this sort of transformation to the entire
displacement vector as:
d '  [T1]d or d  [T1]T d '


Where the matrix [T1]T is:  [I ] [0] [0] 
[T1 ]T  [0] [I ] [0] 
 
[0] [0] [t3 ]
Both the identity matrix [I] and the matrix [t3] are 2 x 2 matrices.
The force vector can be transformed by using the same

transformation.
f '  [T1]f 
In global coordinates, the force-displacement equations are:
f   [K ]d 

Applying the skewed support transformation to both sides of
the equation gives:
f   [K ]d   [T1]f   [T1][K ]d 
By using the relationship between the local and the global
displacements, the force-displacement equations become:
d  [T1]T d '  f '  [T1][K ][T1]T d '
Therefore the global equations become:
 F1x   u1 
F   v 
 1y   1
 F2 x   u2 
  [T1 ][K ][T1 ]
T
  
 F2 y   v2 
F ' 3 x  u '3 
   
F '3 y  v '3 

Example 9 – Space Truss Problem
Consider the plane truss shown below. Assume E = 210 GPa,
A = 6 x 10-4 m2 for element 1 and 2, and A = 2 (6 x 10-4)m2
for element 3.
Determine the stiffness matrix
for each element.
 C 2 CS C 2 CS 
 2
CS S 
2
AE  CS S
k
L  C 2 CS C 2 CS 
 
 CS S
2
CS S2 

The global elemental stiffness matrix for element 1 is:
 C 2 CS C 2 CS 
 2
CS S 
2
AE  CS S
k
L  C CS C
2 2
CS 
 
 CS S
2
CS S2 
cos  (1)  0 sin (1)  1

u1 v1 u2 v2
0 0 0 0
2 
4
(210  10 kN / m )(6  10 m ) 0 1
6 2
0 1
k (1)  
1m 0 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 1

 C 2 CS C 2 CS 
 2
CS S 
2
AE  CS S
k
L  C CS C
2 2
CS 
 
 CS S
2
CS S2 
cos  (2)  1 sin (2)  0
u2 v2 u3 v3
1 0 1 0 
2 
6 2 4
(210  10 kN / m )(6  10 m )  0 0 0 0 
k (2) 
1m  1 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 0

 C 2 CS C 2 CS 
 2
CS S 
2
AE  CS S
k
L  C CS C
2 2
CS 
 
 CS S
2
CS S2 
2 2
cos (3)  sin (3) 
2 2
u1 v1 u3 v3
1 1 1 1
 1 1 1
(210  106 kN / m 2 )(6 2  104 m 2 )  1 
k (3)

2 2m  1 1 1 1
 
 1 1 1 1

Using the direct stiffness method, the global stiffness matrix is:
 0.5 0.5 0 0  0.5  0.5
 0.5 1.5 0  1  0.5  0.5
 
 0 0 1 0 1 0
K  1,260  10 5 N  
m
 0 1 0 1 0 0
 0.5  0.5  1 0 1.5 0.5
 
 0.5  0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5
We must transform the global displacements into local

coordinates. Therefore the transformation [T1] is:
1 0 0 0 0 0 
0 1 0 0 0 0 
 [I ] [0] [0]  
0 0 1 0 0 0 
[T1 ]  [0] [I ] [0]   
 
0 0 0 1 0 0 
[0] [0] [t3 ]
0 2 
0 0 0 2
2 2
 
0 0 0 0  2 2
2 2

The first step in the matrix transformation to find the product of
[T1][K]. K 
T  1
1 0 0 0 0 0 
 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 
0 0 

1 0 0 0
  0.5 1.5 0 1 0.5 0.5 

T1 K   1, 260  10 5 N 0
m 0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0 
0

 0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
 
0 0 0 0 2 2  0.707 0.707 0.707 0 1.414 0.707 
  
2 2
 0 0 0.707 0 0.707 0
0 0 0 0  2
2
2

2
 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 

 0.5 1.5 0 1 0.5 0.5 
T1 K   1,260  10 m  00
5 N
1
0 1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
 0.707 0.707 0.707 0 1.414 0.707


 0 0 0.707 0 0.707 0

The next step in the matrix transformation to find the product of
[T1][K][T1]T.
T1 K  T1 
T
0.5 0.5  
1 0 0 0 0 0 
 0.5 0.5 0 0

 0.5 1.5 0 1 0.5 0.5  0 1 0 0 0 0 
  
0 0 1 0 1 0  0 0 1 0 0 0 
T1 K T1   1,260  105 N m 
T
 0 1 0 1 0 0  0 0 0 1 0 0

 0.707 0.707 0.707 0 1.414 0.707   


 0 0 0 0 2 2
 2 2
 0 0 0.707 0 0.707 0  
0 0 0 0 2
2
2
2 
 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.707  0

 0.5 1.5 0 1 0.707  0
T1 K T1   0.707 

T
 1,260  10 5N 0 0 1 0 0.707
m 0 1 0 1 0 0
 0.707 0.707 0.707 0 1.5 0.5


 0 0 0.707 0 0.5 0.5 

The displacement boundary conditions are: u1  v1  v 2  v '3  0
F   0.5 0.5 0 0 0.707 0   u1

 1x    
 F1y   0.5 1.5 0 1 0.707 0   v1
    
F
 2x   0 0 1 0 0.707 0.707   u2 
  1,260  10 N m 
5
  
 F2 y   0 1 0 1 0 0   v 2 
   0.707  
F '
 3x  0.707 0.707 0 1.5 0.5  u '3 
 
F '   0 0 0.707 0 0.5 0.5  v '3 
 3y  

By applying the boundary conditions the global force-

displacement equations are:
 1 0.707   u2  F2 x  1,000 kN 

1,260  105 N 
m  0.707 1.5  u '3  F '3 x  0 

Solving the equation gives: u2  11.91 mm u '3  5.61 mm

Example 9 – Space Truss Problem  F1x 
F 
 u1 
 v 
 1y   1
 F2 x   u2 
  [T1 ][K ][T1 ]
T
  
The global nodal forces are calculated as:  F2 y 
F '3 x 
 v2 
u '3 
   
F '3 y  v '3 
 F1x 
F   0.5 0.5 0 0 0.707 0  0

 1y   0.5 1.5 0 1 0.707 0  0

 F2 x   0 0 1 0 0.707 0.707  11.91
  1,260  10 mm 
2N
 0 1 0 1 0 0
 0 
F
 2y    
F ' 3 x   0.707 0.707 0.707 0 1.5 0.5
  5.61 
   0 0 0.707 0 0.5 0.5   0 
F '3 y 
Therefore:
F1x  500 kN F1y  500 kN
F2 y  0 F '3 y  707 kN

Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
Let’s derive the equations for a bar element using the principle
of minimum potential energy.
The total potential energy, p, is defined as the sum of the
internal strain energy U and the potential energy of the
external forces :
p  U  
The differential internal work (strain energy) dU in a one-
dimensional bar element is:
dU   x ( y )( z )( x )d  x

If we let the volume of the element approach zero, then:

dU   x d  x dV
Summing the differential energy over the whole bar gives:
 x   x  1
U      x d  x  dV     E x d  x  dV   E x dV
2
0 2
V   V 0  V
For a linear-elastic material (Hooke’s law) as shown below:
1
 x  E x U    x  x dV
V
2

The internal strain energy statement becomes

1
U    x  x dV
2V
The potential energy of the external forces is:

M
    X bu dV   Txus dS   fixui
V S i 1
where Xb is the body force (force per unit volume), Tx is the

traction (force per unit area), and fix is the nodal concentrated
force. All of these forces are considered to act in the local x
direction.

Apply the following steps when using the principle of minimum

potential energy to derive the finite element equations.
1. Formulate an expression for the total potential energy.
2. Assume a displacement pattern.
3. Obtain a set of simultaneous equations minimizing the

total potential energy with respect to the displacement
parameters.

Consider the following bar element, as shown below:
L
A
2 0
p   x  x dx  f1x u1  f2 x u2
  X bu dV   Txus dS
V S
We can approximate the axial displacement as:

u  x x
u  N1 N2   1  N1  1  N2 
u2  L L

Using the stress-strain relationships, the axial strain is:

du  dN1 dN2   u1 
x    
dx  dx dx  u2 
where N1 and N2 are the interpolation functions gives as:

 1 1   u1 
 x      x   [B]{d }
 L L  u2 
 1 1
B  
 L L 
The axial stress-strain relationship is:  x   [D ]  x 


For the one-dimensional stress-strain relationship [D] = [E]

where E is the modulus of elasticity.
Therefore, stress can be related to nodal displacements as:
 x   [D][B]d 
The total potential energy expressed in matrix form is:

L
A
p    x   x  dx  d P   u  Xb  dV   u Tx  dS
T T T T
20 V S
where {P} represented the concentrated nodal loads.

If we substitute the relationship between û and d̂ into the

energy equations we get:
x x
L

 
A
p   d  B  D  B d  dx  d  P
T T T T
20
  d  N   X b  dV   d  Ns  Tx  dS
T T T T
V S
In the above expression for potential energy p is a function of

the d, that is: p = p(u1 , u2 ).
However, [B] and [D] and the nodal displacements u are not a
function of x.

Integration the energy expression with respect to x gives:

AL
p  d  [B]T [D]T [B]d  d  f 
T T
2
where
f   P   [N ]T  Xb  dV   [N ]T  X b  dS
V S
We can define the surface tractions and body-force matrices

as:
fs    [N ]T Tx  dS fb    [N ]T  Xb  dV
S V

Minimization of p with respect to each nodal displacement

requires that:
 p  p
0 0
u1 u2
For convenience, let’s define the following
U   d 
* T
[B ]T [D ]T [B ] d 
 1
   1 1   u1 
U   u
*
1 u 2   L  [E ]    
L  u2 
 1  L
 L 

Simplifying the above expression gives:
U* 
E 2
L2 
u1  2u1u2  u22 
The loading on a bar element is given as:
d f   u1f1x  u2f2 x

T
Therefore, the minimum potential energy is:

 p AE
  2u1  2u2   f1x  0
u1 2L
 p AE
  2u1  2u2   f2 x  0
u2 2L

The above equations can be written in matrix form as:

 p AE  1 1  u1   f1x 
  1 1  u    f   0
 d  L    2   2x 
AE  1 1
The stiffness matrix for a bar element is: k    1 1
L  
This form of the stiffness matrix obtained from the principle of

minimum potential energy is identical to the stiffness matrix
derived from the equilibrium equations.

Example 10 - Bar Problem
Consider the bar shown below:
The energy equivalent nodal forces due to the distributed load

are:
 x
L 1  
 
f0    [N ]T Tx  dS f0    1x     L Cx dx
f
S f2x  0  x 
 L 

 Cx 2 Cx 3 L 
    CL 
2

x  
1
f1x  L  L   2 3L 0   6 
    Cx  dx     2
f2x  0  x   Cx 3 L
  CL 
 L     3 
 3L 0 
The total load is the area under the distributed load curve, or:
1 CL2
F (L )(CL ) 
2 2
The equivalent nodal forces for a linearly varying load are:

F 1 2F 2
f1x   of the total load f2 x   of the total load
3 3 3 3

Consider the axially loaded bar shown below. Determine the
axial displacement and axial stress. Let E = 30 x 106 psi,
A = 2 in2, and L = 60 in. Use (a) one and (b) two elements in
the finite element solutions.

The one-element solution:
The distributed load can be converted into equivalent nodal

forces using:
 x
L 1 
 F   L 
F0    [N ]T Tx  dS F0   F1x     x  10x dx
S  2x  0  
 L 

 x  10L2 10L2   10L2 

1  - 2 + 3  - 6 
F1x  L  L 
     10x dx   2  2
F2x  0  x   - 10L  - 10L 
 L   3   3 
F1x   6,000 lb 
  
F2x  12,000 lb 

 1 1
k (1)  106  
 1 1
The element equations are:
 1 1 u1   6,000 

106       u1  0.006 in
 1 1  0  R2 x  12,000 
The second equation gives:
106 (u1 )  R2 x  12,000  R2 x  18,000 lb


The axial stress-strain relationship is: { x }  [D]{ x }

{ x }  E [B ] d 
 1 1   u1   u2  u1 
 E    E 
 L L  u2   L 
 0  0.006 
 30  106 
60   3,000 psi (T )
 

The two-element solution:
The distributed load can be converted into equivalent nodal

forces.
For element 1, the total force of the triangular-shaped
distributed load is:
1
(30 in.)(300 lb in )  4,500 lb
2

Based on equations developed for the equivalent nodal force of

a triangular distributed load, develop in the one-element
problem, the nodal forces are:
 1 
 (4,500)
 f1x (1)   3   1,500 lb 
 (1)      
f2 x   2 (4,500) 3,000 lb 
 3 

For element 2, the applied force is in two parts: a triangular-

shaped distributed load and a uniform load. The uniform load
is:
(30 in )(300 lb / in )  9,000 lb
The nodal forces for element 2 are:

 1 1 
   (9,000)  (4,500) 
f2 x    2
(2)
3  6,000 lb 
 (2)     
f3 x    1 (9,000)  2 (4,500)  7,500 lb 
  2 3  


The final nodal force vector is:

 F1x  f1x   1,500 
(1)
   (1) (2)   
F2 x   f2 x  f2 x    9,000 
F   f3(2)  R  7,500 
 3x   x   3x 
The element stiffness matrices are:
1 2
2 3
2AE  1 1
k(1)  k(2) 
L  1 1

The assembled global stiffness matrix is:

 1 1 0  element 1
6  
K  2  10 1 2 1
  element 2
 0 1 1
The assembled global force-displacement equations are:
 1 1 0   u1   1,500 
   
2  10  1 2 1 u2    9,000 
6
 
   
 0 1 1  0  R3 x  7,500 

After the eliminating the row and column associated with u3x,
we get:
 1 1  u1   1,500 
2  106    
 1 2 u2  9,000 
Solving the equation gives: u1  0.006 in

u2  0.00525 in
Solving the last equation gives:
2  106 u2  R3 x  7,500  R3 x  18,000

The axial stress-strain relationship is:

 1 1   d1x 
 x (1)  E    
 L L  d 2 x 
 1 1   0.006 
 E     750 psi (T )
 30 30   0.00525 

The axial stress-strain relationship is:

 1 1  d 2 x 
 x (2)  E    
 L L  d 3 x 
 1 1   0.00525 
 E     5,250 psi (T )
 30 30   0 

Comparison of Finite Element Solution to Exact Solution
In order to be able to judge the accuracy of our finite element
models, we will develop an exact solution for the bar element
problem.
The exact solution for the displacement may be obtained by:
L
1
AE 0
u P ( x )dx
where the force P is shown on the following free-body diagram.
1
P( x ) 
2
 x (10 x )  5x 2

Therefore:
5x3
L x
1 1
AE 0 AE o
u P ( x )dx u 5 x 2
dx   C1
3 AE
Applying the boundary conditions:

5x 3 5L3
u (L )  0   C1  C1  
3 AE 3 AE
The exact solution for axial displacement is:
5 P ( x ) 5x 2
u (L ) 
3 AE

x 3  L3   (x) 
A

A

A plot of the exact solution for displacement as compared to
several different finite element solutions is shown below.
One element
Two elements

A plot of the exact solution for axial stress as compared to
several different finite element solutions is shown below.
Two elements
One element

A plot of the exact solution for axial stress at the fixed end
(x = L) as compared to several different finite element
solutions is shown below.

Galerkin’s Residual Method and Its Application
to a One-Dimensional Bar
There are a number of weighted residual methods.
However, the Galerkin’s method is more well-known and will be
the only weighted residual method discussed in this course.
In weighted residual methods, a trial or approximate function is
chosen to approximate the independent variable (in our
case, displacement) in a problem defined by a differential
equation.
The trial function will not, in general, satisfy the governing
differential equation.
Therefore, the substitution of the trial function in the differential
equation will create a residual over the entire domain of the
problem.

Therefore, the substitution of the trial function in the differential
equation will create a residual over the entire domain of the
problem.
 RdV  minimum
V
In the residual methods, we require that a weighted value of

the residual be a minimum over the entire domain of the
problem.
The weighting function W allows the weighted integral of the
residuals to go to zero.
 RW dV  0
V

Using Galerkin’s weighted residual method, we require the
weighting functions to be the interpolation functions Ni.
Therefore:
 RN
V
i dV  0 i  1, 2, , n

Example 12 - Bar Element Formulation
Let’s derive the bar element formulation using Galerkin’s
method. The governing differential equation is:
d  du 
 0
dx 
AE
dx 
Applying Galerkin’s method we get:

d  du 
L
 dx  AE dx  N
0
i dx  0 i  1, 2, , n
We now apply integration by parts using the following general

formula:
 rds  rs   sdr

If we assume the following:
r  Ni dNi
dr  dx
dx
d  du  du
ds   s  AE
dx 
AE dx
dx  dx
then integration by parts gives:
 rds  rs   sdr
L
d  du 
L L
du du dN
0 dx  AE dx  Ni dx  Ni AE dx 0  0 AE dx dxi dx  0

Recall that:
du dN1 dN2 du  1 1   u1 
 u1  u2    
dx dx dx dx  L L  u2 
Our original weighted residual expression, with the

approximation for u becomes:
 u1 
L
 1 1
L
dN du
AE  i  L dx    Ni AE
0
dx  L  u2  dx 0

Substituting N1 for the weighting function Ni gives:
 u1 
L
dN1  1 1
L
du
AE   L  dx    N1AE
0
dx  L u2  dx 0
L
 1  1 1  u1  AEL
AE       dx    2  u1  u2 
0
L L L  u2  L
L
du du
N1AE  AE  AE x x 0
 A x x 0
 f1x
dx 0 dx x 0
AE
 u1  u2   f1x
L

Substituting N2 for the weighting function Ni gives:
 u1 
L
 1 1
L
dN2 du
AE   L  dx    N2 AE
0
dx  L u2  dx 0
L
 1  1 1  u1  AEL
AE      dx    2  u1  u2 
0 
L L L  u2  L
L
du du
N2 AE  AE  AE x x L
 A x x L
 f2 x
dx 0 dx x L
AE
  u1  u2   f2x
L

Writing the last two equations in matrix form gives:
AE  1 1  u1   f1x 
  
L  1 1 u2  f2 x 
This element formulation is identical to that developed from

equilibrium and the minimum potential energy approach.
Symmetry and Bandwidth

In this section, we will introduce the concepts of symmetry to
reduce the size of a problem and of banded-symmetric
matrices and bandwidth.
In many instances, we can use symmetry to facilitate the

solution of a problem.
Symmetry means correspondence in size, shape, and

position of loads; material properties; and boundary
conditions that are mirrored about a dividing line or plane.
Use of symmetry allows us to consider a reduced problem

instead of the actual problem. Thus, the order of the total
stiffness matrix and total set of stiffness equations can be
reduced.
Symmetry and Bandwidth - Example 1

Solve the plane truss problem shown below. The truss is
composed of eight elements and five nodes.
A vertical load of 2P is applied at node 4. Nodes 1 and 5 are

pin supports. Bar elements 1, 2, 7, and 8 have an axial
stiffness of AE and bars 3, 4, 5, and 6 have an axial stiffness
of AE.

In this problem, we will use a plane of symmetry.
The vertical plane perpendicular to the plane truss passing
through nodes 2, 4, and 3 is the plane of symmetry because
identical geometry, material, loading, and boundary
conditions occur at the corresponding locations on opposite
sides of this plane.

For loads such as 2P, occurring in the plane of symmetry,
one-half of the total load must be applied to the reduced
structure.
For elements occurring in the plane of symmetry, one-half of
the cross-sectional area must be used in the reduced
structure.
Element  C S C2 S2 CS
1 45° 0.707 0.707 0.5 0.5 0.5
2 315° 0.707 -0.707 0.5 0.5 -0.5
3 0° 1 0 1 0 0
4 270° 0 -1 0 1 0
5 90° 0 1 0 1 0

u1 v1 u2 v2 u1 v1 u3 v3
 1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1
   
AE  1 1 1 1 AE  1 1 1 1
k (1)  k (2) 
2L  1 1 1 1 2L  1 1 1 1
   
 1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1
1 45° 0.707 0.707 0.5 0.5 0.5
2 315° 0.707 -0.707 0.5 0.5 -0.5
3 0° 1 0 1 0 0
4 270° 0 -1 0 1 0
5 90° 0 1 0 1 0

u1 v1 u4 v4 u2 v2 u4 v4
1 0 1 0  0 0 0 0
 0 0  1
AE 0 0
 AE 0 1 0

k (3)  k ( 4) 
L 1 0 1 0 2L 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 45° 0.707 0.707 0.5 0.5 0.5
2 315° 0.707 -0.707 0.5 0.5 -0.5
3 0° 1 0 1 0 0
4 270° 0 -1 0 1 0
5 90° 0 1 0 1 0

u3 v3 u4 v4
0 0 0 0
 1
AE 0 1 0

k (5) 
2L 0 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 1
1 45° 0.707 0.707 0.5 0.5 0.5
2 315° 0.707 -0.707 0.5 0.5 -0.5
3 0° 1 0 1 0 0
4 270° 0 -1 0 1 0
5 90° 0 1 0 1 0

Since elements 4 and 5 lie in the plane of symmetry, one half
of their original areas have been used in developing the
stiffness matrices.
The displacement boundary conditions are:
u1  v1  u2  u3  u4  0
By applying the boundary conditions the force-displacement

equations reduce to:
 2 0 1 v 2   0 
AE     
0 2 1 v 3    0 
2L  
1 1 2  v 4  P 

We can solve the above equations by separating the matrices
in submatrices (indicated by the dashed lines). Consider a
general set of equations shown below:
K11 K12   d1   0  K11d1  K12d 2  0

K K  d   F 
 21 22   2    K 21d1  K 22d 2  F
Solving the first equation for d1 gives: d1  K111K12d 2
Substituting the above equation in the second matrix equation

K 21  K111K12d 2   K 22d 2  F
gives:
Simplifying this expression gives:
K 22 
 K 21K111K12 d 2  F

The previous equations can be written as: kc d 2  F
where: kc  K 22  K 21K111K12
Therefore, the displacements d2 are: d 2   kc  F

1
If we apply this solution technique to our example global

stiffness equations we get:
  1   2 0 1 v 2   0 
 
0   2  
1
 1 1  1  AE     
kc 
AE
[1]      0 2 1 v 3    0 
  2L  
L   2 2  0 1  1    1 1 2  v 4  P 

  2  
Simplifying:
AE   1   AE  1  2L
 kc 
1
kc  [1]     
L   2  L  2  AE
2PL
Therefore, the displacements d2 are: d2  v 4  
AE
The remaining displacements can be found by substituting the
result for v4 in the global force-displacement equations.
 1

v 2   1 0   2   2PL 
        
v 3  0 1  1   AE 
 2 
Expanding the above equations gives the values for the
displacements.
 PL 

 2   AE 
v
  
v 3    PL 
 AE 
The coefficient matrix (stiffness matrix) for the linear equations

that occur in structural analysis is always symmetric and
banded.
Because a meaningful analysis generally requires the use of a

large number of variables, the implementation of
compressed storage of the stiffness matrix is desirable both
from the viewpoint of fitting into memory (immediate access
portion of the computer) and computational efficiency.
Another method, based on the concept of the skyline of the

stiffness matrix, is often used to improve the efficiency in
solving the equations.
The skyline is an envelope that begins with the first nonzero

coefficient in each column of the stiffness matrix (see the
following figure).
In skyline, only the coefficients between the main diagonal

and the skyline are stored.
In general, this procedure takes even less storage space in

the computer and is more efficient in terms of equation
solving than the conventional banded format.
A matrix is banded if the nonzero terms of the matrix are

gathered about the main diagonal.
To illustrate this concept, consider the plane truss shown on

below.
We can see that element 2 connects
nodes 1 and 4.
Therefore, the 2 x 2 submatrices at

positions 1-1, 1-4, 4-1, and 4-4 will
have nonzero coefficients.
The total stiffness matrix of the plane truss, shown in the

figure below, denotes nonzero coefficients with X’s.
The nonzero terms are within the some band. Using a banded
storage format, only the main diagonal and the nonzero
upper codiagonals need be stored.
We now define the semibandwidth: nb as nb = nd(m + 1)
where nd is the number of degrees of freedom per node and

m is the maximum difference in node numbers determined
by calculating the difference in node numbers for each
element of a finite element model.
In the example for the plane truss shown above,

m = 4 - 1 = 3 and nd = 2;
nb = 2(3 + 1) = 8
Execution time (primarily, equation-solving time) is a function

of the number of equations to be solved.
Without using banded storage of global stiffness matrix K, the

execution time is proportional to (1/3)n3, where n is the
number of equations to be solved.
Using banded storage of K, the execution time is proportional

to n(nb)2
The ratio of time of execution without banded storage to that

using banded storage is then (1/3)(n/nb)2
Execution time (primarily, equation-solving time) is a function

of the number of equations to be solved.
square matrix upper triangular matrix
banded matrix skyline matrix

For the plane truss example, this ratio is (1/3)(24/8)2 = 3
Therefore, it takes about three times as long to execute the

solution of the example truss if banded storage is not used.
Several automatic node renumbering schemes have been

computerized.
This option is available in most general-purpose computer

programs. Alternatively, the wavefront or frontal method are
popular for optimizing equation solution time.
In the wavefront method, elements, instead of nodes, are

automatically renumbered.
In the wavefront method the assembly of the equations

alternates with their solution by Gauss elimination.
The sequence in which the equations are processed is

determined by element numbering rather than by node
numbering.
The first equations eliminated are those associated with

element 1 only.
Next the contributions to stiffness coefficients from the

adjacent element, element 2, are eliminated.
If any additional degrees of freedom are contributed by

elements 1 and 2 only these equations are eliminated
(condensed) from the system of equations.
As one or more additional elements make their contributions

to the system of equations and additional degrees of freedom
are contributed only by these elements, those degrees of
freedom are eliminated from the solution.
This repetitive alternation between assembly and solution was

initially seen as a wavefront that sweeps over the structure in
a pattern determined by the element numbering.
The wavefront method, although somewhat more difficult to

understand and to program than the banded-symmetric
method, is computationally more efficient.
A banded solver stores and processes any blocks of zeros

created in assembling the stiffness matrix.
These blocks of zero coefficients are not stored or processed

using the wavefront method.
Many large-scale computer programs are now using the

wavefront method to solve the system of equations.
Homework Problems
3b. Do problems 3.50 and 3.55 on pages 146 - 165 in your

textbook “A First Course in the Finite Element Method” by
D. Logan.
4. Use SAP2000 and solve problems 3.63 and 3.67.

Homework Problems
5. Do problem B.9 in your textbook “A First Course in the

Finite Element Method” by D. Logan.
Determine the bandwidths of the plane trusses shown in
the figure below. What conclusions can you draw
regarding labeling of nodes?
Homework Problems
6. Solve the following truss problems. You may use

SAP2000 to do truss analysis.
5k 7 8
10 ft
a) For the plane truss shown below,

10 ft
determine the nodal displacements and
element stresses. 10 k
5 6
Nodes 1 and 2 are pin joints.

10 ft
Let E = 107 psi and the A = 2.0 in2 for
all elements. 10 k 3 4
10 ft
1 2
Homework Problems
b) For the 25-bar truss shown below, determine the displacements and
elemental stresses. Nodes 7, 8, 9, and 10 are pin connections.
Let E = 107 psi and the A = 2.0 in2 for the first story and A = 1.0 in2 for
the top story. Table 1 lists the coordinates for each node. Table 2 lists
the values and directions of the two loads cases applied to the 25-bar
space truss.
2 1 Node x (in) y (in) z (in)
1 -37.5 0.0 200.0
2 37.5 0.0 200.0
6
5 3 -37.5 37.5 100.0
3
4 4 37.5 37.5 100.0
5 37.5 -37.5 100.0
9 10
7 6 -37.5 -37.5 100.0
7 -100.0 100.0 0.0
8 8 100.0 100.0 0.0
9 100.0 -100.0 0.0
10 -100.0 -100.0 0.0
Note: 1 in = 2.54 cm
Homework Problems
b) For the 25-bar truss shown below, determine the displacements and
Let E = 107 psi and the A = 2.0 in2 for the first story and A = 1.0 in2 for
the top story. Table 1 lists the coordinates for each node. Table 2 lists
the values and directions of the two loads cases applied to the 25-bar
space truss.
2 1
Case Node Fx (kip) Fy (kip) Fz (kip)
6 1 1.0 10.0 -5.0

5
3 2 0.0 10.0 -5.0
4 1
3 0.5 0.0 0.0
10 6 0.5 0.0 0.0

9
7 1 0.0 20.0 -5.0
2
2 0.0 -20.0 -5.0
8
Note: 1 kip = 4.45 kN
Homework Problems
c) For the 72-bar truss shown below, determine the displacements and
Let E = 107 psi and the A = 1.0 in2 for the first two stories and A = 0.5
in2 for the top two stories. Table 3 lists the values and directions of the
two loads cases applied to the 72-bar space truss.
Case Node Fx (kip) Fy (kip) Fz (kip)
17 18
17 0.0 0.0 -5.0
60 in 18 0.0 0.0 -5.0
1
19 0.0 0.0 -5.0
13 14
20 0.0 0.0 -5.0
60 in 2 17 5.0 5.0 -5.0
Note: 1 kip = 4.45 kN
9 10
15 14
18 3
60 in 16
4 9 8
5 10 17 2
6 13
7
11
1 6
60 in 5
12
1 2
120 in (b)
(a)
End of Chapter 3b

Chapter 3b - Development of Truss Equations: Stiffness Matrix For A Bar Element

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Chapter 3b - Development of Truss Equations: Stiffness Matrix For A Bar Element

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CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 3 - Truss Equations - Part 2 1/44

Chapter 3b – Development of Truss Equations

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

d '  [T1]d or d  [T1]T d '

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

The force vector can be transformed by using the same

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

cos  (1)  0 sin (1)  1

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

cos  (2)  1 sin (2)  0

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

We must transform the global displacements into local

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 

 0.707 0.707 0.707 0 1.414 0.707

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.707  0

T1 K T1   0.707 

 0.707 0.707 0.707 0 1.5 0.5

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

F   0.5 0.5 0 0 0.707 0   u1

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

By applying the boundary conditions the global force-

 1 0.707   u2  F2 x  1,000 kN 

Solving the equation gives: u2  11.91 mm u '3  5.61 mm

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

If we let the volume of the element approach zero, then:

For a linear-elastic material (Hooke’s law) as shown below:

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

The internal strain energy statement becomes

The potential energy of the external forces is:

where Xb is the body force (force per unit volume), Tx is the

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Apply the following steps when using the principle of minimum

1. Formulate an expression for the total potential energy.

2. Assume a displacement pattern.

3. Obtain a set of simultaneous equations minimizing the

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Consider the following bar element, as shown below:

We can approximate the axial displacement as:

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Using the stress-strain relationships, the axial strain is:

where N1 and N2 are the interpolation functions gives as:

The axial stress-strain relationship is:  x   [D ]  x 

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

For the one-dimensional stress-strain relationship [D] = [E]

The total potential energy expressed in matrix form is:

where {P} represented the concentrated nodal loads.

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

If we substitute the relationship between û and d̂ into the

In the above expression for potential energy p is a function of

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Integration the energy expression with respect to x gives:

We can define the surface tractions and body-force matrices

Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element

Minimization of p with respect to each nodal displacement