Course: Elementary Education (826)

Semester: Autumn 2020

ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q.1 Define instructional technology and compare different kinds of projected and non-projected Aids.
Using non-projected visuals
Teachers can use these for learners of all ages. They can involve groups to work collaboratively to prepare a
presentation, with drawings and charts.
▪There are many types of different charts: Organization charts, Classification charts, Time lines, Tabular charts,
and Flowcharts.
▪There are many types of graphs: Bar graphs, Pictorial graphs, Circle graphs, Line graphs.
Posters
Posters are easy to produce .They are used to catch and hold the viewer’s attention at least long enough to
communicate a brief message quickly for a new topic or a special event.
Cartoons
Cartoons are very popular and familiar visual design. Cartoons are also easily and quickly read and appeal to
learners of all ages. You can use cartoons to reinforce a point of instruction.
**Limitation
-Durability: It is easy to damage with regular learner use it.
There is a problem to keep non-projected visuals- Storage.
-May be too small for group viewing: non-projected visuals are not suitable for use for group because they are
small.
**Using non projected visuals in the classroom
1. Use visuals whenever possible to demonstrate ideas.
2. Present a single idea in each visual. Break down complex visuals into simpler ones or build them up step-by-
step.
3. Minimize text on each visual; maximum of six words per line and six lines per visual.
4. Cover irrelevant material with plain paper.
5. Use just one visual at time.
6. Teach your learners to understand visuals
7. Provide written cues to highlighted important information contained in the visuals.
☺Advantages
* Readily available
* Inexpensive
* No equipment required
* Easy to use
* Available for all levels of instruction
* Available for all disciplines
* Simplification of complex ideas.
Non-projected media can make your instruction more realistic and engaging Posters, cartoons, charts, pictures
and graphs and what students produced by themselves can provide powerful visual support for learning
abstract ideas. The non-projected media can be presented in the classroom or used as part of classroom
activity. No need to use equipment for observation so non-projected visual are easy to use.
Projected visual are detained as media design in which still images are enlarged and displayed on a screen .The
types of projected visuals that we can use in the classroom are software, digital visuals and document
cameras.
** Some general guidelines for using projected visuals
* Use visual variety.
* Rehearse your narration.
* Keep it moving and limit your discussion.
* Pause for discussion.
* Avoid irrelevant images.
* Test it visually.
☺The advantages for using projected visuals
· Easy to create and use
· Not projected for you and your students: It helps you on track
· Supports inclusion of multimedia
· Supports interactivity: it easy to go to any slide in the presentation Or link one to included multimedia files
· Fields multiple formats: Using the mouse to create handouts, Notes pages, and outlines.
** Limitation
* Just words: Many students are visual learners, so they may not learn if there are not any visuals.
* Too much on one slide: Limit the number of words on each slide up to 36 words.
* Too many “bells and whistles”: Irrelevant sounds can be distracting.
Educational technology is often considered, erroneously, as synonymous with instructional innovation.
Technology, by definition, applies current knowledge for some useful purpose. Therefore, technology uses
evolving knowledge (whether about a kitchen or a classroom) to adapt and improve the system to which the
knowledge applies (such as a kitchen’s microwave oven or educational computing). In contrast, innovations
represent only change for change sake. Given this distinction, it is easy to argue that educators are correct to

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resist mere innovation, but they should welcome educational technology. Unfortunately, the history of
educational technology does not support this hypothesis.
Finally,non-projected media and materials is this time is very useful into the rural area which is not been reach
into the advancement of our technology and it is very important indeed only seldom uses the projected
media and materials.
On the other hand, projected media and material very often uses by rich and advance in technology countries
its important to them.
These two materials both are useful for both learners and teachers indeed.
Q.2 Describe the effect of students grouping on teaching learning situation. Highlight teacher's role in
managing learning deficits.
Teachers place different configurations of students in classroom instructional groups, assign the groups
different sorts of learning goals and tasks, evaluate student performance in different ways and maintain group
membership for different periods of time. Several types of groups result. More effective teachers use more
than one type of group.
LEARNING CYCLE GROUPS
Students with similar learning needs are brought together for a short time. Students are assigned to groups
based on need for additional help, time and practice in order to master the content and skills covered in a
particular unit or lesson the teacher already has taught to the entire classroom group. Students who have
mastered the specific content and skills engage in enrichment activities.
COOPERATIVE GROUPS
Cooperative groups require students with diverse ability and characteristics to work together and learn from
one another to accomplish assigned learning goals or tasks. Recent research has focused on three types of
cooperative groups.
GROUP INVESTIGATION
A small group of four to six diverse students is assigned a topic of study. Different students are assigned
subparts of the work to be done. Completion of assigned tasks requires each student's work to be combined
with that of other students to produce a group effort. Students may be assigned to play different roles in the
group process. Task completion is contingent on cooperation. The group's collective product is evaluated. Each
student's performance is judged based on this evaluation and, in addition, may include an individual score for
the subtask completed by the student. Group membership changes for different assignments. Generally, there
is no inter-group competition.
PEER TUTORING

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A small group of four to six students with a cross section of characteristics is formed to teach information and
skills. Tasks assigned to groups emphasize material previously taught to the entire class by the teacher. Peer
tutoring approaches include:
TEAM ASSISTED INDIVIDUALIZATION
Each student receives an individual assignment based on learning needs. The team goal is to help one another
complete assigned tasks successfully and to improve each student's performance on a quiz measuring skills
and content covered in the student's individual assignment. Students receive individual scores. The team
receives recognition based on amount each student's score exceeds average or past performance on skills and
content covered in individual assignment.
TEAMS AND GAMES
After studying content and skills in learning teams (see above), students are combined into tournament
groups based on ability. Individual student's performance in tournaments contributes to individual and
learning team scores. Tournament groups are temporary for particular skill or content area. Learning teams
are stable.
JIG-SAW
Material to be learned is broken into sections. Each student is to learn a section and then teach it to other
team members. Each student is tested and graded individually on entire set of material. Teams are temporary
based on material to be learned.
LEARNING TOGETHER
A small group is given one assignment sheet. The group completes and hands in this single assignment.
Evaluation is based on how well students work together to complete the assignment sheet and performance
on completed sheet. Concept development Small groups of four to six students are formed. Generally the
students in each group have diverse characteristics. Tasks assigned to groups are complex, e.g., tasks with
more than one answer or way to solve a problem. Groups engage in learning activities such as reenactment of
historical events; dramatizations; instructional games; and development of fictional events, countries or
governments, and so forth. Students plan what to do and assign subtasks, if any, to students based on group
plans. Evaluation frequently includes qualitative as well as quantitative rating of final products. Teams are
temporary.
LONG-TERM ABILITY GROUPS
Students are assigned to groups based on academic ability. Changes in group assignments occur only when a
student's academic performance changes. Assignments seldom change. For the most part, a student's
assignment to an ability group level in kindergarten will be maintained through grade three and beyond. Most

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changes are based on factors other than achievement, e.g., social behavior and neatness, and are to a lower
rather than higher ability group. Learning in small group is teacher-directed. Instruction may be provided in a
"pull-out" situation in which students are taught by a different teacher from the one who teaches the class.
Group instruction may take place in a setting outside the regular classroom. Students are evaluated
individually.
Accommodating such student heterogeneity is one of the most troublesome and enduring problems faced by
teachers. Both high and low ability students do better academically in classes where the total group includes
students with a wide range of academic ability. The impact is greater on low ability students. There is no
difference in average ability students' academic performance in classes that are academically heterogeneous
or homogeneous. Short-term lesson-by-lesson instructional groups provide review, practice and enrichment
opportunities that effectively meet the diverse learning needs of students in a heterogeneous classroom.
Although instructional grouping is used to reduce the range of differences in the students being taught at a
given point in time, the abilities of students in the various groups, even long-term ability groups, overlap
considerably. Most studies of small group versus whole class instruction find greater learning on the part of
students when the teacher uses small instructional groups for at least part of the time. High and low ability
students benefit more than average students. Achievement gains are less clear in mathematics than reading.
In math, students in peer tutoring groups show more significant gains in math computation than in math
concepts and applications. Students who complete group investigation tasks acquire higher level math skills
than those engaged in total class instruction. Cooperative group experiences increase girls' achievement more
than boys'. Student achievement in instructional groups is related to the teacher's ability to solve classroom
management problems associated with the use of small groups. An exception to student achievement gains
occurs in long-term ability groups. Positive achievement effects are found only for high ability students, and
these results occur only in some studies. No effects occur for moderate ability students beyond the learning
that occurs when these students are taught in a total classroom setting. Harmful effects are identified for low
ability students. Pull-out low ability groups have a particularly adverse impact upon the performance of low
ability students. In desegregated classrooms, cooperative learning groups produce significant gains in
academic achievement for minority group students. In cooperative groups, students who help others by
providing explanations or demonstrations of how to complete assigned tasks gain more in achievement than
students at the same ability level who are recipients of help. Group investigations, particularly ones that do
not include competition between teams, promote use of abstract thinking, problem solving and critical
thinking skills. Students change over time. This should lead to changes in their instructional grouping. When
ability groups are used, exit criteria should be specified so it is clear when a student should be moved to

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another group. When teachers do not give specific attention to accommodating changes in students and have
no criteria for exiting an ability group, student assignments to ability groups remain stable. At most, six
percent of the students in a classroom will be moved from one group to another. And, for the most part, these
changes will be based on students' nonacademic characteristics or performance.
TO INCREASE STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN LEARNING
High levels of student on-task time occur in small groups. In particular, low ability students spend much less
time off task in cooperative small group situations than in total class instruction largely because they spend
less time in waiting for instructions and feedback. Engagement of low ability students decreases as the
diversity of the students in the small group decreases. When all students in a group are low ability and their
placement in the group extends for more than a few days, these low ability students have almost twice as
much off-task time as student’s asigned to long-term high ability groups. This occurs even when the teacher
directs the low group. A factor related to high engagement rates in instructional groups is the success rate
students must have to learn effectively. When students receive immediate feedback, as they do in some
groups, only a 70 to 80 percent success rate is required. When students work on their own in a total class
seatwork situation, an initial success rate of 95 to 100 percent is required. Formation of lesson-by-lesson
groups based on differences in students' learning needs reduces the amount of review and practice time
needed by all students to achieve high success. However, students who are assigned repeatedly to groups that
receive more review and practice time than other groups, over time, require ever increasing amounts of
review and practice to achieve mastery of the skills and knowledge covered in later lessons. Student
engagement rates in instructional groups are related to interactions among students and between the teacher
and students. Interactions that increase student engagement include: Receipt of helping behavior from other
students that explains but does not give answers providing help to others Interaction with the teacher that is
substantive rather than procedural or behavior control oriented Rewards based on both individual and group
performance Formation of too many small groups creates supervision and management problems which
reduce learning time.
The average classroom is likely to contain one or more students who demand more attention because of
behavioral difficulties. In some cases, hormones, challenges with peers, and home-life problems can make
even a “good kid” troublesome. And while some teachers are specially trained to handle special needs
children who demand more time, some aren’t. That can hurt both the student and the teacher.
All teachers need to learn how to teach students with behavior problems. No matter if the child is one student
in a classroom with a concern or if the classroom is designed for children with these complex behavioral
issues, the methods to teaching and avoiding complications or outbursts are sometimes the same. When

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teachers learn how to avoid situations that can push the button on these children, it is possible to ensure the
classroom’s lesson plan is fully explored and all students get equal attention.
One of the best strategies for teaching in an environment like this is to learn methods that help to prevent the
occurrence of behavioral issues. While every student’s needs are different, there are some simple steps
teachers can take to help prevent problems as a group.
 Increase the amount of supervision present during high-risk periods. When misbehavior is likely to occur,
such as during group work sessions or at specific times of the day, adding additional supervision can be a
helpful step in preventing problems.
 Make tasks manageable. To avoid driving stress factors that can cause a child to begin to misbehave,
ensure that all the tasks you assign can provide the student with small bits of information at one time. By
dividing a lesson in chunks, you’re less likely to overwhelm the student.
 Offer choices whenever possible. Rather than creating a strict classroom routine, provide the students
with choices. For example, let students choose which project they work on rather than having to focus on
a specific project.
 Ensure children reach out for help. In some cases, behavior issues occur because the child does not know
how he or she can receive help or does not, for some reason, feel that help is available. Reassure children
that they can reach out for the help they need. If they feel comfortable coming to you when they’re lost,
upset or overwhelmed, they’re not as likely to have an outburst.
Prevention is always the best step, but of course it’s not always possible to stop every occurrence of poor
behavior.
When behavioral problems begin to occur, it’s important for teachers to react in the right way. Here are some
strategies:
 Apologies. Apologies help to repair the social conflicts between two individuals. Ensure that apologies are
encouraged by all offending parties.
 Ignore. In some cases, the teacher ignores the behavior, meaning he or she does not react to it or
reinforce or reward it.
 Reduce privilege access. After defining the privileges that students have, the teacher sets in place a rule
system for taking those away. For example, things like having free time or being able to talk with friends
are removed when rules are broken.
 Praise. Praising positive behavior (not just expected behavior) is also a way of managing negative
outcomes. When teachers praise students more readily than scold them, the student learns that to get
attention he or she must act positively.

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Dealing with conflict in the classroom is never easy. But by getting parents involved, putting time aside to
understand the cause of the problem, and by engaging children in positive rewards, it may be possible to
reduce some of the risk that behavior problems will get in the way of learning—for you and for your students.
Q.3 what should be the characteristics of a well-managed classroom: Also identify principles related to
sound management.
Students, as well as teachers, spend a majority of their time in classrooms and in school. The classroom
should, therefore, be a stress-free environment where students and teachers feel comfortable spending so
much time. It is essential to have a well-managed classroom to improve classroom efficiency and create an
environment conducive to learning. A well-managed classroom is not limited to discipline, unlike the popular
belief that discipline is the only vital management skill a teacher must have. There are various characteristics
that describe a well-managed and efficient classroom.
Student Engagement
Classroom management includes various aspects, but one of the most vital is that the students are engaged. A
well-managed classroom will keep the students engaged at all times in the learning process. Students are
involved in the learning process, which helps foster higher-level thinking skills in students. Teaching creatively
can be a major factor in student engagement because a lesson that is not interesting will cause the students to
stop listening and become distracted. A more creative teaching method will capture the student's attention
and allow them to focus.
Clear Expectations
Expectations such as class objectives are clear in a well-managed classroom. Students know the material they
will be tested on, as well as the teacher's expectations for the various assignments they will be graded on. This
also allows for efficiency in the classroom because students manage their time accordingly to move from one
task to another effectively. A good way to ensure that students are clear on what the class objectives are is to
write the daily tasks on the board at the beginning of each lesson, as well as write any exam dates in a place
that students can see regularly.
Effective Time Management
To minimize wasted time and improve efficiency, a well-managed classroom has good time-management
skills. The students know which areas in the classroom are accessible to them, as well as where items are
placed in the classroom. They also know exactly what to expect from each class in order to ensure good time
management. Procedures for distractions such as using the bathroom are in place to avoid minimizing the
time students can spend on tasks during class time.
Positive Work Environment

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A positive work environment is one of the main characteristics of a well-managed classroom. Students are
comfortable asking the teacher questions. The classroom environment is also stress-free to ensure a good
workflow and positive environment. Decorating the classroom, as well as allowing the students to participate
in classroom decorating, can help encourage a positive work environment.
Firm Discipline
Discipline is an important factor in well-managed classrooms and one of the main characteristics. Students
have clear and firm guidelines on which behaviors are allowed in the classroom and which are not, which
allows students to remain disciplined and encourage an efficient workflow. Simple things such as guidelines on
going to the bathroom or raising their hands when speaking are in place to help keep a positive and effective
work environment. Students should also be given positive reinforcement and praise for appropriate behavior
and good work to help encourage them and others in the classroom.
Discipline, management frequently interchanged in the education field, although they are distinctly
different, and need treated as separate entities. Classroom management is the teacher’s responsibility
and discipline is the student’s responsibility. Behavior and misbehavior are also terms that get
confused. Classroom management, discipline, behavior and misbehavior are important aspect of every
classroom. In order to have a well-organized classroom, the need to define and understand these
terminologies becomes imperative. Classroom management describes the process of ensuring that
classroom lessons run smoothly. It is the groundwork for the classroom. When constructed well there
is room for growth and progress, as well as penalties for non-compliance. Without good classroom
management, learning is inefficient and the teacher becomes stressed. A stressed teacher leads to
unruly students, which is where discipline comes into play. Discipline is “the enforcement of order –
that is, ensuring instructions are carried out – is often regulated through punishment.” (Discipline,
2011) Teaching children to behave appropriately in different circumstances is discipline; this is done
with punishment, or loss of privileges. Discipline is necessary in order to have a harmonious classroom.
“Classroom management deals with how things are done. Discipline deals with how people behave.”
The most important thing about classroom management is control. A teacher must have control to be
successful. When a teacher losses control, students become bored, disinterested, and restless, which
often causes behavior problems. Avoid misbehavior by setting classroom rules early in the year. These
guidelines allow students to know the expectations the teacher has for them and the consequences of
not following the rules. Never continue instruction when rules are broken, this cause total loss of
control, which leads to behavior problems. Normal or "good" behavior, usually determined by whether
it is socially, culturally and developmentally appropriate. Misbehavior is any improper behavior.

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Management
"Management refers to your role as a teacher in creating a classroom environment where success is
possible. It refers to how order is established and maintained in the classroom".
Discipline
"Discipline is defined as the actions that facilitate the development of self-control, responsibility, and
character".
Good classroom management is important because it can prevent many discipline problems. In order
to avoid becoming overbearingly bossy, It recommend that teachers partake in lead management. As
implied in the term, the teacher and students should view the teacher as the leader, rather than the
boss. "In lead management, power among classroom participants is shared and teacher power is used
in service to others rather than as something to enhance one's status" (Savage & Savage, 2010, p.7).
Characteristics of teachers with lead management include:

 Allowing student input when making classroom decisions

 Communicating clear expectations to students
 Listening to students
Because there is not a constant struggle for power, students feel a sense of power, influence, and
importance to the teacher. This, in turn, gives the teacher more power and influence. For example, in
the beginning of the year, teachers usually provide students with expectations. As a form of lead
management, teachers can create a classroom contract with the students. This contract is a two-way
contract that is put together by both the teacher and the students. The teacher can detail what she or
he expects of the students, and the students can detail what they expect from the teacher. For
example, the teacher will expect that students turn their work in on time. In return, the teacher
promises to return their work graded within a week. As a teacher who desires for a classroom that is
conducive to learning, I must make sure that discipline is not an intruding problem. One of the best
ways to prevent discipline problems is to establish effective classroom management. I will do so by
utilizing the lead management style within my classroom. Another way to do so is through the
implementation of discipline within my classroom. Aspects of management discussed on this website:
 Authority and leadership
 Physical environment
 Mobility and proximity
 Preferred Activity Time (PAT)

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 The classroom is not just a place for academic goals. One of the goals every teacher should have is to
help students develop not only academically, but socially and personally as well. Proverbs 25:28 says,
"A person without self-control is as defenseless as a city with broken-down walls." Self-control is a
crucial aspect of humanity and life, an aspect that separates humans from animals and denotes
impulsiveness. Naturally, some students possess more self-control than others, but each student will
fall short at one point. Savage & Savage (2010) recommend that their definition of discipline (namely,
helping students develop self-control), should dictate how teachers respond to misbehavior. Before
responding to student misbehavior, teacher's should ask themselves the following:
 "What action will be the best choice in helping the student move toward self-control?".
Because I believe that having adults possessive of self-control, character, and responsibility are vital to
the future of America, it is one of my main goals to see students develop and demonstrate self-
control. Therefore, I will always ask myself the above question when dealing with misbehavior. For
example, let us say that a student is talking to his neighbor while I am teaching a lesson. Rather than
immediately putting his name on the board, I will insert his name into the lesson in order to get his
attention. By stating his name, the student will become aware that I know he is not on task. Thus, he
has an opportunity to stop talking to his neighbor before experiencing consequences. Aspects of
discipline to be discussed on this website:
 Responding to inappropriate behavior
 Responding to minor problems
 Limit setting
Q.4 Differentiate between measurement and evaluation. How can teacher made test be improved by using
table of specifications?
Measurement and evaluation are both means to monitor progress for individuals or groups in the work place
or in the educational environment. The outcomes of the measurements and evaluations help determine
potential and effective systems that may be put in place to ensure key performance in business and learning
institutions. There are many similarities in these two methods but one simple difference sets them apart.
Measurement and evaluation are processes that are used to provide information about a person or object and
their performance. Measurement and evaluation are used together to assist in the development of individuals
or systems to improve performance or to modify the system to suit the needs of the individual, group or
business operation.
Measurement and evaluation are both means to monitor progress for individuals or groups in the work place
or in the educational environment. The outcomes of the measurements and evaluations help determine

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potential and effective systems that may be put in place to ensure key performance in business and learning
institutions. There are many similarities in these two methods but one simple difference sets them apart.
Measurement is all about the numbers and being able to quantify the performance or the abilities. Evaluation
assists with using the data and information to judge success or failure. Evaluation can take place without
numerical measurement as it measures performance.
Measurement requires some standardized tools for measuring. A speedometer measures the speed of the
moving car and a thermometer measure the temperature of a give space. These tools help to measure and
record physical attributes.
Evaluation is used to judge the value or worth of a plan or project. Evaluation can be used in conjunction with
measurement to asses’ pupils or workers performance. Evaluation is a key element in pupil’s performance
and helps measure progress of the individual. Evaluation can determine the needs of individual pupils so that
a programme suited to their level of understanding can be implemented. Measurement is about numbers
and data and standardized tests. Evaluation benefits form the opportunity to use the data in order to
compare and judge the success rate of a person or an object that may not necessarily be quantified. Paintings,
novels and individual performance can all be evaluated by professionals in their field of expertise. The addition
of measured data adds verification to the evaluation and provides accurate performance indicators as each
measurement can be compared. Measurements are more objective as they have numerical standards to
compare and record. Evaluation could be seen to be more subjective as the evaluator and measures used are
part of human sciences and performance related.
Albert Einstein claimed that:
“Everything that can be counted does not necessarily count everything that counts cannot necessarily be
counted.”
Therefore based on Einstein’s observation it would be true to say that measurement and evaluation go hand
in hand in the assessment of the aspects of life that can and do count. The educator, the businessman, the
politician and the man in the street can all benefit from the outcomes of measurement and evaluation. They
serve the same purpose but use different styles of observation to conclude outcomes and values.
Standardized test vs. teacher-made tests
There are generally two types of tests used to evaluate environmental education programs: standardized
tests (prepared by publishing companies, formal testing agencies, and universities), and classroom
tests (prepared by the teacher). Standardized tests are formal tests that allow you to compare your students
with other students in the region or country. These tests are usually valid and reliable because they have been
tested on large sample populations and have been revised to eliminate unreliable or invalid questions. They

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are useful if you want to compare your students with other students or if you want to rank students against
the "norm." (Ratings of validity and reliability are published for standardized tests and you can check on the
documentation.) The norms for standardized tests depend on where the tests were developed. (U.S. norms
may not be appropriate for non-U.S. students.) One serious drawback to standardized tests is that they are not
effective with students that have abilities, needs, or problems that differ from those of the "normal" student
population. In addition, the content of standardized tests does not always match what is taught in a certain
school or classroom. As Therese found out, many students in less developed countries do poorly on
standardized tests-especially on tests that are developed in other countries. One reason for this is that these
tests are usually given in English, which is a second language for many students. Another reason is that the
content and culture of the test usually does not match the classroom content and culture in a particular
school. Standardized tests are often not appropriate measures of environmental education learning. Not only
do the questions often not deal with environmental issues or ecological content, but the types of questions
mainly test for knowledge and facts-not skills and attitudes, two important components of an environmental
education program. Although standardized tests are changing to include more variety and to encourage
higher-level thinking, they are still very limiting and should not be used as the sole measure of a student's
performance. Standardized tests definitely have their drawbacks. Yet, in many school systems, scores on
standardized tests determine a student's academic future. If a student passes, he or she can move ahead. If a
student fails, he or she will not have the same opportunities. The number of students that pass and fail is also
seen as a reflection of the quality of teaching and the success of the school system itself. Unlike standardized
tests, teacher developed tests have not been tested on sample populations of students and do not allow you
to compare your students to a standard. Instead, these tests (also called criterion-reference tests), help test a
student s understanding of a particular (and often limited) body of knowledge. For example, if you are
teaching a unit on ecology and want to determine whether your students have learned about predator-prey
relationships in Belize, you would include test questions about predator-prey relationships in Belize that
related to your specific objectives. You could also include questions dealing with knowledge and attitudes
about predators and make the questions as easy or difficult as you wanted, based on the objectives you
outlined earlier. Many teachers prefer criterion-reference tests because the evaluation is based solely on the
students' performance and the test relates directly to what was taught during the course. If everyone in the
class can match the performance outlined in the objectives, then everyone gets top marks. Criterion-reference
tests make a lot of sense for environmental education because if you design the right type of test, you can
determine if your students have learned what you hoped they would learn. Criterion-reference tests can
measure skills, knowledge, and attitudes-the three major components of your environmental education

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program, and they can be tailored to meet the environmental I needs of your community. The drawbacks to
teacher-made tests are that they are often unreliable and less valid than standardized tests, and their
effectiveness relies on the skill of the individual teachers who create the tests and grade them. If you don't
have a lot of experience designing effective tests, you might want to meet with several of your colleagues and
work together to come up with good questions. When creating a test, it's important to match the test
questions to your objectives.
Examinations are a very common assessment and evaluation tool in universities and there are many types of
examination questions. This tips sheet contains a brief description of seven types of examination questions, as
well as tips for using each of them: 1) multiple choice, 2) true/false, 3) matching, 4) short answer, 5) essay, 6)
oral, and 7) computational. Remember that some exams can be conducted effectively in a secure online
environment in a proctored computer lab or assigned as paper based or online “take home” exams.
Multiple choice
Multiple choice questions are composed of one question (stem) with multiple possible answers (choices),
including the correct answer and several incorrect answers (distractors). Typically, students select the correct
answer by circling the associated number or letter, or filling in the associated circle on the machine-readable
response sheet.
Example: Distractors are:
A) Elements of the exam layout that distract attention from the questions
B) Incorrect but plausible choices used in multiple choice questions
C) Unnecessary clauses included in the stem of multiple choice questions
Answer: B
Students can generally respond to these type of questions quite quickly. As a result, they are often used to
test student’s knowledge of a broad range of content. Creating these questions can be time consuming
because it is often difficult to generate several plausible distractors. However, they can be marked very
quickly.
Tips for writing good multiple choice items:

Avoid Do use

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 Avoid Do use

In the stem: In the stem:

 Long / complex sentences  Your own words – not
 Trivial statements statements straight out of
 Negatives and double- the textbook
negatives  Single, clearly formulated
 Ambiguity or indefinite problems
terms, absolute In the choices:
statements, and broad  Plausible and
generalization homogeneous distractors
 Extraneous material  Statements based on
 Item characteristics that common student
provide a clue to the misconceptions
answer misconceptions  True statements that do
In the choices: not answer the questions
 Statements too close to the  Short options – and all
correct answer same length
 Completely implausible  Correct options evenly
responses distributed over A, B, C,
 ‘All of the above,’ ‘none of etc.
the above’  Alternatives that are in
 Overlapping responses logical or numerical then
(e.g., if ‘A’ is true) ‘C’ is also true) order
 At least 3 alternatives

Suggestion: After each lecture during the term, jot down two or three multiple choice questions based on the
material for that lecture. Regularly taking a few minutes to compose questions, while the material is fresh in
your mind, will allow you to develop a question bank that you can use to construct tests and exams quickly
and easily.
True/false
True/false questions are only composed of a statement. Students respond to the questions by indicating
whether the statement is true or false. For example: True/false questions have only two possible answers

15
(Answer: True).
Like multiple choice questions, true/false questions:
 Are most often used to assess familiarity with course content and to check for popular misconceptions
 Allow students to respond quickly so exams can use a large number of them to test knowledge of a
broad range of content
 Are easy and quick to grade but time consuming to create
True/false questions provide students with a 50% chance of guessing the right answer. For this reason,
multiple choice questions are often used instead of true/false questions.
Tips for writing good true/false items:

Avoid Do use

 Negatives and  Your own words

double-negatives  The same number of true and false
 Long / complex statements (50 / 50) or slightly
sentences more false statements than true
 Trivial material (60/40) – students are more likely
 Broad to answer true
generalizations  One central idea in each item
 Ambiguous or
indefinite terms

Suggestion: You can increase the usefulness of true/false questions by asking students to correct false
statements.
Matching
Students respond to matching questions by pairing each of a set of stems (e.g., definitions) with one of the
choices provided on the exam. These questions are often used to assess recognition and recall and so are most
often used in courses where acquisition of detailed knowledge is an important goal. They are generally quick
and easy to create and mark, but students require more time to respond to these questions than a similar
number of multiple choice or true/false items.
Example: Match each question type with one attribute:
1. Multiple Choice a) Only two possible answers
2. True/False b) Equal number of stems and choices
3. Matching c) Only one correct answer but at least three choices

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 Tips for writing good matching items:

Avoid Do use

 Long stems and options  Short responses 10-15

 Heterogeneous content (e.g., items on only one page
dates mixed with people)  Clear directions
 Implausible responses  Logically ordered choices
(chronological,
alphabetical, etc.)

Suggestion: You can use some choices more than once in the same matching exercise. It reduces the effects of
guessing.
Short answer
Short answer questions are typically composed of a brief prompt that demands a written answer that varies in
length from one or two words to a few sentences. They are most often used to test basic knowledge of key
facts and terms. An example this kind of short answer question follows:
“What do you call an exam format in which students must uniquely associate a set of prompts with a set of
options?” Answer: Matching questions
Alternatively, this could be written as a fill-in-the-blank short answer question:
“An exam question in which students must uniquely associate prompts and options is called a
___________ question.” Answer: Matching.
Short answer questions can also be used to test higher thinking skills, including analysis or
evaluation. For example:
“Will you include short answer questions on your next exam? Please justify your decision with
two to three sentences explaining the factors that have influenced your decision.”
Short answer questions have many advantages. Many instructors report that they are relatively easy to
construct and can be constructed faster than multiple choice questions. Unlike matching, true/false, and
multiple choice questions, short answer questions make it difficult for students to
guess the answer. Short answer questions provide students with more flexibility to explain their
understanding and demonstrate creativity than they would have with multiple choice questions; this also
means that scoring is relatively laborious and can be quite subjective. Short answer
questions provide more structure than essay questions and thus are often easy and faster to mark and often
test a broader range of the course content than full essay questions.

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 Tips for writing good short answer items:

Type of Avoid Do use

question

All short-  Trivia  Your own words

answer  Long / complex  Specific problems
sentences  Direct questions

Fill-in-  Taking out so  Prompts that omit

the-blank many words that only one or two key
the sentence is words at the end of
meaningless the sentence

Suggestion: When using short answer questions to test student knowledge of definitions consider having a
mix of questions, some that supply the term and require the students to provide the definition, and other
questions that supply the definition and require that students provide the term. The latter sort of questions
can be structured as fill-in-the-blank questions. This mix of formats will better test student knowledge because
it doesn’t rely solely on recognition or recall of the term.
Essays
Essay questions provide a complex prompt that requires written responses, which can vary in length from a
couple of paragraphs to many pages. Like short answer questions, they provide students with an opportunity
to explain their understanding and demonstrate creativity, but make it hard for students to arrive at an
acceptable answer by bluffing. They can be constructed reasonably quickly and easily but marking these
questions can be time-consuming and grader agreement can be difficult.
Essay questions differ from short answer questions in that the essay questions are less structured. This
openness allows students to demonstrate that they can integrate the course material in creative ways. As a
result, essays are a favoured approach to test higher levels of cognition including analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. However, the requirement that the students provide most of the structure increases the amount
of work required to respond effectively. Students often take longer to compose a five paragraph essay than
they would take to compose five one paragraph answers to short answer questions. This increased workload
limits the number of essay questions that can be posed on a single exam and thus can restrict the overall
scope of an exam to a few topics or areas. To ensure that this doesn’t cause students to panic or blank out,
consider giving the option of answering one of two or more questions.

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 Tips for writing good essay items:

Avoid Do use

 Complex, ambiguous  Your own words

wording  Words like ‘compare’ or
 Questions that are too ‘contrast’ at the
broad to allow time for an beginning of the question
in-depth response  Clear and unambiguous
wording
 A breakdown of marks to
make expectations clear
 Time limits for thinking
and writing

Suggestions: Distribute possible essay questions before the exam and make your marking criteria slightly
stricter. This gives all students an equal chance to prepare and should improve the quality of the answers –
and the quality of learning – without making the exam any easier.
Oral Exams
Oral examinations allow students to respond directly to the instructor’s questions and/or to present prepared
statements. These exams are especially popular in language courses that demand ‘speaking’ but they can be
used to assess understanding in almost any course by following the guidelines for the composition of short
answer questions. Some of the principle advantages to oral exams are that they provide nearly immediate
feedback and so allow the student to learn as they are tested. There are two main drawbacks to oral exams:
the amount of time required and the problem of record-keeping. Oral exams typically take at least ten to
fifteen minutes per student, even for a midterm exam. As a result, they are rarely used for large classes.
Furthermore, unlike written exams, oral exams don’t automatically generate a written record. To ensure that
students have access to written feedback, it is recommended that instructors take notes during oral exams
using a rubric and/or checklist and provide a photocopy of the notes to the students.
In many departments, oral exams are rare. Students may have difficulty adapting to this new style of
assessment. In this situation, consider making the oral exam optional. While it can take more time to prepare
two tests, having both options allows students to choose the one which suits them and their learning style
best.
Computational

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Computational questions require that students perform calculations in order to solve for an answer.
Computational questions can be used to assess student’s memory of solution techniques and their ability to
apply those techniques to solve both questions they have attempted before and questions that stretch their
abilities by requiring that they combine and use solution techniques in novel ways.
Effective computational questions should:
 Be solvable using knowledge of the key concepts and techniques from the course. Before the exam
solve them yourself or get a teaching assistant to attempt the questions.
 Indicate the mark breakdown to reinforce the expectations developed in in-class examples for the
amount of detail, etc. required for the solution.
To prepare students to do computational questions on exams, make sure to describe and model in class the
correct format for the calculations and answer including:
 How students should report their assumptions and justify their choices
The units and degree of precision expected in the answer
Q.5 Describe the role of teacher training in deterioration of the education system. Suggest measures for
improvement.
Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in the country by education policies
at domestic level and getting involved into international commitments on education. In this regard national
education policies are the visions which suggest strategies to increase literacy rate, capacity building, and
enhance facilities in the schools and educational institutes. MDGs and EFA programmes are global
commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of literacy.

A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been little change in Pakistan’s schools
since 2010, when the 18th Amendment enshrined education as a fundamental human right in the
constitution. Problems of access, quality, infrastructure and inequality of opportunity, remain endemic.
Issues
A) MDGs and Pakistan
Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging behind in achieving its MDGs of
education. The MDGs have laid down two goals for education sector:
Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) and by 2015, children everywhere,
boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. By the year 2014 the
enrolment statistics show an increase in the enrolment of students of the age of 3-16 year while dropout rate
decreased. But the need for increasing enrolment of students remains high to achieve MDGs target. Punjab is

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leading province wise in net primary enrolment rate with 62% enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh
province is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and primary enrolment rate in Balochistan is 45%.
Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs is Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment. It is aimed at
eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and in all levels of education not
later than 2015. There is a stark disparity between male and female literacy rates. The national literacy rate of
male was 71% while that of female was 48% in 2012-13. Provinces reported the same gender disparity. Punjab
literacy rate in male was 71% and for females it was 54%. In Sindh literacy rate in male was 72% and female
47%, in KPK male 70% and females 35%, while in Balochistan male 62% and female 23%.
B) Education for All (EFA) Commitment
The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-schooling, universal primary
education and secondary education to youth, adult literacy with gender parity and quality of education as
crosscutting thematic and programme priorities.
EFA Review Report October 2014 outlines that despite repeated policy commitments, primary education in
Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving its target of universal primary education. Currently the primary gross
enrolment rate stands at 85.9% while Pakistan requires increasing it up to 100% by 2015-16 to fulfil EFA goals.
Of the estimated total primary school going 21.4 million children of ages 5-9 years, 68.5% are enrolled in
schools, of which 8.2 million or 56% are boys and 6.5 million or 44% are girls. Economic Survey of Pakistan
confirms that during the year 2013-14 literacy remained much higher in urban areas than in rural areas and
higher among males.
C) Vision 2030
Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic environment which promotes the
thinking mind. The goal under Vision 2030 is one curriculum and one national examination system under state
responsibility. The strategies charted out to achieve the goal included:
(i) Increasing public expenditure on education and skills generation from 2.7% of GDP to 5% by 2010
and 7% by 2015.
(ii) Re-introduce the technical and vocational stream in the last two years of secondary schools.
(iii) Gradually increase vocational and technical education numbers to 25-30% of all secondary
enrolment by 2015 and 50 per cent by 2030.
(iv) Enhance the scale and quality of education in general and the scale and quality of
scientific/technical education in Pakistan in particular.
Problems: The issues lead to the comprehension of the problems which are faced in the development of
education system and promotion of literacy. The study outlines seven major problems such as:

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1) Lack of Proper Planning: Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals. However it seems that it will not
be able to achieve these international commitments because of financial management issues and constraints
to achieve the MDGs and EFA goals.
2) Social constraints: It is important to realize that the problems which hinder the provision of education
are not just due to issues of management by government but some of them are deeply rooted in the social
and cultural orientation of the people. Overcoming the latter is difficult and would require a change in attitude
of the people, until then universal primary education is difficult to achieve.
3) Gender gap: Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include poverty, cultural constraints,
illiteracy of parents and parental concerns about safety and mobility of their daughters. Society’s emphasis on
girl’s modesty, protection and early marriages may limit family’s willingness to send them to school.
Enrolment of rural girls is 45% lower than that of urban girls; while for boys the difference is 10% only,
showing that gender gap is an important factor.
4) Cost of education: The economic cost is higher in private schools, but these are located in richer
settlements only. The paradox is that private schools are better but not everywhere and government schools
ensure equitable access but do not provide quality education.
5) War on Terror: Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also affected the promotion of literacy
campaign. The militants targeted schools and students; several educational institutions were blown up,
teachers and students were killed in Balochistan, KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute not as much as
other factors, but this remains an important factor.
6) Funds for Education: Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national level, 89% education
expenditure comprises of current expenses such as teachers’ salaries, while only 11% comprises of
development expenditure which is not sufficient to raise quality of education.
7) Technical Education: Sufficient attention has not been paid to the technical and vocational education in
Pakistan. The number of technical and vocational training institutes is not sufficient and many are deprived of
infrastructure, teachers and tools for training. The population of a state is one of the main elements of its
national power. It can become an asset once it is skilled. Unskilled population means more jobless people in
the country, which affects the national development negatively. Therefore, technical education needs priority
handling by the government.
Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack of access, poor quality, equity,
and governance have also contributed in less enrolments.
An analysis of the issues and problems suggest that:
The official data shows the allocation of funds for educational projects but there is no mechanism which

22
ensures the proper expenditure of those funds on education.
 The existing infrastructure is not being properly utilized in several parts of the country.
 There are various challenges that include expertise, institutional and capacity issues, forging national
cohesion, uniform standards for textbook development, and quality assurance.
 The faculty hiring process is historically known to be politicized. It is because of this that the quality of
teaching suffers and even more so when low investments are made in teachers’ training. As a result
teachers are not regular and their time at school is not as productive as it would be with a well-trained
teacher.
 Inside schools there are challenges which include shortage of teachers, teacher absenteeism, missing
basic facilities and lack of friendly environment.
 Out of school challenges include shortage of schools, distance – especially for females, insecurity,
poverty, cultural norms, parents are reluctant or parents lack awareness.

The nations which have been given priority to Education are at the top in the present scenario. It is a
recognized fact, that the key to success and prosperity is education and to get education is the right of every
child. In 1990, one hundred and fifty five countries from all over the world and some 150 governmental and
non-governmental organizations at the World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand (5-9 March
1990) agreed that primary education will be accessible to all the children by 2010. The goals of this conference
included:
Universal access to learning.
 A focus on equity
 Emphasis on learning outcomes
 Broadening the means and the scope of basic education.
 Enhancing the environment for learning.
 Strengthening partnerships by 2000.
Education is a fundamental human right. It is the key to sustainable development and peace and stability
within and among countries, and thus an indispensable means for effective participation in the societies and
economies of the twentyfirst century, which are affected by rapid globalization…. The basic learning needs of
all can and must be met as a matter of urgency.
On the other hand Report on “Education for All -2010” shows the following facts about the condition of
children in the world: There were 72 million children out of school in 2007. Business as usual would leave 56
million children out of school in 2015. Around 54% of children out of school are girls. In sub-Saharan Africa,
almost 12 million girls may never enroll. In Yemen, nearly 80% of girls out of school are unlikely ever to enroll,

23
compared with 36% of boys. Literacy remains among the most neglected of all education goals, with about
759 million adults lacking literacy skills today. Two-thirds are women. Millions of children are leaving school
without having acquired basic skills. In some countries in sub-Saharan Africa, young adults with five years of
education had a 40% probability of being illiterate. In the Dominican Republic, Ecuador and Guatemala, fewer
than half of grade 3 students had more than very basic reading skills.
Some 1.9 million new teacher posts will be required to meet universal primary education by 2015 United
Nations (2008) in its report entitled “The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008” pointed out that in
almost all regions, the net enrolment ratio in 2006 exceeded 90 per cent, and many countries were close to
achieving universal primary enrolment. The report mentions that the number of children of primary school
age who were out of school fell from 103 million in 1999 to 75 million in 2006. The report further says that in
subSaharan Africa, the net enrolment ratio has only recently reached 71 per cent. Around 38
million children of primary school age in this region are still out of school.
Pakistan is one of the most populated countries in the world. National Education Policy and Implementation
programme (1979) declared that a minimum level of education for all citizens is not only a basic human right
but also is imperative for conscious participation of the masses in the development process of sovereign
nation. To educate maximum mass government of Pakistan announces in the Education Policy (1972, :3) that
education will be made free and universal up to grade 10. National Education Policy (1992) documented that
Universalization of primary education has remained a desired goal of successive
policies and plans. The policy highlighted the following limitations which have obstructed Universalization:
Low female participation
Rapid increase in the population of 5-9 age groups. Dropout rate of up to 50 %. Lack of access to primary
Schools. Resource availability. School hours Opportunity cost. UNESCO (2003) states: Pakistan is a signatory of
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and many other declarations down to the World Declaration
on Education for All (1990), the World Education Forum: Dakar Framework for Action 2000, the Recife
Declaration of E-9 Countries 2000 and the Beijing Declaration of E-9 Countries on ICT and EFA 2001. But
Pakistan, despite policy statements and target setting in various education policies and five-year plans is still
far below universal primary education access and retention.
Almost all the governments launched different campaigns for awaking awareness about education among the
parents and offer different rewards for sending children to schools. National education Policy (1992)
recognized the following strategies to meet the challenge of Universalization of primary education: About
265,000 new primary school teachers will be trained and recruited. As far as possible, female teachers will be
recruited for primary schools. The upper age limit for appointment as primary teacher will be relaxed. The

24
non-government organizations (NGOs) will be encouraged to set up resource centres for the in-service training
of teachers.
National education Policy (1998-2010) states that in 1996-97, out of total 19.22 million primary school age (5-9
years) population, only 13.72 million were in school and 5.5 million were left-out, who were never enrolled.
The policy highlights the following strategies for achieving the Universalization of primary education: National
Literacy movement will be launched on emergency basis in every village, tehsil and district. Mosques,
wherever feasible, will be utilized as one of the means to provide nonformal basic education to increase
literacy.
In unreached areas 25000 NFBE (Non-Formal Basic Education) community
schools will be gradually upgraded to the middle level, over the policy period.
UNESCO (2000)a in its Country report “The Education for All: Assessment (2000)” highlight the following
situation about the primary education in Pakistan:
Investment in primary education has increased from Rs.9563 million in 1990-91 to Rs 38674 million in 1998-
99. It is a record increase of 304% in a short period of 9 years. … Inspite of these achievements net enrolment
participation rate could not exceed 60% against the Jomtein target of 100% net enrolment by the
years 2000.It shows that around 8 million children of 5-9 age group are never enrolled in school and half (50%)
of those (12 million enrolled) may drop out before completing primary education. At this rate total number of
out of school
children may reach 14 (8+6) million by the year 2002.03. (Here Rs is the basic unit of Currency in Pakistani
system) According to Economic Survey of Pakistan (2009)a, literacy rate is 56 % (69% for male and 44% for
female) in 2007-08. Literacy remains higher in urban areas (71%) than in rural areas (49%) and more in men
(69%) compared to women (44%). High population growth, cultural and socio- economic barriers have kept
literacy rates depressingly low in Pakistan (Mohammad & Bregman, 1998). Federal and Provincial
Governments are introducing projects with the aid of foreign countries and Public-private partnership to
increase the net enrolment at primary level. Government also, collaborating with nongovernment
organizations (NGOs) to provide education in the far flung areas of the country. One of the reasons of not
sending children to schools or drop out in the mid-way is the children labor. To meet the expenditures,
parents send their children to workplaces. These children are unable to join the formal institutions. To attract
such children to schools is a challenge for the government. The result of the formal institutional structure is
that millions of children have been deprived of elementary education because institutional facilities did not
exist but primary education clashed with their jobs (National Education Policy, 1998-2010). Shami and Hussain
(2005) conducted a study entitled “Basic Education in Pakistan” and found the following reasons of low

25
enrollment in primary schools in Pakistan: Majority of boys and girls could not be enrolled in the schools
because of Expensive education, Non-availability of schools, Remote schools, No facility for further education,
Providing help at home, Teachers’ harsh behavior and Less conveyance to remote schools. The reasons for
leaving school during the academic year were expensive education, Lack of parents’ interest, large family size,
Remote schools, Security problems, Non-availability of good teachers, harsh behavior of teachers and corporal
punishment.
Pakistan is facing the challenge of Universalization of primary education. Government of Pakistan is trying to
increase the net enrollment in primary education, but there are lot of issues and problems in this regard.
Poverty is a main problem of Pakistan and the teachers confirm that parents do not send their children to
schools because they think; child is more productive for them if he/she becomes an earning hand, even
government is providing free education. It is a common view of the peoples that in public schools corporal
punishment is a common practice. Teachers disagreed with the statement that “Children left school due to
strict environment of the public schools”, because “Mar Nahe Piyar”) is the slogan of the government
educational institutions. Teachers corroborated that parents hesitate to send children to schools because they
think what they will be do after completing primary education, if they have not resources for further
education. Why not child got a skill in these five years which will be an asset for further life. Teachers are of
the orated that Cultural values, shortage of teachers are the reasons of low enrollment at the primary level,
they speaks out that role of community and high level efficiency of educational are very important for
accelerating the number of students in primary. Teachers orate that Evening shifts in schools can
accommodate those schools who remain busy in some work in the morning time. Government of Pakistan is
providing all the facilities to ensure the universalization of primary education, it is needed that awareness
about education may be created among the parents so that they may send their children to schools. Public
schools may play their role in decreasing the dropout rate. Curriculum may design in such a way that it may be
helpful for the students out of schools. In addition, teachers may be appointed in the far flung areas so that
people send their children. Local Community may be involved after providing special training about
importance of education. It is also considered that public institutions are not catering quality education, this
notion may be abolished.

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