NDT Training Program ULTRASONIC METHOD Education In Nondestructive Testing The American Society for Nondestructive TestingUltrasonic Method NOT Training Program Students Guide Table of Contents Page i Lesson 7.. Worksheet #1. Quiz... Lesson Qui: Lesson 9.. Worksheet #1.. Qui Lesson 3... Worksheet #1 Lesson 10. Worksheet #1 Worksheet #1. 129 Worksheet # Quiz. Lesson 4... Worksheet #1 45 Lesson 11 Worksheet #1 Worksheet #1. Lesson 13. Qui Worksheet #1 Quiz.INSTRUCTOR'S GUIDE NDT TRAINING PROGRAM ULTRASONIC METHOD INTRODUGTION TO THE ULTRASONIC TRAINING PACKAGE ‘The training materials inthis package are designed 1o provide a basic knowledge ofthe fundamentals of ultrasonic testing. The training program should contain the following classroom hours to adequate: 'y present the information suggested in the ASNT publication, SNT-TC-1A, Recommended Practice, «June 1980 edition. Level 1 training will include lectures on all 14 lessons with an average of approximately 2.9 hours per lesson. Emphasis by the instructor should be given to lessons 1-8 which cover the basic principles and applications of the ultrasonic method. {the training program is aimed at meeting the guidelines for Level, the instructor can follow the lec: ture guide closely with very itl elaboration or explanation. advanced training is tobe given, the in structor should require additional outside reading with class discussions and should present personal Information to elaborate on the lecture guide outline. Each program can be easily expanded and is limited only by the instructor's experience and expertise. ‘The materials in this course are designed for use ina typical classroom traning situation with an ideal class size of 5.25 students. The instructor will lecture on all essons withthe aid of the lecture guide transparencies provided. CONTENTS OF TRAINING PACKAGES ‘The instructor selected to teach the course need not be a professional educator. However, the in: structor should have expertise in the ultrasonic method, The instructor should be familiar with all materials before attempting to teach the course ‘The following breakdown of the materials and their functions should be carefully studied. 1, STUDENT PACKAGE — Each package contains the following: ‘A. Student's Gulde which describes the course and provides a lesson outline B. 1 Classroom Training Handbook which serves as the major text for the training course (cT6-4), C. 14 Individual lecture guide packets which provide an outline of the ultrasonic test instruc- tion, D. 1 packet of exams (One exam is furnished for each of the 13 lessons in the training course.) 2, INSTRUCTOR PACKAGE — Each package contains the following A. Instructor's Guide which provides instructions to the instructor in preparing for and admin. istering this course B. 1 Classroom Training Handbook (CT-6-4) which is used by the instructor as the main resource text C. 14 Individual lecture guide packets which are identical to those received by the student D. 14 Individual lecture guide transparency packets which are used by the instructor as a basis for the lectures, (See Part Ill of this guide) E. 1 packet of exam keys which provide the questions and answers for all exams in the 14 lessons. F. 1 Special pen tor marking on the transparencies, G._ Sample Certificates available trom ASNT Headquarters for purchase. H. (optional) 1 set of Ultrasonic Testing Filmstrips which would be extremely usetu! to the in structor in providing continuity and protessionalism to the presentation. 1. (@ptional) + Programmed Instruction Handbook Pl-4-1. J. (optional) Programmed Instruction Handbooks P-t-4 (Vol. I ll Il). This may be useful to the instructor as a review for most of the lecture guide packageSUGGESTED USE OF INSTRUCTOR LECTURE GUIDE TRANSPARENCIES 2. The information on the transparency is identi |. The transparencies can be used on any standard overhead projector. I 10 the student lecture guide contained in the stu- ‘ent packet. The "Lecture Guide Transparencies” are intended to serve as memory joggers for the instructor and should not be used as a strict outline or script. ‘A. The instructor should cover the overhead projector with a sheet ot heavy paper and lower it under the transparency after each item is discussed. A special pen is enclosed for use as a pointer and writing on the transparent sheet 8. The instructor should elaborate and discuss supplemental information whenever itis peti ent. . Prior fo the lecture, the instructor may wish to record some additional information on the lec- ture guides. This could either be done directly on the transparencies or on the instructor's set of lecture guides. D. Students should be encouraged to follow along in their set of lecture guides and write in addi- tional information when itis given. Discussions and questions should be encouraged as the instructor proceeds through the lessons, IV, SUGGESTED USE OF CLASSROOM TRAINING HANDBOOK 1. The Classroom Training Handbook (CT-6-4) is the major reference for this ultrasonic training cour Additional information {rom The Programmed instruction Handbook (PI-4-4) is sometimes ‘added to the lecture notes, and the instructor may wish to review this source. 2. Reading assignments should be given to the students to correlate with lectures. The Classroom Training Handbook (CT-6-4) follows the lessons in this training course in the following order: Pages Lesson 1 —_Applleations, Training, and Certitication CT-8-4, Chapter 1 all SNT-TCAA all Lesson 2 Ultrasonic Principles CT-6-4, Chapter 2 251028 Pl-4-a, Volume 1, Chapter + all P44, Volume 1, Chapter 2 21 1026 Lesson 3 Equipment Controls CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2810246 Pl-4-4, Volume 1, Chapter § alt Pl-4-a, Volume 2, Chapter 4 4-1 t0 4.60 Lesson 4 Wave Propagation, Reflection, and Refraction CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2:16 0291 Pi-4-4, Volume 1, Chapter 3 all Lesson 5 Couplants, Material Characteristics, Beam Spread CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2:26 to 2:96 Pi-4-4, Volume 1, Chapter 6 all Pi-4-4, Volume 2, Chapter 2 all Lesson Attenuation, Impedance, and Resonance CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2-92 to end Pitot, Volume 1, Chapters 2 & 4 all Pl-4-4, Volume 2, Chapter 4 461 to endLesson 7 Screen Presentations, Angie UT Catculetor CT-6-4, Chapter 3 33.10 312 4-4, Volume 1, Chapter 5 all Pi-4-4, Volume 2, Chapter § all Pl-4-6, Volume 3, Chapter 3 3460 to end Lesson8 Transducers, Standard Reference Blocks CT-6:4, Chapter 3 3:12 to end Pi-4-4, Volume 2, Chapters 1 & 3 ail Lesson 9 Immersion inspection CT-6-4, Chapter 4 4-4 104-18 Pi-4-4, Volume 3, Chapters 4 & 5 all Lesson 10 Contact Testing, Longitudinal & Shear Waves, Sneit's Law CT-6-4, Chapter 4 4.19 104.28 Pi-é-d, Volume 3, Chapters 1 & 2 all Lesson 11 Applications of Angle Beam Contact Testing CT-6-4, Chapter 4 419 10 4:31 Pi.a.e, Volume 3, Chapter 3 all Lesson 12 Nonrelevent Ultrasonic Indications CT-6-4, Chapter 4 432 to end 1-4-4, Volume 3, Chapter 6 all Lesson 13 Classification of Discontinulties in UT CT-6-4, Chapter 7 7410 7-7 PL4-1, Chapters 1 through 7 aul Lesson 14 Identification and Comparison of Discontinuities CT-6-4, Chapter 7 7.8 to end ‘SUGGESTED USE OF EXAM AND KEYS 1. Its suggested that the exam packet be removed before the student is issued his/her package of training materials. 2. Exams can be given at the end of the lecture or at the beginning of the next lecture period. The umber of exams given at one time will depend on the number of lessons covered, Exams can be corrected in class and should be discussed briefly with the students, Don't permit lengthy argu: ‘ments about interpretation of questions, etc. ‘3. The exam questions in this package are not intended for use in the certification of NDT personnel They are simply teaching tools to aid the instructor in presenting the material. H examinations for ccettiication are needed, itis suggested that the instructor obtain a copy of SNT-TC-14 and follow this recommended practice (Paragraph 8, SNT-TC-1A) 4, If the instructor so chooses, the exam results could be used to arrive at @ percentile score that could be recorded on the students’ certificate of completion along with the number of course hours. Blank certificates are available trom ASNT.vi. vil. vit ‘SUGGESTED USE OF RADIOGRAPHIC FILMSTRIPS (optional) 1. The flmstrips are professionally produced and will add depth and clarity to.the instructor's pre sentation, The ultrasonic filmstrips are available from ASNT catalog and consist of 8 separate strips each with an audio cassette. The use of the filr:....ps are optional but can be used to sup. ‘plement the lessons as follows: UT-Lesson 1 Filmstrip # Introduction Advantages and limitations of UT UT-Lesson2 Filmstrip #1 Theory of UT and basic terminology UT-Lesson3 Filmstrip #5 Pulse-echo testing systems UT-Lesson4 Filmstrip #3 Wave propagation and Snell's Law UT-Lesson 5 — Filmstrip # 2 (1st 3/4) Piezoelectricity and beam spread UT-Lesson6 UT-Lesson 7 UTLesson®@ — Filmstrip # 2 (last 1/4) Transducer construction Flmstrip "6 Use of calibration blocks UT-Lesson 9 Filmstrip # 4 (last 1/4) Advantages and limitations of immersion testing compared to contact testing UT-Lesson 10 Filmstrip # 4 (1st 3/4) Methods and techniques of contact testing UTLesson 11 UT-Lesson 12 Filmstrip #7 ‘Special applications and nonrelevant indications SUGGESTED USE OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION HANDBOOKS (optional) 1. The instructor may wish to read Pl4-4 as a personal review of the ultrasonic testing funde- mentais, 2. Som niormation in the lecture guides was taken from the programmed instruction handbooks. 3. As ne students may learn more effectively from the programmed instruction approach, the in. structor may also wish to assign reading {rom Pi-4-4 (Vol. I, il, and Il, 4. The programmed instruction handbooks contain many questions and answers that may be of use to the instructor. DEMONSTRATIONS ANDIOA LAB EXERCISES 1, tis highly recommendes that the insiructor make every effort to provide the student with some >ractical experience sn ultrasonic testing. The depth of practical exercises will depend on the lume, equipment, and facilities that are available, 2. AS 8 minimum, the instructor should bring an ultrasonic instrument and search unit into the ‘classroom tor demonstration purposes. 3. Theine*-uctor should use whatever resources are available to collect sample parts that will repre- sent svvety of applications. 4, If time, equipment, and facilities are available, each student should be given as much hands-on experience as possible. Where practical. a variety of lab stations should be set up. each with a aif. ferent ultrasonic application, The student should then be rotated through each station with as any resource people as possible available to help answer specific questions. Ultrasonic equip. ‘ment manufacturers may be helplu! in supplying a variety of t@st equipment. 5. Where the instructors tnatall students are from a speci’ —_s of industty e.g. aucratt, foun. ty, welding), the demonstrations and lab work should bec ed accordinglyLesson? BASIC APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS ULTRASONICS IS A VERSATILE INSPECTION TECHNIQUE, IT IS USED TO TEST A VARIETY OF BOTH METALLIC AND NONMETALLIC PRODUCTS SUCH AS WELDS, FORGINGS, CASTINGS, SHEET, TUBING, PLASTICS AND CERAMICS. ULTRASONICS HAS AN ADVANTAGE OF DETECTING SUBSURFACE DISCONTI- NUITIES WITH ACCESS TO ONLY ONE SIDE OF THE SPECIMEN. THE OBJECTIVE OF ULTRASONIC TESTING IS TO ENSURE PRODUCT RELIABIL- ITY BY MEANS OF: 4. OBTAINING INFORMATION RELATED TO DISCONTINUITIES. 2. DISCLOSING THE NATURE OF THE DISCONTINUITY WITHOUT IMPAIRING THE USEFULNESS OF THE PART. 3. SEPARATING ACCEPTABLE AND UNACCEPTABLE MATERIALS IN AC- CORDANCE WITH PREDETERMINED STANDARDS. TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE TECHNICIAN AND SUPERVISOR BE QUALIFIED IN THE ULTRASONIC METHOD BEFORE THE TECHNIQUE IS USED AND TEST RE- SULTS EVALUATED. THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING RECOMMENDS THE USE OF THEIR DOCUMENT “RECOMMENDED PRACTICE NO. SNT-TC-1A.” THIS DOCUMENT PROVIDES THE EMPLOYER WITH THE NECESSARY GUIDE- LINES TO PROPERLY QUALIFY AND CERTIFY THE NDT TECHNICIAN IN ALL METHODS. TO COMPLY WITH THIS DOCUMENT THE EMPLOYER MUST ESTABLISH A “WRIT- TEN PRACTICE” WHICH DESCRIBES IN DETAIL HOW THE TECHNICIAN WILL BE TRAINED, EXAMINED AND CERTIFIED. THE STUDENT IS ADVISED TO STUDY THE CURRENT EDITION OF SNT-TC-1A TO DETERMINE THE RECOMMENDED INITIAL NUMBER OF HOURS OF CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION AND MONTHS OF EXPERIENCE NECESSARY TO BE CERTIFIED AS AN ULTRASONIC TESTING TECHNICIAN.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 1 ASNT PROVIDES A SERVICE TO THE INDUSTRY BY PROVIDING LEVEL III EXAMI- NATIONS IN THE BASIC AND METHOD AREAS. BECAUSE OF THE INDIVIDUAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE MANY INDUSTRIES USING NDT, THE SPECIFIC EXAMI- NATION IS STILL THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE EMPLOYER. THE FOLLOWING FLOW CHART INDICATES THE PATHS THAT CAN BE TAKEN TO BE CERTIFIED ACCORDING TO THE SNT-TC-1A DOCUMENT. ASNT CERTIFICATION WITHOUT EXAMINATION" ‘Banc, Metros, Specte— ssyeurs Education Esperance [ASNT CERTIFICATION BY EXAMINATION" Base, Method Tevet GERTIFICATION pe RECOMMENDED Pane Ie 5 ig EMPLOYER'S ENTToaa, Warren, shune 1980 EDITION PRACTICE™ [EXAMINATION BY THE EMPLOYER, EXAMINATION BY OUTSIDE AGENCY. EMPLOYER WAIVES EXAMINATION, *Conticatetasues aveue! Tie documentation as freomnen ra Saga 624 anager. the BNT-TE-1A0 1880 ection,bh Rb bb bib ie fs 10, nn 12. Key Name. UT LESSON 1 quiz ‘The selection of one test method over another is usually the decision of the Level | technician performing the test. ASNT provides a service for examining Level I, i and Ill personnel in the General and Specitic areas. ‘The responsibility of Issuing a certificate to the NDT technician Is always retained by the employer in compliance with the SNT-TC-1A document. If the SNT-TC-1A document is to be used as a recommended guideline, the “Written Practice” must be submitted to ASNT for approval Il the SNT-TC-1A guidelines are followed, the Level III technician should have @ knowledge of other commonly used methods of NDT even though certification Is needed only In the ultrasonic ar A Level | technician performing an ultrasonic test Is permitted* to accept or reject the part provided that written instructions or procedures are given to him by a Level er Level Il, “(In accordance with SNT-TC-1A) 1es of SNT-TC-1A, all three levels of technicians must take test If examinations are used to determine To comply with the guid a"Ge Practical” and “Speci cartification. ‘The June 1980 Edition of SNT-TC-1A permits the employer to waive an examination for Level lll personnel provided that documentation Is on file showing the technician's qualifications. It is essential that every employer that uses the SNT-TC-1A document esta! “Written Practice.” It an employer does not have a Level iit in his company, the services of an outside agency may be retained to perlorm these functions. Is Internal discontinuities with access to ha An advantage of ultrasonics Is that It re only one side of the part being inspected. Ultrasonic inspection techniques can be used without impairing the future usefulness of the material. 12 possible pointsLesson2 ULTRASONIC PRINCIPLES IN ULTRASONIC TESTING WE USE SOMETHING CALLED “ULTRASONIC VIBRA- TIONS.” WE MUST KNOW TWO FACTS ABOUT A VIBRATION: 1. A VIBRATION IS A BACK AND FORTH MOVEMENT. 2. A VIBRATION IS ENERGY IN MOTION. A DEPRESSION OF A SURFACE FROM ITS NORMAL POSITION IS CALLED A DISPLACEMENT. RUBBER BALL VIBRATIONS PASS THROUGH A SOLID MATERIAL AS A SUCCESSION OF PARTI- CLE DISPLACEMENTS. THIS CAN BE VISUALIZED AS SHOWN BELOW: ALISR THE STRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL IS ACTUALLY MANY SMALL PARTICLES OR GROUPS OF ATOMS. THESE PARTICLES HAVE NORMAL OR REST POSITIONS, AND CAN BE DIS- PLACED FROM THESE POSITIONS BY SOME FORCE. WHEN THE FORCE IS REMOVED, THE PARTICLES WILL TEND TO RETURN TO THEIR ORIGINAL POSI- TIONS.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 ENERGY IS TRANSMITTED THROUGH A SOLID MATERIAL BY A SERIES OF ‘SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS WITHIN THE MATERIAL. THE TRANSMISSION OF ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS THROUGH A MATERIAL IS RELATED TO THE ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL. IF YOU TAP A METAL SURFACE, THE SURFACE MOVES INWARD, CAUSING A DISPLACEMENT. zone D> renane support VIEW A view 8 SINCE THE METAL IS ELASTIC THE SURFACE WILL TEND TO MOVE BACK TO ITS. ORIGINAL (REST) POSITION. THE SURFACE WILL ALSO MOVE THROUGH THE ORIGINAL POSITION AND MOVE TO A MAXIMUM DISTANCE IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION. THIS COMPLETE SEQUENCE OF MOVEMENTS 'S DEFINED AS A CYCLE. DIRECTION OF DIRECTION OF Bar“ swince ING TRAVEL STRING BALL e one ovce PENCIL Spenci THE T!#*E REQUIRED FOR SOMETHING TO MOVE THROUGH ONE COMPLETE CY- CLE IS CALLED THE PERIOD. EXAMPLE: IF THE SWINGING BALL ABOVE MOVES OVER PATH ABCDE IN ONE SECOND, THEN THE PERIOD OF Tt 2YCLEIS ONE SECOND.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 THE NUMBER OF CYCLES IN A GIVEN PERIOD OF TIME IS CALLED THE FRE- QUENCY. EXAMPLE: IF THE BALL SWINGS THROUGH THREE COMPLETE CYCLES IN ONE SECOND, THEN THE FREQUENCY IS 3 CPS(CYCLES PER SEC- OND). IF YOU STRIKE A DRUM, IT HAS A FREQUENCY THAT IS LOW, APPROXIMATELY 50 CPS. THE TOP NOTE ON THE PIANO HAS A HIGHER FREQUENCY, APPROXIMATELY 4100 CPS. THE UNIT OF FREQUENCY USED TO DENOTE ONE CYCLE PER SECOND IS HERTZ (ABBREVIATED Hz). ONE CYCLE PER SECOND (CPS) IS EQUAL TO ONE HERTZ (Hz); 2 CPS = 2 Hz, ETC. ‘SOUND TRAVELS IN METAL AS WELL AS IN AIR. SOUND IS A VIBRATION AND HAS A RANGE OF FREQUENCIES. MAN CAN ONLY HEAR VIBRATIONS (SOUND) UP TO ABOUT 20,000 Hz. HOWEVER, SOUND FROM AN ULTRASONIC TESTING UNIT IS ABOUT 5,000,000 Hz. (5 MEGAHERTZ). VIBRATIONS ABOVE THE HUMAN HEARING RANGE ARE CALLED ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS. THE TWO TERMS, SOUND AND VIBRATIONS, AS WE WILL USE THEM WILL MEAN THE SAME THING. THE BEST WAY TO DEFINE SOUND IS TO SAY THAT IT IS A VIBRATION THAT TRANSMITS ENERGY BY A SERIES OF SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 ULTRASONIC TESTING IS THE PROCESS OF APPLYING ULTRASONIC SOUND TO A SPECIMEN AND DETERMINING ITS SOUNDNESS, THICKNESS, OR SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTY. THE ENERGY IS ORIGINATED IN SOMETHING CALLED A “TRANSDUCER” WHICH CAUSES MATERIAL DISPLACEMENT WITHIN THE SPECIMEN. A TRANSDUCER IS A DEVICE THAT CONVERTS ENERGY FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER. EXAMPLE: ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO MECHANICAL, OR MECHANICAL TO ELECTRICAL. A SPEAKER IN A RADIO CONVERTS ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO A BACK AND FORTH MECHANICAL MOVEMENT. VIEW “A” BELOW ILLUSTRATES THE “PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT.” ELECTRICAL ENERGY IS APPLIED THROUGH TWO WIRES CONNECTED TO A CRYSTAL, CAUS- ING THE CRYSTAL TO VIBRATE. THE TERMS CRYSTAL AND TRANSDUCER ARE USED INTERCHANGEABLY IN THIS LESSON. wane 7 TNSTAL rRanspucER cusernea evesev QD mre i wire view a view 8 ELECTRICAL ENERGY CAUSES A PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT, FORMING MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS. A PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER CAN ALSO CONVERT MECHANICAL ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY. THEREFORE, A TRANSDUCER CAN BOTH SEND AND RECEIVE ENERGY. SPECIMEN wore, SOUND IS REFLECTED WITHIN SPECIMEN AND RETURNS TO TRANSOUCER TRANSDUCER, viewsUT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 ENERGY TRANSMITTED BY A TRANSDUCER CAN BE EITHER PULSED OR CON. TINUOUS. PULSED ULTRASOUND IS DEFINED AS SHORT GROUPS OF TRANSMITTED VIBRATIONS BEFORE AND AFTER WHICH THE TRANSDUCER CAN ACT AS A RECEIVER. STEEL, WATER AND OIL WILL TRANSMIT ULTRASOUND VERY WELL, BUT AIR PRESENTS A PROBLEM. TRANSDUCER on STEEL ‘SPECIMEN AIR IS A POOR TRANSMITTER OF ULTRASOUND BECAUSE THE PARTICLE DEN- SITY IS SO LOW THAT IT IS DIFFICULT TO TRANSMIT SOUND ENERGY FROM PARTICLE TO PARTICLE. THAT IS WHY WE PUT OIL OR GREASE BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE SPECIMEN. THE PARTICLE DENSITY OF A MATERIAL HELPS DETERMINE THE VELOCITY OF SOUND. THE VELOCITY OF SOUND WILL CHANGE AS IT MOVES FROM ONE MEDIUM TO ANOTHER AS SHOWN BELOW. THE ELASTICITY OF THE MATERIAL IS ALSO A FACTOR. pee ences: 0.33 KM/SEC 1.48 KM/SEC 5.9 KM/SEC AiR WATER STEEL VISUALIZE THAT THE BALLS SHOWN ABOVE REPRESENT THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF AIR, WATER AND STEEL. THE IMPULSE MOVING THROUGH THE ROW OF BALLS CAN BE COMPARED TO A PULSE OF ULTRASONIC SOUND.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS IS SHOWN BELOW. reansoucer. "Ih f+ a SS 2S IT WILL TAKE LONGER FOR THE SOUND TO TRAVEL THROUGH THE WATER THAN THROUGH THE STEEL. THE SOUND VELOCITY IN STEEL IS APPROXIMATE- LY FOUR TIMES GREATER THAN IN WATER. A WAVELENGTH IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO SUC- CESSIVE DISPLACEMENTS. \ VN TRANSDUCER es = q- |] o>] & 2 THE WAVELENGTH CAN ALSO BE DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE A WAVE TRAVELS DURING ONE COMPLETE CYCLE, TRANSDUCER PISTON Pipes pa-| (OMOMONEC) view A views ‘SOUND WAVE ’ THE SYMBOL \ IS USED TO REPRESENT A WAVELENGTH AND IS CALLED “LAMBDA”.UT Lecture Guice Lesson 2 THE ILLUSTRATION BELOW SHOWS A TRANSDUCER VIBRATING AT A FIXED FREQUENCY (f) AND TRANSMITTING SOUND WAVES INTO THE SPECIMEN. VELocTy— Ba | SOUND WAVES —— ‘TRANSDUCER, THESE SOUND WAVES MOVE AT A FIXED VELOCITY (v) THROUGH THE SPECIMEN. THE WAVELENGTH CAN BE CHANGED IF THE FREQUENCY OF THE TRANSDUCER VIBRATION CHANGES. ITY v WAVELENGTH = VELOCITY _ f FREQUENCY EXAMPLE: YOU CAN SHORTEN THE WAVELENGTH BY INCREASING THE FREQUENCY. WAVELENGTH IS A RATIO OF A FIXED VALUE (VELOCITY) DIVIDED BY A VARIABLE (FREQUENCY). IN PRACTICAL SITUATIONS, THE SMALLEST DISCONTINUITY YOU CAN FIND WITH ULTRASONIC TESTING IS ABOUT 1/2 LAMBDA (WAVELENGTH). THEREFORE, TO DETECT SMALLER DEFECTS, YOU WILL NEED TRANSDUCERS THAT PRODUCE HIGHER FREQUENCIES. EXAMPLE: WHAT WOULD BE THE SMALLEST DISCONTINUITY THAT YOU COULD FIND IN A STEEL SPECIMEN WITH A VELOCITY OF 6KM/SEG USING A TRANSDUCER WITH A FREQUENCY OF 3 MEGAHERTZ (MHz). 10 CMISEC ee eee MILLIMETERS! 3 MHz IF THE SMALLEST DEFECT DETECTABLE IS 1/2 LAMBDA, THEN THE ANSWER IS 1 MILLIMETER OR 0.040 INCHES. 13Key Name. UT LESSON 2 WORKSHEET ‘A. Thedistance between two displacements Is called the WAVELENGTH. This is the distance a wave advances while a particle makes one complete cycle. B. The symbol used to represent a wavelength” ) "Is called LAMBDA. ©. The wavelength Is a ratio of a fixed value (VELOCITY) divided by a variable (FREQUENCY), WAVELENGTH = ——YELOCITY gp = —* FREQUENCY T 1D. For the purpose of this exercise, consider that the smallest discontinully detectable using pulse echo testing Is one half lambda. 2° 1. what is the smallest defect you can detect with a 2 MHz probe inspecting a steel speci- men with a velocity of 6.0 x 10 cm/sec? (answer In inches} (1mm equals .040°) a cera aiimeters ptt 1g map K 0% 3 ‘What is the smallest defect you could detect if you increased the probe frequency to 5 MHz? (answer in inches) enyot cmece GMA. TLR himeters semen. Ge £020 3, What probe below would detect the smallest defect if you were inspecting a steel speci- men witha velocity f 58 x 10" crvsec? What's the smallest each of the below would detect? {answer in inches) 2.697 25 maz 2.023 50 MHz @-01! 10.0 MHz zie] 4, win everyting else equal, would » wavelength be longer in water or In stent? Sound moves FAste2 In 6reet., THEREFOR LOMMER uMUELEWgtl boa x oye” 11 possible points .i bb Telate [al [+ 1 3. The symbo! used to represent a wavelength Is called “Shepd: nn 12, 18. Key Name. UT LESSON 2 quiz Relative to ultrasonic testing, air Is considered a good conductor and for this reason ultrasound will carry long distances In air. Particle density of a material has # direct relationship to the velocity of sound in that material. With everything else equal, the wavelength In water would be shorter than @ wavelength in steel. To understand our definition of ultrasonics, a steel ball is considered to be more elastic than a lead ball, Man can hear sounds up to approximately 5,000,000 Hz. Vibrations pass through a solid material as # series of particle displacements, ‘The velocity of sound is slower In steel than in water. ‘The number of cycles In a given period of time is called the frequency. For the purposes of this lesson, 1/2 the wavelength is considered to be the smallest dis- continulty-that can be detected with ultrasonics. If the longitudinal velocity in aluminum is 6.5 x 10* misec and you are using a 2.5 MHz probe, what is the smallest discontinuity you can detect? (3 pts) ‘The ability of @ transducer to convert mechanical energy to electrical and electrical ‘energy to mechanical is due to the effect ‘The distance that an ultrasonic pulse ticle makes one complete cycle Is called : els. whi 15 possible points 7Lesson3, ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT RECEIVER AMPLIFIER ‘CIRCUIT Tee wannen Puisen tineurr colton | emmcurr SWEEP cuRcurt rest SPECIMEN Power | ___. (ro eack ciRcUIT? SUPPLY DISCONTINUI BACK REFLECTION THE ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO INSTRUMENT GENERATES HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL PULSES OF SHORT DURATION. THESE PULSES ARE APPLIED TO. THE TRANSDUCER WHICH CONVERTS THEM INTO MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS THAT ARE APPLIED TO THE MATERIAL BEING INSPECTED. A LARGE PERCENTAGE OF THE SOUND IS REFLECTED FROM THE FRONT SURFACE OF THE TEST PART BACK TO THE TRANSDUCER, THE REMAINDER IS REFLECTED BY THE BACK SURFACE OR DISCONTINUITIES, THE SOUND REFLECTED BACK TO THE TRANSDUCER IS CONVERTED BACK TO ELECTRICAL PULSES, WHICH ARE AMPLIFIED AND DISPLAYED ON THE CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) AS VERTICAL PULSES. THE A-SCAN DISPLAY INDICATES THE DEPTH AND THE AMPLITUDE OF THE SOUND REFLECTIONS FROM A DISCONTINUITY. THE AMPLITUDE IS A RELATIVE MEASURE OF THE AMOUNT OF REFLECTED ENERGY.UT Lecture Guide tesson 3 THERE ARE TWO BASIC ULTRASONIC TEST SYSTEMS; Ey PULSE-ECHO specie, caTnone nay TuBe ea rranspucen GENERATOR/INDICATOR: aerate mnsrmuMenT ‘oa caste utse-£ono svsreM THROUGH TRANSMISSION specimen Teansouce ‘CATHODE-RAY TUBE coup ane couPLANT ‘TRANSMITTING TRANSDUCER a GENERATOR/INDICATOR — INSTRUMENT ‘CORXIAL CABLE THROUGH TRANSMISSION SYSTEM Discontinuity ——UT Lecture Guide. Lesson 3 PULSE-ECHO IS THE MOST WIDELY USED ULTRASONIC SYSTEM. SHORT EVENLY TIMED PULSES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES ARE TRANSMITTED INTO THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED. THESE PULSES REFLECT FROM DISCONTINUITIES IN THEIR PATH, OR FROM ANY BOUNDARY THAT THEY STRIKE. THE RECEIVED REFLECTIONS ARE THEN DISPLAYED ON A CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT). THE SAME TRANSDUCER CAN BE USED TO TRANSMIT AND RECEIVE. THROUGH TRANSMISSION REQUIRES THE USE OF TWO TRANSDUCERS, ONE FOR SENDING AND THE OTHER FOR RECEIVING. EITHER SHORT PULSES OR CONTINUOUS WAVES ARE TRANSMITTED INTO THE MATERIAL. THE QUALITY OF THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED IS MEASURED IN TERMS OF ENERGY LOST BY A SOUND BEAM AS IT TRAVELS THROUGH THE MATERIAL. THERE ARE TWO TEST METHODS NORMALLY USED IN ULTRASONIC TESTING. “CONTACT TESTING” - WHERE THE TRANSDUCER IS COUPLED TO THE MATERIAL THROUGH A THIN LAYER OF COUPLANT. “IMMERSION TESTING” - BOTH THE MATERIAL AND THE TRANSDUCER ARE IMMERSED IN A TANK OF COUPLANT (USUALLY WATER). 2UT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 ‘TO DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF DISCONTINUITIES WITHIN A TEST PART, THE CRT HORIZONTAL DISPLAY IS DIVIDED INTO CONVENIENT INCREMENTS SUCH AS CENTIMETERS, INCHES, ETC. AT A GIVEN SENSITIVITY (GAIN) SETTING, THE AMPLITUDE OF THE PIP IS DETERMINED BY THE STRENGTH OF THE SIGNAL GENERATED BY THE REFLECTED SOUND WAVE. THUS, THE CRT DISPLAYS TWO TYPES OF INFORMATION: 4. DISTANCE (TIME) OF THE DISCONTINUITY FROM THE TRANSDUCER 2. RELATIVE MAGNITUDE OF THE REFLECTED ENERGY FOCUS AND ASTIGMATISM CONTROLS - ADJUST THE SHARPNESS OF THE DIS- PLAYED SIGNALS. SENSITIVITY OR GAIN CONTROLS . DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF AMPLIFICA- TION THE SIGNALS FROM THE DISCONTINUITY RECEIVED. INCREASING THE SENSITIVITY (GAIN) INCREASES THE AMPLITUDE OF THE PIPS ON THE CRT SCREEN.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 TWO CONTROLS, THE “SWEEP LENGTH” AND “SWEEP DELAY” REGULATE HOW MUCH OF THE TEST PART IS DISPLAYED AT ONE TIME ON THE CRT, AND WHAT PORTION OF THE PART IS DISPLAYED. THE SWEEP LENGTH (MATERIAL CONTROL) EXPANDS OR COMPRESSES THE DISPLAY ON THE CRT AS SHOWN BELOW: um, 401. 4 4 ! u ee Li 7 EXPANDED SWEEP COMPRESSED SWEEP view a views THE SWEEP DELAY CONTROL ALLOWS ONE TO MOVE THE VIEWING SCREEN ALONG THE DEPTH OF THE TEST PART. IN IMMERSION TESTING, THE SWEEP DELAY CAN BE USED TO REMOVE THE INITIAL PULSE FROM THE CRT. ‘A= INITIAL PULSE {ONT SURFACE PIP C= 1ST BACK SURFACE REFLECTION PIP 23UT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 “PULSE REPETITION RATE” CONTROL REGULATES HOW OFTEN THE PULSE IS APPLIED. PULSE RATES VARY FROM 50 TO 1200 PULSES PER SECOND OR MORE. WHEN THE SWEEP IS LONG, THE PULSE RATE MUST BE LOWER TO ALLOW ENOUGH TIME FOR THE SWEEP TO BE DISPLAYED BEFORE ANOTHER PULSE 1S TRANSMITTED. IN SOME INSTRUMENTS THE PULSE RATE IS ADJUSTED AUTOMATICALLY. INCREASING THE PULSE LENGTH INCREASES THE AMOUNT OF SOUND ENERGY APPLIED TO THE TEST PART, BUT DECREASES THE RESOLVING POWER OF THE EQUIPMENT. THE “PULSE ENERGY” MUST BE INCREASED TO OBTAIN DEEP PENETRATION OR TO PENETRATE COARSE GRAINED MATERIALS. THE “REJECT CONTROL” OR “SUPPRESSION CONTROL” IS USED TO ELIMI- Ne TE OR REDUCE “GRASS” OR VERY LOW AMPLITUDE PIPS ALONG THE BASE OF THE SWEEP LINE. THIS CONTROL MAY AFFECT THE VERTICAL LINEARITY OF THE PRESENTATION. A“FLAW ALARM” OR “GATING CIRCUIT” IS USED TO ESTABLISH ZONES ALONG THE SWEEP LINE WITHIN WHICH PIPS OF PREDETERMINED AMPLITUDE WILL ACTIVATE EITHER AN ALARM OR A RECORDING SYSTEM. ALARM AMPLITUDE START OF GATE gam viewa view 8 24UT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 “DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE CONTROL” . IN ULTRASONIC TESTING THE AMPLITUDE OF THE PIP FROM A DISCONTINUITY OF A GIVEN SIZE DECREASES AS THE DEPTH INCREASES. TO COMPENSATE FOR THIS “ATTENUATION,” AN ELEC- TRONIC CONTROL HAS BEEN ADDED TO MANY ULTRASONIC UNITS. ‘SOME OF THE COMMON NAMES FOR THIS CONTROL ARE: DAC - DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION ‘TCG - TIME CORRECTED GAIN STC - SENSITIVITY TIME CONTROL THIS CONTROL IS VERY USEFUL WHEN USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE FLAW ALARM AND WITH RECORDING SYSTEMS. witnour pac witn pac 25,Name. UT LESSON 3 WORKSHEET #1 A. As shown below, many ultrasonic units have 50 divisions along the base line of the CRT screen, By using the simple formula below, we can make the distance across the screen represent any distance we wish from about .6 inches to over 100 inches. The formula used to find the value of each division on the screen below is: Range x 2 100 IncremenvDivision EXAMPLE: If you wanted the entire screen to represent 10°, we would find that by using the for- mula that, each division on the base line represents 0.2°, incidiv = —2*2 7 700 100 = 0.2" B. After you have selected a suitable screen range it is then possibie to use the sweep controls and match the pulses on the CRT to a known thickness calibration block. This will be discussed in later lessons. C. Many Ultrasonic units have 100 divisions across the base line instead of 50. In this case simply divide the range by 100 to find the increment per division. D. On the next page fill in the CRT screens as instructed.Key Name. UT LESSON 3 WORKSHEET #1 the left edge of the lirst back reflection and al least one multiple 1 using @ normal beam transducer on a properly calibrated unit, On the CAT screens below, draw Cf the back echo as it would app 0 1 7 7 t 3 o;iT, @ 1 i; ie ! { fe : I | i : 4 es Hy = a + desta I ' Ae | : i | : a an ; SCREEN RANGE-1inch = jposaco SCREEN RANGE - 25° PART THICKNESS - 0.49” nus OW. PART THICKNESS - 4 3/167 cal at 4.37 0 aca v 3 i : i ak Lo a SCREEN RANGE - 20° Unie ow SCREEN RANGE - 1° PART THICKNESS - 6 718° PART THICKNESS -ane* 737 DIM. —T at le t Y T ! ! Bi ae ij a t + 7 1 2 EY 7 Lae — 1 : i 7 as erica 7. T tJ Sacer T ‘J SCREEN RANGE -25° 5 ¢ ayy, SCREEN RANGE:50° 70.36 21% PART THICKNESS - 68° 29 PART THICKNESS - 10 3/8"Name. Key UT LESSON 3 WORKSHEET #2 ‘A. Calculate the depth to each pulee on the CRT cr ducer was used on a properly calibrated unit. If the above CRT Is calibrated to ‘4.5* range, what Is the distance to the pulse? _2.657 a T 18 below. Consider that a normal beam trat WW the above CAT Is calibrated to ‘8.257 range, what Is the distance to the pulse? __x" a snemnanaa {1 the above CAT Is calibrated to a 7 range, what Is the distance to the pulse? __é.F¢ 7 It the above CRT is calibrated toe 2.5° range, where would the pips for the two discontinultiet nd.back echoes = St If the above CRT is calibrated toa 2.5" range, what is the distance to the pulse? _4527 ! T T EACH SQUARE REPRESENTS 1/4* PIG.1Key Name. UT LESSON 3 ouz 1. With “Through Transmission", an increase in amplitude Indicates the presence of a possible discontinuity. 2. The “Pulse Echo” system uses a continuous wave and a separa! the echo. 3. Both contact testing and immersion testing require the use of a coupling medium. Ee ee transducer receiv a — 1 4. Typically, the “gain” control will determine the amount of amplification for a suspected + ape dlscontinulty indteation. 5. Sweep length and sweep delay are two names for the same control. 6. The sweep length contol is often used to aweep the initial pulge off the CAT In Imm sion testing. 7. In tho A-scan presentation used in contact testing, the helght of the vertical deflection (bip} on the CAT represents: ‘A velocity paed time G. distance D. signal ampitude F a. the “distance amplitude correction control has the ability to automatically increase the screen range when a thicker part is Inspected, . On the CRT'"A” below, draw inthe pulse If anormal beam transducer were used to show 120° deep continuity using a 15" screen range. How many divisions from the left? : pts) £45"s0. On the CRT "B" below, what Is the distance to the pulse It a 2.5" screen range were be- ing used for he inspection? (3 pte) oe 3 t 3 Oeeeeedannaa tases emus: A: | ' B : ! | : i z . ! t : ig + : = oe t u 2 — ined Ta Be enes Brea. . a7 feces a ay ae OF eB ow (hes, _ 14 possible pointsLesson 4 MODES OF ULTRASONIC WAVE TRAVEL VELOCITY CAN BE DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE A WAVE WILL PROPAGATE THROUGH A MEDIUM IN A GIVEN UNIT OF TIME, USUALLY A SECOND. THE WAVE SPEED REMAINS CONSTANT THROUGH A GIVEN MEDIUM. TRANSDUCER STEEL. a owt Af LISTED BELOW IS A TABLE OF IMPEDANCE, VELOCITY AND DENSITY VALUES. THIS INFORMATION WILL BE USEFUL LATER IN THIS LESSON FOR PERFORM- ING BASIC ULTRASONIC CALCULATIONS. ACOUSTIC __ SOUND IMPEDANCE VELOCITY DENSITY, MATERIAL, corawew? -seer_| cowssecr_| coram/ew? AR 0,000033x 10° | 0,33x 10° 0.001 WATER 0.149 x 108 1.49 105) 2.00 ‘ALUMINUM 1.72 x 108 6.35x 10° an STEEL 4.56 x08 5.05 x 105 7.8 ULTRASONIC WAVES ARE REFLECTED WHEN THEY ENCOUNTER A MEDIUM OF A DIFFERENT ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE. THE “SURFACE” AT WHICH THIS REFLECTION OCCURS IS CALLED AN “INTERFACE.” (AN INTERFACE IS THE COMMON BOUNDARY BETWEEN TWO MATERIALS OR PHASES, SUCH AS ALUMINUM-TO-STEEL OR WATER-TO-STEEL.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 A BEAM OF ENERGY APPROACHING AN INTERFACE IS REFERRED TO AS AN “INCIDENT WAVE.” THE ANGLE AT WHICH THE WAVE STRIKES THE INTERFACE IS KNOWN AS THE “ANGLE OF INCIDENCE” AS SHOWN BELOW. LL maacinary IT PERPENDICULAR UNE INCIDENT WAVE INTERFACE ANGULAR INCIDENCE. THE INCIDENT WAVE IS SAID TO HAVE NORMAL INCIDENCE WHEN ITS DIREC- TION OF PROPAGATION IS PERPENDICULAR TO AN INTERFACE. AS SHOWN BELOW THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IS ZERO. INCIDENT WAVE: INTERFACE NORMAL TRCIDENCE SOME OF THE WAVE ENERGY STRIKING AN INTERFACE WILL BE TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE INTERFACE, AND SOME WILL BE REFLECTED AT THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. THE AMOUNT OF REFLECTION DEPENDS ON THE ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE RATIO BETWEEN THE TWO MEDIA INVOLVED. THIS REFLECTANCE FACTOR WILL BE DISCUSSED IN DETAIL IN THE NEXT LESSON. 36UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 THE ANGLE OF REFLECTION AT AN INTERFACE OR BOUNDARY ALWAYS EQUALS THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. ANGLE “A” = ANGLE “B” WORKAL, INCIDENCE, micipenT wave —_X ZL rervecten wave INTERFACE ‘ANGLE OF REFLECTION a masaucen COUPLANT RY. INTERFACE oR BounoARY—_\, IMAGINARY LINE 7 ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS TRAVEL IN MANY MODES, AND THE MOST COMMON ARE: 1. LONGITUDINAL (COMPRESSION) 2, SHEAR (TRANSVERSE) 3. SURFACE (RAYLEIGH) 4. PLATE (LAMB) EACH WAVE MODE HAS A SPECIFIC FUNCTION IN ULTRASONIC INSPECTION AND IT IS IMPORTANT THAT EACH BE UNDERSTOOD COMPLETELY.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 LONGITUDINAL (COMPRESSIONAL) WAVES HAVE PARTICLE VIBRATIONS IN A BACK AND FORTH MOTION IN THE DIRECTION OF WAVE PROPAGATION. CONSIDER THAT ALL MATERIALS ARE MADE UP OF ATOMS LINED UP IN STRAIGHT LINES TO FORM A LATTICE STRUCTURE. WHEN STRIKING THE SIDE OF THE LATTICE, A CHAIN REACTION OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT IS STARTED CAUSING THE LONGITUDINAL WAVE. eon oa DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION > PARTICLE MOTI LONGITUDINAL WAVES: SHEAR (TRANSVERSE) WAVES HAVE PARTICLE VIBRATIONS PERPENDICULAR TO THE DIRECTION OF WAVE MOTION. ‘SHEAR WAVES WILL NOT TRAVEL THROUGH LIQUIDS OR GASSES. IN SOME MATERIALS, THE VELOCITY OF A SHEAR WAVE IS ABOUT 4/2 THAT OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES. THEREFORE, THE WAVELENGTH IS SHORTER (ABOUT 1/2), PERMITTING SMALLER DISCONTINUITIES TO BE LOCATED. weDiuM tid - t oo (SHEAR WAVES)UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 MODE CONVERSION TAKES PLACE WHEN A SOUND BEAM HITS AN INTERFACE BETWEEN TWO DIFFERENT MEDIA AT AN ANGLE OTHER THAN 90 DEGREES. MODE CONVERSION IN THE CASE PRESENTED BELOW PRODUCES TWO REFLECTED BEAMS: ONE BEAM CONSISTS OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES. THE OTHER BEAM CONSISTS OF SHEAR WAVES. TRANSDUCER GREASE COUPLANT INCIDENT BEAM STEEL BLOCK (LONGITUDINAL WAVES) 1 REFLECTED BEAM (LONGITUDINAL WAVES} REFLECTED BEAM (SHEAR WAVES) THE ULTRASONIC ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER USES THE FOLLOWING EXAM. PLE. THE “REFRACTED” SHEAR WAVES ARE USEFUL IN MANY INSPECTION TECHNIQUES. THE “ANGLE OF REFRACTION” IS THE ANGLE FORMED BETWEEN A RE- FRACTED BEAM AS IT ENTERS THE SECOND MEDIUM AND A LINE DRAWN PERPENDICULAR TO THE INTERFACE. NORMAL INCIDENCE, INCIDENT BEAM {LONGITUDINAL} INTERFACE "ANGLE OF REFRACTION (LONGITUDINAL) REFRACTED BEAM (LONGITUDINAL WAVES) REFRACTED BEAM (SHEAR WAVES) ‘ANGLE OF REFRACTION (SHEAR) 39UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 SNELL'S LAW CAN BE USED TO DETERMINE ANGULAR RELATIONSHIPS BE- TWEEN MEDIA FOR BOTH LONGITUDINAL AND SHEAR WAVES. @ = ANGLE OF INCID -NCE VELOCITY IN FIRST MEDIUM ANGLE OF REFRACTION VELOCITY IN SECOND MEDIUM ‘THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE CALCULATES THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION, FOR A LONGITUDINAL WAVE PASSING THROUGH A WATER-TO-STEEL INTERFACE. 10 DEGREES = ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (¢,) 1.49 KM/SEC = LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY IN WATER (V,) 5.85 KM/SEC = LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY IN STEEL (V,) SINS, = Ys SING, Vv: 40UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 AS THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE INCREASES, THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION IN- CREASES. WHEN THE REFRACTION ANGLE OF A LONGITUDINAL WAVE REACHES 90 DEGREES, THE WAVE EMERGES FROM THE SECOND MEDIUM AND TRAVELS PARALLEL TO THE INTERFACE OR SURFACE. THIS IS CALLED ITS FIRST OR LOWER “CRITICAL ANGLE” ABOVE APPROX\I- MATELY 28 DEGREES WITH A PLASTIC-TO-STEEL INTERFACE, ONLY SHEAR WAVES ARE GENERATED IN THE PART. ANGLE (OF INCIDENCE PLASTIC REFRACTED LONGITUDINAL ! ' ‘REFRACTED SHEAR WAVE: IF THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IS INCREASED PAST THE FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE, ONLY A SHEAR WAVE IS GENERATED IN THE PART. WHEN THE ANGLE OF RE- FRACTION FOR THE SHEAR WAVE IS 90 DEGREES, THEN WE HAVE REACHED THE UPPER OR SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE WHICH PRODUCES SURFACE WAVES. AS SHOWN BELOW, THERE IS THEN TOTAL REFLECTION FOR BOTH LONGI. TUDINAL AND SHEAR WAVES. WITH A PLASTIC-TO-STEEL INTERFACE, THIS HAPPENS AT APPROXIMATELY. 58 DEGREES. REFLECTED LONGITUDINAL WAVE 7 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE plastic REFRACTED SHEAR ft (SURFACE WAVE) aUT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 WHEN THE INCIDENT BEAM IS AT ITS SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE, A THIRD TYPE OF WAVE IS DEVELOPED, CALLED A RAYLEIGH OR SURFACE WAVE, AS SHOWN BELOW, THE WAVE TRAVELS WITH AN ELLIPTICAL PARTICLE MO- TION. SURFACE WAVES ARE USEFUL IN DETECTING SURFACE CRACKS, BUT ONLY PENETRATE ABOUT ONE WAVELENGTH. SURFACE WAVES AS SHOWN BELOW, SURFACE WAVES HAVE THE ABILITY TO FOLLOW THE SURFACE CONTOUR AS LONG AS THE CONTOUR DOES NOT SHARPLY CHANGE. HOWEVER, THE SURFACE WAVE CAN BE ALMOST COMPLETELY ABSORBED BY EXCESS COUPLANT OR BY TOUCHING YOUR FINGER TO THE SURFACE OF THE PART AHEAD OF THE TRANSDUCER.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 PLATE WAVES OR LAMB WAVES HAVE THE ABILITY TO PROPAGATE THROUGH THIN PLATES IN A VARIETY OF WAVE MODES DEPENDING ON PLATE THICK- NESS, TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY AND INCIDENT ANGLE. PLATE WAVES ARE GENERATED BY USING LONGITUDINAL WAVES WHICH DEVELOP EITHER SYMMETRICAL OR ASYMMETRICAL WAVES AS SHOWN BELOW. PLATE WAVES OCCUPY THE ENTIRE THICKNESS OF THE PART. WITHOUT “ SATURATING" THE PART, THE WAVE CANNOT EXIST. THIN SHEET OR PLATE. [THIN SHEET OR PLATE SYMMETRICAL ASYMMETRICAL PLATE WAVES PROPAGATION TO GENERATE PLATE WAVES, YOU ADJUST THE INCIDENT ANGLE TO THE POINT THAT MAXIMUM REFLECTIONS ARE OBSERVED ON THE CRT SCREEN FROM A KNOWN REFLECTOR. IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO GENERATE SHEAR OR SURFACE WAVES ON MATERIALS THINNER THAN ONE-HALF WAVELENGTH. THEREFORE, PLATE WAVES ARE USEFUL AS SHOWN BELOW. ‘TRANSDUCER HOLLOW EXTRUSIONKey UT LESSON @ WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Using Snell's Law and the attached Sine table, calculate the following refraction problems, us- {ing the information in the sketch below. LUCITE (long. velocity 2.73 x 105 cm/sec) Dy ' 1 ' STEEL 1 ( long. velocity 5.9 x 10° en/sec) { shear velocity 3.23 x 10 cm/sec) GE", Find the retracted longitudinal wave If the incident angle 6, is 25 degrees. (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) vn 2_22. 7 OK yaa es ned! » eg (CD) -2Z'2. Find the retracted shear wave angle if the incident angle Is 45 degrees. (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) 2 3,23 xK-707 A Goose (79 £2°3. I you wanted a shear wave to travel into the stee! at 70 degrees, what would the incident angie through the lucite be? (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) a. 2 278 394 2.72 = 72 . 34 ye: 739” Bas > 3.23 suis #274. 119, = 18°. is it possible to have a refracted longitudinal wave? It yes, what is it? (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) ttn, why not? —He_ 5. If, = 36°. is it possible to have a retracted longitudinal wave? yes, what is it? (SHOW WORK) Hn, why not? ; : reer get Mapper trina aasles 10 possibie points =UT LESSON 4 WORKSHEET #1 Cos Ton Angle Sin Cos Tan 9998 0175 46° 7193 6947 1.0355 9994 0349 ar 7314 18820 1.0724 9986 0526 48° 7431 6691 1.1108 9976 0699 49° 7547 8561 1.1504 9982 0875 50° 7660 8428 1.1918 9945, 1051 sit am 6203 1.2349 (9925 1228 52° 7880 8187 1.2799 (9903, 11405 53° 7986 6018 1.270 9877 11584 54° 8090. 5878 1.3764 9848, 1763 58° 8192 5736 1.4281 9816 1944 56° 8290 5502 1.4826 9781 2126 sre 8387 ‘5445 1.5399 9744 2309 58° 8480 5209 1.6013 9703, 2493, 59° 8572 ‘5150 1.6843 9659 2679 60° 8660 5000 1.7321 9613 2867 er 8146 4848 1.8040 19563 (3087 62° 18829 4695 1.8807 9511 3249 63° 8910 4540 1.9826 9455 "3443 64 2988 4384 (2.0503 9397 3640 65 9063 42260 2.1485 9336 3839 66° 9135, 4087 2.2480 9272 4040 67° 9205 3907 2.3559 9205, 4245 68° 9272 3746 (2.4751 9135 4452 69° 9338 3584 2.6051 9063 4663, 70° 9397 3420 2.7475 6988 4877 a 9455 19258 (2.9042 8910 5095 ra 9811 39090-3077 “8829 5317 73° 9563, 2924 -3.2709 8748 (5543 vat 9613 2757 3.4874 8860 5774 7° 9859 2588 -3.7321 9872 6009 76" 9703 2419 -4.0108 8480 8249 7 9744 2250 4.3315 8387 6494 9781 2079 «4.7088 8290 6745, 79° 9818 “1908 (5.1446 “8192 7002 80° 9848 1796 5.6713 8090 7265 Bie 9877 1564 6.3138 7986 7596 82° 9903 1992 7.1154 7880 7813, a3 9925 1219 8.1443 71 8098 ae 9945 1045 9.5148 7660 8391 a5 9962 0872 11.4301 7547 8693, 86° 9976 0898 14.3007 7431 ‘9004 are 9986 0523 19.0811 7314 9325 88° 9994 0349 28.6363 7183 9657 aa 9998 0175 57.2900 so71 1.0000 90° 1.0000 0000 a7T — —. +— Hh — ans are name__Key_ UT LESSON 4 ouiz 1. An “ultrasonic beam” travels through @ medium as waves of sound energy. 2, Normal Incidence is when the incident beam Is parallel to the interface. 3. The refraction of an Incident beam at an interface Is equal to Its angle of reflection. article vibration in a longitudinal wave Is In the direction of wave propagation. 5. Shear wave velocity is approximately twice the velocity of longitudins! waves, Mode conversion occurs when a sound beam strikes an interface between two media of different velocities at an angle. 7. The bending of an incident beam as it passes through an intertace is called refraction. Longitudinal waves will propagate through both solids and tiquids. 8. Both plate waves and surface waves can follow the part contour. sin ®, Shear velocity In steel = 3.23 x 10! emisec ~—1_ ~ —1- Long. velocity in steel = 5.85 x 10° cm/sec Sin ®, Vp Long. velocity In water = 1.49 x 10* emisee 2 Long. velocity in lucite = 2.73 x 10" cm/sec USING THE ABOVE INFORMATION, SOLVE THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS. INDICATE THE APPROXIMATE ANGLES ON THE SKETCH AND LABEL EACH. 10, you wanted a shear wave fo travel into steel at 60 degrees, what would be the incident angie on the lucite wedge? = (SHOW WORK) pts) x = 2B See 3 73 3 i 5 . > tod x ee oc? £511. wnat would be tne retracted longitudinal wave fhe angle of Incidence through a water to stee! nteriace is 12 degrees? {SHOW WORK) ( pts) Peng lane x ae: | 55° ee ore 49ar 35° 36° a7 38° 39° 40° are ae 43° o Sin 0175 10349 0523 0872 1045, A219 1392 1564 1738 1908 2079 2250 2419 2588 2756 2924 3090 (3256 3584 3746 3907 4087 14228 4384 4540 4695 ‘4848 5000 5150 5299 5486, 5592 5738 5878 “8018, 8157 6293 “6428 8561 8691 8820 6947 Tort Cos 9998 (9904 9986 9976 9962 19925 9803 9877 9848 9816 9781 9744 9703, 19659 9613 9563 9511 9455 9397 9336 9272 9205, 9135 (3083 12988 8910 8829 8746, 8860 8572 8480 8367 8290 8192 7988 7880 771 7660 7587 7431 T7314 7193, 7071 51 pits ar 48° 49° sit 52° 53° sat 55° se s7* 58° 59° 60° ei ez 6" eat 65° as ert sae 68° 70° a 7° 73° vat 75° 8° 7 0 20° art a2" 83° = 26" a7* 88° a9° oo Sin 7193 7314 7431 7547 7680 7m 7880 7986 8090 ‘8192 8290 8387 8480 8572 8746 Cos 6947 6820 “6691 8561 6293, 8187 6018 5878 5736 8502 5446, 5299 5150 4848 4895 4540 4384 4226 4087 3746 13584 3420 9256 “2924 2787 “2588 2419 2250 2079 1908 1736 1864 11392 1219 "1045, 0872 0698 10523 0349 0175 Tan 1.0955 1.0724 1.1108, 1.1504 1.1918 1.2349 1.2799 1.3270 1.3764 1.4281 1.4826 1.5399 1.6013 1.6643 1.7321 1.8040 1.8807 1.9626 2.0503 2.1445, 2.2460 2.3559 2.4751 2.6051 2.7475 2.9042 3.0777 3.2709 3.4874 3.7321 4.0108 4.3315 4.7046 5.1446 56713, 6.3138 7.1154 8.1443, 9.5144 11.4301 14.3007 19.0811 28.6363 57.2900,Lesson5 COUPLANTS AND ULTRASONIC SOUND ENERGY THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF A COUPLANT IS TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE SOUND PATH BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE TEST SURFACE. A COUPLANT MUST EFFECTIVELY WET OR TOTALLY CONTACT BOTH SUR. FACES OF THE TRANSDUCER AND TEST PART. 1.THE COUPLANT MUST EXCLUDE ALL AIR FROM BETWEEN THE SUR- FACES AS AIR IS A VERY POOR CONDUCTOR OF SOUND. 2. THE COUPLANT FILLS IN AND SMOOTHS OUT IRREGULARITIES ON THE SURFACE OF THE TEST PART. 3. THE COUPLANT AIDS IN THE MOVEMENT OF THE TRANSDUCER OVER THE SURFACE IN CONTACT TESTING. 4. PRACTICAL COUPLANT MUST BE EASY TO APPLY AND EASY TO REMOVE. IT MUST ALSO BE HARMLESS TO THE PART SURFACE. TRANSDUCER COUPLANT TEST MATERIAL. OIL OR WATER MIXED WITH GLYCERINE (2 PARTS WATER AND 1 PART GLYCERINE) ARE COMMONLY USED COUPLANTS. EVEN WALLPAPER PASTE. HAS ADVANTAGES AS A COUPLANT. HEAVIER COUPLANTS, SUCH AS GREASE OR HEAVY OIL CAN BE USED ON ROUGH OR VERTICAL SURFACES. SPECIALLY FORMULATED LIQUID AND PASTE COUPLANTS ARE ALSO AVAIL- ABLE FROM ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS, IN CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE THE USE OF LIQUIDS OR PASTE IS UNDESIRABLE, THIN RUBBER OR RUBBER-LIKE MATERIALS MAY BE USED. IN ALL CASES THE COUPLANT SHOULD BE AS THIN AS POSSIBLE. IF THE COUPLANT IS EXCESSIVE, IT MAY ACT AS A WEDGE AND ALTER THE DIREC- TION OF THE SOUND BEAM.UT Lecture Guide Lesson § THE SURFACE OF A TEST SPECIMEN CAN GREATLY AFFECT ULTRASONIC. WAVE PROPAGATION. ROUGH SURFACES CAN CAUSE UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS SUCH AS REDUC. TION OF DISCONTINUITY AND BACK SURFACE AMPLITUDES DUE TO DISTOR- TION OF WAVE DIRECTIVITY. (COUPLANT, COUPLANT, [IT ZAMAN UNEVEN BUT CONSISTANT ROUGH AND IRREGULAR, Emery FLAT SMOOTH SURFACE pi ecrdan FAR vest Poor FRONT SURFACE {INITIAL PULSED SZ MARKERS: ‘CRT INDICATIONS FLAT SMOOTH SURFACE -GO0D RESPONSE. ROUGH AND IRREGULAR SURFACE -POOR RESPONSE A-SCAN PRESENTATION (PULSE-ECHO)UT Lecture Guide Lesson 5, A GOOD BACK SURFACE REFLECTION INDICATES A GOOD RESPONSE FROM ‘THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED. IT 1S REFLECTED BACK TO ITS SOURCE SIMILAR TO LIGHT STRIKING A MIRROR. IF THE SURFACES ARE NOT PARALLEL, THE REFLECTED ENERGY WILL BE DIRECTED AWAY FROM THE TRANSDUCER SIMILAR TO LIGHT FALLING ON A MIRROR AT AN ANGLE. “TRANSDUCER, FRONT SURFACE ee — HMA PULSE) Ss = REFLECTION BACK SURFACE | oe _ CRT INDICATIONS, REDUCED SPECMEN cross-secrion”| ‘BACK SURFACI THE PHYSICAL SHAPE OR CONTOUR OF A PART MUST BE CONSIDERED WHEN ATTEMPTING TO DISCERN WHETHER A DISCONTINUITY INDICATION IS REAL OR FALSE. ps3 Cp [EXAMPLES OF SOUND PATHS LEADING TO SPURIOUS INDICATIONS. IN TESTING LONG SPECIMENS, REFLECTION OF A SPREADING BEAM CAN PRO- DUCE FALSE INDICATIONS ON THE CRT AS SHOWN BELOW. A SHEAR WAVE MAY BE GENERATED WHICH IS REFLECTED AT A STEEP ANGLE TO THE OPPOSITE SIDE, WHERE MODE CONVERSION TAKES PLACE. MODE CONVERSION WILL BE DISCUSSED IN A LATER LESSON. HOWEVER, THIS TYPE OF FALSE SIGNAL WILL APPEAR ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE FIRST BACK ECHO. FIRST BACK.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 5 GRAIN STRUCTURE HAS A GREAT INFLUENCE ON THE ACOUSTICAL PROPER- TIES OF A MATERIAL. A STEEL FORGING GENERALLY HAS A FINE GRAIN STRUCTURE AND HAS A LOW DAMPING EFFECT ON THE SOUND BEAM. HOWEVER, A CASTING GENERALLY HAS A COARSER GRAIN STRUCTURE WHICH IS MORE DIFFICULT TO GET SOUND THROUGH. FRONT SURFACE, CISCONTMUITY prow SURFACE, BACK SURFACE BACK SURFACE. REFLECTION REFLECTION LOST oR REDUCED FINE CRAM (COARSE GRAIN WHEN A DISCONTINUITY IS NOT NORMAL (AT 90 DEGREES) TO THE INCIDENT WAVE, THE REFLECTED WAVE WILL BE AT AN ANGLE. AS SHOWN BELOW, THE RESULT IS A REDUCTION IN THE AMPLITUDE OF THE DISCONTINUITY INDICATION DISPLAYED ON THE CRT, POSITION c POSITION B : ‘CRACK. POSITION & CYLMORICAL SPECIMEN POSITION A POSITION B Position ¢ AT POSITION “A” ABOVE, THERE IS A SHARP DISCONTINUITY INDICATION AND LITTLE BACK SURFACE INDICATION. AT POSITION “C” THE DISCONTINUITY IS AT A MINIMUM, OR MAY NOT BE SEEN AT ALL.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 5 TWO BASIC TECHNIQUES ARE USED IN LOCATING AND EVALUATING ANGULAR FLAWS. 1. CONTACT TESTING UTILIZES AN “ANGLE BEAM” TRANSDUCER WITH A PLASTIC WEDGE TO CHANGE THE DIRECTION OF WAVE PROPAGATION. 2. IMMERSION TESTING USES WATER AS A COUPLANT, TILTING THE TRANS- DUCER TO ACHIEVE THE NECESSARY DIRECTIONALITY. ANGLE BEAM PROBE. TRANSDUCER ‘TRANSDUCER. PLASTIC WEDGE ae SPECIMEN, TANK SPECIMEN ‘CONTACT TESTING IMMERSION TESTING THE SHAPE OR SURFACE CONDITION OF A DISCONTINUITY INFLUENCES THE INDICATION ON THE CRT. A DISCONTINUITY HAVING A ROUGH SURFACE WILL TEND TO SCATTER THE REFLECTION AS COMPARED TO A SMOOTH FLAW. NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS ARE TYPICALLY ROUGH AND WOULD SCATTER THE SOUND MORE THAN A CRACK-LIKE DISCONTINUITY. 87UT Lecture Guide Lesson 5 CHANGING THE TRANSDUCER'S VIBRATING FREQUENCY WILL ALSO CHANGE THE BEAM SPREAD. DIVERGENCE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO FREQUENCY. THEREFORE, A HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER HAS A MORE CONSTANT DIAMETER SOUND BEAM THAN A LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER. BEAM DIVERGENCE CAN BE REDUCED BY INCREASING THE TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY OR BY USING A LARGER DIAMETER TRANSDUCER. THE AMOUNT OF BEAM SPREAD |S DETERMINED BY THE FOLLOWING EQUA- TION: — X SIN@= 1.22 ¢ D WHERE = WAVELENGTH D = DIAMETER = HALF-ANGLE OF BEAM SPREAD TO HALF-POWER POINTS HALE POWER POINT (.707 OF INTENSITY) THE BEAM SPREAD OF A 1/2 INCH ye DIAMETER, 1 MHz TRANSDUCER IS ‘SHOWN TO BE 34 DEGREES. REMEMBER THAT WAVELENGTH ( ) IS DETERMINED BY DIVIDING THE VELOCITY BY THE FREQUENCY. TO CHANGE INCHES TO CENTIMETERS, MULTIPLY BY 2.54. SECONDARY a Loseswame_Key UT LESSON 5 WORKSHEET #1 am Spread” will help point out the importance of selecting the proper quency and size transducer. The: length of the ultrasonic wave and the diameter of the trans- ducer are often critical in the determination of flaw size and location. 'B. Using the Information given below, determine the "Beam Spread’ for the conditions liste {a) Velocity in steel = .585 x 10" cmisec {b) Velocity in aluminum = .625 x 10* cmisec (c) One Inch = 2.54 centime (@) Wavotengin( » ) = velocity —>= Frequency ( sing = 122 ‘A. Understanding — 2.25 MHz transducer on an alumi. EL. 1. What would be the beam spread using a 1* diame! um test part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) de res aren. oa5 Why prem saga ran SUES 8/33 Bee 2.5." 2. What would be the beam spread using a 1° diameter, one MHz transducer on an alumi: fum test part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pls) + ot cm gece a Aes rece ere fase Safi rsox BER ~ 9 x00 srs 2 3, What would be the beam spread using a one half inch diameter, 2.25 MHz transducer ona test part? (SHOW WORK) @ pt: Ay thee 2 ace cot Dat Mt, gn GO > ran HE = gy ase wee ® possible points aAngle a 2 3 5° 6 a o 10° Ww 12° 43° 14° 15° 16° 7 18° ar “5 Sin 0175 UT LESSON 5 WORKSHEET #1 (continued) Angle 46° ar 48° 49° a Bt 52° age t 55° 56° Cos 6947 ‘8691 “6561 6428 6293 8157 6018 5878 5736 5592 5448, 5299 5150 -5000 A848 4695 4540, 4384 4226 4087 3907 3748 3584 3420 3256 “3080 2924 2787 2588 2419 “2250 2079 1908 “1736 1564 11392 1219 1045 0872 10523 0349 0175 ‘0000 Tan 1.0355 1.0724 1.1108 1.1504 1.1918 1.2349 1.2799 1.3270 1.3764 1.4281 1.4826 1.5399 1.6013 1.6643 1.7321 1.8040 1.8807 1.9626 2.0803, 2.1445 2.2460 2.9559 2.4751 2.6081 2.7475 2.9042 3.0777 3.2709 3.4874 3.7321 4.0108 4.3315 4.7046 5.1466 56713, 6.3138 7.4156 8.1443, 9.5144 11.4301 14,3007 19.0811 28.6383 57.2900Nam Key UT LESSON 5, uz 1. Higher frequency transducers have less beam spread than low frequency transducers. 2. Lower frequency transducers are usually used to find the smaller detects. 13, The longer the wavelength ( ) ). the greater the beam spread and better ability to locate ‘small discontinuiti 4. When comparing two transducers of the same frequency, the larger transducer will have the greatest beam spread. 5. A rough surface on the test specimen may cau: 6. If the front and back surtaces of a test part are not parallel, there will b signal amplitude from any discontinulty in the part. 7. Long of thin specimens may cause false indications due 1o mode conversion of the tongi- tudinal beam. th discontinuity (crack) will reflect more energy than a discontinulty will a rough {inctusion). 8. Both contact and Immersion testing techniques can be used for performing an “angle beam" examination of a part. 10. The couplant used in ultrasonic inspection should be as thick as possible to property direct the sound beam. 11, Where a liquid or paste coupiant cannot be used, a rubber sheet may sometimes be used by placing It between the transducer and test pai 3 12. What would be the “Beam Spread” If the foliowing conditions existed? ‘A. 1 Diameter, 5 MHz transducer. B. Velocity in steel = .585 x 10* cmisec » ©. Sing = 1.22 A sing 5 mn toss In amplitude on the CRT screen. greatly reduced fr be fk is fe ff a velocity D. Wavelength (A ) = javetengin( X ) = E. one inch = 2.54 centimeters F. (@ pts - SHOW WORK) Re SEEM em/see 2 70m FAW 77 ash sea 9" 429 Jey * OB ceyrees r 14 possible points =Angle " 2 3 a 5 6 7 a o 10° nt 12° 13° 1“ 16° 16° 7 18° 19° ar Sin 0175 0349 10523 0898 0872 1045 1219 1392 1564 11736 1908 2079 2250 2419 2756 2928 3256 3420 3584 3748 (3907 4226 A386 4540 4695 A848 5150 5299 5446 (5592 ‘5736 5878 6018 6157 {6293 6428 6561 6691 6820 6947 ‘7071 UT LESSON 5 QUIZ (continued) Tan 0175 0349 0524 0899 0875 1051 11228 11405 11584 11763 1964 2126 2309 2493, 2679 2887 3087 3249 3443, 3840 3839 4040 4245, 4452 1663 A877 5095, 5317 5543, S778 6249, 6494 8745, 7002 7265, “7536 7813 8098 8391 19693 9004 9325 9857 1.0000 Angle 46° a7 76° 78° 73° 80° art a2 83° 84° 86° a7" ee 89° 90° Cos 6947 8820 8891 6561 6428 6293 6187 6018 5878 5736 5592 5446 5299 5150 4848 4895 4384 4228 4067 3907 3746 3584 3420 3258 “3090 2924 2757 2588 2419 2250 2079 11908 11736 1564 "1392 1219 1045 0872 0698 0523, 0349 0175, .0000 Tan 1.0355 1.0726 1.1108 1.1804 1.1918, 1.2349 1.2799 1.3270 1.3764 1.4281 1.4826 1.5399 1.6013 1.6643 1.7321 1.8040 1.8807 1.9626 2.0503 2.1485 2.2480 2.3559 2.4781 2.6051 2.7475 2.9042 3.0777 3.2709 3.4874 3.7321 4.0108 4.3315 4.7048 5.1448, 56713 6.3138 7.4154 81443 85144 19.4301 14.3007 19.0811 28.6363 57.2900Lessoné ATTENUATION, ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE, AND RESONANCE AS SHOWN BELOW, A BEAM OF SOUND ENERGY WILL SPREAD OUT (DIVERGE) AS IT MOVES THROUGH THE SPECIMEN, AND THE INTENSITY (ENERGY) DE- CREASES WITH DISTANCE AWAY FROM THE TRANSDUCER AND AWAY FROM THE CENTER OF THE BEAM. NEAR_ZONE ‘TRANSDUCER, FOR A GIVEN SIZE TRANSDUCER: HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS PRODUCE NARROWER SOUND BEAMS THAN LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS. FOR THE PURPOSE OF ILLUSTRATION, ULTRASONIC SOUND CAN BE VIEWED AS A NARROW CONE-SHAPED BEAM WHICH IS DIVIDED INTO TWO ZONES, THE INTENSITY IN THE NEAR ZONE VARIES IRREGULARLY DUE TO SOUND WAVE INTERACTION CLOSE TO THE TRANSDUCER. THIS PREVENTS RELIABLE DETECTION OF DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TO THE SURFACE. IN THE FAR ZONE, THE INTENSITY (ENERGY) DECREASES STEADILY DUE TO BOTH ATTENUATION AND BEAM SPREAD. SPECIMEN (MATERIAL) ansouces reaxsoucer TRANSMITTER I Ky mecenen) ~ KEE X THE INTENSITY AT POINT “Y" ABOVE IS LESS THAN AT POINT “X”. ATTENUA TION IS THE TERM USED TO DESCRIBE THIS CONDITION OF ENERGY LOSS. AT- TENUATION MEANS THE PROCESS OF LESSENING THE AMOUNT. ‘THE PRIMARY REASONS FOR ATTENUATION ARE ABSORPTION AND SCATTER: ING OF THE ULTRASONIC ENERGY.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 ATTENUATION IS DIFFERENT IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS, DEPENDING ON THE: ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING OF THE SOUND ENERGY. ANOTHER PHENO. MENON WHICH PERTAINS TO THE INTERRELATIONSHIP OF THE SOUND AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES IS “ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE.” THIS TERM SHOULD NOT BE CONFUSED WITH “ATTENUATION.” “ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE” (2) IS DEFINED AS THE PRODUCT OF THE DENSITY (© ) AND SOUND VELOCITY (V) WITHIN A GIVEN MATERIAL. IMPEDANCE = DENSITY X VELOCITY, ORZ = -V IMPEDANCE VALUES FOR TYPICAL MATERIALS ARE SHOWN BELOW: VELociTY DENSITY i/sec) | (GRawsow?) 0.000033 10 | 0.33% 10° 0,002 MATERIAL aR waTER 0.149 x 108 1.49 x 108 ALUMINUM, 372x108 6.35105 STEEL 4.56 x 10° 5.85 x 10° ATTENUATION IS DEFINED AS THE LOSS OF ENERGY (ACOUSTIC) PER UNIT OF DISTANCE. FOR ULTRASONIC WAVE PROPAGATION, THE ATTENUATION CON- STANT ox IS GIVEN BY: 1 WHERE © = ATTENUATION CONSTANT + = RATIO OF INTENSITIES AT TWO POINTS A UNIT DISTANCE APART WohUT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 IF ACOUSTIC ENERGY IS TRANSMITTED INTO TWO PIECES OF PERFECTLY BONDED IDENTICAL STEEL, WE FIND THE SOUND HAS THE SAME VELOCITY THROUGH BOTH, WITH AN IMPEDANCE RATIO OF 1 TO 1. STEEL STEEL ‘TRANSDUCER. ‘SOUND BEAM —| —— VELOCITY REMAINS CONSTANT AN IMPEDANCE RATIO OF ANYTHING LESS OR GREATER THAN 1 TO 1 IS LESS THAN IDEAL. AS SHOWN BELOW A LARGE PORTION OF THE SOUND BEAM FROM A WATER TO STEEL INTERFACE WILL REFLECT BACK TOWARDS THE TRANSDUCER AND NEVER ENTER THE PART. “aero Ny ‘TRANSDUCER, SOUND BEAM Ld STEEL TO DETERMINE HOW MUCH OF THE ENERGY IS REFLECTED YOU CAN USE THE FOLLOWING FORMULA: 7 REFLECTION FACTOR (R) = (4 a2 Z = ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE IN THE ILLUSTRATION ABOVE, HCW MUCH OF THE SOUND ENERGY IS RE- FLECTED FROM THE WATER TO STEEL INTERFACE? 2 456-149. / 4.411 \2 99 peRcENT REFLECTED 4,56 + .149 4,709 nUT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 RESONANCE CAN BE DEFINED AS THE CHARACTERISTIC OF A VIBRATING BODY TO RESONATE OR VIBRATE IN SYMPATHY WITH A VIBRATION SOURCE. AS SHOWN BELOW, A RESONANT CONDITION WILL EXIST ANY TIME A CON- TINUOUS LONGITUDINAL WAVE IS INTRODUCED INTO A SPECIMEN AND REFLECTED “IN PHASE” WITH THE INCOMING WAVE. ‘COUPLANT ‘TRANSDUCER STANDING WAVES RESONANCE WILL OCCUR ONLY WHEN THE THICKNESS OF A SPECIMEN IS EQUAL TO A HALF-WAVELENGTH OR AN EXACT MULTIPLE OF A HALF-WAVE- LENC “H. SHOWN BELOW IS A “FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY” AND MULTIPLES CALLED “HARMONICS.” ) REFLECTED WAVE ‘TEST SPECIMEN ‘TRANSDUCER, wv INGIDENT WAVE iz, (F. OAMENTAL FREQUENCY) = = 2 MHz @ND HARMONIC) L terwess . wavevencrn | 3 MHz GRD HARMONIC) bonnes = 172 wavevencrns —|UT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 ULTRASONIC UNITS USING THE PRINCIPLE OF RESONANCE WERE COMMONLY USED FOR THICKNESS MEASUREMENT AND BOND OR LAMINATION INSPEC- TION. HOWEVER, PULSE-ECHO UNITS HAVE BEEN REFINED TO PERFORM MOST OF THESE FUNCTIONS AND RESONANT INSTRUMENTS ARE RARELY USED. RESONANCE OCCURS WHEN THE MATERIAL THICKNESS IS EQUAL TO A HALF- WAVELENGTH OR EXACT MULTIPLES. THE WAVELENGTH CAN BE CHANGED BY VARYING THE FREQUENCY. THE FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY IS THE LOWEST FREQUENCY AT WHICH A SPECIMEN WILL RESONATE. HARMONICS ARE EXACT MULTIPLES OF THE FUNDAMENTAL (MINIMUM) RESO- NANT FREQUENCY. THE FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY CAN BE FOUND BY: FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY VELOCITY OF LONGITUDINAL WAVE HICKNESS OF MATERIAL F v T DISCONTINUITY (MATERIAL, AS SHOWN ABOVE IN “A”, THE FREQUENCY HAS BEEN ADJUSTED UNTIL A STANDING WAVE “RESONANCE” HAS BEEN ESTABLISHED. IF THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED TO POSITION “'B", THE MATERIAL WILL STOP RESONATING UNTIL THE FREQUENCY (WAVELENGTH) IS ADJUSTED TO AGAIN ESTABLISH RESONANCE AS SHOWN.Key Name. UT LESSON 6 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Using the information given below, solve the problems relating to “reflection factors. B. The chart below Ilsts the common Impedance valves. (IMPEDANCE = VELOCITY X DENSITY) vevoe! ens MATERIAL ccursec | coraus F 0.001 o.35 x08 s.as x08 ara x aoe sexo! ©. Reflection factor = | —+——"— Z = Acoustic impedance _Z/Z. +. wnat percentage of the original sound energy will be re water fo aluminum Intertace? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts} = 2 eRe focal |i [LE 7 YD fe (YF LT? ft? 2, What percentage of the original sound energy will finally enter the water on Its way back to the transducer from the back surface of the aluminum part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) ‘Only consider the reflection factors, do not consider the normal attenuation that would ‘occur In the material Itself, 70 Pe of remarning 297. = 20 CR which is retheted up trom the bottom oerface qe oP remersing 206 Te beck dou fron the hy wurtect, fauray only % pep & Pe which és retorted C% entering Ha deterKey Name. UT LESSON 6 WORKSHEET #1 (continued) 222% 3, A clad materia! is to be tested for bond defects, One material has a thickness of 0.3 inch. ;coustic impedance of 5.0 x 10" gram/em?- second and the other material ls 4.0 Inches thick and has an acoustic Impedance of 4.5 x 10* gramicm! - second. “If the bond is perfect and acceptable, what percentage of sound would you expect to be reflected from the interlace? (SHOW WORK) (3 pls) 0. (Bett) GE)” DP ZHLEK 4, Would you Inspect the bonded material through the thick side or through the thin side? Why? (2 pts) Near Zone Prod lems 5, On the CRT screen below, using a 5 Inch screen range, sketch the approximate location ‘and amplitude of the pips from an acceptable bond condition. (2 pts) ral rule, “R should be less than 20% for adequate bond Inspection. “AS ager 13 possible points————— UT LESSON 6 quiz Jound beam travels through a material is called attenus 1. The gradual fons of eneroy tion. 2. Wherever possible, the UT inspection should be done In the “near zone” before the sound can apread out and atlenvate }. “Acoustic Impedance” refers to resistance of sound propagation through a part. |. Compared to Stool, ar has a very high acoustic Impedance value The original ultrasonic velocity remains the same regaraless of the mesia Iti passing trough. 6. A sound beam witha given energy wil rave farther in aluminum than in steel before iis attenuated by tho same amount. 7.A tine grained material will usually cause less attenuation than a coarse grained material F _ 8. The terms “intensity” and “Impedance” mean the same thing. XE 6. inimmersion testing, itis typical that less than 1% ofthe original sound energy Is ce- Li bb hb bb turned to the transducer. 10. Using the information given below, what would be the Reflection Factor at the interface shown between the water (Z,) and steel (Z;)? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) 2 2-2 Reliection Factor (A) = (1 2 21422 2 = Acoustic impedance rmansoueen. _water_? STEEL a Toon Bea ‘wPEDaNce vevociy | pewsivy, wareria, | corawrew-seer | ccuscer_| tcrawrew?s an 0.000033x10" | 0.339x10° | 0.008 water 0.149 x108 raexie® | 1.00 avuunum arexio essxi® | 2.7 sree 4.s6x10¢ 5.05x108 12 possible pointsLesson? DISPLAYING ULTRASONIC INDICATIONS THERE ARE THREE BASIC TYPES OF VISUAL DISPLAYS WHICH ARE COMMONLY USED TO EVALUATE THE SOUNDNESS OR QUALITY OF A MATERIAL BEING TESTED; A-SCAN, B-SCAN AND C-SCAN. A-SCAN IS A “TIME VERSUS AMPLITUDE” DISPLAY WHICH REVEALS A DISCON- TINUITY USING A “PIP” ON A CATHODE-RAY TUBE (CRT). REFLECTION AMPLITUDE DISCONTINUITY WORIZONTAL SWEEP THE A-SCAN PRESENTATION, AS HAS BEEN DISCUSSED, IS READ FROM LEFT TO RIGHT. THE HEIGHT OF A PIP CAN BE COMPARED TO THE HEIGHT OF A PIP FROM A KNOWN REFERENCE REFLECTOR TO GIVE AN INDICATION OF RELA- TIVE DISCONTINUITY SIZE. [AVSCAM PRESENTATION AMPLITUDE. HORIZONTAL SWEEP INDICATION INITIAL PULSE . DISCONTINUITY BACK SURFACE. REFLECTION ‘TRANSDUCER, I<) WH it TR DISCONTINUITY MATERIAL 81UT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 B-SCAN PRESENTATION, AS SHOWN BELOW, TYPICALLY USES AN OSCILLO- ‘SCOPE SCREEN TO DISPLAY A CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE MATERIAL BE- ING TESTED. THE IMAGE IS RETAINED ON THE CRT LONG ENOUGH TO EVALUATE THE SAM- PLE AND TO PHOTOGRAPH THE SCREEN FOR A PERMANENT RECORD. FRONT SURFACE THICKNESS OF TEST MATERIAL | C-SCAN IS A “PLAN VIEW” PRESENTATION SIMILAR TO AN X-RAY PICTURE. AS SHOWN BELOW, THE C-SCAN SHOWS THE SHAPE AND LOCATION OF THE , DISCONTINUITY, BUT DOES NOT SHOW THE DEPTH. BACK SURFACE B-SCAN PRESENTATION DISCONTINUITIES, (C+SCAN PRESENTATION 82UT Lecture Guice Lesson 7 HIGH SPEED ULTRASONIC SCANNING GENERALLY UTILIZES THE C-SCAN PRESENTATION. AS SHOWN BELOW, SOME RECORDERS USE A CHEMICALLY TREATED PAPER. THE PAPER MOVEMENT IS SYNCHRONIZED WITH THE MOVEMENT OF THE TRANSDUCER ACROSS THE TEST SURFACE. RECORDING PAPER FEED MOTION OF Discontinuity THE ADVANTAGE OF THE C-SCAN IS ITS SPEED AND ABILITY TO PRODUCE A PERMANENT RECORD. HOWEVER, THE SCAN SHOWS ONLY LENGTH AND WIDTH, BUT NOT DEPTH. CARRIAGE OR BRIDGE MANIPULATOR RECORDER CONTROL PANEL, |A-SCAN TEST EQUIPMENT. IMMERSION TANK "CARRIAGE CONTROL PANEL, C-SCAN RECORDERUT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 A TYPICAL BRIDGE/MANIPULATOR IS SHOWN FOR A BASIC ULTRASONIC \ IMMERSION TEST. WHEN A C-SCAN IS TO BE MADE, ELECTRIC MOTORS ARE UTILIZED TO ACTI- VATE THE TRAVELING MECHANISMS AND THE UP AND DOWN MOVEMENT OF THE SEARCH TUBE. TANK WITH MOTORIZED BRIDGE SUPPORT FOR TEST SPECIMEN A TYPICAL A-SCAN PRESENTATION IS SHOWN BELOW USING CONTACT TEST- ING WITH AN ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER. THE PROCEDURE USED TO CALIBRATE THE UT UNIT IS SIMILAR TO NORMAL BEAM TESTING AND REQUIRES A CALIBRATION BLOCK WITH A KNOWN SIZE REFLECTION SURFACE AT A KNOWN METAL TRAVEL. o ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCERUT Lecture Gui¢e Lesson 7 A CALIBRATION BLOCK (IIW TEST BLOCK FURTHER DISCUSSED IN LESSON 8) IS SHOWN BELOW WITH A KNOWN DISTANCE OF 4 INCHES TO THE CURVED SUR. FACE. USING THE SWEEP AND DELAY CONTROLS, THE PIPS ARE ADJUSTED TO SHOW MULTIPLES OF 4 INCHES ON THE CRT. i 7 @ a | Hehe pe ere gee ate IF THE MINATURE ANGLE BEAM CALIBRATION BLOCK SHOWN BELOW WERE USED TO CALIBRATE THE ABOVE CRT SCREEN, WHERE WOULD THE PIPS APPEAR? tx ANWIATURE ANGLE BEAM DEPENDING ON THE DIRECTION OF THE ANGLE BEAM PROBE, THE PIPS WOULD EITHER APPEAR AT ONE, FOUR, AND SEVEN INCHES OR TWO, FIVE, AND EIGHT INCHES. 85,UT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 THE ANGLE BEAM TECHNIQUE IS OFTEN USED FOR WELD INSPECTION AS: SHOWN BELOW. 4th LEG VA I~ 1st skip distance ' — 2nd skip distance—! ("V"" PATH) ('V" PATH) TYPICALLY, THE WELD SHOULD BE INSPECTED IN THE 1ST OR 2ND LEG WHEN- EVER POSSIBLE AS SHOWN BELOW. SKIP DISTANCE view a view 8 view ¢ TO ASSIST IN EVALUATING THE RESULTS OF ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION, A DIRECT READING ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR IS COMMONLY USED. ° a 7 4 6 4 9 to ie r Hee Li itt F THE HORIZONTAL SCALE ACROSS THE TOP OF THE CARD REPRESENTS THE NUMBER OF INCHES BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE CENTER OF THE WELD. THE VERTICAL SCALE REPRESENTS SPECIMEN THICKNESS AND THE ARC SHOWS THE ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM. 86UT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 THE FOLLOWING IS AN EXAMPLE OF A TYPICAL ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION US- ING THE ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR. A DOUBLE VEE WELD WITH AN OPENING OF 30 DEGREES IN A 2” STEEL PLATE USING A 60 DEGREE SHEAR-WAVE IN THE SPECIMEN. Bat sf ron oF ncivENce DASHED Line, 4 4 S ct DISCONTINUITY THE FOLLOWING PROCEDURE SHOULD BE USED IN SETTING UP THE CALCU- LATOR: a DRAW A LINE REPRESENTING THE SOUND PATH FROM THE UPPER LEFT CORNER THROUGH THE 60 DEGREE MARK ON THE ARC, EXTENDING TO THE 2” POINT REPRESENTING THE PLATE THICKNESS, CALIBRATE THE HORIZONTAL SWEEP OF THE CRT TO REPRESENT BEAM TRAVEL DISTANCE IN THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED. . TO SHOW THE FULL SKIP DISTANCE OF THE SOUND BEAM, YOU THEN DOUBLE THE 3 7/16” AND MARK THAT POINT AT APPROXIMATELY 6 7/8” (POINT “B" ABOVE) NEXT, DRAW THE 30 DEGREE VEE WELD ON THE PLASTIC SLIDE OR TRANSPARENT PAPER THAT SLIDES BACK AND FORTH OVER THE CALCU- LATOR. }. AS SHOWN ABOVE, A DISCONTINUITY IS DISPLAYED ON THE CRT SCREEN AT 5.5”, THE OPERATOR THEN MEASURES THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE CENTER OF THE TRANSDUCER (EXIT POINT) AND THE CENTER OF THE WELDMENT (4 5/8”) AND SLIDES THE TRANSPARENT PAPER TO THE SAME DISTANCE. |. THE POSITION OF THE DISCONTINUITY IS INDICATED AND CAN BE EVALUATED.Key Nam LESSON 7 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Angle beam inspection requires that the operator understand how the sound beam is re- ted within the specimen. On the CRT acreen provided, Indicate the location of each pip based on the sound path distances shown. (3 pts each) Takes Joie + Rega TF a we i 5ow pools | 20 INCH SCREEN RANGE | i g z 3 v 3 IC_|__12 Je screen RANGE i i | iio h i L tH Z17L~ goo one 9 possible points 89Key Name. S LESSON 7 : auiz 1. Ona typical B-Scan, the horizontal sweep represents tIme and the vertical deflection represents ampiltud 2. The B-Scan can dlaplay how deep the discontinuity 's below the surface of the spec men. 3, The typical A-Scan is the dispiay commonly used for recording a permanent record with the Immersion Inspection technique. 4. Tho vertical pip on an A-Scan can be used to compare the relative size of @ discon- tinulty. 5, The C-Scan display will Indicate length and width of a discontinuity, but t cannot show depth. 6. To obtain an A-Scan display with ultrasonic immersion testing, it Is necessary to auto- mate the bridge/manipulator with electric motors. 7, The “Ultrasonic Calculator” can be used In weld inspection to indicate the location of a discontinulty in the weldment. 8. Whenever possible, the weld should be Inspected in the “2nd Skip Distance. 9. The calibration of a UT Instrument for sound path distance can be performed using the ‘curved surface of the “IW Block.” 10. To accurately utliize the “Ultrasonic Calculator” It is necessary to accurately measure the distance from center line of the weld to the exit point of the transduc 11. Using an 8” screen range on the CAT below, indicate where the “pips” should appear if the instrument is to be properly calibrated for sound path distance in the block shown. (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) BHR EBB EE Ce eg fee ae Bo oe ol ras e ea “i CZ i Se spas Bt (ums ATURE ANGLE BEAM 13 possible points a1Lesson 8 ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS AND STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS THE ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER IS THE HEART OF THE UT TEST SYSTEM, SEALED CASE. SIGNAL, CONNECTOR: BACKING ‘GROUND ‘CONNECTOR THE CRYSTAL MATERIAL IN AN ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER IS MADE OF PIEZO- ELECTRIC MATERIALS SUCH AS QUARTZ, LITHIUM SULFATE AND POLARIZED CERAMICS. 1, QUARTZ WAS THE FIRST MATERIAL USED. IT HAS VERY STABLE FREQUEN. CY CHARACTERISTICS. HOWEVER, QUARTZ IS A POOR GENERATOR OF ACOUSTIC ENERGY AND HAS GENERALLY BEEN REPLACED BY MORE EF- FICIENT MATERIALS. . LITHIUM SULFATE IS A VERY EFFICIENT RECEIVER OF ACOUSTIC ENERGY, BUT IS FRAGILE, SOLUBLE IN WATER AND LIMITED TO USE AT TEMPER- ATURES BELOW 165°F. 3. POLARIZED CERAMICS PRODUCE THE MOST EFFICIENT GENERATORS OF ACOUSTIC ENERGY BUT THEY DO HAVE A TENDENCY TO WEAR. COMMON POLARIZED CERAMICS INCLUDE BARIUM TITANATE, LEAD METANIOBATE, AND LEAD ZIRCONATE/TITANATE. THE CAPABILITY OF A TRANSDUCER IS DESCRIBED BY THREE TERMS; 4. SENSITIVITY - THE ABILITY TO DETECT SMALL DISCONTINUITIES. 2. RESOLUTION - THE ABILITY TO SEPARATE THE SOUND REFLECTIONS FROM TWO DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TOGETHER IN DEPTH OR TIME. 3. EFFICIENCY - ENERGY CONVERSION EFFECTIVENESS. y » 93UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 SENSITIVITY OF A TRANSDUCER IS RATED BY ITS ABILITY. TO DETECT A CER: TAIN SIZE FLAT-BOTTOM HOLE, AT A SPECIFIED DEPTH, IN’A STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCK. THE SMALLER THE DETECTABLE HOLE, THE GREATER THE SENSITIVITY. TRANSDUCER SENSITIVITY IS MEASURED BY THE AMPLITUDE OF ITS RE- ‘SPONSE FROM AN ARTIFICIAL DISCONTINUITY IN A STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCK. ‘THE REFERENCE BLOCK IS NECESSARY, BECAUSE EVEN TRANSDUCERS OF THE SAME SIZE, FREQUENCY AND MATERIAL DO NOT ALWAYS PRODUCE THE SAME AMPLITUDE SIGNAL FROM A GIVEN REFLECTOR. ‘TRANSDUCER, _ geFeRence Jo Lock i FLAT BOTTOMED HOLE RESOLUTION IS THE ABILITY TO SEPARATE (DISTINGUISH BETWEEN) THE SOUND REFLECTIONS FROM A DISCONTINUITY CLOSE TO A BOUNDARY OR ‘TWO DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TOGETHER IN DEPTH OR TIME. POOR RESOLUTION GOOD RESOLUTION ‘Back sunacel REFLECTION DiscoxrimuiTy DISCONTINUITYUT Lecture Guide Lesson & TRANSDUCER MATERIALS ARE USUALLY CUT IN TWO WAYS: 1. CRYSTALS CUT PERPENDICULAR TO THE X-AXIS PRODUCE LONGITUDINAL, WAVES. 2. CRYSTALS CUT PERPENDICULAR TO THE Y-AXIS PRODUCE SHEAR WAVES. AS SHOWN BELOW, MOST CRYSTALS USED FOR UT ARE CUT PERPENDICULAR TO THE X-AXIS, CRYSTAL DEFORMATION AXIS. XAXIS Y-AXIS. ZAXIS SIZE IS A CONTRIBUTING FACTOR IN PERFORMANCE OF A TRANSDUCER. 1. THE LARGER DIAMETER THE TRANSDUCER, THE LESS THE SOUND BEAM WILL SPREAD FOR A GIVEN FREQUENCY. 2, HOWEVER, THE SMALL, HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS ARE BETTER ABLE TO DETECT VERY SMALL DISCONTINUITIES. 3. THE LARGER THE TRANSDUCER, THE MORE SOUND ENERGY IT TRANS- MITS INTO THE TEST PART. LARGE LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS ARE OFTEN USED TO GET MORE PENETRATION. 4, LARGE SINGLE CRYSTAL TRANSDUCERS ARE GENERALLY LIMITED TO THE LOWER FREQUENCIES. HIGH FREQUENCY CRYSTALS ARE SUSCEP- TIBLE TO DAMAGE BECAUSE THEY ARE VERY THIN. 95UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 THE FREQUENCY OF A TRANSDUCER IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN ITS APPLI- CATION. : 1, THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY OF A TRANSDUCER, THE LESS THE SOUND BEAM WILL SPREAD AND THE GREATER THE SENSITIVITY AND RESOLU- TION. WHEN THE SOUND BEAM IS SPREAD AS SHOWN BELOW, LESS SOUND IS LIKELY TO BE REFLECTED FROM A SMALL DISCONTINUITY. WIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER Discontinuity. y . THE LOWER THE FREQUENCY, THE DEEPER THE SOUND PENETRATION AND THE LESS SCATTER. THE GREATER BEAM SPREAD AIDS IN DETECT- ING REFLECTORS WHICH ARE NOT PERPENDICULAR TO THE AXIS OF THE SOUND BEAM. 3. CRYSTAL THICKNESS IS ALSO RELATED TO TRANSDU""ER FREQUENCY. THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY OF THE TRANSDUCER, THE THINNER THE CRYSTAL WILL BE. MOST ULTRASONIC TESTING IS DONE BETWEEN 0.2 MHz AND 25 MHz AND CRYSTALS CUT FOR USE ABOVE 10 MHz ARE TOO THIN AND FRAGILE FR CONTACT TESTING. THEREFORE, TRANSDUCERS WITH OPERATING FREQUENCIES ABOVE 10 MHz ARE USED PRIMARILY FOR IMMERSION TESTING.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 TRANSDUCERS FOR CONTACT TESTING AND IMMERSION TESTING ARE ESSEN- TIALLY THE SAME BUT USUALLY ARE NOT INTERCHANGEABLE. MOST CONTACT TESTING TRANSDUCERS HAVE WEAR PLATES IN FRONT OF THE PIEZOELECTRIC ELEMENT TO PROTECT IT. THE EXCEPTION TO THIS IS A QUARTZ TRANSDUCER. AS SHOWN BELOW, CONTACT TRANSDUCERS CAN BE EITHER “STRAIGHT BEAM” OR “ANGLE BEAM.” TRANSDUCER B ‘TRANSDUCER A ice N\ (CERAMIC STRAIGHT BEAM TRANSDUCERS USUALLY HAVE A LUCITE, CERAMIC, OR QUARTZ WEAR PLATE IN FRONT OF THE CRYSTAL. ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCERS HAVE THE WEAR PLATE WEDGE-SHAPED TO PRO- DUCE THE DESIRED REFRACTED ANGLE. AS SHOWN ABOVE, THE LUCITE WEDGE PROTECTS THE FACE OF THE CRYSTAL AND DETERMINES THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE OF THE SOUND BEAM ON THE TEST PART. AS HAS BEEN DISCUSSED, WHEN SOUND WAVES ARE DIRECTED INTO THE TEST PART AT AN ANGLE, THEY ARE DIVIDED INTO LONGITUDINAL AND SHEAR WAVES BY REFRACTION. MOST ANGLE BEAM TESTING IS DONE WITH SHEAR WAVES. STRAIGHT BEAM TRANSDUCER ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER Loncituowat — sHeaR [SSS WAVES WAVES SSO DisconTiNuITY. —UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 THE ANGLE BEAM PROBE CAN ALSO BE USED TO GENERATE SURFACE WAVES. AS WE HAVE DISCUSSED, SURFACE WAVES ARE GENERATED WHEN THE INCI- DENT ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM REACHES THE SECOND OR UPPER CRITI. CAL ANGLE. MOST ANGLE BEAM CONTACT TRANSDUCERS ARE IDENTIFIED BY THE RE- FRACTED SHEAR WAVE PRODUCED (70°, 60°, ETC.), IN A SPECIFIC MATERIAL, USUALLY STEEL AND ALUMINUM. ‘SPHERICALLY GROUND AND CYLINDRICALLY GROUND ACOUSTICAL LENSES ARE COMMONLY ADDED TO IMMERSION TYPE TRANSDUCERS. THEY ARE USED TO: 1. IMPROVE SENSITIVITY AND RESOLUTION. 2. COMPENSATE FOR TEST PART CONTOURS. 3. EXAMINE A GIVEN DEPTH OF THE TEST PART MORE CAREFULLY. AS SHOWN BELOW, CYLINDRICALLY GROUND LENSES FOCUS THE SOUND ENERGY TO A LINE. SPHERICALLY GROUND LENSES FOCUS THE SOUND ENERGY TO A POINT. WATER J rransoucer ‘ACOUSTICAL tens:UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 CYLINDRICAL LENSES ARE USED IN TWO WAYS: 1. TO INCREASE THE SENSITIVITY AND RESOLUTION OF EQUIPMENT. 2. FOR CONTOUR CORRECTION AS SHOWN BELOW. THE LENS CAN BE GROUND SPECIALLY TO DIRECT THE SOUND ENERGY NORMAL (PERPEN- DICULAR) TO A CURVED SURFACE AT ALL POINTS. contour CORRECTION KENS FLAT SHOE FT] S, f ‘CRT SCREEN DISPLAY ——— ruins TUBING view A VIEW B SPHERICAL LENSES CONCENTRATE THE SOUND ENERGY INTO A CONE SHAPED BEAM. 1. THE FOCUSING INCREASES ITS INTENSITY, BUT SHORTENS ITS USEFUL RANGE. 2. WHILE THE CYLINDERICAL LENS ABOVE HAS A GREATER WIDTH, THE SPHERICAL LENS HAS THE GREATEST SENSITIVITY. 3. THE SPHERICAL LENS IS OFTEN USED WHEN IMMERSION TESTING PARTS. HAVING A ROUGH SURFACE. FOCUSED TRANSDUCERS ARE DESCRIBED BY THEIR FOCAL LENGTH. THE SHORT FOCAL LENGTHS ARE FOR EXAMINING AREAS OF THE SPECIMEN CLOSE TO THE SURFACE. LONGER FOCAL LENGTHS ARE FOR INCREASINGLY DEEPER AREAS. 99UT Lecture Guide Lesson & TRANSDUCERS COME IN MANY SHAPES, SIZES AND PHYSICAL CHARACTER- ISTICS. SOME COMMON TYPES INCLUDE PAINT-BRUSH, DUAL ELEMENT, SINGLE ELE- MENT, ANGLE BEAM, FOCUSED, MOSAIC, CONTACT, AND IMMERSION. SINGLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS MAY BE TRANSMITTERS ONLY, RECEIVERS. ONLY, OR BOTH TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER. DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS (AS SHOWN BELOW) MAY BE EITHER SINGLE TRANSDUCERS MOUNTED S!DE BY SIDE OR STACKED. IN A DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCER, ONE IS A TRANSMITTER AND THE OTHER A RECEIVER. RECEIVER ‘TRANSMITTER TRANSMITTER SIDE BY SIDE. STACKED DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS HAVE BETTER NEAR SURFACE RESOLUTION BECAUSE THE RECEIVER CAN RECEIVE DISCONTINUITY SIGNALS BEFORE THE TRANSMITTER COMPLETES ITS TRANSMISSION. DISCONTINUITY OBSCURED COAXIAL CABLE BY INITIAL PULSE TRANSDUCER 7S ae : Le biscowrmuiry = / : rest ae vy Specmen heUT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS IN ULTRASONIC TESTING, DISCONTINUITIES ARE USUALLY COMPARED TO A REFERENCE STANDARD. THE STANDARD MAY BE ONE OF MANY REFERENCE BLOCKS OR SETS OF BLOCKS SPECIFIED FOR A GIVEN TEST. REFERENCE BLOCKS COME IN MANY DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZES AND THIS. LESSON WILL DISCUSS ONLY A FEW OF THOSE COMMONLY USED. A TYPICAL BLOCK IS SHOWN BELOW. TEST SURFACE DIAMETER OF FBH FLAT-BOTTOM HOLE: ‘SURFACE TO BOTTOM OF BLOCK MOST REFERENCE BLOCKS HAVE THE FOLLOWING IN COMMON: 1. THEY ARE MADE FROM CAREFULLY SELECTED MATERIAL. 2, THE MATERIAL MUST HAVE THE PROPER ATTENUATION, GRAIN SIZE, HEAT TREATMENT AND BE FREE OF DISCONTINUITIES. . ALL DIMENSIONS MUST BE PRECISELY MACHINED. 4, ALL HOLES MUST BE FLAT-BOTTOMED AND HAVE A SPECIFIC DIAMETER TO BE AN IDEAL REFLECTOR. 5. SIDE DRILLED HOLE DIAMETER MUST BE CAREFULLY CONTROLLED. THREE COMMONLY USED SETS OF STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS ARE: 1. AREA AMPLITUDE BLOCKS 2, DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS 3. ASTM BASIC SET OF AREA AND DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS. AREA AMPLITUDE BLOCKS PROVIDE STANDARDS FOR DISCONTINUITIES OF DIFFERENT SIZES, AT THE SAME DEPTH. DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS PROVIDE STANDARDS FOR DISCONTINUITIES OF THE SAME SIZE AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS. 2 101UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 THE ASTM BASIC SET OF AREA/DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS CONSISTS OF TEN, TWO INCH DIAMETER BLOCKS AS SHOWN BELOW: FLAT-BOTTOM HOLE (FOH) DIA vest pera o tanceT 0 = 4} \ i T i i METAL DISTANCE : pase ante | a men METAL DISTANCE, INCHES we Jae [az [oa [aie [3]slslele 'FBH DIA IN 6ATHS INCH Sa aoeg eee |e s |als|els|s ANOTHER TYPE OF CALIBRATION BLOCK IS THE IW BLOCK (INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING). IT PROVIDES THE FOLLOWING: VERIFICATION OF KNOWN DISTANCES & ANGULAR RELATIONSHIPS, VERIFIES TRANSDUCER ANGLE AND BEAM EXIT POINT AND CHECKS TRANSDUCER RESOLUTION. j_—___________ |— 0.125" 0.25" 0,06" HOLE, 102 3.68UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 IN CONTACT ANGLE BEAM TESTING, THE BEAM EXIT POINT OF THE TRANS- DUCER MUST BE KNOWN TO ACCURATELY DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF THE. DISCONTINUITY. AS SHOWN BELOW, THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED BACK AND FORTH UNTIL THE. PIP ON THE CRT REACHES MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE, THE FOCAL POINT ON THE IIW BLOCK THEN CORRESPONDS WITH THE BEAM XIT POINT OF THE TRANSDUCER. BEAM EXIT POWT FOCAL POINT. ae SPECIAL CALIBRATION STANDARDS SPECIAL STANDARDS ARE OFTEN USED FOR ITEMS SUCH AS WELDMENTS, CASTINGS, AND PIPING. THE STANDARDS ARE NORMALLY OF THE SAME. MATERIAL AND PRODUCT FORM TO BE TESTED. REFERENCE REFLECTORS. SUCH AS NOTCHES OR HOLES ARE ARTIFICIALLY ADDED TO THE STANDARD.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 VERIFICATION OF THE TRANSDUCER ANLE IS ACCOMPLISHED AS SHOWN BELOW: THE PLASTIC WEDGE OF THE ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER IS SUBJECT TO WEAR IN NORMAL USE. THIS WEAR CAN CHANGE THE BEAM EXIT POINT AND THE ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM. BEAM EXIT POINT, (60 DEGREE TRANSoUCER FROM THE POSITION SHOWN ABOVE, THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED BACK AND FORTH UNTIL THE REFLECTION FROM THE 2 INCH HOLE SHOWS MAXIMUM. AMPLITUDE ON THE CRT. THE ANGLE OF SOUND BEAM CAN THEN BE READ FROM WHERE THE EXIT POINT ON TH: TRANSDUCER MATCHES THE DEGREES STAMPED ON THE SIDE OF THE BLOCK. THE TRANSD''ER SOUND BEAM EXIT POINT SHOULD ALWAYS BE CHECKED FIRST. IF * EXIT POINT MARKING IS NOT CORRECT, THEN THE ANGLE. CHECK WIL. NOT BE ACCURATE.UT Lecture Guide Lesson & THE FAR FIELD RESOLVING POWER OF THE TEST EQUIPMENT CAN BE ESTI-. MATED BY PLACING A NORMAL BEAM TRANSDUCER ON THE IIW BLOCK AS SHOWN. GOOD RESOLUTION WILL BE INDICATED IF THE INSTRUMENT CAN SATISFAC- TORILY SEPARATE THE PIPS FROM ALL THREE REFLECTORS. 000 ‘TRANSDUCER TD iw BLock. (crt DISPLAY THE MINIATURE ANGLE BEAM BLOCK CAN ALSO BE USED TO CALIBRATE THE INSTRUMENT FOR ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION. THE MINIATURE BLOCK IS INTENDED FOR FIELD WORK AND IS NOT AS COM- PREHENSIVE AS THE LARGER IIW BLOCK. oo Pi nee FOCAL PONT aaa a 750" Z| 75° . nature aNcLe BEAM BLocK 0,060" HOLE 105Key Name, LESSON 6 auz ‘The term “resolution” refers to the abilty of a transducer to detect a very small discon. tinulty. Quartz Is the only transducer material commonly used that is not a piezoelectric ma. te Wf the frequency of a transducer is ralsed, then the beam spread Is reduced. The polarized ceramic transducer Is considered 1o be a very good generator of ultra sonic energy. Quartz is 8 type of polarized ceramic transducer material. A transducer that can detect a discontinuity close to the sur resolving power. Larger transducers usually have a higher frequency because they are more fragile, The higher the frequency of a transducer, the smaller the sound cone (Le. less beam spread). Immersion testing Is always done with transducers that have a frequency between 2.5 and 5.0 MHz. Angie beam testing is usually done with longitudinal waves. Angie beam probes may be used to generate surface waves. ‘A spherical focusing lens will usually have the ability to provide better sensitivity as compared 10 a cylinderical lens. Focused transducers are often used for shear wave inspection of welded plate due 10 the increased penetration A double or dual element transducer can only be used in the longitudinal wave mode. With a double element transducer, the sensitivity is increased because both elements ae teceiving and sending sound energy. ‘Acoustical lenses increase transducer sensitivity and resolution, but decrease thelr usetul range ‘A relerence block should be made from the same basic material as the part being tested Blocks which provide a size reference and are used 0 check the system's linearity are known as area amplitude blocks. The exit point of an angle beam transducer should always be determined before the angle of the transducer Is checked. Both the liW block and miniature block will check the test system resotution 0 Is said to have a good ible poi 20 possibie points oeUT Lecture Guide Lesson 9 FOR AN IMMERSION TESTING APPLICATION WHERE A SHARPER THAN NOR- MAL SOUND BEAM IS REQUIRED, A FOCUSED TRANSDUCER SHOULD BE USED. THE LENS FOCUSES THE SOUND ENERGY INTO A SMALL, WELL-DEFINED PATTERN AS SHOWN BELOW. TRANSDUCER. ‘SOUND LENS. WATER PATH | TEST SURFACE FOCAL POINT FOCAL ZONE 1 BEAM DIAMETER { nl [rest specimen THE PROPER WATER PATH FOR A FOCUSED TRANSDUCER CAN BE DETER- MINED AS FOLLOWS: USING A TRANSDUCER WITH A FOCAL LENGTH OF 5 INCHES IN WATER TO FOCUS THE BEAM TO A POINT 0.25 INCHES BELOW THE SURFACE OF A STEEL PART, ONE WOULD DETERMINE THE WATER PATH DISTANCE BY: A. DIVIDING THE VELOCITY OF STEEL BY THE VELOCITY OF THE WATER. 6.0 x 10° CM/SEC 1.5 x 10* CMISEC B. MULTIPLYING THE DESIRED FOCAL DEPTH BY THE ANSWER. 4X25" = 1" C. SUBTRACTING ANSWER FROM KNOWN FOCAL LENGTH IN WA- TER. 5"-1" = 4" D. THUS, THE WATER PATH DIS- TANCE MUST BE 4” TO FOCUS THE BEAM AT .25” BELOW THE SUR. FACE. =4 FOCUSED TRANSDUCE! FOCAL POINT IN STEEL 110Lesson? IMMERSION INSPECTION A TYPICAL IMMERSION TESTING INSTALLATION USUALLY INCLUDES THE ITEMS SHOWN BELOW. SCANNER TUBE MANIPULATOR TRANSDUCER TEST SPECIMEN IN CONTACT TESTING, THE ANGLE IMPRINTED ON THE LUCITE WEDGE USED IN ANGLE BEAM TESTING OFTEN INDICATES THE ANGLE OF “REFRACTION” IN A. GIVEN MATERIAL. HOWEVER, IN IMMERSION TESTING, THE ANGLE SHOWN BY THE ANGLE INDI- CATOR ON THE MANIPULATOR IS THE “ANGLE OF INCIDENCE.” IT IS NECESSARY TO APPLY SNELL’S LAW AND CALCULATE THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION IN THE TEST SPECIMEN. Sha SINB, Vp IF THE ANGLE INDICATOR SHOWED THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION IN THE TEST SPECIMEN, IT WOULD BE NECESSARY TO CHANGE THE INDICATOR EACH TIME A DIFFERENT MATERIAL WAS INSPECTED. TEST FREQUENCIES - SINCE THE TRANSDUCER DOES NOT COME INTO CON- TACT WITH THE TEST SPECIMEN IN IMMERSION TESTING, IT IS POSSIBLE TO USE THINNER CRYSTALS AT HIGHER ULTRASONIC FREQUENCIES. IT IS POSSIBLE TO USE FREQUENCIES AS HIGH AS 25 MHz AND THE RANGE |S. USUALLY FROM 2.25 TO 25 MHz. THE HIGHER FREQUENCIES GIVE THE BEST RESOLUTION OF SMALL DISCON- TINUITIES. 109UT Lecture Guide Lesson 9 THE FOLLOWING SHOW A TYPICAL STRAIGHT BEAM IMMERSION. OPERATION WITH THE CRT INDICATION THAT WOULD BE RECEIVED. BACK REFLECTION ‘TRANSDUCER DiscoNTiMurTy FRONT SURFACE FRONT SUR-A ‘ONT SURFACE. INITIAL PULSE*~ BACK SURFACE THE WATER PATH DISTANCE FROM THE TRANSDUCER TO THE FRONT SUR- FACE OF THE TEST PART IS GENERALLY SET TO BE LONGER IN TIME THAN THE METAL PART TIME FROM THE FRONT TO REAR OF THE TEST SPECIMEN. IF THE TRANSDUCER IS TOO CLOSE TO THE FRONT SURFACE OF THE TEST PART THE SE. ND FRONT REFLECTION WILL APPEAR ON THE CRT BETWEEN THE FRONT AND BACK SURFACE REFLECTIONS. THIS REFLECTION MAY AP- PEAR TO BE A DISCONTINUITY. ACK REFLECTION TRANSDUCER te FRONT SURFACE WATER TEST SPECIMEN. THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IN WATER IS ABOUT 1/4 THAT OF ALUMINUM OR STEEL. ONE INCH OF WATER WILL APPEAR ON THE CRT IN THE SAME TIME SPAN ON THE SWEEP AS 4 INCHES OF STEEL. THEREFORE, A RULE OF THUMB. iS — USE AT LEAST ONE INCH OF VATER PATH FOR EACH FOUR INCHES OF METAL PATH, PLUS 1/4”. 12UT Lecture Guide Lesson 9 A SPECIAL APPLICATION OF IMMERSION TESTING !S THE “BUBBLER” OR “SQUIRTER” AS SHOWN BELOW. ‘TRANSDUCER CABLE WATER HOSE CONNECTION BOTH STRAIGHT AND ANGLE BEAM TECHNIQUES CAN BE USED WITH THIS PROCESS DEPENDING ON THE BUBBLER DESIGN. 7 ne wews LA roarmasone msthowens wows STRAIGHT BEAM ANGLE BEAM AN ADVANTAGE OF THE BUBBLER IS THAT NO IMMERSION TANK IS REQUIRED. A TECHNIQUE SIMILAR TO THE BUBBLER IS USED IN CONTACT TESTING AND UTILIZES AN “IRRIGATED SEARCH UNIT.” THE COUPLANT (WATER) CAN BE FED TO THE TEST SURFACE THROUGH A SERIES OF HOLES IN A PLASTIC BLOCK.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 9 ANGLE BEAM TESTING WITH IMMERSION TECHNIQUES IS ILLUSTRATED BELOW: INITIAL PULSE, FRONT SURFACE —_piscoNTiNuITv TEST SPECIMEN | —p—oisconrimury WITH ANGLE BEAM TESTING, ONLY A SMALL SURFACE INDICATION, IF ANY, WILL RESULT BECAUSE MOST OF THE SOUND IS REFLECTED FROM THE PART SURFACE AWAY FROM THE TRANSDUCER. REMEMBER, THAT SHEAR WAVES WILL NOT PROPAGATE IN WATER. WITH IMMERSION TESTING A C-SCAN IS COMMONLY USED TO DISPLAY THE SHAPE AND RELATIVE SIZE OF A DISCONTINUITY AS SHOWN BELOW. WHEN A DEFECT IS FOUND ON THE C-SCAN, IT IS POSSIBLE TO GO BACK AND MANUALLY DETERMINE ITS DEPTH BELOW THE SURFACE. ‘TRANSDUCER ee ee ame RECORONG et Linkace PAPER SCAN LINES. ‘DRUM DISCONTINUITY. MOTION WITH TRANSDUCER MOVEMENT 113UT Lecture Guide Lesson 9 DETERMINING THE POSITION OF A DISCONTINUITY IN THE SPECIMEN WITH IM-- MERSION TESTING IS SHOWN BELOW. IF THE SOUND BEAM IS STRIKING THE SURFACE AT AN ANGLE, REFRACTION OF THE SOUND HAS TO BE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION. METAL SPOOM 5* ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. Ses DISCONTINUITY \ LL ecm THE POINT AT WHICH THE SOUND BEAM STRIKES THE SURFACE CAN BE DETERMINED BY PLACING A STRAIGHT EDGED PIECE OF METAL “METAL SPOON” ON THE SURFACE (A 6” STEEL RULER CAN BE USED). AS SOON AS THE LEADING EDGE OF THE METAL SPOON ENTERS THE SOUND. BEAM AN INDICATION WILL APPEAR ON THE CRT. THE SAME CHECK IS THEN PERFORMED FROM THE OTHER 3 SIDES, AND THIS LOCATES THE AREA IN WHICH THE SOUND ENTERS THE SPECIMEN. CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF IDENTIFYING THE LOCATION OF THE DISCON- TINUITY CAN BE USED, SUCH AS UTILIZING THE ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR OR SIMILAR TECHNIQUES. REMEMBER THAT PLATE WAVES CAN BE PRODUCED IN IMMERSION TESTING BUT SHEAR WAVES WILL NOT PROPAGATE IN WATER. ALTHOUGH SHEAR WAVES AND PLATE WAVES WILL NOT PROPAGATE IN LIQUIDS, BOTH MODES CAN BE USED IN IMMERSION TESTING BECAUSE THE SONIC ENERGY IS TRANS- MITTED THROUGH THE WATER AS LONGITUDINAL WAVES. THE LONGITUDINAL WAVES ARE MODE CONVERTED TO SHEAR OR PLATE WAVES UPON ENTERING THE SOLID PART AND THEN THE REFLECTED SHEAR OR PLATE WAVE IS MODE CONVERTED BACK TO LONGITUDINAL WAVES, WHICH THEN PROPAGATE TO THE TRANSDUCER THROUGH THE LIQUID COUPLANT. 20° ANGLE OF ‘REFRACTION 14