'l

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Trainingcoursefor ultrasonicNDT operators,basedon Saipem'smultimedia
I softwareof the sametitle

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I 1997,TrainingCentre'E.Gandolfi"

il COHTEMAGGIOHE

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I INDEN

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# J , r . R A S # f f 3 r . # ^ F f fr S r C S

t. l. Introductlon to ultraeounde s
I l.1.1. Generalttyof waves 3

1.2.$pee of ultrssonlc wavce 7

1.2.1. Longftudtnalwaves 7
1.2.2. Transversewaves I
I 1.2.3. Surfacewaves
I.2,4, I.ambwaves
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l.S. Gharacterletlc parameteru I

f .S.f . Propagailonveloctty I
f .3.2. FYequency r2
I 1.3.3.
1.3.4.
Wavelength
AcousUctmpedance
T2
12
1.3.5. Sound pressure r3
T 1.3.6. Acoustlctntensity

1.4. Propagf,tlon of ultrssourde

l5

r5

I 1.4.f.
1.4.2.
Huygens'constructlon
Irradtationfleld
15
l6
20
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1.4.3. Beamattenuatlon
1,4,4, laws of reflectlon 22
1.4.5. Laws of refractton 26
1.4.6. Dlffuston 31

I 1.4.7. Dlffraction 32

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^Sf^STA T, T, TIft G TI SF' S f S ff I"
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2.l.Rcfcrencee and defrnttlone 97 I
2.2. Iron-certon df rgfam

2.2.1. Addition of elements

8t

40
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?.S.Mechnnlcel tests tL?

42
t
2.3.f . Tenslletest
2.3,2. Hardnesstest 44
?.3.3. Restllencetest 47
2.3.4. Creeptest 48

2.4.$pce of fraeture so
?,.4.1. Tough fracture 50
2.4.2. Brittle fractures 50
2.4.3. Faflguefractures 5l

Z.S.IIeat treetmente ss
2.5.1. Introductton (theory) 55
2.5.2. Introductlon (technologr) 58
2.5.3. Full anneallng 59
2,6.4. Normaltsatlon 60
2.5.5. Hardentng 6I
2.5.6. Tempering 62
2.5,7. Thermo-chemicaltreatments 62

2.6.Productlon of catton eteelB

2.6.1. Marrufacturlngprocess
65

65
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2.6.2.
2.6.3.
2.6,4,
Classftcatlon of steels
Destsnatton of steels
Stalnlesssteels
70
72
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Classtftcationof products 75
t
2.6.5.

2.7.8tudy of defecte 86

2.7.1.
2.7.2.
2,7.3.
DlsconUnuiHestn steel
Discontlnuities tn foqgedpieces
DlsconUnulUesln castlngs
86
90
93
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2.7.4.
2.7,5.
2.7.6.
DisconUnulties tn rolled plates
Disconttnultles ln PtPes
Weld dtscontlnultles
94
96
s8 t

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I Stage I

T $.l.Teet prlnclple

9,2. Plcce teetlng

I slto;gp 2

t S.S.Trrneducers

3.9.1. Introductlon to transducers

llo

rro
Iro
I 3.3.2.
3.8.3.
3.3.4.
Ptezoelectrlctransducers
Electrostricttve transducers
Characterlsttcs of dlfferent matertals
ll2
ll4
3.3.5. Transducerexcttailon n4
l 3.3.6.
3.S.7.
3.3.8.
Straight bearn transducer for contact control
Angle beam contact control transducer
TWtncrystal contact transducer (transmitHngand receivtn$
118
ll9
12t

I 3.9.9.
3.3. lO.
3.$.f l.
Wheel-ffietrarrsducerc
Water-column transducers
Immerston transducers
122
t22
123

I 3.4. Intrf,sound equlpment

3.4.f . Ultrasound equiPment

r25
r25
t 3.4.2. Presentatlonsof the echogram
g.S,TGsrtrrgmethode
133

1S4

T 3.5.I.
3.5.2.
Pulse-echomethod
Resonancemethod
r34
137
3.5.3. Through-transrnlsslon method 138
I 3.6. Tcetlng tcchnlquee 141

T 3.6.1.
3.6.2.
Contacttechntque
Immerstontechnique
14l
143

t $.7. Sclcctton crltcrls

S,T,L Ultrasound equlpment

r48

I48
r49
3.7.2. Probe
I 3.7.3. Couplingmedlum 150

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Stage 3
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$.8. I[Btnrnent ccllbntlon and preprretlon lsr
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S.8.f . Tlme axis caltbration
3.8.2. Sensttlvttycaltbratton 159

9.9. Pcrlodlcal csllbratlon check L7r

3.9.1.
3.9.2.
Horlzontallineartty
Vertrcalllnearlty
171
172
t
3.9.$. Ampltllcation llneartty t74

S. l0.Ghancterlzatlon of ultrstontc trsnsdueerg 17$ I

3.lO.I. Characterizatlon of longitudinal probes
3.1O.2, Characterlzauonof angle probes
3.lO.S. Referenceblocks
t75
178
189
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Eto;ge 4 I
8.ll.Thc teet

3.1 1.l. Testtngloperatlons

198

195
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Surface preparaUon
Calibratron of the equlpment
Non-weldedltems: tests wlth longttudinal probes
r95
r95
r96
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Non-welded ttems: tests wlth ang;leprobes r98
Tests on welds
3.I1.2. Testtng techntques for the dlfferent product typologtes
Tests on rolled plates
t98
r99
199
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Tests on forged pleces
Tests on ca,silngs
Tests on geamlessplpes
20r
206
207
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Tests on weldedJolnts
3.1f .3. Assessmentof reflectors
Methods to locate the defects
2lr
2?,4
224
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Methods to slze the defects 228

GLOSSARY

APPENITIX
231

25r
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Testlng of austenltlc welds
SAIPEMprocedure for UT examlnation of weldedJotnts
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I Module1

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I PHYSICS
ULTRASOUND
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I Ultrasowtd physics

I TO ULTRASOUNDS
INTHODUCTION

I 1.1.1.Generalityof wav6s

All the materialmedia undergoa deformationwhen they are stressedby an external

action. The deformationimpliesthat a certainnumberof the medium particlesare
displacedfrom their positionof equilibrium.fn elasticmedia,those panides wtrichare
directlyperturbed start to vibratearoundtheir positionof equilibrium.
The vibrationsare
thentransmiftedto the particlesin the adjacentlayers,whichstartto oscillate,too. In this
way the initialstress,wtrichinvolvesdirectlyonly a portionof the medium,propagates
throughoutthe medium.

The perturbation
whichpropagatesacrossthe mediumis a wave.Obseruethat the whole
mediumdoesnot changeits position,thatis, it doesnotfollowthe perturbation
movement.
I To introducesome of the wave generalpropertieswe will use the exampleof the
propagation
of a wavealonga stretchedrope.
I Let us consider a rope which is
fastened at its (A) end and
I horizontally
stretched.
lf we imparta completeoscillationto
the loose end, so that it goes to B'
and then to B" and then againto B',
wE generatea deformation(wave)
wtrichpropagates alongthe rope.

lf, insteadof stoppingthe B end after

we keepmovingit
the firstoscillation,
periodicallybackwardsand fonruards
from B'to 8", we generatea wave
train which propagatesalong the
I rope.

Let us now considerthe statusof the

I ropeat a giventimet.

The shapeof the rope in that moment

I defines a curue (called wave form)
wlrichgraphicallyrepresentsthe wave
in that given time: on the x axis are
shoumthe distances"t' of the rope
pointsfromthe B end andon the y axis
the displacementsus' of the points
I fromtheirpositionof equilibrium.

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I SaipemTrainingCentreE. Gandolft
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
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We now let the wave propagate
along the rope, starting from the
t
giventimet, for a timeintervalAt.
I
The shapeof the waveat t'= t + At is
the sameas at time t, but shiftEdby
Ax in the positivex direction.
I
We can thereforesay that, as time
passes,the wave moves along the
I
ropewithoutchangingits shape.
t
I
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The examof waveformssuggestssomeusefulparameters waves:
wttichcharacterise
I
Amplitude Wavelength
t
I
I
On pointsP,Q,R,.". of th6 wave,the displacement
frornthe positiond equilibtiumis maximum.
PointsL, M, N, O, ... of the wave correspondto
t
dlmrn*lon of the maxlumundirplacrmcnt
calhd emplttudeAof thewaw.
thosepointsalongthe rope which,at a fixed time,
are in the sam6 oscillation condition (same
displacementard directionof motion):we say that
thesepointsare in phasecoincidence.
I
unft: lEt-l (miltimetre)
wavrlrngth L ie the dietance between
points of the wave that are In
I
phasecoincldencs.

Unil: lrnlffi-l(mittimetre) I
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 Period Frequency

dt-Is

prrlod T le thc tlmc mqulrudto thr weve The fnqurncy f of I weve b deffned ruferring
coyrr the dlstance of a wavelcngth. Itr pedod as:
f=ttT
t unft: [-Fl (second) Frequerrcyrepresentsthe didance, mefsured in
wavelen$hs,that the uravecor/ersin a time unil
(At=1s).
I unft:lEl (Hertz)

These properties are defined with PropagationvelocitY

reforenceto a on+dimensionalwave
I (waveon a rope),but can be aPPlied,
also
without substantialmodifications,
to the case of two-dimensional (for
e)(amplewaveson a watersurface)and
three-dimensional(wavesin a material
volume)wave$.

Some wave parameterscan be given

a differentinterpretation if, insteadof
considering the statu$of the ropeat a
giventime, we considerthe behaviour propagadonvoloclty V of a wave lt
of one of its pointsP as timepasses. covrrcd by the wave in a tlme unit.

After it has been reached bY the ln a homogeneous medium(havingthe sameelastic

perturbation,that point will start to
oscillate around its Position of
equilibrium. The oscillation of the point
can be represented on a graphicwhere
I the time t is on the abscissaaxis and
th6 displacements s of the pointfromits
propeiliesin all poittts)the wave motionis unifotm'
lf we obsele that, in a pedod time T, the wave
cwer$ a spacewtrichis equalto the wavelengthl',,
the velocity(spacdtime)is givenby:
V=LlT=lt1:

t restpositionare on the ordinateaxis.

unn: l@ persecond)
(meters

I
t SaipemTraining Cetre E. Gondolfi
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING

The resultinggraphic(timehistoryplot)
hasa looksimilarto thewaveform.
The oscillotionomplltude A ls given
by the moximum displocementof
one porticle of the medium from tts
positionof equllibrium.

Theperiodf is the timerequired

ciftfreparticles
complete
to one
of the mediumto covera
oscillation(cycle).
t
Thefrequency f of a waveis thenumber
oscillations
of complete (cycles)covered
At-Is
I
byoneof theparticles
time (1s).
unit
of themedium in a
I
I ivl ivtfl .f =2.5Ht
irlclal cyclci qcl+
I
To describewaves propagatingin a
material volume (three-dimensional
waves),we can draw some sudaces,
t
eachone passingthroughall the points
wlrich,at a given time, are subjectto
the sameperturbation (pointsin phase).
I
Thesesudacesare calledwavefront$. in pno,w
/\
adfunntary
points
The lines drawnperpendicularly
to the
successivewavefrontsare called radii
and they show the wave propagation
t
directions. rutrrtt funt
/cracs &ctbn)
- - - - - tgnrertf n ulg wilJe fru,nt
I
lf the medium is homogeneous
isotrope,the radiiare straightlines.
and peryenfrrz,larto rti w we tmnt
I
The shapeof the wavefrontsdepends I
on the typ€ of sourcewhichgenerates
the wave and on the propertiesof the
medium. I
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Ultrasound.

I The describedwaves are mechanical

wave, since they are caused by the
eleAmt''ryf,''}etic1F/4.es

I oscillatorymotionof the particlesof the

mediumwherethe propagation occurs.
Mechanicalwaves, because of their
) ) )
nrcIwdulil'dcr
I nature, can propagateonly across a

I
medium(unlikeelectromagnetic waves,
such as radio waves or light waves,
wfrich can propagateacrossvacuum,
too).
}llffiffiffi *?0000 Herte

t Soundsare made up with mechanical

waves,but theirfrequencyis limitedby
the audibilityrangeof the humanear,
__
*'
ror
J
rde
J
gonildrpla,ss*j*
rdi
ti
lfls
r
rilt - - - Haile
t
ilrtrg*wuictryErss +.

I wfrich cannot perceive frequencies

higherthan20,000Hz.

I waves.The
ft the wavefrequencygoesbeyondthislimitvaluewe cantalkabout ultrasonic
waves.
wavesemployedin metaltestingare ultrasonic

I
I WAVES
1.2. TYPESOF ULTRASONIC

1.2.1.Longltudinalwaves
I In longitudinalwaves the directionof
the particlesvibrationis parallelto the
I directionof the wavepropagation.

Longitudinalwaves are also called

I compression waves, due to their
propagation characteristics.Let us

t imagine that the particles of the

medium are placed on planes
perpendicularto the wave motion
directionat regulardistancesfromeach
I lf

{H .*t
other. Whenevera longitudinalwave
propagates,each plane of particlesis

I forcedto movein the samedirectionof

the wave,backwardsand fonrardswith
respectto its positionof equilibriumin

I the medium.

In this way alternaterarefactionzone$ (low pressure)and compressionzones (high

I pressure)are created,whosepositionmovesacrossthe medium.

I
I - Saipe4Training Ccure E. Gaildofr
NDT _ I,JLTRASONICTESTING
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1.2.2.Trangverse
wave$ t
In the case of transversewaves(or
shearwaves)thedirection
vibration
of theparticle
is perpendicular
I
to thedirection
in whichthewavetravels.
lmaginingthat the particlesof the
medium ar6 on planes whicfi are
perpendicularto the wave motion
direction,when a transversewave
propagates, each planeof particlesis
subjectedto a shearstressandvibrates
parallelto
itself. x..
wavescan propagate
Whilelongitudinal
acrossall materials(solids,liquidsor
gases),the propagationof transverse
unvescanonlyoccuracrosssolidmedia
(shearstresscannotbe transmitted in
gaseousandliquidsubstances).

1.2.3.$urfecewav€s

Sudacewavescan travelonly acrossthe

surfacelayerof solidmedia.

Their penetrationdepthwithinthe solid is

aboutonewavelengh(it you putyourhand
on the table,that is enoughto absorbthem
almostcompletely).

The vibration direction of the particles

varieswith continuity,from parallel(as in Mfrumot
the case of longitudinal waves) to prcpagalion
perpendicular(as in the caseof transverse
waves)to the directionof propagation,followingan ellipticalpath.For this reasonsurface
wavesare also referredto as compoundwaves.

Thesewavescan travelacrossall the surfaceof the solid medium,be reflectedat the

sudace boundariesand return to their startingpoint, unless they encounterabrupt
obstacles.

Note The penetration

depthis calculatedby the wavefength

I = 3,00C/4,000,000
formula: l;V/f
Forexample,in low-alloycahon ste€l(V = 3,000m/s),tor a 4 MHzwave,we have:

= 0.75mm
t
Below0.75mmfromthe suilace,zudacewavesare practicallynegligible. t
SaipemTraining
CenlreE. Gandolfi
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I Ultrasoundphysics

I 1.2.4.Lambwave$

I Lamb waves (or plate waves)are generatedw,henan ultrasonicwave travelsacross

to thewavelength.
mediawfrichhave a thicknesscomparable

I Lamb waves can be divided into two categoriesdependingon the particleoscillation

modes:

I SymmetricelLambwavos AsymmetricalLambwaves

Solf#fiS &lfantd$

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t
- -

l
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I The particlevibrationsare elliptical,but in

All the particlesvibrateellipticallyas in
I the case of surface waves, but in
oppositedirections, out of phaseby 180"
phasebetweenthe two sudaces,even if
in oppositedirections;central particles,
instead,vibratetransversally.
betweenone surfaceand the other,with
l the exceptionof centralparticleswttich
vibratelongitudinally.

I
1.3. CHARACTERISTICPARAMETERS

1.3.1.Propagationvelocity

The propagation velocityof ultrasonicwavesdependson the material.Besides,for each

material,there is a specificpropagationvelocityfor each type of wave (longitudinal,
I tran$verse,etc.).
wavevelocityvalue is biggerthan
In general,withinthe samemedium,the longitudinal
I wavevelocityvalueis slightlybiggerthanthat
that of transversewavesandthe transverse
of sudacewaves.

I The tableson the followingpageshowthe propagation

wavesin differentmaterials.
longitudinal
velocityvaluesof transverseand

I
I SaipemTraining CentreE Gandolti
NDT - TJLTRASONICTESTING
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VELOCITYOF SOME MATERIALS
PROPAGATION
fid m/s)
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HEATTHEATEDSTEEL

Heat Veloclty
METALS
Alumlnlum
Propagation velocit]
vl
6.32
Vt
3.13
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Strcl Nlcltelsllver 4.36 ?.16

Pured*l lor
treatrnent

Annaallng 5.94
VI Vt

3.24
Sllver
Blsmuth
3.60
2.18
1.59
1.10
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Bronze 3.53 2.2t
eEmentrtlon
uNtc 15
Pureconstructlon Anneallng 5.S4 3.25
Gadmlum
Con8tanlan
lron (Stecl)
2.78
5.24
5.S0
1.50
2.U
3.23
t
rted
uHlc40
Gastlron
Inconel
Magneslum
3.$- 5.8
7.82
S.TT
2.2-3.2
3.02
3.05
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$teellor took Anneallng 5.96 3.23
uNtc s8
Alloyed Anneallng s.95 3.26
Manganln
Mercuty
Hsrdmetal
'1.66
1.'15
6.8- 7.3
1.35

4.O- {7
3.35
t
6.29

t
construc{lon dBGl Hardenlng 5.93 3.24 liolybdenum
UNI35 Gr Mo 4 Temperlng 5.gl f,.23 Monel 6.02 2.72
Nlchel 5.6:l 2.S6
Stsel fsr Anneallng 5.S9 3.27 Gold 3.24 1.29

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bearlngr tlardenlng 5.89 3.20 4.4{l 2.20
Braag
uHt100fi6
Lead e.l6 0.70
Hlgh-spe€dstoel Anneallng 6.06 3.S5 Platlnum 3.S6 r.67
w N" 333it

Alloyud rteel
llardenlng

Anneallng
5.88

6.14
3.1S

3.31
Copper
Tln
Tltanlum
4.70
3.32
6.10
?.26
1.67
3.1?
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for toolr Hardenlng 6.01 i.22 Tungsten 5.46 2.62
uHt w210 cr 13 KV
Zlnc 4.17 2.41
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NOIII.METALLIG Propenatlon velocitY
MATEHIALS vl Vt FLUIDS
Propagation veloclty
VI Vt t
Alumlna
lce
Herd rubber
9-11
3.S8
2.3
'l
5.5* e5
Water (at 20'G)

Ah
1.5

0.00i13
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Sott rubfrsr 1.4S
Scalewtr
Plerlglat (Perspex)
Polyemmldee (F,lylon,...
)
2.2
2.73
2.2-L6
I .tlit
r.l - 1.2
Gar oll

Glycerol
1

2.5
0.80

1.26
t
Polyrterolo ?.35 1.15
Porcelaln
Quartz
5.6- At
5.57
3.5- 3.3
3.s2
Lubrlcatlonoll
(sAE 30)
1.5 0.87
I'
Eponyreslns 2.4- 2.S 1.1
Teflm
Glass(Fllnt)
Ghss (Kronl
1.35
4.26
5.66
0.55
2.56
3.42
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l0 SatpemTraining CentreE. Gandolfi
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t Ultrasoundphysics

I On the sideare shownthe propagation

waves. These expressions implythat
velocitycalculation
the propagation
tormulasfor diflerenttypesof
medium is characterised by such
I propertiesthat the wEVevelocityis independent
propagation.
from the frequencyand the directionof
In general,the denserthe material,the lowerthe soundvelocity.

Longltudlnalwaves Tren*venEewave$

I
v, u ' - {IG
E - { ;IilT
ffil

I $urfsce waveg
(appmximatiomtormula)
Lambwaves

t V, -Vt
rr,=#

I Lrgetd

I Vt = scousicvelocityd tranwersewaves(m/s)
=
Vt acDudicvelocig d longitud[nal wavee (nVs)
o = Poisson'sratio(nondimensional)
p = densityd the m€dium(Kdm)
=
G modulusof tangential (lVm)
elasticity o= angled Inciderrce waves
d longitudinal
I eladicitymodulusor Young'smodulus(lVm)
f = longitudinal

Velocityepressionsarevalidin the caseof :

t a continuous medium,$othatthe mediummicroscopic structure,composedof atoms,is

not relevant:
r an 'infinitd medium, or veryextendedwithrespectto the wavelength;
I an isotropemedium,that is havingelasticpropertieswhich do not dependon the
direction;

In ultrasoundapplication$we can assumethat the propagationmedia involvedare

characterised by allthe abovespecifiedproperties.
For example:if we a$sumea solidto be a continuous medium,this statementremains
valid as long as we considerelasticwaveswith a wavelengthwtrichis muchbiggerthan
I the interatomic
valid for frequencies below 1011or 1012Hz. Frequencies
holds
distances;in termsof frequency,this meansthat the approximation
used in ultrasoundtesting
practiceare lowerthan 107Hz,thatis, theylay in the freguencyrangewheresolidscan be
I considered to be continuousmedia.

t l1ote Thedensityp d a cedainmaterialis definedas the ratiomass(M)to volume(V):

p=lt/V [Kg/ml

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I CeureE. Gailofii
SaipemTraining ll
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
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1.3.2.Fruquency t
The most commonly used
frequenciesin ultrasonictesting
range from e5,000 Hertz up to
Frequencyvalusecommonlyused
in ultreeoniotsstinE
Fruqurncyrunga Appllcetbnr
t
25,000,000Hertz 0.f25 - 0.1 Cement,stood, rock and
rnalogow rflfierlalt hevlnga
roughdrusture.
I
Due to the high frequencyvalues
erploited, it is generally more
convenientto epress frequency
0.2-1 Greylroq metedalshavlnga
relrtlvely rough druclure
[copper,.,.)
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valuesin multiplesof the Hertz: 0.4 - 5 MHz $teel,elumlnlum,bresr
0.2 - 2.5 MHz Plertlcs and slmllar mstedals
. Kilohertz (1 KHz= 103Hz ) I - 2,?5 MHz Ferrousand norrferrous
weldlngr
. Megahertz(1 MHz = tO6nz )
r.5
1-10
HHz
MHz
Lemlnaterdteet+ bar+ blllets
Ferrour and norrferroua
lorglnge
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2.5 - 10 MHz Glassand cerEmlc
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1.3.3.Wavelengilh

Remember that between the Wrvdrngthr I (mm)

I
wavelengthl, , the frequency I
andthe propagation velocityV of
an ultrasonicwave, the following
Frequency
(Iffiz)

05
Loneitudind
Alumlnlum $teel
t264 ItSS
Trangverse
[.lumlnium
6.26
Steel
648
t
formulaexists:
?r,-V /f
I
2
632
3.16
5.9{
?fi
3.13
t5f
3-24
t62
I
The relationhas been appliedto
the calculationslistedin the table
3
+
2rl
153
198
I /fB
1.04
0t8
IIl8
0ar I
on the side, wfrich shows the J l.26 l.l9 0.63 0.65
wavelengthvalues corresponding
to different frequencies of
6
T
l$5
0gtt
0.99
0s5
052
0i5
054
046
I
longitudinal
and transversewaves
in aluminium(V=6320m/s) and I 0.79 0.74 039 0.i10
steel(V=$940m/s),whichare the I 0.70 06d 035 036
materials most frequentlytested l0 0.63 059 031 032
withultrasounds.

1.3.4.Acoustic impedance t
The acousticimpedanceZ of a materialelpressesthe oppositeresistanceof the material
to ultrasoundpropagation. This quantityis definedas the productof the materialdensityp
I'
3
(in kg / m ) by the velocityV (in m/s)of the wavesbeingconsidered:

Z=pxV Ikg/(mzs)J
t
I'
t2 CewreE. Gandolfi
SorrymTraining
I
I Ultrasoundplrysics

I tablesshowtheacoustic
Thefollowing valueof somematerials;
impedance thecalculation
has been basedon the materialdensityvaluesand on the tablewl'richshowsthe
l propagation
velocity
of longitudinal waves.
andtransverse

I IMPHDANCE
ACOUSTIC OF SOMEMATEHIALS
(ltr kslnfs)

I Itenclty p
METALS
ACOUSNC|I|PEDA}SE Donsltyp
NONMETALS
ACOlntTtcttFEDAlSE

I ld Ks/m3
2,7
8.tl
Alumlnlum
l{lcltel rllver
21=pV1 4'pvt
17
4{t
8.5
18
103KEms
3.6* 3.95 Alumlne
0.9 lce
21epVl 4-pvt
3? - tts
3.6
20-16
2

I 10.5
9.8
8.86
Sllwr
E|smuh
Bronze
38
21
31.2
1T
11
19.8
1.2
0.s
0.8:t
Hardrubber
$oft rubber
Scelewex
2.8
1.4
1.8
1.2
0.0
0.8:l

t 8.6 Gadmlum 24 13 t.t8 Plexlglas 3.? 1.7

&8 Gongtantan 46 23 1.1- 1.2 Polyammldec 2.4- 3.1 r.2 - 1.4
7.7 lron (Steel) rl5 25 (Nylon,Perlon)
6.0- 7.2 Gad lron 25-42 15-23 1.06 Polyrterolo 2.5 1.2

I 8.25
1,7
8.4
lnconel
llagneCum
Mrngnnln
64.6
10
39
?4.8
5
20
2.4
2.6
Porceleln
Ouailz
1.1-1.25 Eponyrednr
13
14.5
2.7 -3.6
8.4 - 8.8
I
1.2* 1.3

t 13.6 lierarry
1 t - 1 5 tlerd metal
10.00 Molybtlenum
20
Tt -1U2
63.5
13.6
44-70
#t.8
2.2
3.6
2.5
Tallon
Ghes (Fllnt)
Ghss (Kron)
3
15
14
t.2
I
8.5
8.83 llonel 53.1 24,o
I 8.8
19.3
l{lchel
Gold
50
6lt
26
23
tlcnsity p
ld Kglmg
FLUIDS
ACOUSTIClllPEDAlrcE
Z1apVl
8.4 Brers 37 18.5 4=pvt
t 11.4
21.4
8.9
Lsad
Platlnum
Gopper
25
85
42
I
36
20
I
0.001
Water (at 20"G)
Alr
1.5
0.0fit3
I

7.3 Tln 24 12 0.80 Ger oll 1 o.80

rl.5rl Tltanlum 27.7 1t1.1 1.26 Glycerol 2.5 1.?6
1S.l Tungtten 104 50 0.87 Lubrlcatlonoll 1.5 0.87
(sAE 30)

I 7.1 Zlnc 30 17

I 1.3.5.Sound preseure

I The soundpres$ureP is the forcethatthe ultrasonic wavee$ibits to a sudacehavinga

to the directionof propagation
unitaryareawhichis perpendicular of the wave.

I ThenP is erpressedas follows:

P=F/S [N/m2=Pa(Pascal)]
I where S (mt) is the areaof the waveincidencesurfaceand F (Newton,N) is the (vector
I length)forcethatthe wavee$ibits to the surface.

t SaipemTraining CemreE. Gado$i

I{I}T - T]LTRASONICTESTING
I
I
weves
Longltudlnalwaws

imifunce
Transvsrse

incidez,cs
I
I
t
t
I
In thecaseof longitudinalwaves,
vibrationsof the medium
the
particles
are
ln the caseof transversewaves,the vibrations
of the mediumparticlesare perpendiotlar to the I
paralleltothe directionof prupagation of the directionof propagation of the wave.The force
wave.The forceexhibitedby thewaveis
paralleltothe directionof propagation
exhibiledby the waveis orthogonaltothe
directionof propagation(shearstrain). I
(orthogonaf strain).
I
Theacoustic is a valuethatcanbe readdirectlyby meansof ultrasonic
pressure testing
instruments(fromsuchvaluewecandeduce theintensity
In practice,ratiosbetweenacousticpressures
of ultrasounds).
(relativemeasures) ratherthan single I
acousticpressure values(absolute measures) are measured; the valuesof theseratios
canvarywithina widerange(in practice,
thistheyarecommonly expres$es
=
between1 and 105 100000)
(seethetablebelow).
in decibels
andbecauseof
I
llon dchlla ebout declbcl
Plp2
RTIESE trESSEIt lll IIECIEEL{dBl
dE FI,P2 dE
s.5
P.IJPE
?rA.2
dE
?sl
I
rll 0.0 2.98
The decibel represents a way to
sxpressthe exis{ingratio between
ttrtto quantities A1 and A2, for
exampfebetwe€nthe amplittdesof
tJtSs
1.12;2
1.t89
0.5
I
1.5
3.t6
3.55
4.00
t0
tt
1?
31.6
35.5
40
30 1
3rl
32
t
t.2E z 4.46 t3 45 trf
an amplilicationcircuit input and
or.rtpulsignals(see exampleon the
side) or betu,senthe intensitiesof
r.3:13
l.{13
t.{s7
e5
3
3.5
5.0t
5.62
6J2
t{
t5
t6
50
58
63
34
35
36
I
turonoises.

When the A1/AA ratio gives very

large or very unall values, it is
1.585
t.68
1.78
4
f.5
5
7Jt8
7.St
8.SO
{7
t8
ts
7t
80
89
37
38
3S
40
I
la85 5.5 t0 20 t00
corwEnient to express it in rt.2 zl r78 45
2J 6
lognrithmicterms by means of the 212 a5 l?;6 22 3t6 50
followingrelation: u24 T t{.{ 23 560 55
20logro ( Al / A2 )
The quantigobtainedis the valued
2l'7
e5r
2.66
7&.
7.5
I
8.5
s
t6
t7.8
20
tLl
24
25
2fi
27
tmo
3t62
tuno
31623
60
70
8tl
00
t
the retioexpressedin declbel (dB).
25.1 28 ill{xt{t0 Iru
I
l4 CcntreE Gandolfr
SatpcmTraining
t
I Ultrasoundphysics

I 1.3.6.Acousticintensity

I The acousticintensityI is the soundenergywhich,in one second,passesthrougha

surfacehavinga unitaryareawlrichis perpendicular of propagation
to thedirection of the
wave.Hencewecanwrite:
I I =E/S IW/m2]
whereS is the areaof the surfaceand E is the energythatpassesthroughit in one
I second.
The intensity can be expressedin terms of acoustic pre$sure P and material
I impedance Z:
l = P zl 2 2

I withthe squarepressure.
whichgivesthat,in any material,I increases

I Notr The soundenergywhichpassesacrossa surfaceis the mechanicalenergywlrichthe vibrating

panidesof the mediumon oneeideof the sudacetran$erto lhe pailicleson the otherside.
Energyis measuredin Joules(J). The soundenergywtrichin one secundpassesthrougha
I certainsudaceis measuredin Jouledsecond,or in Watts(W):

lW-1J/1s

I The $oundintensity(energywtdchin one secondpas$esthrougha unitaryarea surface)is

measuredinW/m?.

I
I OF ULTRASOUNDS
1.4. PHOPAGATION

1.4.1.Huygens'conetruction

I Huygens'principleis at the base of a

method which allows to predict the
slheficalrr.wes
emittadhy the

t propagation
of a waveacrossa medium.

Let us supposethat we knowthe position

poiarsor,S

I of a wavefront$ (planeor spherical,to

makeit simpler)at a giventime.
PL TEWfvES

I Accordingto Huygens,everypointof $ is
the sourceof a new sphericalwavewhich
propagatesacrossthe medium.
SP}IHICALWAVES

I The new positionof the wavefrontat a

successivetime (surface$') is the sudace
t wlrich is tangent to all the spherical
elementarywaves emittedby the points
on S.
*o*t*+9.
I
I Saiper4TrainingCenlreE GandolIi 15
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
The points on S' behave like sourcesof new waves and the process is repeated
thuscausingthe propagation
continuously of the waveacrossthe medium.
I
A few remarkson Huygens'construc'tion: I
1) the constructionis applied to the propagationof waves in general, not only of
mechanicalwaves,and thereforealso to the propagationof electromagnetic waves I
acrossvacuum;

2) by Huygens'method we can deduceonlythe geometricalaspectsof propagation,

such I
as the shapeof wavefrontsandtheirshiftdirection.
Other wave properties,for exampletheir amplitude,can be deducedtry means of
mathematicalproceduresbased on a constructionwlrich is analogousto the one
presentedhere.

1.4.2.lrradiationfield

The propagationof an ultrasonicbeamacrossa mediumimpliesthe vibration of the

successivelayersof the material.The oscillationaffectsa certainzone of the layerand
beyondthis zone the materialremainsunperturbed. lf we ioin the boundariesof these
zonesbelongingto thoselayerswtrichstartto oscillatein sequence,we definethe region
I
of the beam,knownas irradiationfield.
of spacewhichis affectedby the propagation

The geometrical
shapeof the irradiation fielddependson the sourcedimensionsand on
I
the wavelen$hof the vibrationswfrichtravelacro$sthe medium.

Below you can see the configuration of the beam with standardultrasoundsources
I
(circularplates)commonlyusedin ultrasonic testing.
non-destructive

Perepective Gross view

I
I'
l6 Cenlre
SorrymTraining E. Gandolfi
I
 Ultrasoundphysics

intotwosuccessive
to bedivided
fieldappears
Theirradiation zones:
- in the regionnear the source,
calledthe nearfield (or Fresnel
zone), the beam has an
approximately cylindricalshape
(the resultantwave is a Plane
wave);this zoneextendsin the
mediumuntil a certaindistance
from the beam entry $urface,
andthis distanceis the depthof
the nearfield
- beyondthe nearfield,the beam
startsto divergewitha constant
divergence angle;in this zone,
called the far field (or
Fraunhdferzone),the resultant
waveis sphericaland the beam
has a conicalshape;the cone
axis defines the beam
propagation direction.

The depthof the near field and the beamdivergenceanglein the far field depend,in
I general,on:
r the souroedimensions
andfrequenry;
t r the wave propagationvelocityv across
the material.
With a circular plane source having a
witha
radius r whichoscillatessinusoidally
frequency f, the following calculation
I formulasholdvalid:
If xf
a - -
4xv

rr - 1,2
I fxD

where D is the transducereffectivediameter.

l
t Effrctlvc dlamster and geometrlc diemetsr
The €ffec'tivediameterD definesthe dimensionsof the acoudicellyefficienttransducer.The etfec'tive

t diameterls alwayssrnallerthanthe geometdcdiameterDo=2r,slncethe transduceredges,beingblocked

container,do notvibrate.
by the transdr.rcer
The dfectlvediamder D haswiththe geomdricdiameterDothefollowingempiricalrelationshlp:
I D - 0,97Do 1Oa= O,S+OS Oo?I.

t Saipe4 TrainingCmtreE Gilildolfr t7

NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
The graphic on the side shows the
t
trend of the soundpressurealongthe
beamaxis (circularplanesource). I
In the near field a series of sharp
maximumand minimumvaluescan be
observed;they are due to interference
t
phenomenawlrich have their originin
the slightly convergentshape of the
beam;the last maximumis the limit
I
wfrichseparatesthe twozones.

In the far field, the sound pressure

I
along the axis decreaseswith the
reciprocalof the distance from the
source (this means that the intensity
I
decreaseswiththe squaredistance).
t
I
I
Nondotdle

Eract erprsssion of P
I
Thevariationd the soundpressureP alongthe beamaxisis expressedby the formula:
-r]]
I
P- Po.r,*[f[tf,.
2 Prrssure In the lar ficH I
In the fer tield,wlreret >>r,lhe soundpressurealongthe axislollowsthe law (approximate):
2

P- P ^ .T= ,I+
r I
Lagerd:
r = radiusof the circularplanesource
P6= Inhialprsssure
l. = wevelongfih
cf the medium
I = distancefromthe source
I
I"
Theformutaof the beamdivergenceu in thefar fieldindicatesthat in a givenmaterial: I
. the higherthe testfrequency(smalll,)
r the biggerthe transducerdiameter l,
the beamand,withthe samefrequencyand transducerdiameter:
the moreconcentrated
I
r the lowerthe propagation
velocity

the moreconcentrated
the beam.
I
IE SatpemTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi
I
I Ultrasoundplrysics

t To obtaina betterbeamdirectionwe thenhaveto selectthe highestfrequencyand the

biggesttransducer it is not possibleto usehighfrequencies
diameterpossible.Sometimes
I or big-diameter
transducersandin suchcasesa compromise

The possibilitiesto control the c

mustbe found.

ultrasonicbeam directionappear
ev6n mor6 evident if we consider
the curves shown on the side.
I These representthe trend of the
divergenceanglein functionof the
frequencyf and of the transducer
effectivadiameterD, for aluminium
and steel(the two most intere$ting
cases in the practiceof ultrasonic
t testing).
By examiningthe graphicswe can
drawthe alreadymentioned conclu-
sions concemingthe dependence
of a on:
r the testfrequency;
I r the transducerdiameter;
r the propagationvelocityacross
the medium.

One ol the most relevant SoUrct Enrr$cs

consequencesof the beam
t divergence (conicalshape)in the
far field is that the quantttyof
E
ultrasonicenergy, incidenton a
t certainarea, decreaseswith tha
squdredistancefromthesourca. E
This phenomenon is true for any I
I formof radioenergy,andis knowrr
as geometricalattenuation.
Dlstanccs
I withthematerial
It causes,together
acoustic power absorption
(structural attenuation), the
I progressiveattenuationthat the
beam undergoeswhen it travels
acrossa medium.
I In ultrasonictestingbothphenomena
shouldbe keptintoaccountwlrentestingthe signals
f romfar discontinuities.
I
I
I
I SaipemTraining CcnlreE Gandotri l9
NDT - TJLTRASONICTHSTING
t
1.4,3.Beamattenuation I
An ultrasonicbeamwtrich propagates
it extinguishes
acrossa medium,is progressively
after havingcovereda certain path wtroselength
attenuateduntil
depends on the beam I
on the natureandconditionof the medium.
frequenry,on its initialamplitude,

can be mainlydueto twodifferenttypesof phenomena:

The beamattenuation I
t gaotTtqtricalattenuation:the geometricaldivergencein the far field ol the
irradiation
field; I
t structuralaftenuation: betweenthe beamand the mediumit is
the interactions
travellingacros$,wtrichcausethe absorptionof acoustic
powerby the material
I
The structuralattenuationcausesa
decrease in acoustic pressure in
lunctionof thedistance, to an
according
I
exponentiallaw (law of structural
attenuation): t
P = Poe-Ct)t
wh e r e :

a (Neper/cml= coefficiant
of structural
attenuation
x (cm)= lengthof ultrasonic
path
Po = initialacoustic pressure
P = finalacousticpressure

The law of structuralattenuationcan be expressedin terms of the ultrasonicbeam

I
intensity,insteadof the acousticpressure,in whichcaseit hasthefollowingexpression:
I,
I = Is.-oC*

wtrereuj is the attenuationcoefficientreferredto intensity.

I
exists:
a and cr the followingrelationship
Betweenthe coefficients l,
d =2u
I
I
20 CentreE, Gandoffi
SarpemTraining
t
I Ultrasound.physics

I coefficientn is
lf the attenuation
(dB/mm),
epressedin decibel/mm
I as it is in practic€,the law of
structural canbe written
attenuation
asfollows:

P=Ps10#
I The graphicrepresentation
of the
is
relationship given
ontheside.

I Theattenuation
the medium
coetficientu dependson thewayin wtrichthe natureandthe statusof
cause the drop,moreor lessrapid,of the acousticpressure.
crystals(metalsin general),withinthefrequency
In the caseof
rangewhichis normallyusedfor non-
testing,theattenuation
destructive is givenbytheaddition
coefficient ofthetwoterms:
(t= fl,s+ fla

r whichcorrespond of thetwophenomena
to thecontributions causing
theattenuation:
energyby the mediumandthe transformation
the absorptionof ultrasonic of energyinto
heat (s");
the diffusion,wlrichtakesenergyfrom the beamand diffusesit in variousdirections
I (n.).

I shows some curve$ for the

rourd
The diagramgiven on the side Drrrrrrr lxl
Attrffitlo
l.Bl

I
I
(percent)
pressure
decrease of the acoustic tl t m
valueof a planewaveas
the thicknessof the mediumit
travelsacrossvaries.The curves
refer to a seriesof attenuation t 0
n hil..

a0
..H
+
t:
\i
't'

\
t
iTffi
*!{t'**'
:{[

: :
:.ill
It

\ mI
,lifi
lr

\:
i\
ffi1"
n.+..,

coefficient fl values ranging E .,.1,,,,.

\:ii:i ffi
between 1x10-3 dB/mm and
I
li

2 \ :\
3oox1o-3dB/mm. tI ;i ii :i it Ii lI
I \ \ t iiiill-m

I Given a certain status of the 't

.1..:.;.r.iII
u..i..ii.il I
medium,it is the wavefrequency, r-r t.++i'il I

(on which the atlenuation ,\ t l[i..i++ll-Jo

ItflL-r
ll
I coefficient depends) that defines
the rapidity of the acoustic
pressure
drop.
t-t
r-l
rr tt El lil l0r
I
ElOf,t 2 E lllr

I tlar*,rcrr -...+

When a high frequenryis adopted,for examplefor reasonsof beam direction,the

disadvantageis that, comparedto a low frequency,the high one allowsa less deep
explorationdepth,as a consequenceof the higherattenuation
value.

CetreE. Gadolfi
SairymTraining
NDT - TJLTRASONICTESTING
I
Eperimentallywe find that
the cr value varies
A TTENLIAnON ffiEtrlCrENr c' (10'rdB/mmf I
LilT ffitH HG[l
considerablyin relationwith
the typeandthEstatusof the
material.
trfit t tot0

CAST:
frmr l0to
Htll-Y
blgpprttnn lll
AESOnPT|oII I
t
PLT$NCilTIHHLE
Alinir. p.Y.c.)
pra (Pulftcrdo, pcrrpctt' rrtbcr'
llqmrful:
We can see this by looking E sBftlh rfolrd
P|rdicr ???trrhrtc
at the table on the side, WOFKED: of rubDGr. hrrdarpd
wtrich report$ the range of
the attenuation coefficient
values of longitudinal
Stssl.Afri*n.
llagncriun.
llickcl. Titmim.
nrDbar, wood

It HLY UIFFU$tOll
I
Silv*, Turgrten
incident waves, with a
frequency of 2 MHz, for
certain materials at room
IIOH-IIETALS:
Ela*, Folcclain
t|-lhilfln|

Crddccl,rfgl*ly
rfqpd
Ax0Il AG[ffStUr{TLLOYS

I
I
f.art rtcd-
tlstb anoycd
I
temperature.
l$gh Srrlilycrrt kon
I
I
Lor rtrtngth
carn toon I
In most practicalcase$,the I CA$T:
attenuationvalueis suchthat
it allowsultrasonictestingof
lne given
values I urofrffIts
approximate
Copgor,Z@
Brrtt, Lcrd
I
I
Coppcr,Zkrt,
EronrsrErrrr I
piecesthat are thicker than lare I I Poruur ctramlc
1 metre.
I
is verylow;steelis characterised
attenuation
In aluminium and
by a higherattenuation
brassandbronzeby anevenhigherone. I
Cast stainlesssteel (castings, weldings) featuresso high an attenuationvalue that
ultrasonic
by a lowerattenuation
forged)it is characterised
(laminate,
wlrenit is semi-finished
testingcannotbe carriedout;instead, draft,
testingin
value whichallowsultrasonic I
mostcases.
In the caseof castiron,the attenuation valueis veryhighif the graphiteis in large
laminateshape,andit decreases if thegraphite to powderand clustered
is reduced into
nodules,untilit almostreachss
thatof $teel.

1.4.4.Lawsof reflection
Let us nowexaminethe behaviourof
the ultrasonicbeamwhenit impinges
on the interface between two
differentmedia.

We will onlyconsiderthe casewhere

I
the beam is perpendicularto the
separation$urface(incidenceat an
angleotherthan normalis treatedin
f.
the section dedicated to refraction
laws). t
22 CenlreE. Gandolrt
Satpen\Training
 Uhrasoundplrysfcs

When the ultrasonicbeamimpinges

on the separationsurface between
two media(whichis calledintedace),
we havethat:

I r one pan of the beam is reflected

by the interface back to the
mediumit is comingfrom(A)
t r the remainingpart of the beam
travelsacross the interfaceand
t continues
B.
its pathacrossmedium

I
I The amountof energyof the beamwhichpassesinto mediumB dependson the acustic
values Zr and Ze ol the twomedia.
impedence

I The vafueswtrichdescribethisphenomenon

t reflectioncoafficientH,:
are:

is definedas the ratio betweenthe reflected

I intensity
acoustic andtheincident intensity:
acoustic
H1 = Irl11

I The coetficient
value,multipliedby 100,epre$ses
the percentageof incidentenergywtrichis reflected
I backto themediumthe beamis comingfrom.
For example,in the water/steelpassage it is
Hr=0.8751,wtrichmeansthat 87.51%of the beam
I energyis reflectedinto water and does not pass
throughthe incidence sudace.

t coefficientT1:
transmrssrbn is definedas the ratio betweenthe transmitted
acousticintensityandthe incidentacousticintensity:

I Tr =It/Ii

The coetficientvalue,multipliedby 100,expresses

I the percentageof the incidentbeamenergywtrich
passe$throughthe incidencesurfacecontinuingits
path across B. For example,in the water/steel
I passageit is Tr = 0.1249,wttichmeansthat 12.49/o
of the beamenergypenetrates intosteel.
I
l
t -- SaipemTrainingCentreE Gaildolft
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
t
Theepressionsof suchcoefficients, aregivenby:
intermsof impedance,
t
t
r,-+_ffi *,-+-(ml'
with: R1+T1= 1
I
where:It= Transmittedbeamintensity
t= Reflectedbeamintensity
Ii = Incidentbeamintensity

valuescan be graphically
I
The fact that the reflectioncoefficientdependson impedance
representedif we r+write H, as follows:
I
Rr-
RI
t.l
I
t.t
0.t
e.7

The obtained epression

showsthat Hr dependsonly
t.3
t-r
t.t
I
on the ratio between the
acousticimpedance
valuesof 0.t
thetwomedia. l_2
t_l
The graphicrepresentation
of
theepressionis givenon the
t"0

z^tzE
I
side.
Certainpropertiesof the relationshipbetweenH, and the impedanceratio allow us to
deducesomeimportanta$pectsof the phenomenon of reflection:

if two mediahave identicalor very similaracousticimpedancevalues,the reflection

I
coefficientis zeroedor is reducedto a negligiblevalue;this meansthat the interface
betweenthe two mediadoesnot actas an obstacleto the propagation of ultrasound.

the reflectioncoefticienttakes an equalvalue for a ertain ratio ZnlZe and for its
reciprocalZelZa;the meaningof this equationis that the value of the reflection
coefficientin the passagefromone mediumto anotheris the samein bothdirections.
I
I
l''
u TrainhgCentreE, Gandolfi
Sadpetn
I
I
 I physics
Ultrasound.

I TheratiosZalTaconsidered inthegraphrangefrom1 to 100.Thegraphcanalsobe used

to determinethe reflection in a ratiobetweenimpedance
coefficient valueswhichis
I smaller
thanone.Thisoccurs, forexample,inthepa$sagewater/ steel,sincewehave:
Zwrr"= 1'5x 10ekg/mzS
Zrlu*= 45 x 106kg/mas

t When we have ZNZa <1, if we base our calculationon the fact that the reflection
coetficienttakesthe samevaluein a givenratioand in its reciprocal,
reciprocalratioandthusobtainthe graphicrepresentation
we can considerthe
of the correspondingvalueRr.

These resultsholdvalid whenthe mediainvolvedin the reflectionphenomenon are 'of

infinitedimensions',that is very large with respectto the used wavelength;in this
I hypothesisthe phenomenonis not conditionedby the frequencyof the waves under
examinations.

I Independence fromthe frequency(orfromthe wavelength)cannotbe verifiedin the case

o f a t h i n l a y e r otfh e m e d i u mB i m m e r s e d i n a m e d i uAm
, i f t h e t h i c k n e sSs o f B i s
smaller than the wavelength 1,. In theseconditions we talkaboutreflectionon thinfilms.
I In thinfilmsreflection,the reflection
coefficientRpvariesas a functionof Rr
the ratiobetweenthe thicknessS of
film B to wavelengthlr" of the waves l'tl
in A.

Whenthe thicknessis muchsmaller

than the wavelength,the reflection
coetficientdecreaseswith the film
thicknessof the film untilit is annulled
(weassumea fixedtrequency). 0.5

As we increasethe frequency,the
minimumthicknesswtrichallowsa
100o/ore{lection(lower limit of the
zone)decreases.
totalrBflection
o0F
It00l 0.1
Tldclffite IFml

Eperimentallywe havethat layersof air thinnerthan 1 Hmare still detectable.This is of

the utmostimportanoe
for the aim of detectionof very smallfatiguecracks,or hydrogen
flakes,etc...

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The graphon the side showsthe
o/ovalue of reflectionin an air or
RsnsdinT
Air
t
water discontinuity,or in steeland
aluminium,as a functionof the
product of the discontinuity
I
m
thickness[mm] by the frequency
IMHzl. 70 I
60 Ahrtfiinit n Aluninium
From the graph we have that in
steel,with a frequencyof 2 MHz, 5tl
Stael
I
an air discontinuityhaving a 40
rhicknessgreater than 1/200,000
mm is en6ugnto have 100% of
3ll I
reflection.Again, in steel, with a ?ll
discontinuitycomposedof water,if
the discontinuity
thicknessis more
t0
o
I
than 1/20mm, we have 100%of
reflection. Thh*nessx FreSnmYImm ffizl I
1.4.5.Laweof refraction

The phenomenonof refractionoccurs wlren an ultrasonic beam impinges the

I
intedaceS betweentwo differentmediaA and B, at an angleotherthan normalto the
intsrfaceitself. I
Theanglei between
thenormalto
incidence
the beamand
thesurface
angle.
S is called I
Theprimarybeam,whenit reaches
the incidencepoint O, creates4
I
beams having four different
directions:two of them remain
within the medium A (reflected
I
rays) and the other two penetrate
intoth6 mediumB (refractedrays). I
The part of the beamwtrichenters
the mediumB is a function,as well
as in the case of reflection,of the
acousticimpedancevalues of the
two media.

Refraction a partialconversion
implies,togetherwiththe beamsubdivision, of the vibration
modeof the incidentbeam.

26 CenlreE. Gandnlfi
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I Ultrasoundphysdcs

I lf we assumethat the incident

beam (I) is composed of
I longitudinalwave$,one of the
two reflected beams (t) is
composed of longitudinal
I vibrations,while the other (T)
is composed of transverse
vibrations,havingundergone a
I conversion of the vibration
mode with respect to the
incidentbeam.
I Analogously, of the two
refractedbeams, one (L') is
I and the other(T')
longitudinal
is transverse.

I The mode conversioneffect also occurs wlren the incidentbeam is composedof

transversewaves (we are still assumingthe incidenceis not normalto the interface
I betweenthe two media).
beamsare definedby twolaws:
The directionsof the reflectedandrefrac'ted
I
angleof longitudinal
1) the reflection
I waves (a) is the same as the
incidenceangle(i)

I
I 2\ Snell's/aw; the ratio betweenthe
propagation velocityof a beamand
the sine of the angleit formswith
I the normalto the interface,
same value for each of the
hasthe
beams
producedby refraction(K is the
ratiosconstantvalue).
l{ote
I Sincethe ratiosmud be equivalenfi,
have thf,t the higher the beam
we
prcpagntionvelocity,th€ biggertheeine
I of the angle the beam forms wtth the
normalto the surface(then,the tigger
the angletm).

I This explainsthe higher inclinationof

longitudinalbeamswilh respectto that
of tranwerseones,in bothA and B.

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The two laws can also be combinedto obtainthe formulasfor the calculationof the
as a functionof the incidentangle and of the
reflectedand refractedbeaminclinations,
I
propagationvelocityin the two media:
t
,rnf-$ scnF'-
v3D
Ecna', -
vrr
E- I
where: t
K - vscn1I I
of Snell'sLaw.
is theconstant I
Letusnowe)€minesomeimplications law.
of Snell's
I
For the angle F of the reflected
waves,thelawsaysthat::
transverse
I
Tr
- V,.^
scnp-;;-seni5#a1
Yl.rr vr*r I
This means that the inclinationof the
reflectedtransversebeamcannotexceed I
a limitof p'"o, wttichis reachedwhenthe
incidentbeam is tangentto the surface
(i = 90'). I
The maximuminclinationof the reflectedtransversebeamis fixedby the ratio between
the transverseand longitudinalvelocityof wavesin A; this meansthat Bm"*dependsonly
I
on the materialwtrichcontainsthe incidentbeam.

lf the velocity of longitudinalwaves

I
across the second medium ( B ) is
greater than that across the first
one ( A ), then the angle of the
I
longitudinal refracted waves L' is
biggerthanthe incidenceangle i . t
lf w6 increase the incident beam
inclination reach an angle
calledthe first criticalangleis1, and
l,
the longitudinalwaves cease to be
transmittedand are totally reflected
onto the interface between the two
I
media.
t
28 SatpcraTraining CentreE Gandolfi
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I Ultasoundphysrcs

I The sama is valid for the tran$verse

refractedbeam:
I - if alsothe transvorsewavevelocityin
B is higherthan that of longitudinal
I wavesin A, increasingthe incidence
anglewe will reacha valuehz (> icr)
(sdcond critical angle) where the
I transversewaves too cease to be
transmitted.

I Snell'slawdefinesthe geometrical conditionswlrichcausethe splittingof the reflectedand

refractedbeams and the conversionof the vibrationmode (from longitudinalinto
I transverseand surfacemode).Let us now considerthe splittingof the beamintensityin
the ditferentreflectionand refractiondirections.In the case of the reflectedbeam,for
example,we can reporton the graphthe distribution of the intensityof longitudinal( L )
I andtransverse( T ) waves,depending on the incidenceanglei:

I OFTHEREFTECTED
SPL]TTNG BEAMINTENSITY
Suilace:steellair

I :ttl
Transvemewaves Lonqitudinal

f
t
I

ir i:

il /
i\ /

i:
:l

I ii
i: L
ItE "/*
ts t f i l t n r t f t u F l r
lns{*silgh i lmih*nlndr i

f {} # lli trP I3. ll" illf

For the refractedbeam we give, as an tF
l$ ? 3* lp {||ila lll tt3
example,the diagramsof the intensity
distributionof longitudinal( L') and
transverse ( T') refracted waves, for
waveswtrichare incidentto the surfaces
waterlaluminium. Note that, unlike the
reflectiongraphs,on the abscissaaxiswe
have here the longitudinal( a') and
transverse( p') wavesrefraction
angles.
The corresponding incidenceanglescan

t be found on the referencesabove the

graph.
(N.8.Thetopscalerefersto T',thebottom
oneto L')
fidrrtm rth tt', f'

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The conversionof the vibrationmode wtrich characterisesrefractionhas important I
amongthem the productionof angledand superficial beamsof
practicalimplications,
transversewaves.
I
To give you an idea, let us examine
plexiglasand steel and let us suppose
that a beam of longitudinalwaves I
coming from plexiglas impinges the
interfaceat an incidenceangle c = 20o.

( L')
t
The inclinationof the longitudinal
and transverse( T') refractedbeamsin
steel can be calculated by means of
I
Snell'slaw.
#e I
To obtain the describedsituationin
practice,we only need to install a
I
transducer
inclination
on a plexiglasshoe at an
of ?0' with respectto the
plane,and put the shoenext
I
horizontal
to a pieceof steel.
I
Theshoesudaceinclination is equalto
the incidence
medium.
angleof the beamon the
I

lf we wantthe refractedbeamto propagateacrossthe mediumin a certaindirection,we

mustapplySnell'slaw to calculate
the corresponding angleof incidenceand then incline
the plexiglas
shoewlrerethe probeis installedof the sameangle.

In orderto obtainonly one anglebeamof transversewaveswithinsteel,you have to

increasethe incidenceangleuntilit reachesthe first criticalanglefor the plexiglas-steel
coupling(27'30).

lf you increasethe incidenceangleuntilit reachesthe secondcriticalangle(58' approx.)

Fromthis angleon you will obtaina
the transversebeamtoo is reflectedontothe interface.
I
surfacetransversebeam.
I
I
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I Ultrasoundphysics

I 1.4.6.Scattering

I The phenomenon of scatteringoccurswhenthe ultrasonicbeamm66t$,along its path,

obiectswhosedimensionscanbe compared withits wavelengh.

I In scattering,the energyconveyed
by the incidentwaveis re-distributed
in the surrounding
space.
I The way this happens largely
dependson the ratio betweenthe
I object dimensionsand the wave-
lengh of the ultrasonic
vibration.

I The polardiagramson the sideshow

how the energy intensity is
distributedin the variousdirections
I (indicatedby the angle0 ), whenthe
wave meets cylindrical obstacles
wtrichhavedifferentdimensions:
t - witha diameterd>>L
- with diametersof the sameorder
I as t (scattering on small
obstacles).

I
$catteringcan disturbthe regularityof the reflection
of an ultrasonic
beamon the interface
I betweentwo media.lf the surfaceshowsimportantirregularities, thesebehavelike small
objectswtrich togethercause scatteringof the incidentenergy,in severaldirections
insteadof one,as it occursin the caseof purereflection.
I The guantity of the scattered
energy dependson the sudace
roughness,on the length of the
incident wave and on the
incidenceangle.
I When the roughness size
(ditference between top and
bottom) is less than 0.1l', the
sudace behaveslike a specular
one (i.e.it reflectsin one direction
only) while with bigger-sized
I irregularities
In
we havescattering.
practice, reflection is

I characterisedby both scattered

and reflectedenergyat the same
time.

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Thiscan be usefulfor the detectionof flaws,sinceeventhosediscontinuities wftichare not
orientedin the most favourabledirection,but wtrich can diffuse energy in different
I
directions,can still be detected(butthe signalswill obviouslybe less intensethan in the
case of reflection).All this considered,
high-frequency
inclinedflawscan be detectedmore easilywith
ultrasonicbeams(smallwavelength) ratherthanwith low frequencies(big
I
wavelength).
I
1.4.7.Diffraction
paralleland equidistant,
I
Whenan ultrasonic beamimpingesa seriesof linearobstacles,
for exampleon a scratchedsurface,the singleelementsbehaveas sourcesof elementary
waves (Huygens'principle)wlrich,interferingwith one another,create intensitypeaks
towardscertaindirections.We then say that the sequenceof obstaclesbehaveslike a
diffractiongrating.
I
To find the directionswherethe diffractedwavesreachtheir maximumintensityvalues,
you shouldrememberthat in thoseregionswheretwo wavessuperpose,each of them
from the other one
gives its own contributionto the total amplitude,independently I
(principleof wavesuperposition).

varieswiththe existingphaserelationbetweenthe two waves:

The etfectof composition
I
. out-of-phasemndition: wcrr* f .lAt
it takes place when the maximum
amplitudepoints of one wave do not .lA,
coincidewith the maximum(or mini- wwt 2
mum)amplitude pointsof theotherone.
The resultantwave amplitude(At ) is
smallerthan the sum of the two wave resultanl
amplitude components (destructive tlrfi|t?
interference).
t in-phasacondition: rtrgrlc .l .lAt
it takesplace whenthe maximum(and
minimum) pointsof the amplitudeof the
two wavescoincide. ttavt 2 .lA'
The summingand the reinforcement of
the wave$givea resultantamplitudeAt
wtrich is the sum of the wave rcs/c,ltant .lo,
components (constructiveinterference). tpilw

] phaseopposition:
it takes place when the maximum wr,r'cI .lA,
amplitudepointsof one wave coincide
with the minimumamplitudepointsof
.lA,
the otherone .
Interference is destructiveas in out-of-
phaseconditions,but if the two waves
waw 2
I
A-o
havethe sameamplitude,
amplitude is zero.
the resultant twnlfunt
l+'{ilrd t
SotrymTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi
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I Ultrasoundphysics

I phenomena
The importanceof the diffraction on gratingsis that wlrenthe bottomsudace
of the piece being examinedis machine-worked and has parallel and equidistant
t scratches,it may work as a grating.
This means that the echo of the bottom(wftich
wheneverit is possible,is observedto evaluatethe coupling,the entity of flaws, the
etficiencyof the instruments)behavesabnormallyand its intensitymay decrease
I substantially.

The intensityof the phenomenon of the beambeingused,and

is relatedto the wavelength
I if we changethe testfrequencies.
thEreforeit canvaryremarkably

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Modufe2
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I METALLURGY
OF STEEL
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 Metallurgyof steel

ANDDEFINITIONS
2.1. REFERENCES

Beforeyou start,let us reviewa few definitions:

Portionof a chemicalsystemthat is homogeneous throughout

and wherechemicalreactionscan occur.A systemis said to
be 'heterogeneous'if it is composedof two or moredifferent
phases and if the passageacross the interfaceswttich
I separatethose phasesimpliesa discontinuous variationof
some variablessuch as density or concentrationof the
variouscomponents.
I a systemcomposedof a liquidand of its vaporis
Examples:
heterogeneousand includes two phases, the
I liquidphaseandthe vaporone;a liquidmetaldip
and the waste that covers it make up a
heterogeneoussystem,wlrile the dip and the
I wasterepresentitstwophases.

I $olid eolution A productobtainedwfien,aftera certainquantityof metal(that

is a certainnumberof atoms)is introducedinto the mass of
anothertype of metal, the atoms of the former disperse
I completelyin the latticeof the latter so that the resulting
mixtureis macroscopically
homogeneous.

I $olidsolutions arecharacterized
. pedecthomogeneity,
by:
. existencein a widerangeof compositions,
. constructionof metallicbondsbetweenatoms.

I Solidsolutionscanbe dividedintothreegroups:
roloto
BB8BB8 t000ro
I HEffiHH
ooor300
otofoo
otooro
ooooro
rtroor
otorto
oloror
roloao
ororol
lototo
oloror

I lnterstllial Random
substildions
Orddred
substitutbns

I Compound Thisis obtainedwhen,aftera certainnumberof metalatomsis

introducedintothe massof anothertypeof metal,tho$eatoms
I disposeon the crystallatticeof the metalmassin an ordered
pattern.

I Unlike solid solutions,this can occur only with certain

proportions
betweenthetwo or moremetals.

I
I SatpemTrainingCntre E Gandofi
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o lron,Siron,y iron Variousiron crystalforms(allotropes)
g characteristics:
followin
w{tichdifferfor the I
typeol lattice temperature I
c lron

l lron
cubic u p t o 9 1 o1 C
body-cBntered

lsc+centeredcubic from911to 1392"C

I
6lron cubic irom139?oC
body-centered to
poinl
themelting
I

I
body-centered face-centered
(airon,6iron) {1iron)
I
steel
Hypoeutectoid Steelhavinga carboncontentweightlowerthan0.87%.
I
Heutectoideteel Steefhavinga carboncontentweightof O.87Yu I
eteel
Hypereutectoid Steelhavinga carboncontentweighthigherthan0.87%.
I
2.2, IHON-CARBONDIAGRAM
Theiron-carbon thephaseandstructure
diagramillustrates thatcantake
transformations
placeintheiron-carbon
alloys,suchassteelsandcastiron,asthecarboncontentandthe
temperaturevary.
Thediagram
structural are:
components
r ferrite: crironcrystalswitha verylowpercentof carbon(C) in solution;

r austenite: C solidsolutionin y iron;

. Siron: witha verylowpercentof carbonin solution; t

cementite: the FesCcompound;

pearlite: the ferrite-cementite

eutectoid;

eutectic.
ledeburite: the austenite-cementite
t
I
38 CcrtreE, Gandolfi
Saipe4Training
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I Metallurgyof steel

I The studyof the diagramis veryimportant to understandthe behaviourof steelduringthe

processandto defineitsfinalcharacteristics.
solidification
I The lines indicatethe separation
betweenthe variousphases.

Thus,abovethe ABCDlinewe have

I the liquid phase,while belowthe
AHIECF line w6 have the solid
phase.
fi'
C-
s
:t
F
t,
gL
The regionsbetweenthe said lines E
representthe presenceof both the . llt

I liquidand solidphaseat the same

time.

Contentflt In weighlNof carhon

I
It is importantto point out that the phasediagramlines correspondto equilibrium
conditions.

The temperature values(which

I vary accordingto the contentof
carbon) where polymorphic
transformation occurare called
criticalpoints.

A1 is the eutectoidtemperature
I (PSKline)corresponding to the
formationof pearlite(seeherein
after,in thisparagraph);
- M is the temperature
(770"C) beyondwhichferrite
I is not magnetic anymore
(Curietemperature);

I - Ag is the temperature
where
the T+r(r transformation
occurs(GSEline);
I - occurs(Nl line).
wherethe 6eT transformation
A4 is the temperature

I
t
I SarrymTraining Ceilre E. Gandofii
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
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For temperaturevaluesabove I
those correspondingto the
GSE line we have a solid
solutionof carbon in y iron
I
calfed austenite,where the
maximumcarboncontentis a
littlemorethan2olo.
l
Duringthe coolingprocessof
a hypoeutectoid steel, below
I
the GS line iron is turnedfrom
l ironintoa iron and the latter
forms with carbon a solid
I
sofutionknownas ferrite.

In hypereutectoid steels,
t
below the SE line we have,
during cooling,the lormation
of the FesGcomPound, called *rr"T[1]o.d+ *fiTr'H 4r
I
cementite,wfrichhas a carbon
percentin weightof 6.670lo.
Below723"C(PSKline)austeniteis transformed mixtureof ferrite
intoa heterogeneous
I
andcementite, called pearlite.

At lowtemperature valuesandwitha low carboncontentsteelis composedof ferriteonly.

The percentof perliticstructureincreasesas the carboncontentincreasesuntilwe have,
for an eutectoidsteel(%C * 0.8),a structurewhichis completelycomposedof pearlite.
For carboncontentsin weighthigherthan 0.8olothe structureis composedof pearlite
grainssurrounded by cementite.

2.2.1.Addition ol elements

Whenotherelementsare addedto an iron-carbon alloy,the phasediagramof the alloyis

dependingon the added
modifiedand the resultingalloytakesspecificcharacteristics
element.lf we referto the Fe-C the
diagram, added elements can be groupedin the
followingcategories:

field(T),thuscausinga raisingof the Nl line and

. elementswfrichexpandthe austenitic
a lowering
of the GS line(manganese,nickel,cobalt,nitrogen,
copper,zinc,etc.);

Above certainconcentration valuesof some of these alloy elements,the austenitic

structureis maintaineduntil room temperatureis reached(l field opened)and the
steels.
relativesteelsare thereforecalledaustenitic
. elementswhichreducethe austeniticfield,loweringthe Nl line and raisingthe GS line
(aluminium, molybdenum,
$ilicon,chromium, tungsten,etc.).

valuesof someof thesealloyelements,the steelstructure

I
Abovecertainconcentration
alwaysremainsin the u ironfield(yfieldclosed)andthe relativesteelsare calledferritic
steels. I
Saiper+TrainingCentreE. Gandolfi
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I Metallurgyof steel

I The single elements,as they are specifiedbelow, affect the alloy mechanicaland
properties:
technological
t Hrbon it is the baseelement;its contentaftectsstrengthand hardness,it increases
hardenability weldability;
andfragility,it decreases
I manganese in small quantityit is present in all steels, it lowers the hardening
it refinesthegrainandimprovesweldability;
temperature,
I chromium it is one of the most used alloy elements:it substantially
increasesthe
hardenability,wearstrengthand resistance to hightemperatures;it reduces
the materialsensitivity
to the grainepansion;

molybdenumit hasthesamecharacteristic$ in particular

a$chromium: it improves
thehot
I creep;
nickel it improves - toughness
thestrength andincreases (it reduces
hardenability
I thehardeningtemperature);
vanadium hardenability
it reduces thegrain;
andrefines
I cobaft strength;
it increases

I tungsten it gives hardnessand wear strength,it improvesstrengh in high-

temperatureconditions;

I copper it increases
corrosion
strength;
silicon properties(excepttoughness)and increases
it improvesmechanical
hardenability.

Mechanimlpropertbs Technologicalproperties

Hesistance:reaction of metals in opposition Fusibility: the propertya metalhasto be

to theforcesthattendto liquefiedandto fill a casting
deformthem:traction, mold.
compression, bending, torsion, Plasticity: the capabilitya materialhasto
I cutting.
Hardness: resistance of a materialto
penetration
undergoplasticdeformationdue
to compression stress.
andabrasion. Ductility: the abilityof a materialtobe
Elastlcity: theproperty a material hasto plasticallydeformedand to be
recoverthe originalshapeand redueedto thinwiresby drawing.
sizewhenthestrcssls Weldability: suitability of a matedaltobe
removed.
I Toughness: theproperty
undergo
a material hasto
a plasticdeformation
welded.
Hardenability:the capabilityof an ironalloyto
acquire,aftera hardening
andto absoba highquantity of Machinability:treatment,a martensiticstructure.
I energyduringa fracturecaused
by dynamic stresses.
the abilityof a materialtobe
machinedby removingctrips.
Fatigue : thecapabllityto resistto
I strength repeated andvariable stresses.

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2.3. MECHANICAL
TESTS I
2.3.1.Teneileteet
Schemtcf a mrchlncfsr tentlh tcsts I
To evaluate the mechanical
propertiesof steel,(tensilestrength,
hardness,...)we can carry out l
severaltests on specimensof the
typeof $t6elbeingexamined.
I
The tensile test is the most
importanttest for steels, since it
gives quite complete information I
about the material mechanical
characteristics. I
It consists of applying to the
specimenan increasingsingl+axis
tractionuntilit breaks.
I
Thespecimenhas standardshape
andsizeas givenin the picture.
I
Duringthet6sttheappliedloadF andthesubsequent ALaremeasured
elongation at the
sametimeandthecurvethattheyproduce ona graphgivenbelow.
is represented
Thecuruecan be dividedintovarious
periods,delimitedby differentloads:

Fp: proportional
limitload,

Fe: elasticlimitload,

Fs: yieldpoint,
Fm: maximumallowable
loadfor the
specimen,

lastloadat the momentof fracture.

Elongation

I
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42 CenlreE. Gandolfi
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I Metallurgyof steel

I Fp: proportional
limitload: The deformations occurringin this regionare
proportionalto the applied load and they
t disappear as soonas the loadis removed.
A deformation whichis annulledwhenthe load
is annulledis callednon-permanent (orelastic).
I Fe: elasticlimitload: The deformations in this regionof the curv6are
I slightlybiggerthanthe proportional on6s,but as
soon as the load is removed,they become
negligibleagain
t Fs: yieldpoint: Beyond the elastic limit the deformations
increaserapidlyand the metal starts to yield
I and to elongate. Such deformationsare
parmanenf, whichmeansthey continueto exist
aftertheappliedloadis annulled.
I The yield pointcorresponds
first point
to the load of the
of the curue separatingthe small
deformation zonefromthe big deformation one.
I Oneof the mostimportantvafueswfrichcan be
deducedby means of the tensile test is the
unitaryyialdloadRs definedas:

Rs=Fs/So

I (whereSois the initialsectionof the specimen).

Fm: maximum loadforthe

allowable Fromthe pointS to the pointof maximumload
specimen: M we have the big deformations which within
this period are evenly distributedalong the
specimenworkingsegment.
I Oneof the valuesdeducedthanksto the tensile
test is the fen$,restrength(or breakingstrength)
unitaryloadR definedas:
t R=Fm/So

I Fu: lastloadat the momentof

fracture:
In correspondence of the maximumpoint the
neckingdown $tarts and proceedsuntil the
fractureoccurs. During this time the load
I decreases untilit reachesthe Fu value.
One of the values obtainedby means of the
tensifetest is the e/ongationpercentvalueat the
t fractureA, definedas:

I A=100"(Lu-Lo)/Lo
Lo= initial length of the specimen working
segment
I Lu= lengthLoafterthe test

I CenlreE Gandofi
SarpemTraining
NDT - I,JLTRASONICTESTING
I
2.9,2.Hardnesstest t
Hardnesscan be definedas the resistance
anotherbodycharactsrized
that a materialopposesto the penetrationof
by a greaterhardnessandby a definedgeometryand to which I
a certainloadis appliedperpendicularly
to the surfaceof the materialbeingtested.

This meansthat hardnessis an Trrting methods I

indicator of the material
resistanceto plasticdeformations
causedby the appliedloadand is
BrinellqHe) Vlcltersprv; Rocltwoll
I
thereforerelated to the tensile
strength.
I
Forthe measurement of hardness
threemethodsare generallyused
and they differ for the indenter
I
shape and for the measuring
conditions. I
Each method implies the
compressionof the indenterinto
the tested matsrial and the
I
measurementof the obtained
impression.

Thistest,beingbotheasyand convenient as wellas non-destructive,is frequentlycarried

qualitylevelssinceit givesusefulinformationaboutthe
out to checkindustrialproduction
steelmechanical properties.For example, this test allowsthe checkof all the properties
inducedby hardening.

t Brinellnumber

The Brinellnumber( wtrichis the mostusedmethod)is indicatedwiththe symbolHB and

is epressed as the ratiobetweenthe appliedloadP andthe areaof the impression,given
in mrne; this areais the portionof the sphericalsudacewhichhas a diameterD (whereD
is the diameterof the compression sphere):
2 . 0 . 1 0P
2
HB--
zD(D-{D'-d}

Theteststandardvaluesare: D=10mm
P = 29400 N
t = 10 -15 seconds

0.102 is a conversionfactor used to convertthe load unit from kg/mmato the non-
dimensionalvaluewhichis currently
in usein the international
system.
I
I
4 CentreE. Gandolfi
SaipemTraining
I
I Metallurgy of steel

t
t Hrmark

The needto specffythe useddiam€terD and the load P is dueto the fact that the hardnessvalue as
definedabovedoes not remaincondantwtrenD variesunlessws vary P too, so that we can lrave

I eimilarimpressions.

In practicewe adoptthe sirnplecritedonof firing a condantvaluefor the P to De ratio betweenthe

dilferentmeasurseso thatforthe samematedalwe alwaysobtainthe samehardnessvalue.
I In oder to cornparethe resultsobtainedby teds on differentmaterialswe musthavefor eachtest:
0.25<= dD <= 0.50.

I
I BrinellNumber:charecteristics
Appllcatlonrango Metallicmaterialsup to 450 HB

I Surfacepreparation Grinding

lndenter Hadeneddeelsphere
I D = 1,2.5,5, 10mm

Proof load 294,1840,7355,29420

N

I Meaeursdvalue (d)
Diameterof the impression

I
t Vbkers'hardness
I
This test consistsof forcingintothe
I surfaceof the piecebeingtesteda
diamond-pyramidindenter with a
136' anglebetweenoppositefaces
I and with a loadP, and of measuring
the diagonalof the impressionleft
on the piecesurface.
I Theimpre$sionis verysmallandthe
diagonal d is measured with a
I microscope,thus allowingto obtain
veryaccuratemeasures.

I Hardnessis thereforedefinedby:

.-=P
l"{V= 0.1891

SaWm Training CentreE Gaildo$i

NDT * ULTRASONIC TESTING
T
The Vickers'methodhas the advantage
hardestmaterials, it requires
although
of beingvery preciseand applicable
expensive equipment,
anddelicate
to the
wfrichrestricts
t
itsapplication.
I
Vickere'hardnees:characteristice
Applicatlon runge Metallicmaterialswithina wide
rangeof hardnessvalues
t
$urfsce pruparatlort Polishing t
diamondpyramid;
lndenter Square-base
pointangle136' I
Proof load From1.96to 980N

Measund velue Dlagonald the impresion(d) I

t Rockwellhardness
I
dependingon the hardnessof the
The Hockwellmethodusesdifferenttypesof indenters,
materialbeing
te$ted:
t
.
.
in caseof veryhardmaterialsthe indenteris a diamondcon6,
in caseof softmetalsa smallpolishedandhardenedsteelsphereis used.
I
However,the principleuponwhichthe test is basedis differentfrom the previousones,
sincehardnessis not givenas the allowablespecificpre$$ureof the metalbeingtested,
I
but is evaluateddirectlyas a functionof the depththatthe indenterproduceswith a given
load. The obtainablemeasureof hardnessis theretoreconventional. t
Scab A
Roclrwellhardness:characteristics
ScaleB $cals C ScaleF $cale N ScaleT
I
Applicatlon
rengc
Veryhatd
materials.
Medium
hardness
Hardened Thin slsclfoils. Testsuitablefor Test suitablefor
deels ard thin specimens thin specimens
I
materlals. alloys. or small or small
surfaces.
60 * 88 HHA 35 + 100HHB 20 + 70 HHG 60+100HHF 17+ 92 HRN
surfaces.
0*94HRT I
Suilece
preparetlon
lndenter Diamondcone;
Preclsionfinishlng

Hadened Diamondcone; Hardened Seel Diamondcone: Hardenedsteel

I
deelsphere;
pointengl6=120o
(1/16')
sphere;
mm point angle=l200 d = 1.5875
d = 1.5875
(1/16"
)
sphere;
mm point angl€=l20o d = 1.5875
)
mm
(1/16"
I
Proof load 98-490N 98 + 8ff1N 98 + 1372N 96+490N 29.4+ [117.6or 29.4 + [17.6 or
265 or 4121N 265 or 4121N I
lleesurcd p€rmanent
urlue
Indentation depth
I
46 CentreE. Gandolfi
SaipemTraining
I Metallurgy of steel

t TheRockwell thefollowing
outthrough
testis carried steps:

I - an initiafloadFois applied
measured
to theindenter,
butusedasa zerodepthpoint;
- then,fora giventime,another
andthesubsequent
loadFr is applied
indentation
is not
(thishasa fixedvaluewhichdepends
t onthescaleA,B,C,F,N
- finally,
afterremoving
measured.
orT);
Fr,theloadreturns andtheimpression
to itsinitialvalue is

I valueis:
Thehardness

I HR=100-e
HR=130-e
for the scalesA,C,N,T;
for the scalesB andF;

I where: e=tu/c

tb= indentation
in mmand c=0.002 for A,B,C,F;
I c=0.001 for N andT.

I 2.3.3. Resiliencetest

Thistest aimsat supplyingindications

aboutthefragilityof a certainsteelw{richcannotbe
l obtainedby meansof the abovedescribed statictensiletestsand hardnesstests.

The test consistsof breakinga specimenwith an impact(the specimenhavingsuitable

I dimensions and a sharpnotch)by meansof a specialmachine(usuallya pendulum-type
machine)andthenmeasuring the energyabsorbedfor the breaking.
Specimcn Test machine

llolrrager

I
Clrarpywi$TJ'notch

I
I ffrrrpy with'11'notch

I
I The moreenergyis absorbed the lessfragilethe materialis, sincethisimpliesthat before
I breakingthe materialhas undergone
absorbedenergy(in Joules).
a deformation;
the resilience valueis the valueof the

I Cenlre
SarrymTraining E Gaildolfr
NDT - TJLTRASONICTRSTING
I
lf we carry out severalresilience
testsat ditferenttemperatures,we
Tranriton cutltGrof rtrrl rrrilience
(GherpyV rprclmrn)
t
can see that as temperature
decreasedthe numberof tough
is
I
fracturedecreases too whilebrittle
increase
fractures (transition). rar
I
To minimizethe risk of brittle t r m
fractures
important
duringoperations it is very nF f l I
to studythe phenomenon I
t
of the passagelrom one Wpeof o 6 0
I
E

fractureto theotheras a functionof t0

temperature variations.
20
During the temperaturevalue
transitioninterualeach specimen
0 .60 .{0 -e0 0 e0 +0 B0
I
undergoes a fracture
whichcanbe: Tcmparrturc (qc)

- partlytoughand partlyfragile, I
- completelytoughor completely fragile.

It will then be necessaryto definethe minimumtemperatureat whicha certaintype of

I
steelcan be usedwithoutrunningthe riskof havingbrittlefractures.

The transitiontemperaturecan be
This temperatureis knownas transitiontemperature.
I
for
defined, example,as the temperature to 50%of brittlefracture.
corresponding

Generally,in order to preventthe dangerof brittlefractures,at the minimumworking

I
temperature valuemustbe biggerthana pre-e$tablished
the resilience value.
I
2.3.4.Greeptest

Thistestaimsat ascertaining of a certainmetal(oralloy)wlrichis workingat

the behaviour
I
hightemperatures. This is requiredbecausethe metal,whenit undergoes a mechanical
tractionstressin high-temperature
breake.
workingconditions, deforms(creep)and sometimes t
To carry out the test you need a cylindricalspecimenconnectedto extensometers
allowthe measurement
(to
of the distancebetweenthe referencepoints)and placedin a
I
furnace.

Oncethe furnacetemperaturehas reachedthe neededvalueand oncethe specimenhas

I
beenevenlyheated,a preliminary to zero before
load is appliedto set the extensometer
the actualloadis applied. l,
At roomtemperaturethe steelcreepphenomenon detectableonly
startsto be substantially
whenthe appliedload is very closeto the breakingload,while at highertemperatures
creepcan be reachedalsoin caseof loadsbelowthe yieldpoint.
I
I
4E SaipemTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi
I
I Metallurgy of steel

I The followinggraphsrepresentthe readingof the elongationvaluesin functionof time

variations.
I Graphobteinedby mnintainingthe losd and the tempentule at constantvslues

I Threedifferentcr66p etageecan be
found:

I .primary: decreasing
-secondary:
- deformation
velocity
constantdeformation
E
E
prhffy sscondry

f;
I velocity
.tertiary: accelerating deformation
velocityleadingto the
Loed
T
F corrfil
T cnnsil

I
TknE,log(t)
specimen fracture.

t Graphobtrlned by mrinteinlngthe temperatureconstant

I As you can see, in lower load

conditions(Fr) the creeprateremains
constant{or a longperiodof time.
Fr( Fr{ Fr
Fc

I As the appliedload is increased,the

creep rate increases proportionally
E
e
E
E

t
|ll

and the specimentakeslessand less

timeto break. T = cond
Temperature
Tlfic,lof,ft]

I Graphobtainedby maintainingthe bed constant

I Obseruethat the higher the test

temperature,the higherthecreepand
T1+ T2< Tg
g

7
thefasterthespecimen fracture. E
I E
E
llt
Tr

I Load
Tlmc,bg{t}
F - cond

I
I
I
I SatpemTraining CernreE. Gandnlfr
NDT - I]LTRASONIC THSTING
I
2.4. TYPESOF FRACTURE I
2.4.1,Toughfracture
t
This term indicatesthose fractureswtrich follow and are accompaniedby plastic
deformations.At not too low temperature
fractureshavesomedistinctive
valuesthey are regardedas normal.Tough
them:
featureswtrichcharacterise I
r dt a macroscopic levelwehaveremarkable plasticdeformations;
. the fracturevelocityis the sameas that of the testingmachine(mobileunit in a tensile I
test,the knifeof a hammerin a resiliencetest,...);
. duringthe fracture,the deformationworkis absorbed;
. the fracturehasa fibrousappearance. I
2.4.2.Brittlefracturss
I
suchas glass.Theyare exceptional
as it happenswithfragilematerials
Brittlefracturesoccurall at once,withoutdeformation,
butverydangerous
becausetheyare unpredictable.
I
Thetypicalcharacteristics of a brittlefractureare:
. absenceof substantialplasticdeformations and fracturesudaceorientednormallyto
I
the directionof the maximumstress:
r
r
r sp€cialstressconfiguration is necessary
or1c6started,the fracturepropagates
to originatea brittlefracture;
at a speedmuchhigherthanthat of the testing
I
machine(severalthousand meterspersecond);
.
.
duringthe fractureno workis absorbed;
the aspectof the fractureis crystalline.
I
The fracture mechanism is
mainly affected by the type of Iough
I
latticeof thatmaterial.

Metals having a faced-centred

Dafirvlour In arry
eonditron
I
cubic lattice (e. g.: austenitic
steels)havea toughbehaviourin
any condition,includingvery low
Frce-tarilarud ctFic lrtticc
I
temperatures.

Metalshavinga differentlattice
\
\
I
(body-centeredcubic lattice or
hexagonalcompactlattice)can
have a tough or fragile Bodpeewtered crhic lrtticc
fol.tgh or fragib
bchrvbur t
behaviour,or a partlytoughand dapendlngon
partlyfragileone, dependingon
the temperature.As we have
l|Eft?pcruturu I
alreadyseen in the case of the
resiliencetest, at the transition
temperature the material
/
,/
I
I
changes its behaviour from llGfi ilgoml comprct ldtkc

ductileto fragile.

Saipe4Training CentreE Gandolfi

t
I Metallurgy of steel

t Thetransition is alsoaffected
temperature
wecansaythat:
To synthesise,
bytheelements in steel.
contained

I . chromium,phosphorus andsilicon(above0.3%)increase
(up
thebrittlefracture
range,
r rnf,ngllnese,
nickel,molybdenum, aluminium to 0.1%) and (up
silicon to 0.3%)
I reducetherisksof brittlefractures.
producing
Anyheattreatment a lessfineandlessregularmicrographic
structure
tendsto
I favourfragility(e.9.:normalisation, withslowcooling).
tempering
Also welding,due to the deepstructural
changesit bringsaboutin the surrounding
I materials,
cancausea brittlefracture.
Theincreasing
useof steelsin verydifficult
working
conditions hasledto a certainnumber
I of newmethodsto checkthetoughness ofa material
at brittlefractures.
Themostcommonly forsuchtestsare:
usedspecimens
t
I
I
I
I thme point bendlngFPB) CT (CompactTenelon)
' j ' '
.i.r

I In bothcases,the ratiobetween
are statedby the regulations.
dimensions
In anycasethe specimen'
procedures
as wellas thetestingoperation
mustpresenta flawsuchas a
fatiguecrack.
I
I 2.4.3, Fatiguofractures

I The analysisof the metalbehaviourwhenit undergoesrepeatedstresses,or fatigue,is

very important.Repeatedstressescan causeth6 fracturemuchmor6easilythan a force
whichis exertedonlyonce,andthisis wtryworkingfatiguecracksare muchmorefrequent
I thanthosedue to all the otherreasonsaltogether.
lf the numberof stressesis very high,
we can havea fractureevenwithverylowstressvalues(lowerthanthe elasticlimit).

t
I
I SarpemTrainingCedreE Gandam 5l
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
t
The fractureoccurswithoutany
permanentdeformation and the
Typlcalarpectof a fatlguefracture I
fracture surface has a typical
aspect; two zones can be I
detected: one is smooth,
sometimes oxid-coated, with
parallel line$, and the other is
grain.
bright,witha crystalline
I
Such appearancetells that the I
fracturewas startedby a damage
wtrich has progressively and
slowly increaseduntil it reached
the final and suddenbreaking,as
I
[Al Fractrxestaningpoint
a consequenceof the outside
stress.
[El Propagation
[ClZone ofthe
zoneof thefatiguefracture
suddenfractrreof thesecdon
I
Fatiguetests are carriedout to verifythe behaviourof a certainmaterialsubiectedto
fatigue.Thesetest$implythat the specimenis subjectedto a stresswhosevariationwith
by constantamplitudeand frequency,called fatigue
t
time followsrycles characterised
cycles.In the followingyou can find the mostcommondiagramsof stressoscillations,
bothpracticalcasesandfatiguetestmachines.
in
I
O*clllatlng cycle I
I
j
Typical case wtrere the stress
varieswithtimewithoutparticular
maximum andminimum values.
I
Altemating cycle
I
I
I

The stressoscillatesbetweena I
r
minimumand a maximumthat I
I

are equalin absolutevaluebut I

haveoppositesigns. I
I
Pul*atlng cycle

The stressoscillates a
betrveen
l,
zero (minimum)value and a
maximum it
value,andtherefore
alwayshasthesamesign.
I
52 CeureE Gandoffi
SaiperuTraining

I
I Metallurgy of steel

I Thestressamplitudeo, is thehalf-ditference
between (or.*) andminimum
its maximum
(o.iJ values.Thefrequency is the numberof stresscyclespersecondimpartedto the
I coupon.
Fatiguetestsarecarriedoutusingspecialmachines thatcanimpartthreetypesof stress:
I normaleftort(traction
or compression
appliedstressandof reading
),
thanumber
torsionand flexure.Testsconsistof varyingthe
of cyclesthatleadto thefracture
of thecoupon.

I Theobjective a value,calledfatiguelimit,thatrepresents
is to determine
at wfrichthe coupondoes no break,regardless
the stressvalue
of the numberof fatiguecyclesit

I undergoes.

I Example

Estltnationolthe mtatlon fleruru fatiguellmit

t The specimenis loaded with a weight Pr

(conespondingto a tension or) and the
Schemeof r rotatlonflsxure
{douhle}fatlguete#tmachina

I mechlnerctation is Serted. The specimen

will breakdter Nr rotations.
A second test is then canied out with a
unigtrt Pa < Pr (oa < of): the specimenwill
I brsakafterNerutations(tla > Nr).
Theprocedureie repeateduntil,at a load Pn,
the sp€dmen does not break, wen after a

I very high numbercf cycles (for Seel, it is

ueuallysbout10,000,000).
Thefatlguelimitrangesbetws€non alrdonr.

I
I The relationship between the
amplitudeof the appliedstressand
WOHISR'S CTIRITE
for bodf-cErilcrcd eubic-drucilufe atcclt
the numberof cyclesleadingto the
specimenruptureis representedby a
curue known as Wdhle/s curve or (!

I S-Ncurve.

Thefatiguelimitcan be deducedfrom
b
ct
ct
o
ts
Tt

I W6hler'sgraphs.

Afterabout106cycles,for moststeels
o
€
c
o r L I
I (body-centeredcubic structure)the
curvehasan horizontaltrend.
E
g
EL
-EFpglimit \./
--iE
|

The ordinatevalue givesthe fatigue

E horizodtel
t
tinel
limit. I
iot 1o' 1ot 10'
I{unrber of cyclsr

CeilreE Gandofii
Sairyirr'Training
NDT - IILTRASONIC TESTING
I
The fatigue limit is strongly
aflected by the stress average Influence of the rrsrr everege vdue
t
value (arithmeticmean between
the maximum and minimum
on W6hler's sut.cg
I
values).This is clearlyshowedby
the changes in W6hler's curue E
subsequentto the changesin the s
(U

ct
o
I
averagevalue. ts
This average value should be
fll
o
f
o
I
taken into accountfor both the
analysisof the test resultsandthe
definitionof the fatiguelimit of a
realpiece.
qt
E
E
a
a
I
Conversely, variations in the
{
I
stressfrequencydo not produce
remarkable effects within the
normalrangeof testvalues.
1ot iot
l{unrber of cycles
t
l
Theaveragevalued a cyclicstressis definedas:

o t
sr--il
o-.r * o,r*,
I
I
For some materials,includingausteniticsteels (face-centered
W0hler'scuruetendsto becomehorizontal
cubic-structure steels),
aftera numberof cyclesmuchhigherthan 106.
I
In these cas6s,the "endurancelimit' is adoptedas fatiguelimit; it is the stress that
correspondsto a givennumberof fracturecycles(usually108).

The fatiguelimitvariesdependingon the surfacefinishdegreeand on the shapeof the

piece.Surfaceroughness,
(especially
corrosionphenomena, cross-section variations,holes,notches,
if theyhavesharpedges)can reducethe fatiguelimitwhichis a functionof the
I
materiafresistanceto traction R. The reductioncoelficientry is the ratio between the
fatigue limit relativeto given surfaceconclitions("practicalvalue') and the theoretical
fatiguelimit(specular sudace).
I
Amongthe possiblemeasuresthat can reducethe dangerof fatiguefracture,one of the
mostvalidis to carryout cementation or quenching.
or nitriding In fact,thiscausesa sharp
l''
increasein the sudacehardness,evenin caseof a veryhighreductioncoefficient,and as
a consequence the fatiguelimitat the maximumstressis raisedconsiderably.

v SaipemTrainingCentreE Gflndolfr
 Metallurgy of steel

2.5. HEATTREATMENTS

t 2.5.1.Introduction(theory)

The statediagramsare not enoughto understand all the phenomenarelatedto thermal

I treatments.In fact,operatorsalsoneedto knowthe influenceof the heating/cooling
on the transformations showedin the statediagrams. The values of the
speed
criticalpoints
dependnot onlyon the composition of steel,but alsoon the pieceheating/cooling speed:
I thesevalues increase
thereforedefined,too:
duringheatingand decrease during The
cooling. criticalpointsare

I . Acem andArcmtemperaturevaluesat
++ cementite
wtrich the austenite
I occurs,respectively,
transformation
duringheating
andcooling.

t . Acr and Arr temperature

which the austenite
vafuesat
++ pearlite
transformationoccurs,respectively,
I duringheatingandcooling.
. Aceand Are temperaturevaluesat
I wtrich the austenite ++ ferrite
occurs,respectively,
transformation
andcooling.
duringheating
I
The effectsof the coolingspeed
on austenite structural
transformationsare showed in
the graphon the side. L)
P-
c
The graphshowsthatthe Asand h

t Ar temperaturevaluesdecrease
as the cooling speed is
increased and that, at a
E
o
a
E
IJ

I sufficientfy high speed,

structuresotherthanpearlitecan
be obtained,such as superior
H

I bainite, inferior bainite and

martensite.
an
Cooling
3m
speed
400
fC/s)

Grapherplanation

1. At low coolingspeedscementitetakesthe pearfitelamellarpattem;at higherspeedsthe trans{ormation

requiresa lowertemperature to occurand the obtaineddructurehaslhinnerand thinnerlamellaeuntil
we havebainite.
2. Abore the Vivalue the Arr pointdoubles:the tran$ormationoecurspailly at a highertemperature,with
the formatlonof bainite,partlyat a mrch lowertemperaturewiththe formationof martensite.
3. At highercoolingspeedsat the Vr valueonlymadensiteisfomed.

SatrymTrainingCewreE. Gandolfi
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING I
iloro detrils
I
Meftenslteis the solid solrrtionof cefion in a iron,due to
the tast coolingd the l solntionwtrichtraps cafton atoms
In the a ircn lattice,thus bdngingabourtthe tranSormation
I
of the latticefrorncubicintotetragnnal.
I
S tm*ont*
r trrbflitoms t
I
Supefur balniteis composedof ferriteand cementite,like
pearlite; however,bainite does not have the lamellar
esp€ctof peerlitebecausecementiteis presentonly with
isoletedparticles.
I

lnferbr bainfiediffers from superiorbainite only frorn the

mophologicalpointd vlew,that is for the finerpadiclesof
cementile(there are no zubdantialdifferencesin their
cry$allography,sirrcein both casss we have fenile with
celtide padicles).

Mhrographbaspact(x5{n0)

In eutectoidsteels,stable austeniteis
transformedinto pearlite through a
slowcoolingprocess.
sufficiently
lf, conversely,startingfrom a pointabove
Aa,an eutectoidsteelis cooledthroughthe
t
f)
isothermaltransformation of austenite,we L 600
!l
havethe structuraltransformations showed H
by the graphon the side(I.T.T. curues). f; soo
The P curveson the graphcorrespond
the austenite-pearlite
transformation,
to E
a
the H
E
*
400 I
B curves indicate the austenite-bainite
and the M linesreferto the
trans{ormation
austenitemartensite
transformation.
f''
Curvesmarkedwith an s indexrepresent
the beginning of transformations,while
thosewithan f indexindicatetheirend. l. 4* lsu 1' 4' 15' 'lh 4h 15h
Ttme

E. Gadolfi
Centre
SarrymTraining
 Metallurgy of steel

Belowthefu pointwehavethreefields:
- thestructure yetunstable;
is stillaustenitic,
- (betweenthetransformation startcurveandtheendone)we haveaustenite
together
withthestructureit is goingto beturnedto;
- wehaveonlythestructure theaustenitehasbeentumedto.

lfore dctaffs Formationol nprteneite

lf a pieceis quicldycooledfrornthe fieldd dable

I audeniteto a temporaturebelow200o,a totally
dlfferent phenomenoncan be obseryed:part of
the auSenite undergoes a non-isothermal

I trandormationintomadensite.

The horizontalline markedwith Me,nhich closes

U
E-
0t
t
E
the lowersideof the undableaudenitefield (A), E
I represontsthe curue d the beginningof such
trandormation.
a
EI
E
g]
H

I This proceedsas the temperatureis decreased

from Mr to M (end of the trandormation)and
dops if the coolingprocessis intemrptedat a
temperature valueTmbetweenthelnrovalues.
l The quantity of mailensite does not dependon
how longthe temperature Tmis maintained(Sill,

I timeaffectsthe subsequent tranSormation

remainingausteniteintobainite).
of the
1' +
Tlme
15, th .tth 15h

t The positionand the shape of the

Curvesof austenltelsothermaltransformation
I isothermaltransformation curvesare
affected not only by the carbon
content,but also by the presencein
(EUHOI.IORM:typicel T.T.T.diagram)

I the steelof specialelements.

In an isothermaldiagram,belowthe
horizon that corresponds to the

I temperaturein point As, the following It

fieldscan be typicallyobserved:
. the field on the left, with unstable |-o
E
rl
A+F+C
;[

l austeniticstructure(A);
. the two intermediatefields and the Ho
lower field where we have the
E

I transformations of
respectively into:
- ferrite(A+F),
austenite

- pearlite(A+F+C)andbainite(A+B),
l - martensite(A+M);
. the fieldsof the transformedstructures:

I - pearliteandbainite(F+C),
- martensite (M(+A)),

t SatpemTraining Ceure E. Gando|l 57

NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
In practice,
it is usuallyconvenient
to
t
reler to the curves of austenite Curuesof austeniteanisothermal
anisothermal transformation(C.C.T. (EURONORIII
transformation
typlcal G.GT.dlagram) I
curves)sincein the majorityof those
heattreatments
importance,
that havea practical
steelsare not keptat a
constant temperature, but ar€ I
t
continuously cooled (more or less E)
quickly) following precise cooling EH
llt T
{

t
(
t

I
trends. tr {r} I
I
o I t I

ET I e"
E I I

In a C.C.T.diagram, besidesthezone Ho t I
;\
t

of existenceof unstableausteniteand I I

I
I

that of the productsit is turnedto,

threeintermediate fieldsplusa lower
fieldcanbeobserved, andwithinsuch
fields austenite is trans-formed
respectively
into:
r r * J r * r I r r r L - r rJ' - -b
t t r r
H(+ l)
(

log t
- - 4 r r * * r
{
I
.
.
ferrite(A+F)
pearlite(A+F+C)
I
. bainite( A -rB )
. martensite ( A -)M ) I
2.5.2.Introduction(technology) I
A heat treatmentis a thermalprocessemployedto confer cefiain characteristics
propertie$
or
to a metallicitem(or partof it) to makeit suitablefor its futureapplicationor to
improveits machinability.
t
A generic heat treatment is
I
of thefollowing
composed
. sudaceheating
steps:
I
Heating until the desired treatment
lsrnperatureis reechedat the sudace.
I
The heatingtimE dependson many
fac'tors (treatment temperalure,
lhermal conductivityd seel, piece
dimensionsetc.).
I
r cof6 heating I'
Heatinguntilthe treatmentternperature
core.Fortime,see "surfacsheating'abore.
is reachedthroughont

It ls dilficultto waluate wtrenthe deslredcoretemperature

the sectionandthereforealso in the piece

is reached,thereforeonly generalindications
I
can be givenaboutthe tdal heatingtime (surface+ core).
t
5E SaipemTrainingCenlreE Gandolti
t
I Metallurgyof steel

I staytime

I Thetreatmenttemperature is maintained
throughoutthe piecesection.
Its durationdoesnotdependon the piecesectionandin generalit is about15-30(1G20)minulestor the
hadeningof alloy(non-alloy)desls.

I cooling
oflhepiece
Decrease temperature.
I
The most interestingthermaltreatmentsare: full annealing,normalising,
hardening
I (guenching)
andtempering.

I 2.5.3. Full annealing

I It reducesthe effectsof the materialsolidification,

hardening.lt involvesthefollowingsteps:
it eliminatesinternalstressand strain

. progre$siveheatingof the materialup to a temperaturetn, higherthan the As point of

I the FeG diagram,to transform the steelstructureintoaustenite(austenitisation);
r r€rfldihingat the same temperaturefor a time intervallong enoughto have that

I temperature throughoutthe wfiolepiece;

. veryslowcoolinginsidethefurnace.

I At the end of the treatmenta veryductilepearliticstructureand a goodcoldmachinability

are obtained.However,the resultingcoarse-grain structureis not suitablefor chipping
machines.For this and other reasons(e.9. time and equipmentrequirements), full

I annealing processing.
is seldomusedin industrial

I lsothermal annealing is much

more convenient;il differs from
Goollngtrond of the lmthermel anncalingproccs* for a

I the previouslydescribedcycle in
the coolingprocess,that is carried
out through two ditferentstages
ta
,\
Al
E
I (seegraphon the side).

This grantsa bettermachinability

E
llt
L.
gt
ET A+F+C
E
I and is more cost-effective
since
the completetreatmentis carried
out in a shortertime.
H
o

M,

I
I M(+A)
log t
ferritE+ Pearlite

I
I SaipemTrainingCewreE. Gandolti 59

I
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
2.S.4.Normalisation I
Normalisation
hasthesameobjectives
it foreconomic
reasons.
as annealing, replaces
it sometimes
andtherefore t
Itsstagesarealsosimilarto thoseof annealing,
air, that is in a non-forced
respect to annealing.Theobtained
exceptcoolingwfrichtakesplacein the
and,as a consequencB,
atmosphere at a higherratewith
is a fineandhomogeneous
structure pearlitic
one.
t
Normalisation a non-homogeneous
is alsousedto transform andcoarsestructure suchas
I
of
that castings
or thatobtainedafter
a hotplastic in
deformation a fine-grain
structure.

Caeting0.250/& $heet 0.25e/&

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Normalisad
t s +

60 SaipemTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi
I
t
I Metallurgy of steel

I 2.5.5. Hardening

I Hardening confers steel a

considerablybetterhardness.This is
obtainedthroughthefollowingsteps:
I .
.
heatingabovethe Aspoint;
staying at such temperaturefor
tA
&
Ar

I the time requiredto let all the

material reach an austenitic
P
2
fl
rE
li
o
t
t
t
I
I

structure; EL t

t . fast coolingso as to make the

steel acquire, at room tempe-
structure.
rature,a martensitic
EI
ol
H
M5
I
l
I
I
I
l
r
t

I Cooling can take place in water,

salinesolution,oil, moltenmetalsor Mr
I blownair, dependingon the shapeof
the pieceand on the desiredcooling
velocity.
I Thestructure by mean$
obtained process
of a hardening is veryhard,butalsoverybrittle.
internal
Besides, may
stress be producedandcause fractures.
I Ilelensd mrfiensltlc hadenlng
To avoidallthisa specialhardening
I processhas beenconceivedcalled
"deferredmartensitic hardening'(or ta
martempering)wfiere th6 cooling 4
I process is stopped at a
temperature slightlyhigherthan Ms
c
E
At

(see the diagram)until the same

I temperatureis reachedin all the
piece points; cooling is
E
o
a
E
!t
subsequentlycontinued until the H

I roomtemperaturewhichallowsthe
formationof martensite is reached.
Ms

I
I
I
t
I
I Saipem Training Ccilrc E Gandofit

t
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
2.5.6.Tempering I
Temperingeliminates andinternalstressfroma hardenedproduct.
excessivebrittleness I
The cycleincludes:
- heatingup to a certaintemperature
characteristics);
(lowerthan Ar, dependingon the required t
- an adequatestaytime;
- coolingin an appropriate
medium(wateror oil) untilroomtemperature
is reached.
I
Tempering reduces hardness and irrcreasestoughness, The final mechanical
andon the temperingtime,as it can be seenin
dependon the temperature
characteristics
I
referred
the diagramsbelow, to various
typesof steel.
d
i
I
o)
IL
E
o'
o
ut
I
I
f
o
I

4 6 8 1 0 1 2
I
Hout8oftompBring lemperature
Tempering fC)
I
Con*rqurncoe of tompodng time (and Variationsln stesl hatdnes*in function
trmpcruturu) on thc bnaking loadol a stesl. of the temperingtemperature(end tlme)
varlations. t
I
l{ote The term"hardeningandtempering'describesthe association of hardeningand subsequent
ternperingcanied out at a sutticientlyhigh temperatursin order to obtain good toughness
characteridics.
I
I
2.5.7,Thermo-chemical
treatmente
I
treatmentsconferhigh hardnessto the sur{aceof steel pieceswhile
Thermo-chemical l'
keepingunchanged of theotherpartsof the piece.
the characteristics

They consistof causingthe formationof alloys,by solid-statediffusion,alteringthe I

materialcomposition
in the sudacelayer.

62 SaipemTrainingCentreE. GanfulIi
I
I
 I Metallurgy of steel

t in theseprocesses:
Twodifferentstagescan be distinguished

I . in the firststage,throughchemicalreactions,
the piecesurface;
the elementto be diffusedis depositedon

. the saidelementis thendiffusedintothe sur{acethuscreatinga layer,havinga certain

t depth,whosechemicalcomposition is diflerentfromthatof the basematerial.

and nitriding,
The mostinteresting
thermo-chemical are:cementation
treatments
I
Themo-chemicaltreatments:cementation
I and puttingit in contact
It consistsof takinga pieceof steelabovethe A3line(900-950"C)
with speciescontainingcarbonin order to form a sudacealloy with a highercarbon
I content,thusincreasing the piecesurfacehardness.
The most commoncementingagent is carbonmonoxideCO. At the cementation
temperature(>fu) this agent,comingin contactwith iron,decomposes producingcarbon
;
dioxideCOz and releasingcarbonC wfrichdissolvesin y iron. The producedcarbon
dioxidecombineswiththe free carbonto re-formcarbonmonoxidewtrich,again,startsits
cementingaction.
I Cementationis characterisedby the
penetrationdepth and by the carbon
I contentin functionof depth.Hereare the
factorsaffectingit:

I . chemicalcompositionof the steel to

be cemented;
*
E
qt
. temperatureat wttich cementation F
c
(J
occurs; IJ
. treatmentduration;
. celTtentingsubstance.
I The cementedpiecesmustsubsequently
undergo hardeningand temperingto
acquirethe desiredhardnessproperties.
Depth{mm}

llorr detall*: double quenchlng

I When,due to the differentcabon conlent,the AcBpointof deel ls much higherthan that of the
cementedlayer, a secorrdhardeningtreatmentie canied out. The firsl step is to carry out the
cementationprocess(afterheatingthE Fiece)at a temp€rature value higherthan the AcS point of

I Seel, so that the cnolingprocesshardenethe core and regeneratesthe grain (that had become
coarc€rduringthe longcemsnilationtime);sincethe temperature selectedfor the cementationis too
high to haden the cementedlayer, the dnrcture cf such layer remainscoarse. The second
hardeningis then canied out at a mwh lowertempsrature(about800"G),more suitaHefor the
I cementedlayer,to obtainan adeqmteregeneralion d the etructure(thecoreof the piecedudngthis
Sage does not undergoan excessiveattenuationof the advantagesproducedby the fird hardening).

I
I SarrymTrainingCentrcE Gandolfr

I
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
Thermo-chemicaltreatments:nitriding t
carried out at about 520'C for about 50 hours in gaseous
alloy.The treatmentis
This treatmentallowsthe formationof a very hard iron-nitrogen
ammonia (NHs). The I
temperature of ammoniawith releaseof nitrogenand the
causesthe thermaldissociation
subsequentformationon the
compound.
piece surfaceof iron nitride(Fe+N),wtrichis the desired
I
Gompa risoncementation-nitriding
I
The maximumobtainablehardnesswith nitridingis 1200 Vickers,wtrile through
a valueof about700Vickersis possible.
cementation

Cementation
0.2-0.3mm.
reachesa depth of about2 mm; nitridingthickness,instead,is about t
Nitridingis carriedout afterthe steelhardeningand temperingand is the last stagein the
production cycle.Cementation, on the contrary,is carriedout beforehardening.
t
Furthermore,the two describedprocessesare affectedby the steel alloy elementsas
describedbelow.
t
tungsten
. Cementation:it is favouredby chromium,
formcarbides)
(becausethey
andmolybdenum I
(because
by nickel,siliconandaluminium
it is hindered
solutions).
theyformsolid t
. Nitriding: for whatconcernshardnessand cohesionof the surtacelayerwith the
mass underneath, can be improvedby aluminium,chromiumand
I
molybdenum.
t
t
I
I
f',
I
I
64 SaipemTrainingCenlreE, Gandolfi
I
t
 Metallurgyof steel

t OF CARBONSTEELS
2.6. PRODUCTION

2.6,1.ManufacturingProcess

The productionof ste6lstartsfrom coal and iron ore and occursthrougha manufacturing
t processwfrichleadsfirstto the production
to obtainrealsteel.
of castironin a furnaceandthento its refining

t Steel and cast iron are both iron-carbonalloys, characterisedby differentpercentage

carboncontentsin weight: if the carboncontentis lowerthan2.1%we havesteel,if it is
higherthan2.1 o/ortta
havecastiron.
I of steelincludesthefollowingstages:
The manufacture

I r $tage 1: production
of castiron lron ore (mainlyoxides:ferrous, ferric, pyrite,
magnetite, ...)aftersuitablepreliminary
treatments
aimingat facilitatingthe metalextractionand at
l removingpart of the impuritiesit contains,is
moltenwith coal in specialfurnaces.The product
of thisfirstfusionis castiron.
I r Stage2: refining In this stagecast iron undergoesa metallurgical
operation,called conversion,wftich aims at
I removingforeignelementssuchas Si, Mn, S and
P, impuritiesor working residues that can
negativelyaffectsteeland at reducingthe carbon
content.Subsequently, the moltenmetalis cast in
a containercalledcastingladle,thus continuing
the metalrefiningprocess.
I r Stage3: castingand solidification $teelis castfollowingditferenttechniques(bottom
casting,directcasting,continuouscasting)from
I the castingladleinto a moldto obtaina product
wfrichis suitablefor the subsequenthot working
operations.
I r Stage4: rolling The productresultingfrom the previousstage is
then rolledto obtainvariouscommercialitems:
sheets,coils,bars,profiles,...

I Let us nowexaminethe singlephasesmorein detail.

I
I
I
I # SatpewTrainingCcilre E Gandolfi
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING

r Sfage 1 - PrMuction of castiron

lron ore fusion occur$in furnacesalso

known as blast furnaces,like the one
showedin the figure.

The iron ore reductionto iron is carried

out by carbon (C) and by carbon
monoxide(CO).

The furnaceis loadedthroughthe entry

with iron ore, coal (usuallycoke)and flux
material,whilethe castingproducts(cast
I
ironand slag)accumulate in the crucible. I
Combustion occurs just above the
air-blowing
nozzles.
I
I
Duringthe process,the lollowingreactions

3 FezOs+ COz
canbe observed:

2 FegO++ CO
t
FegO++GO
FeO + CO -+
3 FeO + COa
Fe + COa t
Let us nowexaminethe castingprocess,by dividingthefurnaceintozonesand analysing
whathappensin eachzone. I
Drying
In thiszonethe material
theentry (also
inserted
through
calledburden)heatsupto
Drylng and prFhesthg I
about400oC thuseliminating
lndirectreduction
humidity.
lndlrgctreductlon
causedby carbon
mono$de
t
Thematerial is heatedupto about800"C.
In thiszon6ironstartsto be reducedby
carbonmonoxide. Dlmd rsductlon
I
Directreduction
Passingthroughthis zonethe materials
causadby carbonsnd
carburlolng
t
reach1350'Capproximately.
Here start the direct reductiondue to
I
Mettlng
carbonalongwithironcarburising,
the{ormationof theFesCcompound.
thatis
Gombudlon I
$erfllng of cart lron
I
66 SaipemTrainingCeilre E Gandolfi
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I
I Metallurgyof steel

I Mefting
Herethe temperature reaches1600"Cand all the materialsare molten,exceptcoke.The
carburisedironthat wasformedin theformerzonemeltsandformscastiron,whereall the
elementscomingfromthe reduction of the initialload(Mn,Si, P, S) canbe found.

Gombustion
reachesthe maximumfurnacevalues(about2000"C)and
In this zone the temperature
coalcombustion occurs.

Settling
This zone containsthe crucible,wherecast iron is separatedfrorn slag by settlingand
I accumulates at the bottom.

I . $tage2-Refining

t In this stage cast iron undergoesa metallurgical

operation,calledconversion,whichaimsat removing
foreignelementssuchas Si, Mn,$ and P, impurities
I or workingresiduesthat can negativelyaffect steel
and at reducingthe carbon content.The process
consistsof burninga certainamountof the ca$tiron
t carbonuntilthe castironturnsto steel.

The liquid cast iron is then poured into a large

I container(converter)
whereair is subsequently
blown
throughholes on the bottom.This bringsabout a
series of chemicalreactionswhich producebroad
I flamesthroughthe converterentryanda temperature
increaseup to about1650"C.

I
At the end of this process the
l obtainedsteel is not ready yet for
ftlditlrc*

industrialapplicationsand has to
undergoa furtherrefining.

This occurswfrenthe moltenmetal

ffi
'l*_@
W
is poured into a containercalled
ladle, by means of the oxidation
caused by blowing o)rygen,and
subsequent deoxidising of the
metallicdip.

E, Gardolfr
Centre
Sarryrn,Training
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING

. Stage3 - Castingand solidification t

Castingis the last operationthatliquidsteelsundergo.Fromthe ladlethe metalis let out
througha holeat the ladlebottomto fillthemoldwhereit willthenbecomesolid. I
Moldscan be filledin differentways,depending on whatis needed,as showedbelow:
I
t
I
I
I
dlnct crstlng bottom castlng contlnuouecastlng I
The contlnuouscastingmachinetrandormsin one singlepassagethe liquidSeel into a semi-finished
prcdmt, whiletreditionalcastingrequiresadditionaloperationssrch as dripping (the extractionof the
ingototrtd the mold)ard others. I
. $fage4-Rolling
I
Afterthe solidification,
the ingot
is heatedto undergoa first hot
working proce$s, normally
rolling.This producesvarious
finishedproducts(roundbars,
t
sheets,coils,etc.)or preformed
(blooms,flat blooms)that will
be subjected to further
proeessingsuchas die forming
or forging. Holling consistsof
lettingthe ingotpassbetweena
t
set ol rolls that stretch the
workpiece and reduce its
thickness.

The pressureof the rolls alters

the billet grain structure.The
1,
grains break to form new
smallergrains,arrangedalong
the rollingdirection(billetgrains
do not have a precise
orientation).

Saipe4TrainingCentreE. Cardolfr
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l Metallurgy of steel

I 2.6.2.Glassificationof steels

I Depending
follows:
of, steelscanbe distinguished
on the alloyelementstheyar6composed as

I r carbon eteel

t the carbon content does not

exceed 2o/o in weight; also
manganese(max. 1.65%) and
I other elementsare present in
smallamounts.:

I
I Gerbon stccl ( C=0.16%)

I low alloy steels

t are characterised by a total contentof alloyelementslowerthan 5%; normally,also

steelshavinga highercontentof alloyelements,but wtrichdo not belongto the group
of stainlesssteels,are put in thiscategory.

I
. stainlessst€sls
t by a chromium
are characterised
contenthigherthanabout10.5%:
I onthesteelsurface a thinlayerof
stableoxideis formed,and this
protects
it fromcorrosion.
I
I
l
I
I
t
I CeureE Gardolfii
SatpemTraining 69

t
NDT - ULTRASONIC TBSTING
I
2.6.3.Deeignationol steels
I
$teelscan be classifiedaccordingto differentstandardsand parameters;in the tables
herebelowyoucan findsomeof themaccording to UNIEU27 standard.
I
CHillcilf,r
qrfilureu*a
dep|dl|U
F e 4 1 0 P b
I
hm ftetdcd
silfiSd
mrhiltm $tarnt*gsd
tcnslh drmgth (llPa|
Chemhflflflbd af any
olsmetd rfilgd hteilhn{ili,
I
to obtdn certah *peclal
propwtbs t
ttloll.tttoYSIEIS
c I 0 s
I
Carton chailical
rilmbd
*usragEcarburcodsil
mdth$edby f00
chent'cal $rrrsol d flu
ehrrmt ailled iiltEtilionallY
I
to obtailt certain special
FWelils$ I
cllntbol of the alryehmeils
drryatierblne sted (ma* 5ltl.
Omorrgelilnlbets,
I
Ehmsils rlspwe h a perceilage
derea*lqmder.
ild Eafi of thfir E oHahEd ht
mdtlffiU tl* cfwfiicd Elanrsrils
parcerilagncorilelt, hthe order tlny
I
appeil, Dy 4 10,l0oor tul0
rhpendng sn ths tlrFs d ehment
{Co,Cr,llt! lS,S[W. {; lt P, S' ltl0i
B. l00S rsmdrder - l0l
I
Ex.NI 1To,CI 0.2#, lfio O.ffi
I
fl.LOTSIEL
q,mbd of the atoy ebmeils
characteridrq deel.
fr nrailr tllsRoseh a perceilege
I
decremirqorder. On€ or more numbert indlcdlng
ths FsrcsrdagEconteil ofthE
lunfimeild demical elemeds.
I
t

t
I
70 CenreE. Gadolfi
SatpemTraining
I
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 I Metallurgyof steel

l AlSl designation

t A commonlyuseddesignation
Institute).
for steelsis the AlSl classification
(Americanlron and Steel

I LEGEND CARBONSTEELS

I Thefird numberindicatesthe group: lOXX

1lXX
Carbondeels
Steelfortools(freecuttingdeel):highsulphur
1 non-alloySeels 12XX Steelfor tools(freecuttingdeel): highsulphurandor
I (except13XXlowalloy)
2 nickeldeels
3 chromium-nickelsteels
1sXX
phosphorus
CatuonSeels:Mn0.75-1.65%

I 4 vadougnickel,chromium,
molybdenumsteels
5 chromiumgteels 13XX Manganese
LOWALLOYSTEEL$

deels:Mn 1.75%
6 chromium-vanadiumsteels

I 7 tungSen+hromium Seels
I chrumium-nickel-molybdenum
steels
23XX
2sXX Nickeldeels:Ni 3.5-5.0%

I I chrcmium-nickel-molybdenum
silicon.manganesedeels.
and 31XX
32XX
trIXX
Nickel+hromium
deels:Ni 1.25-3.5%,
Cr 0.65-1.57olo

l Thesecondnumberindicatee
s.tbgroup:
a
it is theappruximate
valuecf the mainalloyelement.
l+oXX
percentJ+tXX
l+SXX
Molybdenum steels:Mo 0.20-0.30%
Chromium-molybd.
Ni 1.65-2.000/o,
steels:Cr 0.8-1.I o/o,
Cr 0.4G0.907o,
Mo 0.1$0.25%
Mo0.20-0.30%
4n{J.
I The la$ trvonumbersindicatethe
carbonpercentagemultipliedby lffi. l46XX
Ni0.9G1.20olo,
Gr0.3$0.5$%, Mo0.15-0.?570

48XX Nickel-molybd.
Seels:Ni 1.55-3.5%,
Mo 0.2tr0.30%

I Forexample,
deet
indicates: l-
AlSl-4140
4 nickel+hrornium-molybdenum l50XX
lsrxx Chromium
Seels:Cr 0.25-1.05%
1 zubgroupCr=lYo
I 40 containing0.40olo
of C. 61XX
72X)1
81XX
Chromiumryanadium
Tungden+hromium
Seels:Gr 0.80-0.95%,
Seels:W 1.75o/o,
V 0.10-0.1So/o
Cr e.71o/o
Ni0.20-0.40%, Cr 0.35.0.55%, Mo0.08-0.15olo

I 86XX
87XX
88XX
Ni 0.4G0.70olo,
Ni 0.4G0.70%,
Ni 0.40-0.70%,
Cr 0.40-0.60%,
Gr 0.40-0.60%,
Cr 0.4tr0.60%,
Mo0.15-0.25%
Mo0.20-0.S0o/o
Mo0.30-0.40%
94XX Ni 0.30-0.600/",
Gr 0.30.0.50%, Mo0.08-0.1So/o
I 98XX
92XX
XXBXX
Ni 0.85-1
.15ol",Cr 0.70-0.907o.
Sificon.mangnnese
Boronsteels
Mo0.20.0.90%
Seels:Sal.Z-Z.po/",
Mn 0.6F0.B7olo

I XXLX)( Leadsteele

I
t
I
I Satpen\Training CentreE Gandofii 7l

I
NDT - TJLTRASONICTESTING
t
2.6.4.Stainlesssteels I
Dependingon their $tructure,stainlesssteels can thereforebe grouped in three
of differentstructures
categories:Martensitic,Ferriticand Austenitic.Also combinations I
steels(Duplex).
are possiblelikein the caseof austenitic-ferritic

Schaeffler'sdiagramallowsus to predict, Schaetfter'tDlagram

I
startingfrom the chemicalcomposition, II r r
the steelstructurein the normalised
state. C

Irt
I
I
Evenif it holdsvalidonlyfor castingsand s ? 0
welds,it suppliesan indicative
workedsteels.
valuefor q
U
i t 6
{
I
tr-n*lrt, I
\ \\
The diagramshowshow,by choosingthe
alloy elementscarefully,we can obtain
ln r o
t
(r{} f
I
steels with an austenitic, ferritic or
martensitic
structure.
Chromaum cq$urEnt (?b)
I
percentage,
On the ordinateaxisyou canfind the nrbkel-equivalent
elementswlrichfavourthe formationof austenite,
that is the sum of the
multipliedby suitablecoefficientswhich
I
powerof eachefement.On the abscissaaxis you can
take into accountthe austenitising
findthe weightedsumof the chromium-equivalenf elements.
ferritising

Chromium + 1.75Nb+ 1.5Ti

Gr + 1.5Mo+ 2$i + 5V + 5.5A1
equivalent:
t
Nickeleguivalent: Ni + 30C+ 0.5Mn+ 25N+ O.BGu
+ 1Go

Let us nowexamineeachcategoryof stainlesssteel. I

r Martensitic
steels

Amongstainlesssteelsthesehave the lowestresistanceto corrosion.They have a

I
high mechanicalresistanceand a good resistanceto COecorrosion,even if this is
presentin highpercentage.Theyare susceptibleto localisedcorrosionin presenceof
chloridesand aboveallto HeSstresscorrosion(SSC)andto hydrogenembrittlement.
I
Besideswhat we have alreadyseenfor steelsin general,there are someparticular
stainlesssteels.
effectsthatthe alloyelementshaveon martensitic
I
Chromium When Chromiumis the main element,resistanceto corrosion
decreases favoursthe formationof delta
suddenlybelow 11-12o/o.lt
I
ferrite.

Whenpresentin
the passivefilm,it improvestoughness.
Molybdenum lt stabilises
I
high percentage(aboutQ.7o/o in a 13%Cr-0.2%C) it favours the
formationof deltaferrite.

SoiptmTrainingCewe E. Gadolfi
I Metallurgyof steel

I is reducedby keepingthe C
Carbon The risk of hydrogenembrittlement
I contentbelow 0.04%:in this way we obtainsoft martensite.On the
other hand, in martensiticsteels havinga high C content,values
above O.?Voincreasethe resistanceto SSC. Carbonopposesthe
t Nickel
formationof deltaferritebutit favourstheformationof catbides.

It protectssteel from generalcorrosion;values higher than 2.5%

I improveits resistanceto SCC.Above6% it leadsto the formationof
austeniteislandsdispersedin the martensiticstructure,improving
resistance to SCC.Anothereffectof Ni, in contentsrangingbetween4
T and 6%, is that it reducestoughnessbecauseof the formationof
carbidesat the grain boundaries.Nickelpreventsthe formationof
deltaferrite.
I Niobium It refinesthe martensiticstructurefavouringthe formationof small
grains;it hasa positiveeffecton resistance
to $CC corrosion.
T r Ferriticsteels
I steelsare lessresistant
Ferriticstainless to corrosionthanthe austenitic
ones,but
havethe advantage of beinglesscostlybecause of the absenceof nickel;theyare
l alsolesssusceptibleto stresscorrosion.

I r Austenitic
steels
Theyarethemostcommonlyusedstainless of theirgoodresistance
steelsbecause to
I byanexcellent
Theyarecharacterised
corrosion. to COzgeneralcorrosion.
resistance
, Thevare generally to chlorides
susceptible (CSCC)abovecertain
stresscorrosion
I if someoxygenis also presentin the environment,
temperatures;
localised
corrosion,
too.
they undergo

t Austeniticsteelshavevery low thermaland electricconductivity;

magnetic.
they are non-

I Duplexsteels

I steel,also knownas 'duplet' steelbecauseof the presenceof the

Austenitic-ferritic
two phases(50%austeniteand 50%ferrite),it is very resistantto COecorrosionas
it is susceptible
well as to chloridestresscorrosion; to HpSstresscorrosionalthoughit
I is betterthanmartensitic steel,andto acidcorrosion.
by meansof a correctbalanceof the alloyelements:
The two phasescan be obtained

t Chromium 22125"/", o/o,Molybden

Nickel 417 um 0l4o/o,Nitrogen0.1| O.3o/o.

I
t CenlreE. Gandolti
SatrymTraining 73
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
Certainelementshavea particular
effecton duplexsteels. I
Chromium In order to maintainthe desiredratio betweenthe two phases,any
increase of chromium,wl'rich is a ferritisingelement, must be I
countErbalanced elements.
by an adequateincreaseof the austenitising
The chromiumcontentcannotexceed26% becauseof the risk of
formationof the sigmaphase(seenote). t
Molybdenumlt improvesresistance
to localisedcorrosion.A contenthigherthan 4olo
favourstheformationof the sigmaphasebeyondthe acceptablelimit. I
Carbon In duplex$teelsthe carboncontentis usuallybelow 0.03%,and this
ensuresresistanceto intergranular
corrosion.

Nitrogen Smallamountsof nitrogenimprovethe resistance

favoursan evendistribution of chromium
to pitting:nitrogen
and molybdenum in the two I
phases, thus preventingan excessivedecrease of chromium in

duplexstructure:it maintainsthe
alsoat hightemperatures
proportions
Nitrogenstabilise$
austenite,wl'richwouldincreaseits susceptibility.
betweenthe two
andthisis veryimportant
the
phases
in welding.Besides,
t
nitrogenhinderstheformation of undesiredintermetallic phases.
t
Tungsten it improvesresistanceto
Its etfect is similarto that of molybdenum,
localisedcorrosion.
t
llotr Sigmaphase it is a $€condarysolidilication
phasecontaining30% of chromium;it is
dangerousbecauseit causesembrittlement and umrsensmachinability;
It reducesresistanceto corrosionb€cau$€it takes chromiumfrom the
I
adjacentzones.
I
I

I
t
74 SaipemTrainingCentreE. Gf,ttdolfi
I
t
I Metallurgyof steel

I of products
2.6.5.Glassification

I Thevarioussteelproducts
usedin industry
asfollows:
canbeclassified
areobtained processes
throughdifferent and

I forgedpieces
They are obtainedby usingcompressive
castings
They ara obtained by cading rnollen

I force,sluping the hot ingotbetwe€nthe

hammerandthe arwil.
deel intomoldshavinga fixedshape.

I
I
t
l rolladplates pipes

Flat fleces obtainedthroughhot rollingin Holfowcylindricalbodies,open at their

l the mill,i.e. a line equippedwithcylindrical
rollsthroughwlrichthe steelis forced.
ends, tlrat can be obtainedthrough
vadousprocedures; they can be either
weldedor non-welded.

I
t
I weldedjoints

I Theyare obtainedconn€ctingmorepieces
to each other pemanently,by means d
welding.
I
t
t
I
I
t SaipemTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi 75

I
NDT - ULTRASONIC TBSTING
I
Forgedpiecee I
Forgedpiecesare the productsof forging,wfrichconsistsof a metal hot-workingand
process.
compression I
confersbettermechan properties.
ical-physical
piecesbecauseforging
Forgedpiecesare to be preferredto castingsor machine-shaped
I
to obtainmorecomplexpieces.
processing
undergofurthermechanical
thesehaveto
Throughforgingsimpleshapesor groupsof shapescan be manufactured;
t
of forgedpiecesis thattheyare only similarto the final
Therefore,the maincharacteristic
piecein shapeand size. I
processare possible:
Twomanufacturing
I
t Hammerforging

In hammerforging,the steel workpieceis

t
heated and subsequentlydeformedby the
action of uhammernand uanvil' until the
desired shape is obtained, without using
t
closed dies. When the temperaturegoes
belowth6 hot-workinglimit,furtherheatingin
thefurnaceis necessary.
t
I
Die forming

In die formingtwo gageshavingthe "negative"

ItC[rypt| rrrnl
I
shape of the piece are used.The billet is
graduallyheateduntilthe forgingtemperature
is reachedand then positionedbetweenthe
I
two gages.The forgingpre$sflattensthe hot
metalbetweenthe two gages I
DIE ilorcr t.|cl
I
t
I
I
I
76 CeilreE. Gandolfi
SaipemTraining
I
I
I Metallurgy of steel

Forgedpiecescanbegrouped ontheirmorphological
depending characteristics:

I BLOOMS
Obtainedby forgingor tolllngthe Ingptelongthe directiond its axis.
They hwe a square cross-sectionwith a minimumeide length of
120mm.

I BARS
Forgedpieceswitha polygonalcnos+section(square,hexagonaletc.);
they are much longerthan the characteddicpolygonsize.They can
havedaadholesor throughholes.

I PIPESANDFEHRULES
COUPLINGS,
Hollow forged pieces wtrere the main deformationoccurs in the
directioncf the pieceaxis.

I HINGS Rirgr

Hingsare forgedhollowpieceswherethe mainddomation occurcin

the directloncf the piececircumfErerce.

I FLATBLOOMS Flrtlhur

Llke blmms they are producedby forgingthe ingot.They have a

cros+section,a widthI anda thicknesss.
rectanguler rffi
+l---fl
I PLATES
Platesare torged parallelepiped-shaped pieceswherethe a and D
dimensionsare longerthanthe ft axlaldimension.

I SHAFTS

I Shafteare similarto barsbtd havea roundsection.Uke bars,lhey can

havedeadholesor throughholes.

I DISCS

I Discsare cylindricalforgedpieceswherethe basediameterd is longer

thanthe arialdimension ft.

I
I CeareE. Gatdo$i
SatpemTraining 77
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
Gastings I
The main applicationof castingtechnologyis the productionof geometrically
components whosemanufacture by meansof othermethodswouldbe uneconomical.
complex
I
The primarycharacteristicof castingsis that they have a similarshapeto that of the
finishedpiece.Thereare severalindustrialcastingprocesses, suchas sand-casting, shell
casting,centrifugalcasting,di+castingetc. On the followingyou can see the stepsof the
castingmanufacture cycleby meansof the sand-casting technique.
t
of thepattem
1. Construction I
The prttrrn is a replicad the finishedobiect,usuallymade
of a softermetedelsuchas woodor poly$yrene.
PATTERII I
Thepattemis usedto createthe mold.
I I
of a hollowmold
E. Construction
W I
Wy of the ge,ttem Posit'nningof suporirts Hemovalofsupports
I
Themoldis the "negative"d the
pieceto be obtained.
It is made of rdraaory sand
The supportsfor the gates(holes
for liguid steel feeding)and for Once the supportsare removed,
the "risers" (smaller holes to the moldis readyfor the casting.
I
en$urea ndirectional"solidifica-
mixed with binders: once
hardened,the mixtureis similar
to rdrectorycerTlent.
tion of the ca$ing) are put in
place.Defec'tsaccumulatein the
I
Whileit is dillfluid the mixtureis le$ solidifiedzone(feedhead).
packed arcund the Pattem ard,
hardening,it coPlesthe Pattem
impression.
Whenthesolidifimtionis comple-
te, this part is remwed and the
defectsare eliminated withit. FINISHED MOLD
I
PTTTEH
I
HEFNACTffilI
sflo t
3. Castingintothemold l,
CastingInto the mold is caried out at a temperature5G100'C
aborethe metelmeltingpoint. I
At the end d the operatlonthe feedheadzone is cryered with
Insulatingpowdersto slowdownits solidlfication.
l,
4. Cleaningand feedhaadsawing
Olce the solidifirntionprocessls finisfred,the sandmoldis opened,the gatesand the feedheadare cul and
t
the casting sudace is cleaned.The defectsare remwed and zubsequentlyfilled by backweldingwith
suitablematedals. I
CentreE. Gandolfi
SaiperyTraining
I
I
I Metallurgyof steel

I 5. Finishingoperations

I Thecadingprocessing by:
cyelels corrrpleted
- qualityheattreatment
- finishingwithmachinetoole
- teding

Rolled plates
I Rolledplates are typicalflat piecesobtainedthroughrolling.The productionprocess
includesthe followingsteps:

1. productionof the ingot

2. fromthe ingot,throughhot rollingwe havethe s/ab
I The slabis a quitelargemdal blockhavingthe samevolume
as the initial ingot.The slandarddimensionsof a slab ere
180x 25ffi x 6000mm.
The slab$,beforeundergoing fudherrollingoperations,
have
to be cleanedof the pr+exident ingotddects. This cen be
done by means of variousprocedures(grinding,hammer
chipping,flame cleaning)that are generallygroupedunder
theterm"corditioning'.

3. fromthe slabwe can obtaineithera largewoundtape(col) or flat blooms

I
t
By hot rolling the slab in a continuousrolling mill (with
thlcknessprogressiveredrctionstands)we obtaina large
noundtape (coll), 6-8mmthick.

Flat bloomr are obtainedby cnttingthe slab into segmerrts

:W
that are 80G200GmmJong.

I
4. fromthe flat blooms,throughhot rollingwe obtainrolledplates

_ Holled plates are obtainedlhrough hot rolling d the flat

I bloomsin rwersiHemills.Theirthicknessrangesbetween10
t and 150 mm for yard applications and belwe€n4 to 10 mm
for plasticrvorking(dieformingdc.).

5. fromthe coils,throughcoldrollingwe obtaincold-rolled

coils
t From hohrolledcoils, through zubsequentcold rolling in
continrpus mill, cold-rclledcoils (or sheet metal) can be r0-I
obtainedand usedfor cer bodiesandotherapplications.
I Theseproductshavea minimumthicknessof 0.6mm.

I
I SatpcruTrainingCennrc
E GandoW 79
NDT * ULTRASONIC TBSTING
t
Pipes
I
The term describeshollowbodies,cylindrical,
fluids.Tubular products
with openendsand suitableto conduct
are obtainedthroughdifferentprocesses,and each of them
I
confersto the productspecificgualities(suchas finish,dimensions,
discontinuities)
that
aretypicalof the processitself. I
Depending on the manu-
facturingtechnique,pipes can
be groupedinto:
ffi r*
@
iimnEsmAnx I
. seamlesspipes @ * @* HULtPLuct*L t
Theyareobtainedby means
of plastic deformation o'l
. r
steel ingotsthat are heated ffi
,+ ExrR'sror{ I
and worked with specific
ffi
machinetools @ rl -ffi.* AssEL I
r weldedpipes
Scamlcts pipct
t
They are obtained by
welding together the two w*- -W#0Sw oo,JfiEI
edgesof a rolledplateafter
it has been properly
"deformed". % ffi*s#S $ $ I
Weldodplpcs
I
UOE Pressing proce$s (U : U-ing;o: o-ing;E: mechanicalexpansion)

1. bendingof the rolledplate

edges
2. thefirstpressgivesthe plate I
Manufacturingstcpe
I
I
3. the secondpressgivesthe
platea tubularshape
4. welding(insideandoutside)
of the edges
5. mechanicalexpansionto give
the pipea regularshape
t
("O" shape)
I
I
t
80 Saipen\TrainingCentreE. Gandolfi
 Metallurgy of steel

(ElectricHesistance
ERWProcess Welding
)
Manufacturing
steps
1. unwlndingof the deel Z.the coil paseesthrough 3. the pipeedgesare ueldedby meansof an
coil usedto manufacture a sel of norkingrclls that electdcresidarrcesydem
the pipe progressivelY give it the
tuhularsttape

Procass
Mannesman
steps
Manulacturing
1. piercing
The piece is thrud throughPairsof
rclls thd have thdr axes on tvro
panllel planes,btlt irrlined so ae to
favor the piece passage;during this
passagea fracture along the ingot
exis is ptoduced and subsequentlY
enlargedand transformedinto a hole
by a mardrel that travels in the
oppositeto that of lhe piece;
direc'tlon

2. rolling
Trrrnstrapedrolls hil 16s *piercedprdormed" that was obtainedduring the tirst dep; the piece is
suppodd by a mandrelinsefiedin the holethat rollsthe materialandcalibratesthe internaldiameter.

I
I
t qPILGEFROLLINGp
MILL

CcwreE Gandolfr
Saipen\Training tl
I NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING

Sn/s).
steps:
Manufacturing
(MPM)
MultiPlugMill Process
at highrollingrates(peaksof
longhollowshellsto beprocessed
Thisallowsconsiderably

Hollow Mandrsl
I
I
I
1. The hollowshell, heatedup to the
rollingtsnp€rature,is placedin front
of thefirs Sand of trnrkingrollsand
I
+d
II I
heldin place:a lubftated mandrelis &+
slid Into the shell and Sopped in
conesponderrce of the lad stattd; I
2. the hollowehellis then releas€dand €.rfi.erG\€r+€*p
t
talten by the vrtorkrolls until it is
pulleddf the mandrelwttichremains
in its initialposition. I
I
The hollowshellsused in this processare obtainedby hot-piercingrolledbars or bars
producedwith continuou$casting.MPM lines also allow the processingof square-or
bars;in thiscasea PressPiercingMillis used,wtrichpiercesthe
I
roctangular-cross-section
barsandtrans{ormsthemintoround-section bars.
I
Asse/Process t
Thisprocessis appliedto manufacture pipeshavinga highratiobetweenoutsidediameter
and thickness(from4 to ten approx.);dimensionaltolerancesguaranteedfor the product
aret STotorthe diameterand t.3"h for the thickness.The maindisadvantage is thatthe
maximumlengthof the obtainable piecescannotexceed10 m.

The processis basedon crossrolling,withthreeworkrollssymmetrical with respectto the

roltingaxis. They have a particularshape and they roll hollowshells (obtainedwith
traditionalmethods)arounda mandrelthatis freeto slideandrotatearoundits axis.

Workrollr

Mandrel

82 E. Gandolfi
Centre
SaipewTraining
I Metallurgyof steel

I Extrusionprocess

I Thisprocessis usedto manufacture

not easyto work(stainless
high-quality
st6els,nickelalloys)
pipesmadeof specialmaterialsthat are

I Manufacturing
steps:
1. the billet, after being through-boredand

I hseted up to the pladic norking

temperature,is laid in e container;e Seel
dng (matdx die) placed in front of the
container determinesthe tube outside
diameter;

2. the mandrel,wttichforms one singleunit

with the extrusionram, is inseiledin the
billetholeat the backend of the container;
it is the mandrel which determinesthe
Insidediameterof the extrudedtube.

Weldediointe

A weldedjoint is composedof two metallicpiecesconnectedpermanently by mean$of

welding.The most commonweldingtechniqueis autogenous fusionwelding,and in
I particulararc-welding.This processusesthe heatproducedby an electricarc (discharge
of electricity,luminousand persistent)
pieceto be welded.
stuckbetweenan electrode(weldmetal)and the

ARC WELDING

I Gasshielded( GMAW
)
Gaslletal Arc Welding
Manual( SMAW)
Shieldedlletal Arc Welding
( SAW)
Submerged
$ubmergedArc Welding

Thefusedzoneis protectedthanksto All weldingparameters and Theelectrodeis composedof

gas€ousatmospheres generatedin operationsare controlledby an aulomatically.fed
conespondence of the arc ard of thefusion the welderand weldingis continuouswire.
pool. carriedout in the air. ThEweldzone(arc,electrcde

I lllG snd llAG: MetalInertGaswelding

Depending on the various
coatingsthe electrcdescan
iletal ActiveGasuelding be basic,acid,cellulosic.
and irvofvedparentmetal)is
shieldedby a blankeilof
granularmatefial(usually
A Upe d weldingthat usesa
I consumablewire,wherethe prolectiond
the weldpoolcanbe in inertgns(lllG) or
in MetalActiveGas(UAG).
sand).
Thisshieldis prwided in
orderto protectthe fused
zonefromatmospheric

I The "Passo* systemrealisedby

SAIPEMfor pipelineweldingis of the
MIG/MAGtype.
contamlnation.

I TIG (Tung*en Ineil Gaervelding):

Weldingwitha tungs{enelectrodein inefl
gas(uwallyargon);theweldcanbe

I caniedout withor withoutweldmetal.

I SatpemTrainingCeureE Gando$i 83

I
NDT - IJLTRASONIC TESTING
t
In autogenouswelding the
parentmetalis activelyinvolved
I
in the processand its structure
is subjectedto transformation.
The zone affected by such
I
changes, called thermally-
alteredzone fl-AZ)or transition I
zone,has an extensionof a few
millimetersaround the fused
zone. t
In the table here belowyou can find the main tyF€sof jointsthat can be tested with
ultrasounds.Ultrasonictestingis possible joints.
onlyin thecaseof full-penetration
r Buttjoints
- $quaregrs/e:
I
Tun procedure$are possible:
t
- onesinglerunwitha l-mm distancebetweenthe edges
@@ (thicknessupto 3 mm);
- t$/orunswttha z-mmdiSancebetweenthe edges
I
(lhicknessbetween3 and5 mm).

- V grwe:

ffiffi valuesbetween5 and 15 mm.

Usedfor thickness
I
- V grwe withbackingstrip:

Usedwtrenthe rooris inaccesslble for groundingand backwelding,in I

orderto avoidlacltof penetration
(lackof weldmetalat the root).

- DoubleV grwe:
l
It is usedfor thicknessvaluesabore 15 mm and when the ioint is
I
Wffi acceesiblefrom both sides. The weld preparation is usually
symmetdcal (butit canalsobe asymmetdcal).
I
- U grwe:
I
It is us6din the placecf the V groovevyhenthe edgesare thickerthan
ffiffiffi 15 mmin ordertoreducetheweldmetalvolume.
I
I
SaipemTrainingCentreE. Gardolfi
I
I
l Metallurgyof steel

r Teejoints

I - Square
edge:

It ls usedwhenfullpenetrationis not nece$sgry.

The twa elementsto
be weldedmuS be in c-ontactwith each dher (or at a maximum
didanced 2 mm).
I
- $inglebwelgrwe:

It is usedwhenthe weldingrequiresfull penetrationand the joint is

I q
trffi,Ei.M
notaccessiblefrombothsides.

- Slnglebwel grwe withbackingddp:

I It is usedwhenthe rootis notacressiblefor grindingand backwelding

EffiI
W, in ordertoensurepenetration.

I - tloublEbwelgrove:

I @t
@ It is usedwhenthejointis accessible
15mm.
from bothsidesand thickerthan

I - SingleJ grcrve:

I It is usedin caseof verythickjointsin orderto reducetho weld mstal

I ffim volume.

I
I
I
I Satpem Training CcntreE Gandnfi 85
NDT * ULTRASONIC TESTING
t
2.7. STUDYOFDEFECTS t
in steel
2.7.1.Discontinuities
canbegrouped
Steeldiscontinuities infivegroups, ontheirorigin.To these,a
depending
I
furthergroupincluding
fatiguedefectscanbeadded:
I
Diecontinuity Description
I
discontinuities
Constitutional Theseare causedby the presenceof elements
dissolved
suchas oxides,sulphides, hydrogen.

duringdipping
D. occurring
operations
Theseare non-metallicinclusions
wlrichcan be
formed during steel processing,due to the
refining
operations.
I
duringcasting
D. occurring They are formedduringthe ingot castingand I
operations solidification
stages.

D. causedby hot working Theseoccurwhenforgingis carriedout at the I

wrong temperature(too low, too high or not
uniform).
I
D. causedby heattreatments wlrichcan be
Theseare surfacediscontinuities,
caused by wrong operationsduring the heat
treatment,or by problemsrelatedto the piece I
geometryandto the coolingcriticalvelocity.

In-seruice
discontinuities parts
during
fi',j"tfl;JJjllffii;t!fi::n".icar
.li?'.d':,' racks
c I
l'?It.,?.,fl
ll,, 1lil'JJ Ti]'''
I
We remindyou thatthe term"discontinuity"
1n61tates in the piecephysical
an interruption
jeopardize
structure,wlrichdoesnot necessarily the useof thatpiece. l,
has beenassessedon the basisof acceptance
Onlyafterthe discontinuity criteriawe can
to usethatpiecein spiteof it.
speakof it as a defectandevaluatethe opportunity I
I'
I
l'
86 SaiperuTraining CentreE GandolJi
I
I
 Metallurgy of steel

t r Gonstfiutional
discontinuities

I Orlde*.
They comeftprn the reactionof orygen with
elsnents that can be oxidised(Fe, Ca, Si,
Al, V, Ti, etc.). The preserrced oxides
affecte ths material hd machinability.lt
oxideeare hard they can causo sudace or
intErnal fractures or become dreee
correntration pnints. Forging does not
eliminatethem:h ddorms or crushesthem,
deperding on the main processing
deformatisns.
MbrogWhb€spoctsof irclusionscrushad
duringrolling

Oxideshavea differentacousticimpedernefrsm stesland are thereforevisible(in relationto their

to ultrasounds.
dimensions)

Sulphldee.
The Sulphurconlainedin Seel combines
with iron and manganese to form
zulphides.
Sulphldesare vsry plasticand they follow
the matedalstraindisplayinga diSribrrtion
pettemwhichdependson the Srain mein
direction.

Sulphideears very emallard are not

easilydetectablewith ultrasounds. MicrWWhE aspdctsof irclusktnselongatedduringrolling

Fl*heyee.
They are due to the presenceof hydrogen
dissolvedin Seel. Followingto hot norking
operations and subsequent cooling,
hydrogentends to gath€r in "pockets'n
wlrerepressurereachesvery high valuee
and producessmalllens-slraped tearings.
Zone affected
Fisheyes are very dangerous since, hy fisheyes
becauseof their shape,they can odginate
fractures.
They can be eliminatedby means cf a
fuilher hot umrkingprocessand a suitable
anti-fisheyetreatment.

Aspecfof fisheyesin a squarebillefcrosssectrbn

ffi Fistreyes andpresent

arewellvisiblewithultrasounds oscillogram.
a typfoHl

SatpemTrainingCenteE, Gandolfr 87
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING

I duringdippingoparations
occurring
Discontinuities I
Duringsteelprocessing,
Themostcommon on6saresilicaandalumina
canbe formedafterthe refiningprocess.
inclusions
non-metallic
inclusions. inclusions,
Metallic suchas tin l
arelessfrequent,
andcopperinclusions, because theyarecontainedinthe initial
scrap.

Thewalr,ntionof inclusionspertein$
moreto thefieldof metallographic thanto thatof
micrograph
duringthe subseguent
ultreeounds: however,
solidification, phenomena
coalescerrce canoccurand
causethegathering whichumuld
d irrclusions thenbecomevidble.

. Discontinuities duringcastingoperations
occurring
The maintypologies
are:
- Inclusbns Duringcasing, fragmentsof the refrac{orymaterialcan come off from the
ladle,the runneror otherequipneril,or, due to the contactwilh air dudng
pouringoperations,r+oxidationphenomenaGanoccur.
inclusionstrappedin the Seel tend to concentratein
Duringsolidification,
the ingot top region (feedhead)so thet they can be remwed almost
completelywith the feedheadprwlded that a sufficientquantityof it ls
remaned.

Their dimensionsvary considerably(fromvery srnallto very big, in the

orderof a few cubiccentimetres). They can be detectedby ultrasounds,
compatiblywith their size, sitrce lhe materialthey are composedof is
differentfromsleel.

segrugatlon Segregationoccurs in big ingots or geometricalshapeswhich present

dlssontlnultles critical pornts (shatp edgee). This happens becaus€ the fast-melting
materialsdafi to solidifybdore the dhers.

This impliese ditferencein the materialchemicslcompositionwhich is

ueuallymorerelwantin theforgingaxialzone.
- cnck* Cracks forming during Seel caSing depend either on wrong casting
paramelersor on midakesin the procedure.

Thes€defectspeltainto the field d sudacetesing morethan to ultmeonic

teding. They could be tested with ultrasoundsif, as a consequenceot
forging,they werepushedintothe matedal.

88 Centre
SaipemTaining E, GandoUi
 Metallurgyof steel

I cryatallisetion
dlscontlnulties
fromthe externalparts
The steelcastintothe moldsdans ils solidificstion
arrdcoolingoccursin theinternalandexternalpadsat differentrates.

I Moreand moresolidmsterieladdsto the primarysolidifkntionnuclei,ard it

doe$not arango orderly,bul ramifiesln all direaions,creatinga dendritic
Srusture.
I However,this phermmenondoes not aff*t the piece integrttyeirrceit is
redrictedto the surfaceand can be renrovedby subsequenthot unrking

I - rhrinkage cevlties
operations.
Theyaredueto thevolumedecreasewhichoccursduringcooling(in deel,
thevolumevadation is about6%).Thisreductioncanpmdrcecavitiesin
the lastsolidiliedzone(feedhead
zone).

Cavitiescanbe remoredthroughadeqrnteforgingor rollingcycfesthanks

to the steelprcpertyto be weldedin the intedaceby meansof temperalure
alone(proridedthatthettitosudacesare notoxidieed).

t ln-seruicadiscontinuitias

tailuresof
About90%of in-service
I mechanicalparts is caused by
fatigue.

I This phenomenon can be

obseruedin thosematerialswhich
are subjectedto stre$$esthat vary
I withtime(oscillating).
Fatiguefncture

Fatiguefracturesare abruptand they do not implythat the breakingload has been

reachedin any pointof the section.

However,the fracturesurfacehas
a typicalaspect two zonescan be
distinguished: one is smooth,
sometimesoxidized with parallel
lines and one is brilliantwith a Fracturestarting
and progression
crystalgrainstructure. zone
The aspectshowsthat the fracture
was started by a damagewhich
has progressively and slowlY
grown, eventually leading to a
fracture.

SatpmTrainingCeureE. Gandoffi 89
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2.7.2.Discontinuitiesin forgedpieces t
In forgedpiecesdirectlyobtainedfromthe ingot(preformed),
steelian be observed.In some typesof forgedpiecesthe centralpail of the
of
the typicaldiscontinuities
preformed
is I
thatmightcomefromthe ingotarethuseliminated.
removedand the discontinuities
that can occurduringforgingare tearsand
The two mostcommontypesof discontinuities I
laps.

Forgingtears (or burst fissures)

I
are fractures caused by the
incorrectforgingtemperature(too
low); in these conditions the Forgingtear :
cross-seclbnof a
I
material does not reach the
adequatelevef of plasticityand
tears.
forgedbar
I
Forgingtearscan developbothon
the surfaceand insidethe piece
(subsur{ace tears).
I
Note The forging ternperaturemust be neither too hot nor too low, because this migttt causs
I
decaturizationand bumingat the zurfaceandexpansiond the grainin the core.

Thetypicalddects d under-heated
temperature
andorerheatedmetalsthat can be foundin Hocksforgedat a
theirmass.
wtrlchis rpt uniformthroughout
I
I
Forginglap (or upsetting)is partly
due to the fact that the material,
I
insteadof flowingand spreading,
overlapson the surface of the
forgedpiece.
t
The subsequentforging cycles
pushthe lap intothe material. t
t
Forginglap can occur in die
forgingwhenthe two gaugesdo
I
not match perfectly.When the
piece to be forged is pressed
betweenthe gauges,a certain
I'
quantityof materialtendsto leak
outof thepiece.
Withthe subsequent pressblows
this materialoverlapsthe sudace
thuscreatinga lap.

E Gandolfi
Centre
SaipemTraining
I Metallurgy of steel

I f.otg"d pieces having similarmorphology

are also subjectto similartypes of
discontinuities.
I Letu$nowexamine offorgedpiecesbygrouping
thediscontinuities themasfollows:

I ELOOMS BARS

I
Beingprimary- In general,the axisof
opefif,tionproducts, the piececoincides
bloomecanbe wtththe axisof the
charecterisedby ingot.Thecentral
differencesbetween regiond lhe piece
the surfaceandthe conespordsto the
core. centralregionof the
ingot;in tlnt region
Thefaultyzoneie discontinuities,wfrich
uutallythe central are of the sametype
one,wh€retherecan as thosefoundin
be nonwelded blooms,aremo$ likely
cavities,fistreye to occur.
residues(if a
zuitebleanti-fisheye Anotherquitec'ommon
treatmenthas not type cf discontinuityis
beencaniedout), the surfaceforglnglap.
forgrngcracks,
poroeityand non-
mdellicinc'lusions.

FLAT BLOOMS SHAFT

Theycan havethe Shaftsare usually

samediscontinuities characterisedby the
asblmms. eamediscontlnuities as
Duringtrandormation bars.Furthermore, in the
the rduction hasbeen shaftcentralregion(D/2)
blggerin one s€nse torgingcrackscan occur
thanin the other;as a il taperinghasbeen
consequerrce the caniedwithontthe
dEfeclsdo mt havea adequ,ate precautions.
roundshape,but are
widerfollowingthe Centralddec{s(D/4)are
directiond the lesedangeroussince
Sronge$deformation theyarecloserto the
In flat blooms,edge axis;a possiblerepair
forginglap is also techniqueis to borethe
frequent. shaftandremwethe
dskypodioncompletely.

SatpemTraining CentreE. Gandolli 9l

NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
I
PLATES
t
Plateeare usually forgingleF\
obtainedthruugh Theycanhavethe
upeetting,endthe alds
of the $ece cdrcides
withlhe axlsof the
=Tf,,if""inu**s
ffiffi
initiallngot. pororiqr, Sudacecracksat
the edgesare more
Therdore,the central frequentin discs
regiond lhe plece thanin dates.
conespondsto the
centralregion d the
ingot,wlrere stuface
discontinultiesare rracks
mod liltelyto occur.

Anotherquitecommon
type d dscontinuityis
the surfaceforginglap.

RINGSAND COUPLING.
FLANGES PIPES AND
FERRULES

Ringsare obtainedby Themanufactudng forging lap

remolingthe central processimpliesthe
poilion d a preformed; remolalcf the central
thisoperationremo/es poilioncf the initial
mo$ of the ingot lump;thus,mostof the
diecontinuities. defectscomingfrom
Therdore,the mod the ingotare eliminated
commonddects on
dngeareforgingcraclts The mod common
on the edgeeor in the discontinuiliesare the
internalregionand sameas thosefoundin
forginglaps. rings.
In tall andthin dngs,
dwingforgingthe forging laps
materialtendeto rise
extemallythusforming
snall dmsthatare mt
alunyseliminatedby
llattening;thus,forging
lapecan fotm also on
thefaces
t
I
92 SaipemTrainingCentreE. Gaildolfi
I
I
I Metallurgyof steel

t 2.7.9. Diecontinuitiesin castings

I thatcanbe foundin castingsaremoreor lessthe sameas thosefound

The discontinuities
in the ingots(an ingotcan be regardedas a roughcasting).There are howeversome
ditferencesdue to the shape,that is normallymore complexthan that of the ingot.
Furthermore, dynamicsalso distinguish
the solidification theseproducts.The ingothas a
simple geometricalshape and the phenomena relatedto the are linear.
solidification
processthat
shape,followsa rnorecomplexsolidification
A casting,due to its complicated
sometimes generates unexpecteddiscontinuities.

In additionto the materialconstitutionaldiscontinuitiesand to thoseoccurringduringthe

metallicrlip (theprinciple
is the sameas thatof ingots),the followingdiscontinuities
can be
observedin castings:

r discontinuities
occurring
duringcastingoperations
In this Sage non-metallic inclusions having a complex
compositioncan be formed.ln lhe solidifiedcading, inclusions
take the aspect of large "blankets" ananged parallel to the
cadingsudace,or d *clouds"of cluderedsrnallinclusions.

Theycanbe generatedby:
t - the reactiond $e€l with the oxygen in the air (secondary
oxides);
- the reactionsof deel and d secondaryoxideewilh refractory
materialand sand(complexoxides);
- thecorningdf d srnallfragmentsof the mold.

Anothertype C discontinultyis the cold shut that forms whena

I moltenmetalis caS over a solidifledmefral(e.9.:if the metalis
pouredtoo vignrouslyinto the mdd, it prodr.rces spafierswtrlch
solidifiesquicldyon the mold walls;when the fluid metal lwef
reachesthem,theyformforginglaps).

discontinuities
causedby Whenthe castinglernperature is too high,a reactioncan occur

I thereaction
withthemold betweenthe $eel andthe sandsudacelayer(sintering), thus
forminga layercf a matedalwithchanaAeddic*that are haff-wsy
betweenmetalandsand.

I The formationcf snch layer is not dangerousin itself, but it is

betterto removeit becauseit mighthidemoreseriousdefects.

I causedby
discontinuities
heattreatments
Theycanbe causedby mi$akesin the heattreatmentprocedure
as wellas by problemsrelatedtothe flece geometryand by the
criticalcoolingvelocity.
I The cornplexgeornetryof lhe piecescan causeslressthat might
be excessiveand pmducefractures.The defectscausedby heat

I are mainlyexternal(surface).
treatments

I
t CeureE. Gandolti
SarpemTraining
NDT - I]LTRASONIC TESTING
r discontinuitiesforming
duringsolidification
I
is not always
Dueto the castingcomplexgeonretry,eolidification
I
typologies:
.
Here are the main
unifom arrd this can creatediscontinuities.
t
Plpcs
Dueto the deilectiveteedingcf the cas{ingfrornthe teedhead,
eomehOllorrrtsknownf,s *pipes*can be fOmed.
The fir$ solidifiedportions(the thinner ones) attrac'tliquid
t
materialfrom the hotterzones not solidlfiedyet. When the
mdal solidifiesin these zones, too, it stops flowing and
cavitlesare created.
I
. Porosity
Theprematureclosingof a castingcancausethe formationof
smallarrduniformlydidribtJtedsphericalcavities.
Segregates
Theseare draSicvariationsin the chemicalanalysiswith the
alignmentof largewlphides,oftencausedby the anomalous
I
growthof dendrites,becauseof the presenceof pointswhere
the lossof heatby the mdd is moredifficult, I
Hot tears
Thesecracksare dueto hot yielding,and can be foundin the
caSingzudacehottedregions.
|f the casing has thick arrdthin parts,the thin ones solidify
t
firS. Beceuseof thisthe materialshrinkageis not uniformand
we will trave internalstressbetweenthe various zones at
differenttemperatures whichwill generaletears.

I
2.7.4.Diecontinuitiesin rolled plates

The discontinuitiesin the ingottendto remainin the rolledplates,evenif theirmorphology

is alteredby the $uccessive rollingoperations.
I
On the rightyou can see the etfectsof rollingover
non-metallicinclusionsthat were trappedin the
ingot during solidification(and not removed):
inclusionsare tlattened and stretched,mainly
t
alongthe rollingdirection.

I
94 SaipemTraining E. Gandolfi
Centre
I Metallurgy of steel

I
In rolledplatesthefollowing canbe found:
discontinuities
I SLIVERS STRESSCRACKS

I These are surface and suFsudace

defectspre-exi$antin the slaberd not
completelyremoredby conditioning.
They can occur at the edges of rolled
plates that have a certain thickness,
followingto cnttingoperationswtrichmay
form localized$rein hardeningor, more
in general,tranwersegtress.

I DEI{TS, INDENTATIONS INCLUSIONS

These discontinuitie$ are open at the They are constitntionaldefects of the

I surfaceand are causedby roughness

on the suffaceof the millwsrkrolls.
ingnt and they can be refractory or
plastic.

LATVIINATIONS $EGREGATES

I They are dedved from the ingot

segregates and, due to plaslic
deformstion,tend to take a barded
pf,ttemandto anangein the centralthird
of the platethickness.Normally,they are

I Theyare usuallycausedby residuesof

the ingot primary or secondary
shrinlege;sincethesecavitieehavean
oxidisedsurface which is not welded
dudngrolling,the resultis a wideplanar
discontinuity.
dangerouswhenthe plateis subjectedto
relwant tranwerse etress (with plates
thickerthan 50 fim); one of the typical
consequences of the pres€nce of
segregates is the /amellartearing.

I
I
I
I
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I Sotptm Training CentreE Gandolti 95

I
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
2.7.5.Discontinuitiesin pipes I
.
thatcan be foundin rolledpipescanbe dividedin two categories:
The discontinuities

in the parentmetal
discontinuities
t
. discontinuities process
formedduringthe manufacturing
I
It is oftenquitedifficultto determineat sightif a discontinuity
belongsto the first or to the
secondgroup,becausesometimesthe two causesoverlap,or the defectsappearto be
identical. I
Constitutional of the initialmatarial
discontinuities

$omeof the discontinuities

the metalusedto manufacturethe pipe.
in a pipear6causedby discontinuities
thatcanbe observed in
I
is alteredby the pipemanufacturing
The originalaspectof the discontinuity process.
I
$LT\IB$ SCAI,E$
I

Thedlvers onthe ertErnal Thescalet onthe ertemal

surfacgaresurfaceand sudacearesurface and
subsurface pr+
discontinuities subsufacEdiscontinuities
existantintheingotandnot preexistant
intheingotand
completely removed. completelyremoved.

EilEH}IIEIHCI,USIOFIS STIRFACEIN{I,USIONS
Theyaredueto thepressnce
ofcopper,
tin,antimony,
nickelandsulphur
compounds, knswnforbeing
I
lmr-melting
compounds.
t
are
Thesediscontinuities
causedby blowholes
inthe
I'
ingot.
I
I
96 Centre
SaiperyTraining E Gandolfi
I
I
I Metallurgy of steel

- Mannesmanprocess
Manufacturingdiscontinuities
I

I
Surfece causEd
discontinuilies Forglnglap* aredueto ihs
by foreignmeterials
lhat cfosing of depressions onthe

t interposes
thepipe.
betweentherolland hollo'Yshellduringrolling.
Theemlutionofscalesis similar
to thatof laps,butit is causedby
theworkrolls.

I "B Al!ili(}()'' F,I,lIrEfYl'

Variationsinthepipelhicknees
sense,created
in
thelongitudinal
process.
duringthe manufacluring

I causedbythe
Discontinuities
rwtk rollspeedvadation
andby
abnormal creepofthematedal.
Thh h rn extremellr
dangercu*dsfsct not easily

t detectsd.

ECCI[ffiICnr OYAIJSATION
h is e'dimensional' It is a 'dimensional'defect
where
laek
whichimplies
discontinuity thepipeis notcircular,
i.e.the
I extemal
between
of concentricily the
andtheinternal
diameter
minimum
vadesbetween
anda maximum
a

diameters ofthapipe. dimension.

I
CewreE Gando$i
SairymTraining 97
FIDT- TJLTRASONICTESTING
I
discontinuiths- Extrusionprocess
Manufacturing
t
I,AMINATIO$S ECCEIITRICITT
t
l
I
Surface defectscausedby the
duringthe
lackof lubdcation
betweEn
(lackof concentricity
Eccsntricity
thepipeextemaland I
iniemaldiameters)canbe caused
ertrusionpruces$ or bytheuse
oftherwonglubricant. lf thebilletlemperature
ofextrusion
atlhe moment
is toohigh,thesurfeces in
by a nonuniform
material
heating
intheextrusion
ofthe
stage. I
andthe
t
contacl withtheequipment
material innerregions canbe
characterised creeprate.
by a difierent

I
2.7.6.Welddiscontinuities II
Weldshavethe functionof joiningtwo solidpartspermanently
in orderto ensurethe
lf suchcontinuity
continuity.
material wehavewelddiscontinuities.
is impaired, I
relatedto autogenous
We will e)€minethe discontinuities
fusion welding, which is the most common welding
process.
I
canbe foundbothin
In thistypeof weldingdiscontinuities
the weld metaland in the thermallyalteredzone (TAZ).
Somediscontinuities, formedin one of thesetwo zones,
I
can propagatein the parentmaterial.

in the joint shall be detectedand

Any discontinuities
I
withthe
e)€min6din orderto ascertaintheircompatibility
structureworkingconditions. I
In weld testing,besidesthe standarddifficulties
operatorsshallfacethoserelated
relatedto ultrasonictesting,
dueto thegreatvariety
to thesignalinterpretation,
l
thatcanbe
of discontinuities found in welds.
I
I
I
9E SaipemTrainingCeureE, Gandolfi
t
I
I Metallurgyof steel

I Welddiscontinuities
canbe classified
depending
on theiraspectandorigin:

t Surlecr

t Theseare discontlnultles
on the weldsurface

I
I
I
I
I
I Bldlmcn*lonrl
$hape
Tridimonrlonal

I Bidlmensionaldiscontinuitieshavea relativelylarge
crce+esctlonIn onedirectionanda smallor negligiHe
croclsectionin the directionpependicular
Discontinuitiee
thatdarelopin all directions.

t to thefirstone.

I
I
I
I
I
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I
t SarpemTrainingCentreE. Gardofii
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
Origin I
lletallurglcal Operatlonal
Theyare causedby:
- residul Etre$s;this is in directproportionto Theyare causedby:
I
the matedaldrengilh
longitudinally
tothe weldl
anddwdops both
andtranwersallywithrespect
- fnsionIn the parentmdal;
- welde/eincomp€tencs;
- inadequateltmrkingcottditions;
' matedalsnotproperlystored;
- badpreparation
t
- abeoptionof gnsin the weldmdah
- tastcoolingd the joint.
of the edges.
t
I
I
t
I
I
can be found in weldswith reference
of thevariousVpesof discontinuitie$
On the followingpag6syou willfinda description
to theiraspect(shape and position)
and to the
that
main I
rEasonsof theirformation.
t
I
I
t
I
l,
I
I
100 SaipemTrainingCentreE Gailolfi
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I
t
I A crackis a discontinuity
formedbecauseof inter-or trans-crystallinedisconnection
metallicmaterialoriginallycontinuous
andflawless.
in a

I Cracksare the mostdangerousdefectin weldedjointsb6cause,evenif they are small,

they are a fracturein progress,with a highstressconcentration factor(etchingeffect)at
theirends;a crackis susceptible to grow withtimein functionof the servicestressand of
I leadingthejointto yielding.
its initialdimensions,

They are normallyregardedas bidimensional

discontinuities
becausethey are more or
I less elongated(froma few thousandthsmm to some centimeters)and deep, with an
irregularoutlineand closeedges.Whentheyare shoilerthan t mm they are knownas
microcracks.
I Dependingon wlrerethe separation occurs,alongthe grainboundaryor throughoutthe
grains,theycanbe intergranular
or transgranular.
I
I HOT CRACKS SUR voL 2D 3D MET OP
t o o

I
I
Hot cracks are formed during the foint solldification
rtege; they aru generallylongltudlnaland anengedat
thc crntru of thc run whcru they weru brmed; they

I mry or mey not comc up to thc surfecc.

In ca6on deel welding,theyaremainlycausedby:

- msdium-high carboncontenlin the parentmateriel;
I - highcontentof impurities(sulphurandphosphorus)
the parentmatedal;
- highlwelof weldingshrinlrege dress.
in

I
COLDCRACKS suR voL 2D 3D MET OP
I t 0
Gold crrcks arc formcd dudng thc folnt coollng stage.

I They f,nr moru ffiucntly tnnevers€ than

longltudlnal, bccausr longltudlnal rtresses aru
strcnger.
ricrocrock* in ndld*{rdr

I Theyare mainlycausedby:
- highhydrogencontentin thefusedzone;
- highcoolingvelocity;
- highlwelof shrinlrage
I Sress. cr*kr in hardelrcd and ltmpsred *tsel

I
SairymTrainingCeureE Gadolfi l0r
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
t
t Cracksin the thermallyalteredzone I
Theycan be foundin a vveldthermallyalteredzoneor in its proximity.They are usually
theycan be supedicialor developinsidethe
but they can alsobe transverse;
longitudinal
weldbead.
I
COLDCBACKS(bngftudlnal) SUR voL 2D 3D TIIET OP
I
Thcy devclop dudng thc folnt coollng. They cen be
vrry small (mlcrccrackr) or vsry large, up to a lew
+ I o +
I
ten* cenilmstrss.

Theyare mainlycausedby:
- presenceof quenchedstructuresin thethermallyattered
I
zone;
- hydrogenabsorptionby lhe dip;
- residmlshrinkagestress. I
I
HOT CHACKS suR voL
t I
2D
o
3D MET OP
+
l
Thcsc aru ueually very small craclte causad by thc
fuslon of low-meltlng compounds at the graln
boundery(ln tha foint thennrlly alterud zone) and by
thr shdnkege ttrcs* that bring about the grain
I
srprtetlon.
I
LNTELLARTEANS suR voL 2D
t +
3D ilIET
+
OP I
Thcsa aru cracks thet are normally fiormed in the
parunt metrrlal when lt lc rubfectad to e strc$s
pcrpcndlculer to the rolling plane. They are typlcsl
I
of T or L fa*tened foints and have a characteristlc
etepwi* pattern.

Theyare mainlycausedby:
I
- shrinkageSress;
- geometrycf the joint;
- rolled parent metal with a medium-highthickness,
I
ilsceptible to tears.
I

I
t
102 SaipemTrainingCewreE. Gandolfi
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I Metallurgy of steel

I t Lackofpenetration
andfusion

I Lacksof penetration
andfusionarediscontinuities
causedbytheabsence of fusionin one
or both the weldedjoint edges.They are seriousdefectsand are almostalways
unacceptable.
I
I LACKOF PENETRATION

Thlt can br iound in thc firut run (root) or in the weld

SUR
+
voL
o
2D 3D
+
iIET OP
+
coru, depcndlngon the typc of preperetlon( V gnoove,
t doublc V gloove, ctc), or In zucc+rsslvsruns.

They are mainly causedby bed edge preparation(too

I smallchamferengle,insufficient
misalignment)
didancebetweenedges,
or by the welder'slackof skillin the caseof
manualwelding.

t
I LACROF FUS,/ON SUR
0
voL
t
2D 3D
I
MET OP
a
It |t a discontlnulty betweenonc rdge and the weld

t nptal, caueedby the absencr of fueion.

The moS likely causesare the same a$ thosecausing

lackd penetration.
I
LACKOF SIDEWALLFUSION suH voL 2D 3D MET OP

I Thcy aru *lmllar to lack* of tusion, but betweenthe

edge and thc wsld metalan orlde laycr l* Interposed.
+ + o o

Joint* bearing this type of dsfect have very poor

mechanlcalproperties.

Theseare typicalof ferritic$teels,for processee

witha low
I corpentrationin the heatflow (MAG),or d easilyoxidable
materials(eluminium alloys).

I
CcurcE Gandolli
SatpcmTraining 103

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I
t Inclusions I
Inclusionscan be foundin the weld metal,and theyare regionsof the weld bead where,
insteadof the weld material,loreignsubstancescan be detected(gas, non-metallicor I
metallicproducts).
SOLIDINCLUSION$ t
SIAC 'NCLUSIONS

These cavltles arr formed ineidc the wrld metal, as

suR voL
+
2D 3D
t
MET OP
t I
well ar In one or both lts edger, and they contain
elther dag or a elag-ga*mirtutt.

Thls Incfuslon le lmown at elongatedInclusionwhen

It* lengilhls thme tlmrs ltr wldth.

or submerged-
coated€lectrode
Theyusuallycharacterise
I
arc op€ratlons.
I
TUNGSTEN
"VCTUS'O'VS
Thls inclutlon ie usually spherical or polygonal,
SUH voL
0
2A 30
I
MgT OP
t I
composed ol tungstrn ltolated lragments or smell
cluste|gd scales(tungstenspatters). I
is typiml cf the TIGtechnique.
Thisdiscontinuity
I
cAs tNcLustoNs

POEOSITYAND BLOWHOLES SUR voL 2D 3D IIET OP

Ths*e cavitieearu the cons€quenceof gas pocketsin

the dlp that have solidlflcd too fast.
I t o
I
Round-drapcd incluslons anr called porss or
blowhofe*,dependlngon thslr dlmenelons,smalleror
blggerthan 1 mm reepcctlvely.

wonuHoLEs SUR voL 2D 3D MET OP

I
a 0

I
I
Thesc are elongatedgaseout Inclueiont (their length
is thme tmee thelr dlameter).
Wormholes wlth a very long tail can end in smsll
crecks or laclt of sidwall fueion and muat bs
rcgaded fs very dangemus rB concems the foint
safety.

This is a typicaloperationaldefect.Sometimesthey are

foundgroupedin thosepointswhere,due to mishandling,
the arc with basic or cellulosicelectrodeshas been
t
stretchedtoo much.
I
SaipemTrainingCentreE. Gando$i
t
I
I Metallurgy of steel

l t Profilefaults

I in the profileare represented

Discontinuities by deviationin the weld metaloutlinewith
rospectto the ideal profile,composedof a line that partiallypenetratesthe edgesand
gentlyconnectswith the parentmaterial,regardless of the typeof joint.They are usually
I foundonlyin the weldmetal.

t EXCESSOF WELDCNOWN

It usuelly occuflsIn buft loints.

suR voL 2D
t
3D IIIET OP
t

t It is usuallycausadby the weldefs inabilityto distribute

thE runs uniformly(in case of standardwelding)or to lhe
lackof accordancewiththe parameterindications (in case
I of automaticwelding).

I THE WELDBEAD IS TOO CONVEX SUR

t
voL 2D 3D IIET OP
I
It l*typlcal of flllet weldt.
I This is due lo the weldefs mishandlingd the eleclrcde
(manualwelding)or to inconectparameters(automatic

I welding).

t UNDEHCUTS SUR
t
voL ?D 3D IIET OP
o

t They often torm In mtnually welded beade, more

fruquently In non-hodzontalposltlons.

They are essentially caused by the applicationof

l excessivecurrentcombinedwithmishandling.

SURFACEROUGHNESS suH voL 2D 3D MET OP

o o
Thls confers a bad appearancc to thc weld bead
I who*c mceh elem€nts,Instead of belng parallel one
aftcr ths othcr, takc an Inrgular pattcm.

Thisis usuallydueto the welder'sinsufficient

skill.

I
I
I
t So,Fm TrainingCentreE Gandolfi 105
NDT - TJLTRASONICTESTING
t
ETreEH/6'ALIGN'IENT suR voL 2D 3D MET O P
I
At best, thls conslsts ol a suddon varlatlon In ths
pmffle, but lt can also bdng about the leck of luslon In
o t
I
thc ovcrleppodrdge.

It is ceusedby Inaccurateassembly,whichprwents the

weldfrornbeingregular.
t
I
AHC STN,KES SUR voL 2D 3D MET OP

Thcy conslst of e localiaedfueion in the parcnt metal

wlthout llorv olweld metal.
t a
I
This uzuallycharactedzes arc manualoperationsand are
dueto the negligenceof the welderwhostafisthe arc on
I
the parentmetalandnot,as in goodpractice,on the edge
of the chamfer.
I
I

106 SaipemTrainingCenlreE. Gandolft

t
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Module3

TESTING
BY ULTRASOUND
I 3.1. TESTPRINCIPLE

I The method is based on the reflection

that a sound wave undergoeswhen,
whiletravellingacros$a medium,it finds
I an obstacleto its propagation.
The test
reguires a system composed of the
followingelements:
I - signaling
- wire
equipment

l - probe
- couplant

I The ultrasonicbeam-emittedby the probepassesthroughthe pieceand, after reaching

t the bottomwall, is reflectedbackto the probewhichsignalsit on the screen.lf alongiti

paththe beamfindsa discontinuity,
the presence
of the defect.
it returnsto the probein a shortertime,thus proiing

I 3.2. PIECETESTING

I Usually,the firststepin the ultrasonic

testingprocedureis the e)€minationof the pieceto
be examinedin order to collect the necessaryinformationfor the setectionof the
eguipmentand of the testingmethod.The examination
I followinginformation:
of the pieceaimsat acquiringthe

r
I the type of material Eachmaterialhas its own attenuationcoefficient,wlrich
shall be takeninto accountwhen evaluatingthe probe
frequency.

I r process Each manufacturing

the manufacturing process(rolling,forging,welding,
etc.) can bring about certain defects. Knowing the
manufacturingprocessprovidesinformationabout what
discontinuities
aremorelikelyto be detected.
r the heattreatments and Each heat treatment,as well as each processingthe
processing the piecehas piece undergoes(grinding,etc...), if carried out
beensubjectedto canproducedefects.
incorrectly,

r the surfaceconditions The conditionsof the surfaceaffectthe selectionof the

probeandof the couplingmaterial;theycan alsogivetips
aboutthe detectionof anysurfacedefects.
r the piececonditions Thisimpliesfindingoutif the pieceis newor used:in this
casefatiguediscontinuitiesshouldbe lookedfor.
Thesedatashouldbe suppliedwiththe piece.

SaWm TrainingCewreE. Gandolfi lofl

NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING

Suchexamination aboutthe natureand the orientation

will alsoallowdrawinghypotheses
of anydiscontinuity.
t
The pieceusuallycomeswitha servicingrequestthatshallbe analyzedin orderto: I
.
'
withinths testprocedure;
fookfor any indicationaboutthe checkinginstructions
areto be applied.
verilyif any specificregulations I
It thereare no specificrequests,the operatorshallissuethe test resultswithoutmaking
any statementon the pieceapplicabilig.In this casethe operatorshall also decidethe
I
tydeof testand howimportantandcriticalthatpieceis, tryingto figureout, if not specified,
the pieceapplication. I
whichatfectthe selectionof the eguipment:
Herearetwofurtherconditions

r the testsite t
(laboratoryor worksite,andthe subsequent and limitations)
difficulties
r the piecetemperature
(onthe worksiteit mightbe necessaryto testpiecesimmediately afterwelding).
I
I
3.3. TRANSDUCERS

9.3.1.Introductlonto transducars
t
The term transducerrefersto the probemain elementwhichfunctionsas a transmitter
convertingthe electricaloscillationsinto mechanicalvibrations (ultrasounds)and,
I
conversely,as a receiver.Transducerscapableof producingultrasoundswithin the

be grouped into:
dependingon the physicalprinciplethey are basedon, can
standardtestingfrequencies, I
o piezoelectric
r electrostrictive
I
3.3.2. Plezoelectrictransducers
t
Piezoelectrictransducersare composedof a material(quartz,for instance)characterized
wtrichis the propertythat certaincrystallinestructureshave to charge
by piezoelectricity,
I
whentheyare mechanically
electrically deformed(directpiezoelectric effect).

Vice versa,if we applya certainvoltageto the materialoppositesur{aceswe obtain a

mechanicaldeformation (epansionor contraction,dependingon the voltagesign) of the
crystal(reversepiezoelectriceffect).

thus, makes the transducerbehaveboth as a transmitterand as a

Piezoelectricity,
receiver.

ll0 CentreE. Gandolfi

SaipewTraining
t Testing ultrasound

I llom detalls

I Plczocl*trlc etlcct

At a mlcroscopiclwel, the direct

I piezoelectricdlect ls due to the
mechanlcal ddormetlon d lhe
cryslal which causes the

I appsarflnceof a pair d chargesin

each lattice mesh, as a
consequenceof the displacement
of tha centersd the posltiveand
I negativecharges.

I
I lf th6plateis subiected
a thickness variation
to a variablevoltage(seefigureon theright),theplateundergoes
Axwhichis a linearfunction
oftheapplied voltage U,thatis:
I Ax=6lrg (1) d - proportionalig
@nstant(calledpiezoelectric
module)

I The conversion from electric voltage to

mechanicaldeformation
twodirections.
is not the samein the

I This meansthat a transducercan be a good

anda badreceiver.
transmitter

t However,also in the caseof mechanical

of the deformation
Ax
strainthe obtainedvoltageU is a linearfunction

I U=h.Ax (Z) h = constantof piezoelectric

deformation
lf we assumethat the deforma-
I tion Ax is completelytransferred
by the transmitter
to the receiver,
we have the situation repre-
I sentedon the right and we can
define the electromechanicalAppled
couplingcoefficient vottagc

F = h'd

For quartzwe have:

The lollowing ratio
can thur be deflnrd

t h = 4.9o10V/m; d = 2.3.10 mA/

thus: F = 1.1'10-2
U r =h . A x = h , d . [ e __-_+ H=h-o*rt

I
T SaiperyTraining CewreE. Gandolfi llt
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
Whichmeansthattheamplitude outgoing
of the receiver signalis about100timeslower l
thanthethatof the transmitter incoming in practice,
signal.Furthermore, the deformation
receivedby the receiver
of theattenuation
is muchsmallerthanthat
of the ultrasounds
generatedby the
duringth6irtravelbetween
(because
transmitter
thetwo),so thatK takes I
valueslowerthan1%.
However, by muchhighervaluesand are
that are characterized
thereare materials
I
andpractical:
moreconvenient
therefore oneofthemis Uiriumtitana*te wfrereF
(BaTiOs),
is about 254/o.
I
3.3.3.Electrostrictivetransducers
t
transducersare composedof ferroelectricmaterials,usually plates of
Electrostrictive
bariumtitanate(BaTiOs), (PbNbzOe)and are
lithiumsulphate(Li$Or) or leadmetaniobate
I
basedon the physicalprincipleof electrostriction.

At a macroscopic /evelthisphenomenon is analogous underthe action

to piezoelectricity:
P)
I
(that
of an electric.field is'of a PD) the material(besides the electricpolarization
undergoesa mechanicaldefomationin the directionof the field.Yice versa,
mechanicalstress,a PD is obtainedat the endsof the piece.
followingto
I
At a microscopic level,the electrostriction
phenomenon is quite different from
l
piezoelectricity. differs from
Electrostriction
piezoelectricity
also in the
(charact6ristic).
law that rulesit I
t
llon drtall* El*troctrlctlon I
At a mlcrorcopic lerrel, fenoelectric
materialscan be consideredas a seriesof
regions (called domains) each d thent
characterized by spontaneous electric
polarization(seethe ligureon the right).

Sincedomainsare randomlyodentedwithin
thc mat€dal,there ls no macrsscopictotal
polarization
cf the matEdalitself,

Whenen extemalelec{dcfield is appliedto

the matedal. those domains that are
alreadymore or less orientedin the field
direction tend do grow In size at the
expenseof the others.In the materialthis
generatesa non-zeroglobal poladzationP
alongwith a mechanicaldefomation. I
I
t12 CentreE Gandnlfr
SorrymTraining
t
I Testingby ultasound

I
Ax is a quadratic
In fact,the deformation functionof the appliedPD,thatis:
I Ax = m.UZ wheremisaconstant.

I by meansof the graphicbelow:

Suchdifferencecan be betterunderstood
(a)quartzproducesvibrations at the samefrequencyas the appliedvoltage;
I (b)a ferroelectricmaterialexcitedwith the samevoltageproducesvibrationsat double
freguency.

t
I
I
El*bo8Eictiv.

I chr*tcrictic of
btrism litanste
Ji
t Ar-m.ua
I A virtuallylinear evolutioncan be
obtainedby movingthe workmedium
pointfromO to B.
l Thisalsopermitsto workon a steeper
thatis with
sectionof thecharacteristic,
I a betteryield(wfrichmeansthatgiven
the sameappliedvoltage,
ultrasounds havea
the obtained
higher
widthvalue).
I
I
Moredetall* llqnetodrlctlvetrenrduoarv'
I Magnetodrictivetransducersare uwally compoeedof fenonickeltubes or bars and use the

I phenomenon of magnetostriction
wfiichctnracterizesallfernrmagnetic
In somematerialsthe poladzation
matedsls.
indrcedby magneticfieldsis srrchthat the polarizedatomsinteract
and prcducea defomationin the directiond the appliedfidd.
trandrcers are usedwithfrequencyrangesbetween10 and 100 kHz approximately
Magnetodriclive
I and,b€ingquiteheavy,theycanonlybe usedin aulomaticNDToperations.

I
I SatpemTrainingCeureE. Gandolfi lt3
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
3.3.4.Characteristicsof differentmaterials t
perlormances
Finally,observethatthe transducer increases.
are reducedby temperature
I
Thereis a precisetemperature(knownas Curietemperature)abovewhichpiezoelectric,
andferromagnetic
lerroelectric loosetheirproperties.
materialscompletely
of materialsthat are most usedto
The followingtableshowsthe physicalcharacteristics
t
manufacture transducers.
I
\
OFS$ffi mlTERlAtst sEDASTRAilsDucERs
trlAlllCl{ARtCTEruSTrcS
rrrrEnrrt. LITTf,IH BTRT[i LETII z|RGOTiTE
LEAII lfrilT
I
EUTRTZ
cilm cTEHsnc\
Dsffify 2.ff5
stl.PfltTE
2.rffi
NTTilATE
5.7
XETTI{OEATE
5.8
TITAHATE
7.5 loul+gfino I
um
lcurd|cwlocily

fcurrth lnf,odilcg
5761r

t5J ttz
{4m

35
2800

t6
3tilto

2?,,5
mr3

looL[fint s
I
CrillcdtenUertr.re 576 75 fls+rflr 5S0 r90 + 350 6C
I
Hffionpchafcd couplhg
f#ttr f,

Plazoslsffhnrodnh d
0.10

a3
0.35

t5
{t52

ts0
0.42

80
0.5+0.8

150;5$0 l0'EmrV
I
Condflt of Fbroshstrb
deftrrmtion tl 4.9 8"2 l.t t.t 1.8+ 4.6 lorvim
I
Condilt of phzoelectr|C
FSSflTE g
57 t65 tl 37 20+{0 lo'smfl
I
sincetheyare a functionof the material
Valuesin the lastthreecolumnsare approximate
t
chemicalcomposition.

3.3.5.Transducerexcitation
voltage,the producedvibrationsare
lf the transduceris excitedby meansof alternating
also alternatingand havethe samefrequency;furthermore, by varyingthe frequency,it
can be observedthat at a certainvaluethe vibrationsare amplified(theiramplitudeis
increased,as showedon the side).This happenswhenthe oscillationfrequencyof the
appliedvoltageis equaltothe transducerownvibrationfrequency(fo ) whichis therefore
cafledresonancefrequency.

The thicknessof transducersused in probesis such that (giventhe elasticproperties

of the constituent materials) ultrasonic oscillationswith frequency fo between
0.5and 15 MHz canbe obtained.

lt4 Satptm TrainingCenlreE Gandolfi

I Testingby ultrasound

I
I llorg detalls Frrp clgpfilco*lllatbne

The term free eladic oeclllationrders to the successlonof cottflgurationsthat all bodiesacquirewhen
t they are defomed and ldt tree; the ddormationmu$ be cf limitedlmpoilancein orderto remain
wlthlnthe matedalelasthityrange.In pradice,the fddion insidethe material(wfrichtran$ormskinetic
energy Into heat) dops the oscillations,progressivelyreducinglheir amplitr.rdeuntil they ere
neutralized: erethensf,ldto be damped.
the oscillations
I Theoscillationampfitttdedependson the intensityd the initialddormationforce.

I The oscillationtime is directlypropottionalto the initialamplittdeaM irverselyproportionallo the

damping.

I The oscillationfrequency,on the contrary,in affmted neitherby amplitndenor by damping.The

frequenryvalue is inherentto the piece and dependsexclusivelyon the dimensionsand on the
(eladicpropertiesd the) materiallt ls maded.

t
t Anotherway to excitethe transducer
is by transmittingto its plates a
t single and very short Fulse: the
transduceris abruptlydeformedand
(once the voltage is ceased) it
t returns to its rest conditions
oscillatingat it$ own free vibration
frequency (free and damped
t oscillations).

In this case,the oscillationdamping

I is not an undesiredeffect (sinceit
allows to have shorter output
signals)and is normallyincreasedby
t applyingto the transducereithera
damping(porous)block(to increase
mechanicaldamping)or an ohmic
t resistance (to
corresponding
damp the
electricaloscillations).

I The briefnessof the outputsignalis an essentialrequisite(especiallywith singlecrystal

probes,wfrerethe transducerbehavesbothas transmitterand as receiver).In this way,
t wlrenthe reflectedoscillationsreturnto the probeafter passingthroughthe piece,the
probeoutputoscillationis finished.lf on the transducerthe outputsignaloverlappedthe
reflectionsignal,it wouldbe impossibleto locatethemon the display.
I
I
I &nre E. Gandolfr
SarrymTraining
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
Froma mathematical
is
transducer composedof
pointof viewthe signals(t)(oscillations)
the overlapping(sum) of more
suppliedby an emitting
sinusoidalelementary
I
oscilfations
frequencies
frequency
(called harmonicslcharacterized
thataresymmetrically
fo(knovm
distributed
as fundamentalfrequency).
by constantamplitude,with different
(centered)
aroundthetransducer resonance
in
Thesumof alltheharmonics annulled
I
outsidethetimeinterval[A,BI.Thefigurebelowshowsanexample withthreeharmonics.

of
The stgnaland the harmonicslt ls compooed
t
I
I
f = fo
L,,f\, I
f t > f o -fl .-A-/a-f i*fi-f \*ftfu r;
fr<fo
t
Amplitude of harmonlcsas a functlonof frequency
I
l
I
I
The steeperthe up and down Dampingand band width
I
(damping) segments of the
signal curve, the wider the
rangeo{ frequencies

widthAf \.
the signal
is composedof (definedband

Strongly damped signals

44 I
I
containa quite wide range of
frequencies around the
I
fundamentalone,and it is vice
versa in the case of slightly
dampedsignals.
l,
I
I
r1 6 CenlreE Gandolfi
SorrymTraining
t
t
 I

I
rr
We can assumswith a certaindegreeof approximation
thatthe bandwidthAf of a signal
rr havinga durationT is:
I
L l = 1l T
I

r where: [Afl=Hz and [Il= s (orequivalently

ffi = MHz, [TI=ps).
I

t Besides,a Q factorcanbedefined TransducerQ factor

at theresonancefrequency
foas:

I e=rolaf
I Where Af is the band width at
I 3 dB (seethefigureon theside). Q-folAf

-
Thiscoefficient
takeshighvaluesin thecaseof narrow-band (lowdamping)
transducers
r andlowvaluesin thecaseof widebandones(highdamping).
r
Anotherconseguential of ultrasonictransducersis the plate thicknessS,
characteristic
I wtrosevalueis, as formerlysaid,relatedto thefundamental frequencyfo as well as to the
I propagation
velocityof acousticoscillations
V in the materialthetransduceris madeof.

In particular,
the relationbetweenthesetwovaluesis:

fo=V/2.S
I
thatcanalsobewrittenasfollows:

[ = lr$r fo

I or:
$ = V l2.lo

I
I
I
t TrainingCctre E. Gatdolfr
Sarptrrr, tr7
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
t
I
3.3,6.Straight beamtransducerfor contactcontrol

Ultrasonictransducersfor NDT are insertedin suitablehousingsso that they can be

t
handledeasily.

In the drawingon the sideyou canfind

Ttretrmsdrcer signal
I
the scheme of a straight beam Grounding
ultrasonictransducer,
a beam perpendicular
whichgenerates
to the piece
datrgt h
hscrted bdweert
Iro mctrllc
I
plrto+ stuctlo
incidencesurtace. rnd sr+potcd hV
I FOfOrrs
As previousfysaid,the functionof the dilnping bbclft
porousblock is essentiallyto produce
a sufficientdampingof the oscillations
emittedby the plate, thus reducing
I
theirdurationandthe deadzone.
Damping,though,also reducesthe
oscillationinitialamplitudeand, as a Transducer
element
I
consequence, pulse.
the ultrasonic
For this reason transducers are
usually constructed so that the
Weer
layer I
obtained damping is a good
compromisebetweendead zone and
pow6r.
bince,as we haveseen,the dampinggenerated by the dampingblockaltersthe harmonic
contentin the pulse,the emissionfieldis also affected:the mainmaximumwill get closer
(reductionof ine near field) and the field will be more regularand suitablefor the
assessment of flaws.

Recently,small-diameter and critical-damping transducershave been designed:the

transduiercan thus transmitonly an aperiodicacousticpulseand the main maximum
virtuallycoincideswiththe transduceritself;it shouldbe observed,however,that the beam
takesherea very wide spreadand its directionality is not reliableany moreto locatethe
I
defects.

In the contactcontroltechnique,for the

I
acoustic coupling on very rough
sudaces,it is sometimesuseful,and
necessary, to protectthe transducer with
t
a plasticlayer with some
between to favor coupling
pictureon the right).
drops of
(see
oil in
the I
The plastic protectionincreasesthe
dead zone and, especiallywith high
I
frequencies,it causes a substantial
loss of sensitivity:for this reasonit is
used only when coar$esurfacesare
I
beingtested.
I
l18 CentrcE Gandolrt
Satpen\Training
I
I Testingby uhrasound

t Straightbeamtransducers are availablein varioussizes,dependingon what is needed;

however,the higherthefrequency the smallerthe diameter,sinceas you can $eefromthe
I refationfo= V | 2.5, fo is inverselyproportionalto $ (andthereforeto the diameter).
The diameterof these transducerscan vary from 4 to 30 mm, and the most used
frequenciesrangebetween1 and25 MHz;the emittedwavesare longitudinal.
I
t 3.3.7.Anglebeamcontactcontroltransducer
On the rightyou can s66 the schemeof
I a transducerof the type normallyused
to obtainanglebeams.

I A wedge, usuallymade of plexiglas,

allowsa beamof longitudinal wavesto
be sent to the piecewith an adequate
I incidenceanglef, so that the refracted
beam (as perthe refractionlaw)hasthe
desiredanglep.
I Behind the transducer there is a

I dampingblock,and the two platesare

obtained by cladding the transducer
sides.

I We can also obseruea pafiialreflectionon the interfacebetweenthe wedgeand the

piece,so that a sort of acoustictail' is formed:vyhenreturningto the transducerwith its
zigzagpaththis mightproducedisturbances and increasethe deadzone.The following
measure$ can be adoptedto avoidsuchrisk:

1) the wedge can be drilledas

showedin fig. (a), so that the
reflectedbeamis absorbedand
dispersedbeforeit reachesthe
transducer.

Damping Straightbeam
block transducEr

2) a highlyabsorbent
bockcanbe
applieda$ showedin fig.(b),
I and it must have the same
acoustic impedanceas the
wedge(to avoidreflections at Plexiglas

t thewedge-blockinterface). wedga

t Sotptrrt Training hntre E. Garrdolfr il9

NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
I
3) the wedge can be shapedas
showedin fig. (c), so that the
beem
Damping Straight
block lransducel
I
reflected lail" is repeatedly
reflectedin the pointypart:the
shapeof the pointis such that
I
the reflections are always
directedforward,and the tail
disappearswithoutretumingto Flexiglas
rr,ledge
I
the transducer.
I
The refractedanglep is generallyreferredto steel;the calculationof the variationfor I
aluminiumcan be basedon the ratiobetweenthe velocityof the wavesin the two media
and on the refractionlaw. However,it is only a slightvariationbecausethe acoustic
velocitiesof the two mediaare almostequal.
t
witha frequencyrangingbetween2 and5 MHzare normalfy
fn industry,angletransducers
smallin size in orderto allowthe
they can be particularly
used;for certainapplications
I
testingof pieces by smallcouplingareas.
characterized

In angletransducersthe refractedbeamis composedof transvsrsewaves.In fac't,the

I
transduceremitsa beamof longitudinal waveswfrichdividesinto reflectedand refracted
beamsfollowingthe reflectionandrefraction
laws. I
The mostcommonlyusedincidenceanglesare,however,higherthanthe criticalangleof
waves(thatis *27" in the caseof the plexiglas-steel
longitudinal coupling);in this way only
beamis transmitted
the transverse to the piecebeingtested.

In absenceof the longitudinalwave beam, intederencebetweenthe beams can be

of thetest results.
avoided:it wouldcausemanyproblemsin the interpretation
I
In particular welds,specialangletransducers
suchas thetestingof austenitic
applications,
whichcan generatea longitudinal
wavebeamhavebeendesigned.
I
wtrerethe incidenceangle i can be adiusted
Thereare alsoadiustableangletransducers
by a universaltangentscrew.Theseangletransducers usefufto generate
are particularly
I
Lamb waves wfrichrequirethe calculationof the suitablei angle,in accordancewith
Snell'slaw. I
In standardtesting operations,however,fixed-angletransducersars to be preferred
becausetheyare lessbulky. 1,
t
t
120 Sotptrr,,Training CentreE. Gandolfi
I
I Testingby ultasound

I 3,3.8.Twincrystalcontacttransducer
(transmitting
andreceiving)

I Due to the presenceof the d6ad

zonethe flawsthat are verycloseto
the beam entry surfacecannot be
t detected;however,the dead zone Damping
can be almostcompletelyeliminated
by means of two coupled
I transducers,as illustratedon the
side.
Emitting
element
Receiving
element

I The emitting and receiving

transducersare coupledeach to a
Plexiglas
wedges

plexiglaswedge;an insulationplate
I prevents the direct passage of
ultrasoundsthrough the plexiglas
wedge, between emitter and
I receiver.

The wedges are shaped so as to

I makethe axes of the emissionand
receptionrefractedbeamsconverge
$eparatlng
Receiving
element
into the piece, at a certain depth
t (focus).The hatchedarea is tested
by both transducersat the same
Emitling
element Plexiglas
wedggs
time,and the defectsit containscan
I thusbe located.

When these transducersare used,

the excitationpulsegeneratingcircuit
is not electricallyconnectedto the
receiveramplifier,so that this can
alsoreceivesignalsthat are nearthe
surface (the dead zone is thus
eliminated).

The maximum depth at wtrich a

defect can be detecteddependson
the length of the hatched zone:
probes can have various

I convergenceangles between the

transducers, so that the most
sensitivezone is nearthe surfaceor
at greaterdepths.
I Transmitting-receiving
transducers
can havea straightbeamor an anglebeam.The latter

I are inclinedby an anglep betweenthemand by an anglea withrespectto the normalto

the contactsurface.

I These transducersare most used in tests on weldedjoints characterized

thickness.
by a limited

I SaWmTrainingCcnnre
E. Gandalfr r2r

I
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
3.3.9.Wheel-typetraneducers
t
Wheel-type transducersallowlargeplanesurfaces
centralaxis,wherethe transducer is fixed,a
to betestedin a shorttime.Aroundthe
chamberwith a doublerubber
cylindrical t
membrane isfreeto rotateontwoballbearings.,
(sothatit hasa certainstiffness)
The chamberlowerpart is usuallyfilledwith liquid(generally
beamis transmitted
ultrasonic to the piecebeingtested.
oil) throughwttichthe I
Erternalview Cross-sectlbn I
Cylindricalchamber Flubbermembranes
t
I
I
t
t
I
Wheel-type
transducers usedto testrolledplates.
aregenerally

3.3.10. transducers
Water-column

To carryout high-speedtestingof
pipes,rolled plates etc, water-jet
transducersare sometimesused.
On the right you can $ee the
illustration of their operating
principle.

The acoustic coupling with the

piece to be tested is realizedby
meansof a watercolumn.
I
I
12? CentreE. Gandolfi
SarpemTraining
t
I
I Testingby ultrasound

I
3.3.11. lmmersiontraneducers
I lmmersion
transducers arepractically
analogous
plate,
to contacttransducers
thathavethetwo
transducer
elements on thesidesof the exceptthattheydo nothavea wearlayer
I andareperfectly
tight.
Therearetwotypesof immersion
I transducers
theright):
(seetheillustration
on

I r flattransducers,
r focusedtransducers.
I Flattransducers are mainlyused
to testverythickpieces,whilethe
I focusedones are used to test
thinnerpiecesor wheneverit is
necessaryto compensatethe
I wideningof th6 ultrasonic
causedby refraction.
beam

I The focusingof the ultrasonic Concavc

beamcan be obtainedby means electrortrictivr platr
Flat plate

of concavesintered electrostrictive
platesor usingconverging lenses
coupledto a flatplate.
I
Focused transducers can be Focuslngon one point Focuslngon a line

t focusedon one ooint or on one

line(seethefigureon theside).

I These transducersconcentratea
lot of energyin a limitedzoneand
thereforethe sensitivityaroundthe
t focalzoneis veryhigh,butit takes
very low values outside such
zone.
I
Theyalsohavethe advantage of allowingthetestingof onlya portionof the piece:the
I piececan be testedby layers,varyingthe paththroughwater,focusingthe ultrasonic
beamatvarious depthvalues.

I
I SatpemTraining CcntreE. Gatdolfr 123
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
not onlydecreases the reception
I
Theconcentration of energyobtainedthroughfocusing
disturbancephenomena
losses,it allowshighly-attenuating
sensitivity
through.
coatings
beam,butalso,reducing
of theultrasonic
causedbytheditfusion
steel)to be passed
(e.9.stainless t
Anotherimportantadvantage of focusedprobesis the good lateralresolutionof the I
beamthatpermitsthe preciseevaluation
ultrasonic of the actualsizeandpositionof the
in thecaseon defectswlroseorientation
defect,especially
thebeam.A necessary for
condition assessment
thedefect
is notexactlyperpendicular
is thatit must
be bigger
to
than I
focus.
thetransducer
I
I
t
I
I
I

TU CeureE Gandolfi
SaipewTraining
I Testingby ultrasound

I 9.4. ULTRASOUNDEOUIPMENT

I 3.4.1.Ultrasoundeguipment

The equipment
for non-destructive carryout thefollowingfunctions:
testingby ultrasounds
I o they providethe electricalsignalthat the transmittingprobe shall transforminto
acousticwave$:
I I th6y receivethe eledricalsignalof the receiving
probeandamplifyit;
r theydisplaythe signals,bothemittedand received, on a screen.

The screencan be:

r a cathodicraytube,justlikein traditional
t r
equipment;
a liguidcrystalscreen,likein moderndigitalequipment.

On the right you can see the

I block diagram of a traditional
apparatus for ultrasonic non-
testing.
destructive
I It is composedof the following
elements:
I 1 . Synchronizer

I 2. Transmitter
3. Delay
4. Sweepgenerator
5 . Receiver
6. Cathodicraytube
Cathodlc

I These components will

examinedin thefollowing.
ray tube

Cathodicray tube Fluorescent

acre€n

I Cathodicray tubesare composed

of a glasscase,in highvacuum,
where the following parts are
housed:

cathode
I adjustment grid
focusingdevice
anode
horizontaldeflectionplates
verticaldeflectionplates
fluorescentscreen
I
SarpemTraining CcntreE Gandolli 125
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
The cathode,the adjustmentgrid, the focusingscreenand the anode composethe
electrongun.
t
The cathode(negatively
charged)undergoes strongheatingdue to the jouleeffect;it then I
releaseseledronsthatare ledto the anode(positive)
by the electricfieldbetweencathode
andanode.

The electronspassthroughthe 4gg[g (a circularring)and are accelerated

by the electric
field betweenthe anodeand the fluorescent
theirmotionenergywhichis transformed
screen.Theirimpacton the screenreleases
intolightby the screen. t
Wherethe luminous spotwillbe produced.
beammeetsthe screena luminous
I
The luminosityof the spoton the screencan be modifiedby adjustingthe beamintensity
and thereforethe adiustmentorid that,in caseof potentialsthat are sufficientlynegative
withrespectto the cathode,canalsoannultheelectron beamcompletely. t
The focusinoscreenallowsthe beamto be focused,so that it convergeson an almost
punctiform
areaon the screen.
I
Deflectionhorizontalnlates allow the beam, and thereforethe spot, to be moved
horizontally acrossthe screen.In fact, wtrena givenvoltageis appliedto the plates,an
I
electricfield perpendicular
to the beamdirectionis created,and this electricfield moves
the beamau/ayfromthe negativeplate.

Verticaldeflectionolates,perpendicularto the horizontalones, allow the beam to be

movedvertically,followingthe sameprinciple.

The deflectionof the beamis

proportionalto the applied
voltage.

So, if a voltage linearly

increasing with time is
applied to the horizontal
plates, having a typical
pattern called saw tooth
pattern,the beamcoverson
the screena horizontalline.

By sending to the vertical

platesthe signalsent to the
probe first, and then the
signal returning from the
probe to the screen, two
pulseswill be displayedon
the screen:they correspond
to two verticaldeflectionsof
the electronicbeam.
t
I
126 CenlreE. Gandnlfi
SaipemTraining
t
I
I Testingby uhrasound

I Synchronizer

I The synchronizeremits,at a fixedfrequency,pulsesthat controlboththe transmitterand

the scanningvoltagegenerator.

t The numberof pulsestransmittedin a time unit, eryressedin cyclesper secondor in

Hertz (Hz), is called repetitionfrequencyor rate and is automaticallyvaried by the
equipment(it usuallyrangesbetween200 and 1000cyclesper second,in relationto the
I full scale).

The repetition
frequencycoincideswiththe numberof timesthe oscillogram overlapsin a
I timeunit;therefore,
the luminosity
of thetraceon the screendependson thisvalue.

I Transmitter

I At everypulseof the synchronizer,

maximum
thetransmitteremitsa veryshortvoltagepulsewitha
valueof *600V,thatis sentto theprobeononesideanddirec'tlyto thereceiver
ontheotherone.
I The pulsesentto the probeexcitesthe transducer whichis immediately
deformedto
returnto its restingposition
withfreeanddamped produce
Thesevibrations
oscillations. a
I groupof ultrasonic wavesinthemedium coupled
to thetransducer.
Theequipment allowstheadjustment
of theoscillation ratethataffectsthe probe
damping
I vibration theemifted
energyandtherefore ultrasonic
beam.

I Sweepgenerator

I At everypulseof the synchronizer,

generatorproducesa saw-tooth
the scanningvoltage
voltagesignal.

I This voltage, if applied to the cathodic ray tube

horizontalplates,deflectsthe electronicbeamfrom left
to right at a constantspeed,so that the time axis is
I defined.

t The saw+oothsignalrisetimedetermines the deflection

velocity of the electronicbeam and, with it, the
instrumentfull scaledepth(the lengthcoveredby the
ultrasonic beam representedon the screen): the
I steeperthe signalrise,thesmallerthefullscaledepth.

I
I Tlme aile

I SarrymTraining(twre E. Gandolrt LN
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
Dalay circuit I
The delaycircuitcreatesa phasedifferencebetweenthe saw-toothgeneratorstart and
thatof the pulsegenerator. I
In testingwith transducers,the beamgeneratingplanedoesnot coincidewith the beam
entrysurface.By delaying scanningwithrespectto the transmission
the
penetrates piece
time,it is possible I
to compensate the delaythe beamhaswfrenit intothe to be tested.

of the delayaffectsthe signalpositionon the screen,but not its shape.

The adjustment I
The diagram on the side
shows the time relation
SIGHALS

l.Synehron|im
t
betweenthe signalsinvolved
in the instrumentoperating
rycle:
2.Tranrmlulon
I
1. synchronism pulse that
follows a certain repetition 4.Emlmlon
I
frequency; |hobcrn

2. excitation pulse of the

transducerwhich produces
6.lbdrontrl
dcllrctho
I
wave;
the ultrasonic
square wave of the delaY
between the transducer
$rrlr ol
ehoc t
excitationand the startingof
the horizontal
deflection;
square wave which, by
I
acting on the cathodicray 6. Vhlblr brca
tube grid, allows the
emission of the electronic
beam;
5. horizontaldeflectionvoltage(sawtooth)of the electronic
beam; I
6. tracedisplayedon the screenof the cathodicraytube.
I
Receiver

The receiver is essentially IlEtector

clrcult
Ampllller
I
composedof:

I an amplifier,with a set of
r-l I I
attenuatorsto adiust the
level;
amplification I'
r a detector circuit wttich
rectifiesand integratesthe
amplified signals.
I
t
l2E Saipe4TrainingCentreE. Gandolfr
t
I Testingby ultrasound

I The receivertakesin, in sequence:

I r the pulsedirectlysentby thetransmitter;

r th6 pulsesuppliedby thetransducerin reception.

I platesof
The signalsprocessedby the receiverarethenappliedto theverticaldeflection
the cathodicraytube.

I The transducerreceptionsignalis very weak (its width rangesbetween10 pV to 1V

maximum)and wereit not reinforced (amplified)it wouldnot be ableto causethe vertical
beamin the cathodicraytube.
deflectionof the electronic
I The amplificationcircuitreceivesan input
signalthat has a heightAr and emitsan
I outputsignalthathasa similarshapeand
hasa heightAe. A1

I The Ap/Arratio betweenthe heightsof

the outputand input signalsis known
leveland is expressed
I as amolitication
in decibel(dB).

I tlorr detdfr an amplitler

Chaterlterlsfiiasof
RrTtosgFRestrD
HrEcffi-{G}

I .
d an amplilierare:
The mod importantcharacteddics

condant ampliflcationd the wtple signalfrequencybandwidth;lhe

firar
r.0
1.?6
IB
0
7

t signals, being very shofi, presenta relativelybroad

transdr.rcer
frequencyband;all the eignalcomPonents mud be amplifiedin the
same$ay to obtaina nondiSottedoutputsignal;
1.585
2.0
2.51
3.16
{
b

I
10

I r amplilirntionlineadty,that is a condant lnpWotttpulsignalratio;a

good equipment,to pre\rentmiSakes in the waluation d the
trensducersignals, must guraranteelinearity within the screen
5.fi2
10
17.8
15
?D
25
31.S 3U
t workingheight.
56
100
35
d0

I Attenuators level.Thereare usuallythreetypes

are thereto adiustthe signalamplification
calibrated
of attenuators in dB:
I - a coarsecalibration
attenuatorwith20 dB steps(G20-a0-60 dB);
- a morepreciselycalibrated
attenuator with20 ZdBsteps(total40dB);
I - a non-calibrated for finercontinuous
attenuator from0 to 6 dB
adjustments

I
I
t SatprnTraininrCentreE. Gandofi r29
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
Afterthe amplification pattern.The direct
stagethe signalstillhasthe originalalternate I
presentationof thissignalonthescreenis avoided because to evaluate
it wouldbedifficult
thewidthof signalsandtimeintervalsbetween them. I
The detector circuit, placed at the
receiver exit, rectifies the alternate
signals(so that only their positiveor
I
negativecomponent$are shown)and
integrate$them, by joiningthe nodes
(by meansof condensers)in orderto ttcrntc
I
avoidthe errorsthatthe raggedpattern Frttorn
mightbringabout. I
Everysignaldisplayedon the cathodicray tubethereforerepresentsthe envelopeof the
to the acousticpressureof the incidentwaveson the
alternatesignaland is proportional
transducers.
I
The receiver cannot receive
t
pulseis
signaluntilthe emission
over. I
Besides,it cannotreceiveany
alsobecause
signals theamplifier
hasnot yet recovered its normal
t
operatingconditions afterit has
I
t l
r I Farolrtlor
receivedthe excitationpulse (a ff ro'rr
fewhundreds of Volts)sentto the
transducer.
Duringthis time it is therefore
impossibleto detect reflecting
locatednear the
discontinuities
piecesurface.
I
Durdion dthe trtlrs Lengthsf echoes

The deadzoneis the lengthexpres$ed in mm,of the sectionof the timebaseline reached
by the output
detected.
pulse of the materialbeingtestescannotbe
wherereflectingdiscontinuities
I
The resolvinooowerof the equipment-transducer to clearlydetect
unit,that is its capabitity
closeto eachother,dependson the lengthof the echoes.
two or morediscontinuities

In ultrasonictestingon non-homogeneous
oscillogrambas6, and theymightconfuse
materials,many"grass"marksappearat the
the signalinterpretation. l,
The unwantedsignalscan be eliminatedby adjustingthe thresholdlevelby meansof an
adequatecircuit(reject)connectedto the receiver.

I
130 CcwreE Gutdolfr
Satpetr\Training
 Testingby uhrasound

This circuitallowsto subtracta constant

heightvalueVurfromall signals,andsuch
valuebecomes the minimumheightthata
signalmust haveto be displayedon the
screen:all signalshavingan amplitude 'Ydr
smalleror equalto such thresholdlevel
are annulled while the others are
displayedwith a width reducedby the
I samevalue.

I llon detalfe Whgdtto u* the thnehold level

The thresholdmodifiesthe ratiosbetweenthe detectedsignalsand thereforeft shouldnot be used

T wtrena referenceis madeto srch ratios.
The useof the thresholdshouldbe evoidedwhenthe acceptability of a defectis beingassessed,wftich
irwolvesa rderence to the ratio betweenreal and
disconlinuilies the rderencedefect used for the
T calibration.
eensitivity
Corwers6ry,ft can be usefulin the thicknessmeasurement,
receptiontimeinsteadof the signalwidth'
whensrer lt ls fundamentalto t6ll thg

I
I t Additionalequipment
equipmentincludesotherdevicesbesidesthe fundamental
The mostcompleteultrasound
I on6sdescribedabove.

DAC Automaticcomqansatbndevice

The amplitudeof the echoesof equal

discontinuitieslocated at different
distancesfromthe probedecreases as
the length of the ultrasonic Path
increases, because of the beam
divergence and of the acoustic
pressureattenuationin the material
beingtested.

The compsnsation deviceadjuststhe

receiveramplificationlevel in function
of the distancecovered bY the beam,
$o that the responseof discontinuities
having the same size but locatedat
differentdistancesbecomesconstant.

I
I
I SarPmTrainingCcntreE-Gandolfi 13l
NDT _ ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
I
Automaticalarm(gata)
signalsthe presenceof
This is a device (eithervisualor acoustic)that automatically
I
exceedingthe acceptance
discontinuities fixedwithina giventestarea.
limitpreviously

The initial limit and the extensionof the zone to be checkedcan be adiustedwith
I
continuity.The alarm works wlrenevera discontinuityexceedingthe programmed
at
thresholdlevelis detectedwithinthe referencezone,and this indicatesa discontinuity
the limitof the acceptancecriteria.
I
llon detall* Us ol tho alarm I
The alam. besidesbeing accompaniedby a visual and/or sound signal,can also supply voftage
signals.Thesecan be usedto operateextemalseruomechanisms,
marldngd fauttyzoneswithpaint,the rejectd the pieceetc...
suchas the pieceprogression,the I
The volage output can be eitherfixed (ON-OFRor pruportionalto the discontinuilywidth for the
connectionto a recordingey$em that stores the positionand the imponanced the detected
discontinuity. I
I
Timemarker
paths
I
Thetimemarkerallowsa simplerandmoreaccurate measurementof the ultrasonic
gridon the soreenof the
whichwouldothenrisebe carriedoutby meansof a graduated
cathodicray tube. I
It consistsof a trace with small equidistantand
rectangularpulses, at the base of the trace I
corre$ponding to the echoesfromthe piecebeing
tested.
I
The pulse frequencycan be adjustedfor the
in millimeters
calibration of tested
or in centimeters
material.

t
Hepetition frequency reguI ator

The possibility frequencycan be usedto eliminatespuriousechoes

to adjustthe repetition
("ghostindications"),
of the
reflections
due to the stayingon the screenof the echoesol the successive
ultrasonic pieces.
beamin highly-transparent I
Ghost indicationscan b6 eliminatedby an adequateadjustmentof the repetition
frequency,so that the time intervalbetweentwo pulsesis increased,allowingthe echoes
to be absorbedbeforethe nextpulseis transmitted.
I
t3? CewreE. Gandolfi
SarpemTraining
I Testingby ultrasourtd

I of ths echogram
?.4.2.Preeentations

I testingthreetypesof presentations
In ultrasonic
piececanbe used.
in the
of the signalfroma discontinuity

t t of typeA (A-scan)
Prdsentation

I On the screenof the cathodicray tube

the discontinuityis representedby a
peak(echo).

The distanceof the peakfrom zero on

to the path
the time axis is proportional
I coveredby the beambeforeit meetsthe
discontinuity.

I The peak amplitudeis proportionalto

the acousticpressurereflectedby the
discontinuity.
I

t of typeB (B-scan)
Presentation

The discontinuityis displayedon the

$cre6n of a cathodic ray tube as it
couldbe seen on the cross-section
of the piecebeingtested.
is
The positionof the discontinuity
shownin a cartesianplane.

The presenceof the discontinuitY

I generatesa lackof signalon the line
correspondingto the bottomsurface
zone.
in thediscontinuity
I The intensityof the imagedisplayed
on the screenis in directproportion
I to the amplitude of the Pulse
reflectedby the discontinuity.

&nlre E. Gandolfi
SairymTraining 133
NDT . ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
. of typeC (C-scan)
Presantation
t
The discontinuity
is displayed
on the $creenas if it were
I
on a planeparallelto
projected
thesurfae beingtested. I
This pre$entationallows the
extension(length
discontinuity
andwidth)to beassessed.
I
No data are given(or can be
obtained)about the depth of
I
withrespectto
thediscontinuity
thetestsurface. I
This typ6 of presentationis
generally usedwhenultrasonic
testingis carriedout by means
I
of automaticsystems combined
with a permanentrecording
system(e.9. testingof rolled
I
plates).
t
3,5. TESTINGMETHODS I
detectionis basedon.
the principlethe discontinuity
Thetermtesting methods"indicates

of the mostusedmethodsfor ultrasonictesting:

ln the followingyou canfind a description
I pul$+echomethod
. re$onancemethod
r through-transmission
method
I
3.5.1. Pulse-echomethod
in the
I
The puls+echomethodis basedon the principlethat if thereare any discontinuities
piece being tested, the signalsfrom the reflectionof the ultrasonicbeam on the
discontinuity surfaceare displayedon the screen.The absenceof suchsignalsrevealsthe I
integrityof the piece.

The method requiresa single transducer,acting as transmitterand as receiver of l.

ultrasonicwaves.The trainof waves(pulse)sentto the pieceis reflectedon the bottom

up by thetransducer anddisplayed
and the returnsignals(echoes)are picked
surtace,or on the surfaceof any discontinuity,
on the screen. I
I
t34 CenteE. Gandolfi
SarrymTraining
t
I Testingby ultrasound

I is not coupledto the piece,onlythe peakcorresponding

lf the transducer to excitation
pulsesentto thetransduceris displayedontheinstrument$creen(emission
echo).
I
I
I
I
I ericgion
ecbo

lf the transduceris coupledto a piece that has no discontinuities,

two echoes are
t displayedon the screen:the emissionechoandthe echoproducedby the reflectionof the
beamon the pieceoppositewall(bottomecho).

I
I
I

I The presenceof a discontinuity

alongthe
ultrasonicpath createsa disturbanceto
the beam propagation.In the simplest
case we will have the reflectionof that
portion of the beam that impingesthe
defect. The portion that has not been
t interceptedcontinuesits travel towards
the bottomsurfaceof the beam,wlrereit
is reflected.

The return anticipatedby the waves

re{lectedon the entrysurfacewill tracea
I third peak on the screen,betweenthe
emission echo and the bottom echo,
wtrichrepresents the discontinuity
echo.
The smaller portion of the beam that
impingesthe bottomsurfacecausesthe
width of the corresponding echo to be
I reducedwith respectto
flawlesspiece.
the case of a
dirconEilruity
echo
boEEor
echo

SatpemTrainingCentre
E. Gatdolfr 135
NDT _ ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
The signalcorresponding to the bottomecho will be presenton the screenonly if the I
doesnot completelyinterceptthe incidentbeam;this situationoccurswhen
discontinuity
the discontinuityis "small",wfrichmeansthat its dimensions
crosssection.ln the caseof a "big' discontinuity
are smallerthan the beam
(withdimensions greaterthat thoseof the I
beam)the beamis totallyreflectedand the bottomecho is not displayedon the screen(a
"big"discontinuity
andthe bottom).
will also hide all the smalloneslocatedbetweenthe big discontinuity
I
In the followingyou can seeotherpossiblereflection
cases.
I
casea) the reflectoris smallwithrespectto the beamsection;on the screenwe will have
the reflectorechoandthe bottomsudaceecho;
caseb) two reflectors,both havingsmallerdimensions with respectto the beamcross-
t
section;we will havethreeechoeson the screen,two of themcorresponding
the reflectorsandthe thirdoneto the bottomecho;
to
I
casec) two reflectors(likein b), but the onethatis closerto the transduceris biggerthan
the beam;the biggerdiscontinuity will reflectthe beamcompletelyso that neither
the smallerreflectorechonor the bottomsurfaceechowill be displayedon the I
screen;
I
I
I
cased): one reflector,biggerthanthe beam,inclinedby a certainangleso that the beam
is not reflectedon itself;no echowillbe displayedon the screen;
casee): the reflectorhas smallerdimensionsthan the beam cross section;the piece
bottomsurfaceis inclinedwith re$p6ctto the beamaxis;only the echo reflected
by the defectwill be displayedon the screenbecausethe bottomreflectsthe
beamwithan anglethatdoesnotallowthe transducer to receiveit;
casef): the piece has a thick and porousstructurewith a discontinuityat a certain
distancefrom the sudacebeingtested;the piecegraindiffusesth6 beam,that
reachesthe discontinuity andthe bottomsurfaceattenuated.
Behindthe initialpulse,manyclusteredechoes(grass)causedby the piecegrain
will appearon the screen,whilethe echoesof the discontinuity and of the bottom
surfacewill not be displayed.

r36 CentreE. Gandolfi

SaiperuTraining
I
I
 I
I bv ultrasourtd
resting

| l- sitnat,- t-"*,. -
"taboutits positionandextension.
alsogivesinformation
discontinuity,
In particular,the positionof the signal on the screen indicatesthe distanceof the
fromthe transducer,
discontinuity whileby the signalheightwe can deducethe shapeand
the extensionof the discontinuity.
r the instruments
For a correctreadingof suchinformation, shall be adequatelyprepared
and calibrated(timebasecalibration
andcontrolsensitivity
calibration).
t
3.5,2. Resonancemethod
t Thismethodis basedon the phenomenon of thicknessresonance. Resonance occursin a
piecethat has parallelsurlaceswhenthe halflength\lZ of the beamwavepropagating in
l thatpieceis equalto the piecethicknesss (oris a submultiple
of thethickness).

In resonanceconditionsthe piece
I starts to vibrate with particularly
broadoscillations.The vibrationis

I then transmittedto the transducer

the piece is coupledto, and can
i*,i='
thus be read: on the screen a
sharp peak wiff be dispfayed,
allowingresonanceto be clearly
it-li=*t
recognized.
iltl=
I In the resonance method the
transducer (straight beam) is
"t
i--t-......t

t excitedby variable-voltagealter-
natingcurrent,and not by pulses.
*
ir,i;=
By varying the frequency(and
Reronance conditions
I therefore the wavelengthof the
emittedbeam)re$onancecan be
created in pieces having any

t thickness.
Non-re conance conditions

I in the piece,thefrequencyat whichwe haveresonanceis

In absenceof discontinuities
f,-*

I (or a multipleof it) wheres is the piece thicknessand v the longitudinalvelocityof

ultrasoundsthroughthe material.

I
Notr The givenfrequency,calledtundamentalfrequerrcy,
conesponds to one wavehalflengthequalto
the piecethickness;resonancefrequenciesthatarea multipleof the fundamental one (sec-ondary
frequencies)coneepondto wavetralflengthsequalto submultiples cf the piecelhickness.

I
Satpcw Training CentreE. Garrdolfr t37
NDT _ ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
lf the piecehas a discontinuity
at a depthd from the sudac6,we have resonancealso
I
wfrenAIZ is equalto (or a submultiple
of) suchdepth.

After havingbeen detected,the discontinuity

can be easilylocated.The depth d oI a
I
thatgeneratesresonancewitha (fundamental)
discontinuity frequencyof fa is:
I
d-I
2' q,o
T
the re$onancemethodis also used in
Besidesbeing used to locatediscontinuities,
thicknessmeasurements. I
3,5.3.Through-transmissionmethod I
This methodrequirestwo transducers,one actingas emitter(T) and the other as a
receiver(R) of the ultrasonic
beam. I
The indicationof the presenceof a discontinuigin the pieceis givenby the reductionof
the signalcaughtby the receivingtransducer
defect.
with respectto the casewherethere is no I
of thismethodare:
The mainapplications t
r withtransmission
r with reflection
r withconduction
I
The detectionprincipleis the same in all of the three ca$es,but the positionof the
transducerson the piecesurfaceis different.In eachcasethe methodcan be usedwith
I
eitherconstantor pulseexcitation
of the transducer.
I
Through- transmission m ethod withtransmrssion

The two transducers(transmitter

T and receiverFl)are placedone in frontof the otheron
I
twooppositesudacesof the piecebeingtested.

lf the beam emitted by the

I
transmitter(T) meetsa discontinuity
alongits path,it is partiallyreflected.
The transmittedportionof the beam
I
is therefore weakened and the
second transducer(R) sends the l,
detectora reduced-amplitude signal
I
DISCOilTNilTTY
with respectto the case of a piece
withoutdefects;the signalreduction
indicates the presence of a
discontinuity.
I
138 SaipemTrainingCenlreE. Gandolfi
I
t
 Testingby uhrasound

I
From the reductionamplitudewe
I can deduce the discontinuity
eguivalentdiameter,but we cannot
determineits depthor its shape.
I
I Notr Thismethodmightbringforthtrvoproblems:

I d the movernsnt
1. difficultiesin the synchronization of thetwoprobes
2. the dampingof the echois difficultto interpretto stateif it is due to an intemalflaw,to a
couplingvariation,to the materialgrainetc...
I
I mathodwithreflection
Throughlransrn,ssion

In the through-transmission reflectionmethodthe two transducers(transmitterand

I on the sarnesideof the piecebeingtested.
receiver)are po$itioned

The reductionof the signalcaught

I by the receiving probe, again,
indicates the presence of a
discontinuityalong the beam path
I acro$$the piece;from the size of
such reduction the discontinuitY
equivalent diameter can be
deduced,but not its dePthor shaPe. flacEfrTf'fitlTY

reflectionmethodthe reductionof the bottomechois measured,wtrile

Note In the through-transrnission
in the classicalpulse-echo
techniquethe information of the reflectoris in the
on the characteristics
echoof the defect.

Besidesthe problemsmentioned to calculatethe probeposition

above,in this caseit is necessary
in furrc{iond the ultrasonicbeamanglein the material.

SarPemTraining CcnlrcE. Gaildofi 139

NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING

Through-transm
issionmethodwithconduction I
conductionmethodcan be regardedas an extensionof the
The through-transmission
reflectionmethod. I
pieces,whereit wouldbe impossibleto find the
It is appliedin caseof complex-geometry
exactpathof the beambecauseof the numerousand unpredictable it wouldbe
reflections I
subjectedto.

Thetransducers placedon the piecesurface.

are arbitrarily I
Any variation in the received
signal(amplitude
reductionand/or
I
displacement)with respectto the
signal of a flawlessspecimen,
provesthatthe beamhasfounda I
alongits pathacross
discontinuity
the piece.
t
t
I
I
t
I
t
I

l,t0 CeureE. Gandolfi

SarptmTraining
I Testingby ultrasound

I 3.6. TESTINGTEC}INIQUE$

I The term testing technique'refersto the systemusedto realizethe acousticcoupling

betweenthe transducerandthe pieceto be tested.

I Twotechniquescan be applied:
- contacttechnique,
usuallyappliedin manualtesting
I - immersion usuallyappliedin automatic
technique, testing

I Beforedealingwith testingtechniques,it
should be rememberedthat air is not a
IFANSII.EEF

goodtransmitterof ultrasonicwavesin the

t megahertzrangeof frequencies.
Besides,due to the difference
betweenthe
acousticimpedanceof air and of most
I metals,even a thin layerof air can be a
serious obstaclefor the transmissionof
ultrasoundsbetweenthe transducerand
I the piecebeingtested.

To ensurethe transmission
of ultrasounds,
a suitablematerial(coupling
medium)that
I replaces mustbe interposed
air completely
thepiecetestedsudace.
between thetransduceremittingsurfaceand

I 3.6.1.Contacttechnique

I In the contact techniquethe transducer

slideson the testpiecesudaceafterthis has
beencoatedwith a thin and uniformlayerof
I a suitablecouplingmedium.

This techniqueis mostlyused in manual

I testing,wtrerethe operatorcarriesout the
testby manuallymovingthetransducer.

I To obtainan effectivecoupling,the couplingmaterialmusthavecertainproperties.

I -

-
it must be easy to apply;a thin and uniformlayer reducesdisturbanceechoesthat
appearafterthe emissionechoon the instrument screen;
it must have a strongwettingeffect,so that any residualair betweenthe transducer
I -
andthe testedsurfaceis removed;
it musthavean acousticimpedance
and thatof tha transducer,
half-waybetweenthatof the materialbeingtested
in orderto minimizecouplinglosses;
I -
-
to preventit fromflowingawayfromthe sudace;
it musthavethe rightviscosity,
it mustnot containbubblesor solidparticlesthat mightreflector deviatethe ultrasonic
beam;
t - it mustnot produceoxideson the sudacebeingtested(whenthismustbe avoided).

I SaipemTrainingCcwreE Gandolrt l4l

NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
of the conditionsof
of the contacttechniquerequiresa carefulexamination
The application I
the surfacebeingtested.

The mainfactorsthatshouldbe analyzedare: I

- roughness:
the piece,
it shallbe limitedin orderto preventrelevantcouplinglosses;the less rough
the betterthe couplingconditions;however,the contacttechniqueis not
I
recommended in the case of too smoothsurfacesbecausethis could cause strong
disturbance echoeswtrichwouldaffectthetestresults; I
- presenceof paintor coatinglayers:theselayerscan moreor lessintederewiththe test,
dependingon theirthickness andon thelayerproperties
of transparencyto ultrasounds;
I
- presenceof oxidelayers(e.9.calamine formedduringhot working):evenif they adhere
to the sudace,theselayersalwayscreatean interfaceand thereforea barrierto the
propagation in thetestpiece;
of ultrasounds
t
- presenceof depressionsor notches:in these conditions,stronglossesof acoustic
metduringthetestingrun.
couplingaddto the usualdifficulties
I
I
I
I
I
The mostusedcouplingmaterialsare: I
r wBt€I
r oil
r lowviscositygrease
r - sodiumtriphosphate
glycerolor a water* glycerol-methylcellulose mixture. I
In the followingtable you can find the main propertiesand applicationsof these
substances.
I
I

t42 SatpewTrainingCenlreE. Gandolfi

I Testingby uhrasound

I
Couplingmedk commonlyusedin ultrasonictesting
I lledlum Use
Wetrr
I otl
It must be combinedwith wetting,degasifyingand antioxldant
agents;its typicaluseis in immersiontesting.
Oil is the mostcommonlyusedcouplingmediumin contacttests,

I becauseit mmainson he suilacefor a long time; it is to be

prefenedto waterwhenthe formationof rust or oxidesmust be
avoidedon tre surfacebeingtested.

t Heavyolle Theyare usedon hotandgreasyor verticalsudaces,or to fill the

cavitiesin particuladyroughsurfaces.
Glyceml It is an excellent medium,
coupling for bothitsadequate acoustic
I impedance anditsgoodcohesion
to surfaces;it is notusedpure,
butmixedwithtwopartsof waterandwithwettingagents.

I Grlatlne It has excellentcohesionand couplingprcpertieson rough

sudaces.A veryeconomical
methylcellulose
gelatinecan be obtainedby mixing
waterwith glycerol(to easethe comingoff of the
driedgel) and sodiumtfiphosphate(to avoidconodingeffectson
I $lllcon olle
thesurfaces),
They are generallyused with quartz transducersto test hot

I pieces,up to 300"C.

I 3,6.2.lmmersiontechnique

The immersiontechniqueis usuallyappliedin automatictesting,in series,of a great

numberof pieceshavingthe samegeometry(testingof tubesand small-diameterprofiles)
in
or testson singlepiecesthatare not for
suitable the contact
technique.
I The immersiontechniqueis characterized by the fact that the transducerand the test
pieceare immersedin the couplingmedium.This is usuallycomposedof a mixtureof
and anti-bubbleagents.The water guarantee$a
water with anti-oxidant,anti-corrosion
goodultrasoniccouplingevenwhenthe transducer is far fromthe piece.

I lmmersionis carriedout in different

ways, in the standard system the
Transductrcd.mn hdder
(stftg rddkn h diredbn z)

transducer and the piece are

I immersedinto tanksequippedwith a
handling$ystemto erplorethe piece
automatically.
I In some applications the piece
moves, in others it does not (or it
rotates on its axis) and it is the
transducerthat is movedto eplore
the piece(seethe drawing).
I
Sairym TrainingCcwreE. Gandolfr

I
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
searchunit)are used
probes,squirter-type
$omespecialsystems(withwater-column I
whenthepieces,
for rea$ons,
various cannotbemovedto thetanks.
t
I
t
Squliler-typeeearchunlt Water+olumnprcbcs
I
lmmersiontests,just like contacttests,can be of two types,dependingon the anglethe
I
beamhas whenit meetsthe testpiecesurface:

r straightbeamtest;
I
to the tested surface (incidence
the axis of the ultrasonicbeam is perpendicular
=
angle c 0o) I
r angledbeamtest;
the axis of the ultrasonicbeam has a certainangle (fl t* 0" ) with respectto the
perpendicular
I
to the testedsurface.
I
Straightbeam testing
to the piece
lmmersiontestingwith a straightbeam (axis of the beam perpendicular I
surface)presentsa completelydifferentechogramwith respectto that of the contact
technique.
I
The differencesare due to the partialreflectionthatthe beamundergoeson the intedace
representedby the waveentrysurface.
I
As a consequence,the echoes [I ] 1"'inteffaceecho
are split, and a series of
equidistantinterfaceechoes will IDI 1"'seriesof
discontinui$echoes
I
be displayedon the screen(I, I,
etc.),relativelyto the wavetravel [Fl ltt seriesof bottom
in water,and each echo will be echoes
followed by a series of
discontinuityand bottomechoes
which refer to the path through
[I'l znointedaceecho

[D'l zndseriesof
I
the piece. discontinuityechoes

I
t44 CentreE. Gandolfi
SarpemTraining

t
I Testingby ultrasound

I Let us nowexaminethe sequenceof eventsthatproducesthe echogrammoreaccurately:

I r emissionof the beam

the beamemittedby the transducer ( U0 ) reachesthe water-metal interface,wtrereit is
partiallytransmitted
( Ut ) andpartiallyreflected( Ur ) toward$the transducer;
I . 1't interfaceecho

t the Ur beamreachesthe transducerand is partiallytransmitted, thus generatingthe

first interfaceecho( I ), andpartiallyreflectedoncemorethroughthe water( Uo');

. 1'tseriesof discontinuity
echoes
I the Ur beamis partiallyintercepted
waterinterface;here,the part
by the discontinuity
of beamtransmitted
and reflectedtowardsthe metal-
to the transducerproducesthe first
I discontinuityechoDt; the reflectedpartreturnstowardsthe di$continuity;
generates
of thesereflections thesubsequent
the repetition
discontinuigechoesD2,D3,etc...

I . 1't seriesof bottomechoes

the part of the beamthat is not intercepted
by
the discontinuity( Uf ) continues its path
I towardsthe bottomw{rereit is reflected;
reachesthe metal-water
onceit
interfacethe beamis
partially transmitted to the water, thus
I generatingthe bottomecho Fr , and partially
reflected towards the bottom, so that it
generatesthe subsequentbottomechoesFz,
I F3,etc.

r successive echoes
the ( Uo' ) componentof the initialbeamreturns,with less energy,to the water-metal
intedaceand the wholesequence of eventsis repeatedwithmoreattenuatedechoes.

I To locate discontinuitiesit is importantto know the

I distanced, from the piece, at wtrichthe transducer

shall be placed,so that a cenainnumbern of bottom
echoesis displayedon the screenbeforethe second
I intedaceecho.

Thisdistancecan be calculated
as follows:
t d - * ' Lyn

I where va rfld vn are the beamvelocitiesin waterand in the testpiece

F o r e x a m p lien,t h e c a s e oaf p i e c e osf t e e l(,v ^ = 4 v a ) , t o h a v e 4 b o t t o m e c h o( n

e=s 41
the distanceof thetransducer fromthe pieceshallbe slightlygreaterthanthe piece
thickness.
I
Satpem Tlaining CewreE. Gandolfi 145
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
t
llore dctafls Pru,heAlrr;cdlstsnce I
The eignal from the second bottom echo reachesthe transducerafter the beam has cwered a
distance4d thnoughthe water.Thetimerequiredby the beamto coversuchpathis I
, - yaE
whereva ls the beamvelocig in watsr.
t
The signald the nrh rdlectionfrom the bottomreachesthe transducerafterthe beamhas cotrereda
didance2d in wateranda didance2ns throughthe piece. I
Thetime requiredis
t n' -Yz dr *v? nr s
I
wherewr is the velocltyof the beamthroughthe medium.

withthatof the n'h bottomecho,it mustbe:

To makethe secondechosignalanivein coincidence
t
l= tz I
that is:

#-T-T I
The minimumdidarce d to haven bottomechoesbeforethe secondintedaceechois then:
1'
I
d -ns'3
vn
I
Angledbeamtesting I
The water-pieceinterlacestill creates
the splittingof the echoesbut, unlikein
the straight beam testing technique,
t
here we do not have intedaceechoes
becausethe beamis not reflectedin the t
directionof the transducer(a smallecho
couldbe presentanywaybecauseof the
surfaceroughness). I
echoesdependson the geometryof the piece.
The presenceof the discontinuity I'
I
t
146 TrainingCenlreE. Gaildolrt
Satpen\
I
l
I Testingby ubrasound

t The propagationangle of ultrasounds

acrossthe testpiece(testangle)must
I be selectedtakingintoaccount:
- the refractionproperties
I - the piecegeometry
- the lawsof the variationsof acoustic
pressurewiththe refraction angles
I Once the test angleis fixed,from the
refraction laws we deduce the
I incidence angle and therefore the
transducercorrectinclination.

I
I tfore dstaffs Retmctlon propertles

lf the indderceanglein the wateris lessthan -15", in the tedpiecewe havelongitudinal

I lvctidg_d
than 13.6"In the caseof a water/light
mEtalinterface.
and tranwerse
wavesat the sametime, whichmakeit ditficultto locateand assessthe defec'ts.This difficultycan be
by.usingircidentanglesgreaterthan 14.6"in the case cf a uaater/deel
intedace,anil greater

I Withtheseangletthe longitudinal wav6sin the piecearecornpletely

eliminated(thatis they propagnteon
the intedace),wlrilethe entryanglesof the residualtranwersebeamare respectively27.8dand ZB.S..

I Whendealingwith ultrasonic
testingboththe detectionmethodand the selectedcoupling
techniqueshould be specified(e.9.: pulse-echomethodwith immersiontechnique,
I through-transmission
methodwithcontacttechnique etc...).
The typicalpulse-echomethodand the through-transmission
I methodcan be used with
both couplingtechniques;the resonancemethod,instead,can only be used with the
contacttechnique.

I Technioue
Method pulse+cho thruugh-trenemiseion rgsonancg

I - contact

I - lmmenslon

SarpemTrainingCenlreE. Gandolfr r47

NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
I
3.7. SELECTIONCRITERIA

A materialcan be testedwith ultrasounds only if its acoustictransparencyallowsthe

I
detectionof defectsthat are smallerthan the acceptableones and if the relativesignal
exceedsthe background
amplitudesufficiently noiseproducedby the materialstructure.
I
Ultrasonictestingshall be replacedby or integratedwith othertestingtechniqueswhen
operationsare made particularlydifficultby the piece geometryor by the material
structure.
I
I
3.7,1.Ultrasoundequipment

to the typeof signalpresentation

mustbe selectedwithreference
The equipment that is
I
(Type
needed A, B, C).
I
I
I
The A type is the mostused;the type B andC presentationsare mainlyusedin industrial I
wherethe probeis automaticafly
testingand in applications handled.
I
I
I
I
I
l,
I
t
148 Cenlre
SarrymTraining E. Gadolfi
I Testingby ultrasound

I
9.7.2. Probe
I The selectionof the typeof probeis relatedto the followingparameters:

I . frequency:it is determined
the material (grain,
in functionof the testpiecethicknessand of the typologyof
epected defects);a highfrequencyvaluemeanshigh sensitivity
of the UTbeam,buta lowerpenetration;
and directionality
I r of the crystal:theyare in functionof the materialthicknessandtypology;
dimensions

t r the crystalmaterial;it dependson the adoptedtechnique(somematerialsare better

transmittersor receiversthanothers);

I . beamprofile:it dependson the geometryof the materialbeingtestedthat can convey

falseindicationsbecauseof waveconversion phenomena;

T r (example:
testpiecedimensions small'diameter
tube);

I r piecegeometry:

r orientation
of the pieceshallbe evaluated(e.9.hydraulicvalve);
the accessibility

of the expecteddiscontinuities:
this concemsthe selectionbetu/eenangled
t probes.
and longitudinal

I
E MAINAPPLICABILITY
CHARACTERIST'CS
OF SOMEMATERIALS
NORMALLYUSEDA$ IHANSDUCEFIS

t IIATERIAL
EFFICIENT
TRASTIETT.
EFFICIEHT
FECEIVEH sENSrnvrrY RESOLUflG
POWER
MECHAI{ICAL
CHARACTER.

t Quefiz

Llthlum
no

medium
medium
yes
low
good
excellent
excellent
good

watersoluble
t rulphatc

Barlumtitanate yes medium excellent medium fragile

I Lcad
mrtrnlobste
yes medium excellent excellent good

I Zlrconetc-
Loed tltanate
yes medium excellent medium good

I
I
I SatpewTraining&ntre E, Gandolfi

I
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
3.7.9.Gouplingmedium
I
The selectionol the couplingmediumis particularlyimportantbecausethis substance
mustguaranteethe rightcontactbetweenthe probBandthe piecein termsof transmission
I
of the acousticpressureand,at the sametime,it mustallowa certainease in the probe
sliding.
paying special
t
The choice shall be made in relationto the testpiececharacteristics,
attentionto: t
r the typeof materialandthe degreeof its sudaceroughness

finished(smooth,
lf a surfaceis mechanically polished,
...) gelor low-viscosity
oilscan
T
be used;if the surfaceis coarseor corroded,greaseshouldbe usedto improvethe
transmission fillingthecavitieswiththe couplingmaterial.
by completely
of ultrasounds I
. of the testedsudace(horizontal
or vertical)
the orientation

r the application andrange

temperature
I
In caseof testingof weldsat morethan100oC,specificcouplantsand probes,suitable
shallbe used.
tor this rangeof temperature,
I
It shouldbe remembered
altersthe acoustic
that hightemperatures
pressure,
so thatthe of
analysis
affectthe realpath of the beamand
the resultsis morecomplex. I
t
n
Mrdium
Ura
Water oil Heatryand fat oilt Glycerol Geletinc Slllcon oilc
lmmerslontrehniquo x
Contect technlque
Vrrtlcrl rurfaco*
x x x
x
x x
x
x
I
Roughruriacm with
cavlths
Rough sudacee
x

x
t
Hot piece*(up to 3{Xl'C) x
I
I
I'
I
I
150 CenlreE, Gandolfi
SaipemTraining
I Testingby ultrasound

I ANDPREPARATION
CALIBRATION
3.8. IN$TRUMENT

I Beforestartingthe test, the necessaryinstrum_ents shall be preparedby meansof a

sequenceof operationsreferredto as "calibration".
I and the sensitivity
includestwo stages:thetimebasecalibration
procedure
The calibration
calibration.
t basedon the positionof
of the depthof anydiscontinuity
Thefirstone allowsthe definition
tha correspondingsignal on the screen horizontalscale. The second one supplies
I aboutlheextension
information basedon the signalheight.
of thediscontinuity

I 3.8.1.Timeaxis calibration

I In ultrasonic testing, the

position of a reflector is
determinedby observingthe
I positionof the corresPonding
signalon the timeaxis,thatis
the luminouslinedisPlaYed at
t the bottomol the screen.The
graduatedscale, Placed in
correspondence to the axis,
I gives the po$ition of the
signalson the axisitself.

I The scale can be used for

distancemea$urements only
after it has been adequatelY
I set, so that a certainvalue
can be attributed to its
divisions.This operationis
I (or
calledtimeaxiscalibration
scancalibration).

I
The positioncf the signalon the scalels that cf its
I frontfoot,that ls the pointwtrerethe signalleav€sthe
timeaxis.

I
I
I
I SdtperuTraining (*are E. Gandolfi
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
t
Theterm full scate(orf.s.)refersto themaximum on
thatmustbe represented
distance I
thescreenin orderto testthepieceentirethickness.
to carryoutthetimeaxis
procedure
thefullscalevalue,keeptothefollowing
Afterdefining I
calibration:
1) Choose a known thickness Jq (reference
I
thickness):

"rS+
I
This value should not exceedthe half of the
value.Thisis due to the fact
requiredfull-scale
thatthe emissionsignalis not reliableand,for a
t
correct calibration,two successivereflection
signals from the bottom of the block are
necessary.
t
2) the scanningis adjustedso that the screen Erample I
displays
N -dl
so
Fullscaleto befixed:
4s = 200mm I
thickness:
successivereflectionsignalsfromthe bottomof
the block;
Heference
ss=50mm I
using the adiustmentcontrols of the fine
scanningand of the delay,the positionsof the
firstand lastof the N signalsare led to coincide,
N=hQOl50=4
I
re$pectively,withthe 100/ N and 100divisions
ol the screen scale, where 100 i$ the total I
numberof the scaledivisions.

By fixing the first and last of the N bottom I

echoes, the tull scale value is defined with
precisionand the horizontallinearitycan be
checked by veritying the position of the
intermediateechoes (the successiveechoes Thetirst echohas beenled to coincide
mustbe equidistant). wtththe 100/ 4 = 25 step
t
screen.The pathPwof ultrasounds
between
can be "read"on the
the positionof reflectors
Oncethe timeaxishas beencalibrated,
the probeandthe detected discontinuityis I
givenby:
Pu*=l.r I
signalis displayedand r a constant
where/ is the scaledivisionwherethe discontinuity
thatdependson the fixedfull scalevalue
dfi
'
F = -

100
I
t52 &nre E. Gandolfi
Satpe4Training
 I Testingby uhrasound,
I The r constantis calledscalereadingratioandit represents
the distancecrrresponding
to
eachof the 100divisionsthe scaleis dividedin.
t
Hotc The readingratior is proportional
to the full scale;thls meansthat r decreesesif the full
I scaleis decreased,end it increasesif thefull sceleis lncreased.
Thefollowingcasescanoccur:

I r < I (f.s.< 100mm) the valuereadon the scale(in divisions)ls greaterthanthe actual
distanceof the discontinuity
(inmm)

I r=I (f.s.=100mm) the valuereadon the scale(in divislons)

didarce of the discontinuity
(inmm)
is equalto the actual

t r > I (f.s.> 100mm) thevaluereadonthe scale(indivislons)

(inmm)
distanceof the discontinuity
is smallerthanthe actual

I Dalay calibration

I lf the pieceto be testedis 100mmthick,the calibrationwitha fullscaleof 100mm (r = 1)

allowsthe entirethicknessof the testpieceto be displayedon the screen.In sucha case,
I two discontinuitiesat 0.5 mmfromeachotherwillgeneratesignalsthatpartiallyoverlap.

I
I
I
t r Echo fron dlrsontinuiEy
r Echo frou dircontinuity
o Eottol echo
!I.t
tI.2

I A sharperrepresentation of thesesignalscan be
obtainedby adoptinga calibrationwiththe reading
I ratio $maller than 1, for instance 1:4. This
adjustmentincreasesthe distancebetweenthe
signalscomingfrom the two discontinuities (thus
I improvingthe resolution)
depthto 25 mm.
butit reducesthe testable

I Howcan we testthe entirepiecethicknessthen?

r Echo tror dircqnEinulEl' lf . I
r Echo tror diccontlnuley H.2

I
I SarpemTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi 153
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
To test the entirethicknessin the above-described I
conditions,the delay controlmust be adjusted:its
actionis to delaythe start of the luminousspot on
the smeen with respectto the beam entry in the I
testpiece.lf the delay is adjustedso that the
luminouspoint starts once the beam has already
reacheda 25 mm depth,withthe calibration usedin I
the previou$ =
case (r 1:4),the pointreachesthe
end of the scale wlren the beam has covered
another25 mmthroughthe piece.On the screenwe r Echo tEon dilcontlnuiuy t.3 I
seethe zonebetween?5 and 50 mmof depth.

By adjustingthe delaycontrolthe observation zonecan be graduallymovedthroughout I

the entirepiecethickness$o thatit canbe tedtedin high-resolution
conditions.
I
Thetimeaxiscalibration can be carriedouton a reference blockhavinga knownthickness
made of the same materialas the testpiece(referenceblock) or on sample blocks
epressly preparedfor the calibration
procedure (thestandardsin forceoftenreferto such
I
blocks).The correctblockto be usedfor a certaintestis describedin detailin the relative
testingprocedure. I
The instrumentscalibratedby meansof referenceblockscan be usedfor steel testpieces
only(thematerialthe blocksare madeof) unlessthe suitablecorrections
are carriedout. t
lforr detafls Convemlonolthe calibntlon
I
The time axiscalibrationfixesa ceilainratiobetweenthe travellingspeedof the luminouspoint on the
scre€nand the prupagationveloclty uo of the ultrasonicbeamin the frieceusedfor the calibration
(u+nlly Seel).
I
This ratio is alteredwlrenthe materialbeingtestedis difierentfrom the one usedfor the calibration,
becauseol the differentbeam propagationvelocity;the signalswill be displayedon the screen in
I
positionsthatconespondto probedi$ancesthatarediflerentfromthe realones.
Moreprecisely,if v1 is the propagation
that:
velocityd the beamthroughthe materialbeingteded, we have
I
. to a dislancegreaterthanthe
if vr > vs , the $gnal will be displayedin a positionthat corresponds
realone; I
. if vt ( vo , the eignalwillb€displayedin a positionthat conesporrds
realone;
to a dis{ancesmallerthan the
I
It is lnwever possibleto corveil the Seel calibration
to zuita differentmaterialby simplymultiplyingthe
didance in deel by the ratio betweenthe velocitiesof ultraeoundsin that materialand in sfieel:

; Vmrtcrirl
dml.,ritt=ffi do."t
I

TrainingCentre
Satperu E. Gandolfi
I Testingby ultrasound

I Longitudinalbeamprobe

I The Vl blockallowsthe use of two referencethicknessvalues(25 and 100 mm).A few

examplesare showedherebelow:

I r calibrationwitha full scaleof 100mm

the probeis placedon the 25-mmthicknessof the blockso that 4 bottomechoesare
displayed in correspondence
I of the25,50,75, 100divisions;

I
I calibration
witha fullscaleof 250mm;
the probeis placedon the 25-mmthicknessso that 10 bottomechoesare displayedin
I correspondence of thefollowing 10,20,90,40,S0,60,70,80,g0, 100;
divisions:

witha full scaleof 200,300,400,500or moremm;

calibration
I the probeis placedon the l0$mm thickness

I
I
I
Anglebeamprobe
I Calibrationwith angle beam transducerscan be carriedout in three differentways,
dependingon the desiredrepresentation
of the measureddistanceson the screen:
I r alongthe beamemittedby thetransducer: pathcalibration
ultrasonic
r
I r
aloflga lineperpendicularto thecoupling
alohga lineparallelto thecoupling
surface:
depthcalibration
sudace:projection
calibration

t Path callbratlon Depthcalibra$on Profectioncallbration

$ ' . . 1 0 , '2 0 r f l } , ' . 4 0

I
I
I
I Sarper+TrainingC*Nre E. Gandolfr 155

I
NDT - ITLTRASONICTESTING
I
The ultrasonicpath calibrationis the mostcommon;the othersare adoptedin particular
I
tests.

With anglebeamtransducers, the emission

beforecarryingout the timebasecalibration, t
pointandthe emissionangleshouldbe verified,in sequence.

The path calibrationfollowsa differentproceduredependingon the neededfull scale I

value.Let us see a few examples:

witha Vl block(suggested
Pathcalibration full scalevalue>=200mm) I
The reflectionon the 100-mmradiuscircularprofileof the V1 blockis used.The probeis
placedon the blockso that the profileis irradiated, and the emissionpoint is led to I
coincidewith the centerC. In correspondence of the center,the block has two lateral
notcheswtrichallowa sequenceof reflectedechoes. I
Thesimplestfull scalevalueto be obtainedis 200mm.
I
I
I
I
t
probe
Pathffilibrationwith Vl blockand longitudinalbeam
(suggested full scalevalue>=100mm) I
valuehigherthan100mm,the timebasiscalibration
Witha full-scale waves
in transverse
canbe donewitha longitudinal insteadof an angletransducer.
beamtransducer, I
The transduceris placedon the 91-mm
thicknessof the Vl block. lt should be
rememberedthat the transit time of
l,
longitudinalwaves through a 91-mm
thicknessof steelis the sameas the transit
timeof tran$versewave$througha 50-mm
I
thicknessof steel.

In functionof the wanted testing depth,

I
continue by carrying out the general
procedure. I
I
156 SaipemTraining CentreE. Gandolfi
t
I
t Testingby uhrasound

I After carrying out the calibration

I
procedurewith a straight beamprobe,
applythe angleprobe.Putit on the Vl
block so that the emission point
coincideswith the centerof the R100
t'
#
L
I circular profile and point the beam
towardsthe profile.You will see that @
I
the reflectionsignalis displacedto the
right with respectto the positionyou
eryected. #
I The signal displacement is causedby the path the beam coversin the angle probe
plexiglasshoebeforeenteringthe piece.The lengthof suchpathdependson the type of
I probeand is proportional to the refractionangle.The signalinputin the pieceis thus
delayedwith respectto the staft of the luminouspointon the screen(at the transducer
In otherwords,the zeropointof the graduated
excitation). scaleis behindthe beginningof
I the pieceto be tested.

To completethe calibrationprocedure
r
I adjust the delay to lead the reflection
signalon the correctdivision,basedon
E
t
f
the fixedreadingratio(correctionof the
L
I scalezeropoint).

I
I withVEblock(suggested
Path calibration full scalevalue<= 200 mm)
I TheV2 blockis usedfor transducers
valuesmallerthan200is needed.
withmaximum
sizeof I x I mmwhenevera full scale

I The probe is placedon the block

and the emissionpoint is aligned
I withthe commoncenterof the two
sectors.

I The calibrationusesthe reflections

lrom the two circular surfaces.
Obseruethat the V2 block (unlike
I the Vl block)doesnot pre$entany
notches in correspondencewith
the center of the sectors, and
therefore, whatever surface the
beam is pointedto, the reflection
echo trom the other one will be
t obtained,too.

SatperuTraining CenlreE. Gandoffi r57

I
NDT - I,JLTRASONICTESTING
t
The selectionof the sectorto be irradiateddependson the neededfull scalevalue.lf the I
probeis positionedas shownin (a),the beamreflectedby the R50 arc doesnot produce
if the probeis
any signalbecausethe crystalis parallelto the beamdirection.Conversely,
rotated(b),the signalR25willnotbe read. I
lal
t
I
t
I
Let us nowsee someexamples:
r calibration
withfull scale100mm;
I
the R?5arc is irradiatedso thatthe firstechocoincideswithdivision?5 and the second
withdivision100on the screen; I
r calibration
withfull scale250mm;
to the 10, 40, 70,
the R25 arc is irradiatedso that the multipleechoescorresponding
I
100divisionsare displayedon the scr6en;

r calibration
withfull scale125mm:
I
the H50arc is irradiatedso that the firstechocoincideswithdivision40 and the second
withdivision100. I
Depthcalibration I
TheV1 blockcanbe usedfor thistypeof calibration
if carryingout a pathcalibration
and,in the beginning,
withthe samefull-scalevalueimposedfor
you operateas
depth. t
To switchto depthcalibrationyou only haveto r+positionthe referenceechoeson the
screen.The detectoris equippedwith a manualadjusterand with a scan delay adiuster
whichallowthe signalsto be placedin anypositionon the timeaxis.
I
An echo,wtrichinitiallycorresponds to 350
Fmlsslon angle cr
450 600 70"
I
lo division, shall be shifted to the
divisionI = lo cos fl, where a is the
cos c
0,819 0,707 0,5 o,u2 I
transduceremissionangle. EchoN. lo I
1 25 20 18 13 I
2 50 41 35 28 17
3 75 61 53 38 26
4 100 82 71 50 g

158 SaipemTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi

t
t
I Testingby ultrasound

t ProjectioncaIibration

I To carryoutthiscalibration theVl blockis usedand(likein depthcalibration)

procedure
at firstyouoperateas if th6instrument
full scalevaluebe imposedin projection.
duringits path,withthesame
hadto be calibrated

I The projection calibration is then

carried out by re-positioningthe
350
Emlsslonangle a
45"
aen (t
600 70"

I referenceechoes on the screen:an

echo,wlrichinitiallycorrespondsto the EchoN. Io
0,574 0.707 0.866 0.940
I
Io division, shall b6 shifted to the 1 2E 14 18 22 23
l divisionI = Io senfl,, where a is the
transduceremission angle.
2
3
50
78
29
,l{l
g5
53
,13
65
47
70
4 100 57 71 87 94
t The projectioncalibrationprocedureis includedin the ASME code, section V, on
of weldedjoints.
examination
I 3.8.2.Seneitivitycalibration

I In ultrasonictesting,the importance
of a discontinuityis assessedby
comparingthe amplitudeof its
I reflection signal with that of the
signal from an artificial reflector
(referencedefect),usuallya notch
I block,
or a holedrilledin a reference
The reference discontinuity is

t representative of the discontinuities

expectedin the piecebeingtested.
The referenceamplitudeis defined
I by irradiatingthe referencedefect
and adjustingthe amplification so
thatthe reflectedechois takento a
I fixedheighton the screen(usually
75oloor 80%).

t The operation that fixes the

reference amplitude for the
asse$$ment of the discontinuityis

t cafledmntrol sensitivitycalibration.
The test is carriedout with the amplification
levelset on the referencedefectecho.The
amplitudeof the discontinuitiesdetectedduringthetestis referredto the amplitudedefined
I in the calibration
stage.
For instance,if the referencediscontinuityis considered to be the acceptancelimitfor the
I piece discontinuity dimensions,
acceptableand non-acceptable
the reference amplitude allowsthe distinctionbetween
defects.In fact,the referencedefectreflectingsudaceis
planarand regular,whilea naturaldiscontinuity usuallyhas a roughsurface:then, if a
I defect is as high as 75"/oof the screen its size is undoubtedlybigger than the
corresponding artificialdefect.

I CcwreE, Gandolfi
SaipemTraining 159
NDT _ ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
I
llote Sweral proceduresdate that the tEd shouldbe ceniedout at an amplificationvalue
higherthan the valus fixed in the calibrationdage (usuallyincreasedby 6 dB). This
facilitatesthe detectioncf discontinuities.
The walurationd the importanced the ddect$,howwer, mud b€ cenied out with lhe
I
ampliflcation valuebacktoits calibrationvalue.
I
When evaluatingthe importanceof defects,you shouldalwayskeep into accountthe
geometrical
and structuralattenuationthe beamis subjectedto whentravellingacrossa
certainmedium;otherwise,a sufficiently couldbe consideredacceptable
far discontinuity
t
onlybecauseit is displayed
by a signalbelowthe referenceamplitude.
I
The calibrationmust therefore
be correct,so that the lengthof
the ultrasonic path is
I
considered,and the easiest
way to do it is to tracedirectly
on the screenthe curue that
I
represents the reference
amplitudevariation with the
distance of the reference Callbratlonblock Blockto be te$ed
t
defectfromthe probe.

This curve is called Distance

I
Amplitude Conection curue
(DACcurve). I
I
The DAC curveis tracedusingthe
reflections
defects
froma seriesof reference
(holesor notches)arranged
I
in a referenceblock at different
distancesfrom the probe, until the
requiredtesting depth is reached.
I
The holes must all have the same
diameter, conesponding to the
referencedimension value.
I
As an e)Gmple,you can see some
typicalschemesof probepositioning
t
for the sensitivitycalibrationwith
angle beam (A, B) and with
longitudinalbeam (C, D) on blocks
l,
that have a single hole (8, C) or
severalholes (A, D). I
The type of referenceblockto be usedfor the DACcurveas well as the probepositions
are statedin the test specifications.

SatpentTraining(*ntre E. Gandolfr

I
I Testingby ultrasound

I of a DAGcurue
Construction

t thetimeaxiswiththefullscalevaluerequired
Aftercalibrating
theDACcurverequires a greater
for thetest(insomecases
valuethanthatof thepiecebeingtested):
full-scale

t 1. point the beam to one of the referenceholes

(e.9. the nearestone) and, by meansof fittle
movements,find the positionwherethe probe
I gives the maximumampfitudeof the reflected
echo;

I 2. move then the probe to the other reference

holes, finding for each hole the maximum
reflectionpnint;
t
3. place the probe on the positionwhere
I the maximumamplitudewas obtained
and adjustthe signalheightat a certain
percent height of the screen, usually
I 75o/oor 80o/o;then markthe positionof
the signalvertexon the scr6en;

I levef,markon
withoutchangingthe amplification
I the screenthe vertexof each maximizedecho
reflectedby the otherholes;

t join witha linethe pointspreviousfy

screenand you obtainthe specific
curuefor the probeyou haveused.
markedon the
reference
DAC

t
t Besidesthe referenceDACcurve,alsothe 50%of the referencecurueis oftentraced.

The importanceof the discontinuity is evaluatedby consideringthe amplitudeof the

reflectedechoin relationto the DACcurveheight:

t I on the referenceline:
the discontinuity (equivalent
thenhasa 100%importance to the defect)

. abovethe DACcurue;
of the discontinuity
the importance is 100%plusthe numberof dB the amplification
mustbe reducedof in orderto havetheechopeakat the curueheight;

r belowthe referenceline;
is givenby the ratio (expressedin percentvalue)
the importanceof the di$continuity
I betweenthe heightof the echoandthecorresponding heightof the curve.

I SarpemTraining CcwreE. Qandoffi t6l

NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
AmpIitude diagram
Distance- t
Insteadof tracingthe DACcurvedirectlyon the screen,you can draw it on graphpaper
sheet where you have traceda systemof axis like the one shown below (distance-
amplitudediagram).
t
The x axis representsthe
path of the beam from the
t
probeto the reflector;such
path,if it is notknowncanbe I
deduced by reading the
screen. They axisrepresents
the height of the signal I
rellectedby the hole (in %
valueof thescreen). t
On the diagramyouwillnote
the pointscorresponding
to
the reference holes; by
I
joining these points you
obtaintheDACcurue. I
By meansof the DAC curve,all the mistakesrelatedto the beam attenuationin the
referenceblockare eliminated. However,if this is not madeof the $amematerialusedto
I
manulacturethe testpiece,someevaluation inaccuracies canoccurwhenpassingfromthe
instrumentcalibratedon the referenceblockto the actualtest. I
Mistakescan be causedby:
r differences
in the surfaceroughness blockandthe testpiece;
betweenthe calibration
I
. path.
duringits propagation
in the beamattenuation
differences I
t
I

I'
I

162 Sorptm TrainingCentreE, Gailolfi

I
I Testingby uhrasound

I of the DACcuruewithangleprobe- Example1

Construction

I Referenceblock: $AIPEM;the curueshallbe tracedby usingholeN" 1, drilledin the

referenceblock

I Procedure

1. Place the probe on the

I block in correspondence
of point 1 and find, in
proximityof the point, the
I positionwhere the echo
reflectedby the hole is at
its maximum amplitude;
t adjustthe amplification
levelso thatthe echois at75ohof the screenheight;thenmark

I on the screenthe pointthatcorresponds to the echoheight;

I without changing the

amplificationlevel, mark
on the screenthe heights

t of the maximizedechoes
that were obtained by
putting the probe in

I po$itions
2 and3;

I 4. the reference
curveis draumby
joiningthe three points;the
curvecorrespondingto 50%of
I the reference
drawn.
curvecanalsobe

I
I The sensitivity level is
adjustedby means of hole
t No2, drilledin the reference
block.

t The probe must be

positionedon the block as
shownin the picture.
I The heightof the reflectionechoshallbe maximized; the amplification
shallthereforebe
t adjustedso as to obtainan echoheightequalto the referencecurveheight.

t Sorptm Training CentreE. Gandolfi 163

NDT - ULTRASOMC TESTING
I
of the DACcuruewithangle probe- Etlample2
Construction
I
Fleference
block: SDH Block; the employedreflectionsare those from the three
depths:1l4T,1l2Tand3/4T;
alignedholesat thefollowing
vertically
I
Procedure
We assumethat the time base has been calibratedso that 20 divisionsof the screen
I
to 1/4T (seeASME,sectionV).
correspond
1. read the signalfrom the
I
threeholesand movethe
hole amplitudethat gives
the best responseto the
I
80% heightof the screen
(adiustment of
sensitivity);
the
then mark on
I
the screenthe point that
corresponds
height;
to the echo I
2. without changingthe amplificationlevel, mark on the screen the vertex of the
maximized echoesthatwereobtainedfromthe othertwo holes;
I
the DACcurueis the linethatjoinsthe pointsmarkedon the screen. I
of the DACcuruewithangleprobe- Example3
Gonstruction I
Reference
block:
procedurefor testson hollowforgings.
Standardcalibration
as the
A block havingthe same dimensionsand characteristics
I
Procedure
te$tpiece
I
Belowyou can see the positioning of the curve.This can be
schemefor the construction
obtainedby joiningthe pointsA and B on the screen:A is obtainedby meansof the
irradiationof the intemalnotchfrom position1 and of the amplification
of the maximum
responseecho up lo 75"/oof the screen;B is obtainedby irradiatingthe externalnotch
from position2.
t
t
t

164 SaipemTraining (tnre E. Gadolfi

I
I
I Testingby ultrasound

T - Example4
of theDACcuruewithlongitudinalprobe
Construction

t Heferenceblock: A$TMblocks,2d series;blocksto be usedshallbe takenfrom the

seriesin functionof thethicknessto be tested

Procedure

The time axis shall be calibratedwith a full scalevaluethat coversthe entireintervalol

t ultrasonicpathsof the selectedreference

1. Placethe probeon a certainreference

blocks.

block,for example
the 5-0100block;
I untilthe amplitudeof the echo reflectedby the bottomof the
2. adjustthe amplification
hole reachesa pre-estabfished heighton the screen,for example80% (reference
I height);

3. markon the screenthepointthatcorresponds

to the heightof the echofromthe holein
I the 5-0100block;

level;placethe
4. withoutmodifyingthe amplification
I transduceron the otherbfocksselectedfrom the
series(thoseindicatedhereare just an example)
and mark on the diagram the points that
t correspondto the amplitudesof the echoes
holes;
reflectedby the respective

t 5. if you join the markedpointsyou obtainthe DAC

curve.

t - Estample
of theDACcuruewith longitudinalprobe
Construction 5

I Referenceblock: SDHblock;herethe employedreflections

holesarranged
non-aligned
are thosefrom the three
at depth1l4T,1l2Tand3/47
Procedure
I The procedureis the same as
that describedfor angle probe
I calibrationon the sameblock;in
th6 schemeon the rightyou can

t seethe positionsof the probe.

t
t
I
Sflrpen\Training CentreE, Gandolfi 165
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
DGSDiagrams il
Let us startwith a few definitionsto helpyou understandwhatthe DGSdiagramsare and
whattheyare usedfor. t
that are physicallypresentin a medium;they can be
Real defecfsare discontinuities
characterizedby any shape, size and orientationwith respectto the beam axis. Also
referencedefectsare urealn, created,their geometricalshape,
but havingbeenartificially
t
extensionandorientationarewelldefined.
The egurvalent defecfof a realdefectis an idealreflectorthat has a circularand smooth
I
section,that is perpendicular
to the beamaxis,and hasthe samereflection properties
as
the realdefect.
A (real)defectis said to have an egur'valent diameterEF = 3 mm it, for instance,its
I
Fromthe definitions
defectwitha 3 mmdiameter.
reflectionis the sameas thatof an equivalent
givenabovewe can deducethat discontinuities that havethe same
I
defects,for examplebecause
shapeand extensioncan correspond to differentequivalent
with respectto the beamaxis,or becausetheir surfaces
they havea ditferentorientation
properties.
havedifferentreflection
I
that are dif{erentin shapeand extensioncan have the same
$imilarly,discontinuities
equivalentdefect.
I
I
I
t
Sameexteneion Differentequivalentdefect
I
s It
I

t
Differentextenelon
I

r Dlssontinulty echo
* Eeho trot ttre botEou

166 SaipemTrainingCeure E. Gandolfi

I Testingby ultrasound

I dimensions
actual of a (wttich
discontinuity are always greater)'
evaluationof the
The EF valueis thereforean arbitraryvaluethat allowsan approximate

I However,the referenceto the equivalent

discontinuity
defec'tfor the evaluationof the importanceof a
is convenientbecauseit givesa uniqueand reproducible indicationon the

t test results.The DGSdiagramsare usedto obtainsuchindication.

I DGS diagramsare drawnon cartesianaxeswlrere:

- scale,you havethe distanceA betweenthe reflector
on the x axis,on a logarithmic
andthe transducer
- on the y axis,you havethe amplitude
G of the responseechofromthe reflector.

I O.
thathavedifferentdiameters
The curvesreferto the circularreflectors

The pointson a curu6representthe amplitudevaluesof the echofromthe corresponding

;
varies.
reflectorthatvaryas the distancefromthetransducer

The valueson the curvesin correspondence of givenx valuesrepresentthe amplitudesof

I echoesfromdiscontinuities
fromthe transducer.
havingdifferentdiametersbut locatedall at the $amedistance

; g
o
t E
ffiW
t)

T
I +t
i{
g

fl
t ar
|{
"{
F

iffiw
I

natlector-tranrduper d.irttncc A

g
('

T
I T
t

ffiffi
tr

I Ita

T
c

,
$

I F.-o, E
r{
H
9l
t
I

Saipea Training CcntreE. Gandolfi t67

NDT * ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
Adaptationto universaldAgrams
t
Diagramscan be referredto a singletypeof transducer
usuallyprovidedby the manufacturers)
and material(thesediagramsare
or theycan be universal,i.e.they can be adapted t
andmaterials.
to anytransducers

To adapta universaldiagramto specificmaterialsand transducers you haveto multiply ,l

the valueson the abscissaaxis (A) by the nearfield extension
N and the hole diameter
(O)by thetransducereffectivediameterD*. I
The extensionof the transdu@rnearfieldis calculated
as:

: = - -D.2*.f
--- Dl,
4'v 4'tr
I
D*r = transducer diameter
effective
f = frequency
transducer
v = theultrasonicvelocity thematerial
through
il
X = theultrasonic thematerial.
wavelengththrough
I
The determination size by meansof DGSdiagramsis basedon the
of the discontinuity
tact that at a certaindistancefromthe transducer(d), the echofrom a small refleetoris
smaller to a certain extent with respect to the amplitudeof the "large reflecto/'
il
(diameter S = *).

To lead the echo from the small

I
reflectorto the same height as
the large reflector, the
amplificationmust be increased
t
by the AG valuethatyou can lind
on the diagram. I
The smaller the reflector,the
biggerthe gain value AG. This I
valueis thereforethe measureof
the sizeof a smallreflector. I
level
of theof theamplification
Adiustment
I
Beforecarryingoutthe testyou mustadiustthe amplification
aregoingto use.Thecontrolsensitivity
shallbe calibrated
levelof the apparatus you
on the basisof the minimum
I
equivalent =
EF Emin
discontinuity thatcanbe detected by the instrument at a distance
s.Theprocedure
thickness
equalto thetestpiece is:
(only
on the piecesurfacein a zonethatshowsno discontinuities
1. putthe transducer
thebottomechomustbedisplayed onthescreen); I
SaipemTrainingCcnre E. Gandolfi
I Testingby ultrasound

I 2. amplifythe bottomecho untilit reaches100Yo

of the screenheightby operatingthe
knobcalibratedin dB;
I 3. ontheDG$diagram, tracethe
line that correspondto the
I piecethickness andmarkthe
pointsM and N wheresuch
the*
linemeets,respectiv€ly,
t curve and the Entncurve;the
lengthof the MN segment(in
dB) representsthe difference
of amplificationAG that is
necessaryto bringthe echoof
the equivalent discontinuity
I Eminto the same height,on
the screen, as the piece .t L3 .l 5.6 .0r.o a I

bottomecho;
I 4. the amplification by the AGvaluecalculated
is increased on the DGSdiagram.

I in the piece,two casesare

level,if thereis a discontinuity
Afteradjustingthe amplification
possible:
- echois smallerthanthe screenheight
of thediscontinuity
the amplitude
- the amplitude
I echois biggerthan(orequalto) thescreenheight
of thediscontinuity

The secondcaseis the mostinterestingone,sincethe firstindicatesthat the discontinuity

is smallerthanEmin
in termsof eguivalent
defect.

I Calculation
of the equivalentdiameter

To obtain the equivalentdiameterof a

foundin the testpiece,keep
discontinuity
to thefollowing:

I 1. usethe equipment amplification

control
to reduce the amplificationuntil the
discontinuitysignal reaches100% of
the screenheight;AR (dB)is the value
of suchreduction;

I 2. readthe screento findout the depthdr

of the discontinuity;

I
I
I SotprmTiaining Ceure E. Gandolfi
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
3. on the DGSdiagram, tracethe I
to thedepth
linecorresponding
d, until it meets in K the t---
parallelto the x axis that * c *
I
passesthroughM (whereM tl- a- t rh
is the fixed point for the
adjustment)
amplification ;
I
4. onthelinethroughd', underK,
thepointT {oundsothat:
I
KT= AG* AR(dB) 40 S0 40lt0C0t'0100
A (ntn)
wtrere:
AG = amplification
gaincorresponding
AR = amplification
level
to the sensitivity
reductionappliedto bringthe defectechoto 100%of the screen
I
height.

5. the pointT on the diagramDGS,found in the previousstep,is on the curuethat

t
correspondsto the equivalent
discontinuity;

if none ol the curuesthat have been tracedpassesthroughT, you can interpolate

I
(linearly)betweenthe two curuesthat containT to obtainthe discontinuity
equivalent
diameter.
Legend

QP = lengthol segmentS
I
QT = lgngt6of segmentQT
EFo = eq.diam.of the curuethroughQ
=+l'FFp-EFq)+EFo EFp - eq.diam.of thecuruethroughP
EFt = eq.diam.d thecuruethroughT

lfote lnterpolallon I
lnterpolation
ls a mathematical
be celculated.
procedurethat allowsa valuerangingbetweentwo knownvaluesto

arroF4F,
(r) t
The sfmpfedtype cf L is the linearone, whichcondstsof
flnding the approximatemi+ting values in an interualby
meenecf a draight llne (r) that foinsthe knownextremee.
The nanorrnrthe intewal,the srnallerthe enorrnargin.
-F
'', l+
I
rpprodmrro
i ril-uc
I
a c
I c;
r
l'
170 SaipemTraining CenreE. Gandolfi
t
I Testingby ultrasound

I CALIBHATION
3.9. PERIODICAL CHECK

I Periodical
or afterany maintenance or repair
functioning.
equipment
checksof ultrasonic
calibration mustbe carriedout everysix months
involving
intervention components thatare fundamental
for the equipment
I Theteststhatareto be carriedout are:
I r Horizontallinearitycheck
. Verticallinearitycheck
r Amplificationlinearitycheck

The chartbelowindicatesthe reference

conditions
andan exampleof the testconditions.
I CONDITIONS
AFFECTING TESTEXAMPLE

I Referenceequipmenfi . Aluminiumreferenceblockfor the checkof

horizontalandveilicallineadty
. Ultrasonicprobe0'

t crystaldiameter:
frequerrcy:4MHz
. Couplant:oil
10mm

Pre+perationf unctloning 15minutes

Hmm temperature 18+22'Q

I et ttork
Seffngthe insilrument for $andardoperations
Prepared

3.9.1. Horizontallinearity

Thetermhorizontallinearityrefersto the factthatthe distancebetweenthe echoesmust

I be proportional
scale.
to the pathe,overed by ultrasounds in the testpieceon the entirescreen

Bycausinga seriesof multiple echoesto be displayed

on the $cre6n,if the equipment
has
a goodhorizontallinearitythe echoesareequidistant
fromeachother.

I
t
I
t SarpemTrainingCcntreE. Gandolfr
NDT _ ULTRASONIC TESTING
t
Reference
hlock referenee
Aluminium block
I
Testinomethod I
1. Switch on the instrumentand let it heat for 15 minutes before starting the
measurement: I
2. put the probeon the ?5-mmthicknessblockand carryout the timebasecalibrationso
echoesfromthe bottom;
as to obtain11 reflection I
3. measurethe positionsof the echoeson the screenbringingthemto 50%of the screen
heightby meansof the amplification
control.

S.9.2.Verticallinearity
I
The termverticallinearitydescribesthe proportionalitybetweenthe heightof the signals
displayed on the screen and the voltageof the pulsethat originatesthem (proportionality
meansthat if we doublethe voltagethe heightis alsodoubled,if we triplicatethe voltage, I
we alsotriplicatethe heightandso on).

Oneof the methodsusedto checkthe instrument vefiicallinearityis to displaytwo echoes

l
and to verify, using the control,if the instrument
amplification can keepa
simultaneously
constantratio(withincertainlimits)betweentheirheights.
t
Referencestandard:ASTME 317-85 I
block:
Reference reference
Aluminium block
Testinomethod
andletit heatit for 15minutes;
1. Switchon the instrument

?. put the probeon the 100-mmlengthof the block,$o as to obtaintwo echoes,referring

to the 1-mm-diameter holes,witha 1 to 2 ratio;

by adjustingthe amplificationcontrolsthe Amplltude

I
echo from the highesthole is taken to
80o/oof the screenheight:the sameecho
is then taken to differentscreen heights
Bigger
echo
Smqller echo
Toleratrce5o/" Tolerance 10o/o
I
100 52.5- 47.6 55-45
and checkedwheneverthe echofrom the
lowestholelieswithina specifiedinterual. 90
80
47 -43 49.5 - 40.5
I
4. The heights the bigger echo must be 70 37-33 38.5- 31.5
broughtto are specifiedin the standards, 60 31.5- 28.5 33 -27 ln"
togetherwith the corresponding intervals
withinwhichthe heightof the lowerecho
must be kept to verify the instrument
verticallinearity(seethe tableon the side).
50
40
30
26.5- 23.5
21*19
16-14
- e.5
27.5-22.5
22*18
1 6 . 5* 1 3 . 5
r
20 10.5 11-9
I
t72 Saipe4TraiaingCentreE. Gandolrt
I
ll
I diagram
Surtace-amplitude

I A secondmethodto checkthe verticallinearityis basedon the reflectionpropeniesof the

beamon planeand smoothsudaces,orientedperpendicularly to its axis.

I In this casethe ultrasonicintensityreflectedon the receivingtransduceris proportional

of
the area the reflecting
surface.
to

I Sincethe pulsethat producesthe signalis directlyrelatedto such intensity,the linearity

can be verifiedby checkingif the ratiobetweenthe heightof the echoon the screenand
surtaceremainsconstant.
the amplitudeof the reflecting
t The resultof this checkcan be
representedon a diagramlike
I the oneshownon the right.
On the x axis you have the
amplitudes of the reflecting
I sudacesand on the y axisthe
heightsof the echoes in % ot
screenheight.
I In case of ideal veftical
linearitythe surface-amplitude
I curv€ is a line that passes
throughthe origin.

I The actualcurveusuallydeviatesfromthe ideallineand its deviationis a measureof the

linearity.In thefollowingyoucanseethe curveconstruction
instrument procedure.

block:
Reference ASTMblocks(1'tseries);
I Testinomethod

with a full scalevaluenot smallerthan 100 mm. The

The time axis mustbe calibrated
distancebetweenthe beamentrysurfaceandthe bottomof the holeis the samefor all the
blocksfromthisseriesandis 76.2mm.
I 1. putthe probeon the N. 5-0300blockandirradiatethe bottomof
the hole;

2. adjustingthe amplificationcontrolbring the reflectedsignal

heightto 31%of the screenheight;
I -:ffi:lT:iTiff:ffiilf
t on a surfaceamplitudediagrammarkthe point Po (referencepoint)that corresponds
to the hole surfaceS (for the 5-0300blockit is S = 3.091mmt) and to the reflected
I signalamplitude (31o/o);

t Sarrym Training &rtlre E, Gaildolfi t7!

NDT - ULTRASOMC TESTING
t
level,fixedat step[2], irradiatethe holes
4. withoutchangingthe equipmentamplification I
of the otherb-hcksfrom'thesame$eries,alwaysmarkingon the diagramthe heightsof
the correspondingechoes;
diagram.
I
5. if youjointhe markedpointsyou havethe surface-amplitude

ER
I
t
(E
g
ET HOLEBOTTOM
E
E
0
Block Diameter Surface
o H. (mm) (rnml)
o
t
o r+* l.ffim 0.3s6 0.123
cl r#- 2{til10
3-03ffi
0.7!t3
1.190
0.491
1.r1?
€ 2
= 4.0300 1,587 1.978
= 0

E
GT r ? 3 + 5 S 7 s r 0 s
Sufaceoftheholebottom
lrmzJ
5-0800
6.0s10
7.ffim
1.984
2.381
2,778
3.BElt
1.453
6.061
I
= B-0300
I
3.1?5 7.917
$ E H fH E
EE H
I
3.9.3.Amplificationlinearity
controls.
amplification
of theequipment
Thischeckrefersto thegoodfunctioning
I
For example:if the amplificationcontrolworksproperly,a signalhavingamplitude40 (i1
gainand a subsequentreductionof
termsof "/oof screenniignt) witha 6 dB amplification
l
12dB shallhavean amplitude valuearound20.

The variousprocedures on the

specitythe amplitudelimitswithinwhichthe indications
of
screenmustlay to havea correctfunctioning the controls.
amplification

Referencestandard:ASMESec.V Appandixll

Referenceblock: block
Aluminiumreference

Testinomethod

1. Switch on the instrumentand let it heat for 15 minutes before starting the
measurement;thresholdor rejectcontrolsmustbe excluded'
froma holeor fromthe bottom;
8.. put the probeso as to obtainon the screena reflection
adiustthe amplificationcontrolsto bringthe echoto 80% of the screen;

I
I
174 CenreE. Gadolfi
SaipemTraining
I
I
I
I below,making
is thendecreasedand increasedfollowingthe indicationsin the table
B. the amplification
sure hat the echodisplayedon the screenlays withinthe givenrange
t (thEstandardstatesthatthe indicationmustbe within2}o/ool the nominalamplification
ratio).

Amplltude% Varlat.dB Llmlts of indio.

80 -6 3248
80 -1 2 16-24
I 40
20
+6
+12
64-96
6+96
Note: amplltude and limlts of indications are
expressedin % valueof the availablescreenheight.

TRANSDUCERS
OF ULTRASONIC
3.10. CI{AHACTEHIZATION

Everytransducer,beforebeingusedfor quantitative measurements,

and reproducible is
subjectedto a check of its To
characteristics. take into any
account in
variations these
I due to age or environmental
characteristics,
periodically.
conditions,thesechecksmustbe carriedout

3.10.1. GharacterizationoflongitudinalProbes

Profileof the ultrasonicbeam

In the caseof the mostusedtransducers testing(circularsectiontr.),and for

for ultrasonic
I practicalconvenience, we can dividethe beam into two zones:one is cylindricaland
locatednearthe source,andoneis a truncatedconethateltendsbeyondthe nearfield.In
this schematicrepresentation the beamis delimitedby the surface(outline)where the
I acoustic pressure P is 20 dB lowerthan the maximumvalues reachedon the axis.
the beamoutlinewitha planethat crossesthe axis,we havethe profileof the
Intersecting
beamon that plane.
I
I
I

t
I
t SaipemTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi r75
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
I
The profileof the beamis definedby meansof specialreferenceblockspreparedwith I
cylinilricalholesdrilledat knowndepthsfromthe blocksudace(see the examplebelow
witnUncf havinga cylindrical
depths:20, 30, 60 and90 mm).
holethatcan be usedto measurethe profileat four different
I
The amplitudeof the echo lrom
the reflector changes wlth the
positionof the transduceron the
I
bloclt surface: it is maximum
wtren the beam axis passes I
throughthe hole,whileit is 20 dB
lower when it just 'touches'the
hole. The path covered by the
trangducerbetween these two
positionscoincideswiththe beam
half-width (s) at the reflector
I
depth(d).
I
Let us now see in detailthe procedureto definethe beamprofilewith a straightbeam
transducer: I
at 90owithrespectto eachother;
1. mark4 referencepointson the transducer,

2. the transduceris placedon one of the blocksurfaces(forexamplethe sudaceclosest

to the hole)andthe positionwlrereit receivesthe maximumechofromthe hole is read;
the transducermustbe movedso that two diametrically-opposite
on a linewtrichis orthogonaltothe reflector
referenceline(e.9.
referencepoints lie
the line1-3);
I
of the screenavailableheightand mark the
3. amplifythe reflectedecho up to 100o/o
on theblock(position
positionof thetransducer a);
4. calculatethe heightof the
echo relativeto a 20 dB
I
reductionand mark it on
the screen;movethen the
transduceralong its path
line untilthe echofromthe
hole is decreasedin height
by 20 dB (positionb);
I
measurethe distanceXr betweenthis positionand the previouslymarkedone
depthandto probe
(positiona); thisis the beamsemi-width
referencen. 1;
relativelyto the reflector
l,
pointsn. 2, 3, 4, rotatingthe probeby 90' each
repeatthe procedure for reference
time;youwillobtainthedistances Xa,XsandXr; I
systemin functionof the holedepth.
7. the deviationsXi mustbe notedon a carthesian
l'
t76 SaipemTraining CentreE. Gadolfi
t
I
t Testingby uhrasowd

I fie procedure varyingthereflec-tor

is thenrepeated
of theblockwillbeenough).
surfaces
theprobeto theother
depth(moving

I
I
I
I Alignmentof thebeam
I Longitudinalprobesare designedto producean ultrasonic
surfaceof the beamitselffromthe probe.
beamperpendicular
to the exit

I lf, dueto $rgaror to manufacture

beamaxis is not perpendicular
defects,the
to the said
surface,wE $aythat the beamis not aligned
I and it will be necessaryto measureits
misalignment anglealsocalledsquint.
Thieis the anglethatthebeamaxisformswith
I the line that passesthroughthe pointwhere
th6 beam leaves the probe and that is
perpendicular to theexitsurface.
I Thecheckof the alignmentis preliminary
to theprofilecheck.

I Reterenceilock:
Procedure
youcanusethesameblockusedtoverifytheprofile

I 1. mark 4 referencepointson the transducer,at 90o

with respectto eachother;
I 2. find the hole reflectionmaximumsignal by moving
the probealongthe 1-g direction,perpendicular
to
I the referencelineon the block;

3. the signalmaximumis obtainedwhenthe transducer

I is at a distance$r from the referenceline; in a
graphic representationof the transducertrace the
line AB at the distanceSr fromth6 lineof flre hole;
I In thls cas€ ws ars aeaming e beam

I misalignment;lf the beam is aligned, the

maximumrespon$efrcrn the hole is obtained
wlren the transdrceris on the rdereme line,
that is wlthSt=O.
I
E. Gatdolfi
Ctlrr;rc
SaipemTraining
I
 - TJLTRASOMC TESTING
ITTITT I
4. rotatothe transducerby 90" and find the maximumechoby movingit in the ?-4
here,too,themaximum
direction; response is obtained is noton
wlrenthetransduoer
t
thereference line;

Sa is the distancebetweenthe center of the

I
transducerand the referenceline; trace on the
schemethe line CD at a distanceSe from
th6 1-g line (notice that the line CD is
I
perpendicular
to the lineABtracedat step [3] );

trace the segmentthat joins the point O, the

I
intersectionbetweenAB and 1-3, with M, the
betweenCD andthe referenceline;
intersEction I
The segment OM indicates the
of the beammisalignment;
direc'tion
I
the misalignment angle o can be
calculated with the following
relationship:
I
Eo_+ I
where d is the holedepthand
or=.1's]lEi I
is thelengthof thesegment
OM.

value,you canrepeatsteps3 and4, rotatingthe transducer

by
I
To checkthe obtained
90'eachtime.
I
3.10.2. of angleprobes
Charac-terkation I
Emrssonpoint
I
Thetermemission pointof an ultrasonic the pointwlrerethe beamaxis
beamdescribes
meetsthetestpiece
surface.
Theemission pointis themostimportant andit mustbe
of angletransducer
characteristic
definedbeforeanyothercharacterization
measure.
point.However,
I
Normally, ontheprobesabouttheemission
thereis noindication thisshall
bedefinedevenif theprobessayitsnominal position(usually
by meansof a notchon the
side);infact,dueto thewearoftheprobeshoeorto anymanufacture defects,theposition l*
givenontheprobemightbediflerentfromtherealone.
T
I
r78 SatpcmTrainingCcilreE. Gandolfi
I Testingby uhrasound

I Belerenceblock: on th6curvedsurfacewithH = 100mm

blockVl; herethe reflection
is used

I Procedure

t 1. put the probe on the block in

corre$pondence with the centerC

I of the curved surface, so a$ to

inadiate the sudaceitself;

t by slowlymovingthe probebackand forth,find the positionwtrerethe responseecho

hasthe maximumamplitude; makesuretheprobeis movingparalleltothe blocklateral
I sudaces,so thatthe beamis perpendicular
to the curvedsudace;

3. when the probe is on the

maximumecho position, its
actualemis$ionpoint coincides
with th6 center of the block
curvedsudace;markthe exact
emissionpointon thesideof the
shoeprobe.

I lf the nominalemissionpointis alreadymarkedon the probe,you only needto checkif

such point coincideswith the c€nterof the block;if the referenceis positionedslightly
I foruard or backurard
th6 transducer.
with respectto the center,markthe new referenceon the outsideof

I Emhsionangle

The term describes the

inclinationangle of the beam
whenit entersthe testpiece.
I This anglemust be measured
betweenthe perpendicularto
the coupling surface in the
emissionpointand the axis of
the beam.
I
I
I
SatpemTrainhg Ceilre E Ganfulfi 179

I
I{DT - TTLTNASONICTESTING I
Llkethe emissionpoint,the emissionangleis also subjectedto variations;theseare
relatedto the changesin the beamorientation,mainlybecauseof the wtsarof the
I
transducercoupling
ThEprocedure
surfacg.
to dteckthe emission
anglemustbe carried'out
afterthe checkof the
I
point.
emission
Heference
block: on the perspex
bloc* Vl; this checkuseseitherthe reflections
I
insert or thoseon the@ 1.5mmhole,depending
valuea of theemissionangleto becalculated
on the nominal
I
Procedure:
1. placethe probeon the blockin the rl 35'g OrE60'
t
position:
following
t
a) with probeshavingemissionangle
theperspex
35'g c l60", inadiating
I
insert 11 60'gcl?5'
I
b) with probeshavingemissionangle
60og d E 75",inadiating
insert
theperspex I
c) with probes having emissionangle
cl 75-5 cI E0' I
75"5fl
@ 1.5 mm hole I
I
z.by movingthe probeslightlybackwardand fonrard,parallelto the block lateral
findtheposition
surfaces, echofromtheperspex
wheretheresponse
fr 1.5mmhole)hasitsmaximum amplitude;
insert(orfromthe I
3. on the edgeof the reference
block there is a graduated
l,
scale;the actualvaluep of the
emissionangle is the value
that you can read on such
I
scalein correspondence of the
transducer emission point, lr'
previouslydefinedby meansof
thespecificprocedure.
t
l*
It0 SairymTrainingCcrarcE. Gandolrt
I
t
 I
t_ The emission angle can be
calculated without necessarily
a1 35'3 sE 60'

t refeningto the graduatedscale

carved on the Vl rEference
block the calculationcan be
I ueefulif the emissionpoint of
the transduoerdoesnot coincide
with any of the referencesgiven t l 6 0 ' ss E ? 5 '

t on the block.

To this purposeit is necessary

I to measure the distance f,

(in mm) betwsenthe transducer
emissionangleand the edgeof
I the block;oncex is known,the
realvalueof the emissionangle
?5'gsl E0'

F can be calculatedby applying,

I among the formulaegiven on
the side, the one that
corresporldsto the position of
I the transduceron the block.

I Alignmentof the beam

I Angle probesare designedso

as to have the axis of the
ultrasonicbeam laying on a
planeperpendicular to the exit
; surfaceof the beamfrom the
probeand parallelto the probe
I axis.

lf, due to manufacturedefects,

t suchplaneis not perpendicular
to the probeaxis we talk about
beam misalignment and it will
I be necessaryto measurethe
misalignment angleor squint.

t This angle is the angle

betwEentwo planes, perpen-
dicularto the probeshoe,one
I passingthroughthe probeaxis
and the otherthroughthe axis
of the ultrasonic
beam.
I
I
SaipemTrainiqCcntre
E Gardolfi Iil
I
ITIIIT- IJLTRASONIC TESTING I
Reference
block bloclrV1; I
Procedure:

1. put the probeon the referenceblockas shownin the picture,irradiatingthe blocklower

I
edge
t
I
t
I
2. maximizethe echorefl6ct6dfrom suchedge,by rotatingthe probe; I
3. once you have found the
maximumreflectionposition,
place a ruler againstthe
I
probe shoe; the angle
betumenthe ruler and the
blockedge is the deviation
I
angleof the acousticaxisof
the beam;it can be easily
measuredwith satisfactory
I
accuracyby mean$ of a
goniometer. t
Profileof the ultrasonicbaam I
The procedureto find the beamprofilein angletransducersis analogousto that of
longitudinalbeamtransducers,
exceptthatheretwoprofilesareto be considered: I
on th6 verticalplane r on the horizontal
plane
lo
t
lu
I
I
182 CcwrcE. Gandolfr
SaipemTraining
I
 Testingby ultrasourd

Profilaon the vdrticalpldne

Referenceblock mm
BlocklOW 354x100x75

Procedure:

Carryout the tim6basecalibrationusingan adeguatefull scaleand proceedas follottrs:

I 1. put the transduceron the

75#54 mm surfaceof the
T block so as to irradiatethe
holedrilledat 5 mmandfind
the position wlrere the
I reflected echo is at its
maximum amplitude;

T 2. amplifytheechofromthehole
up to 100%of the screen
height; calculatethe echo
t height relativeto a 20 dB
reductionand markit on the
screen;
I 3. mark the position of the
transducer emission point
I (position
block;
a) on thEsideof the

t 4. move the transduceruntil

the hole reflectionecho is
I reducedby 20 dB in height;
then mark th6 transducer
emissionpoint (positionb)
T on the sideof the block

5. move the transducer

I backward until the hole
reflection ec*ro, after

t reaching its maximum

height, lowers by 20 dB;
mark the transducer
emissionpoint (positionc)
I on thg sideof the bloclr

I
t
Sa@mTrainingCca;cE Gandolfr
I
FIDT- TJLTRASONICTESTING t
6. trace a cartesiandiagramon a sheetof graphpap6rwiththe transducerdeviationson
the x axis and the holedepthson th6 y axis;
I
7. on the diagram, tracethe
beamaris, inclinedby fre
t
actualemissionanglep,
and mark the x and y
dEviations of the transdu-
I
cer at a 5 mmdepth,the
values being directly
measurgdon the block
I
side;
repeatsteps1 to 7 of the
I
describedprocedureirra-
diating the other holes
(depths 10, 15, 20, 25, I
30, 35, 4O),markingthe
value of each x and y
deviationof thetransducer
I
onthecartesian ax6s;
I
9. at the end of these operations,join the pointsmarkedon the diagram:the resulting
profileis the realprofileof the beamemittedby the transduceron the vertiaalplane.
I i
Profilaon the horinntelplane

Fleference
block: BlocklOW 354x100x75
mm I
Procedure:
I
Carryoutth6 timebasecalibration full scaleandproceedas follows:
usingan adequate
I
1. put the transducer on the
50)€05mm surlaceof the
blockso as to irradiatethe l*
holedfilledat 15 mm with
the probe axis centered
with respectto the hole
longitudinal developm€nt;
t
find the positionwtrerEthe
reflectedecho is at its l*
maximum amplitude;
I t/.r l'

I
r84 $arpe4TrainiagCewreE. Gf,ndolfi

;
I Testingby ultrasouttd

I trace a referenceline H on the referenceblock,in correspondence

backside (thisline mustbe perpendicularto the blocksidesurface);
of the transducer

I amplifiesthe echo reflectedby the holeup to 100%of the screenheight;calculatethe

echoheightrelativeto a 20 dB reductionandmarkit on the scr6en;

I 4. move the transduceralong

the line R towardsthe hole

I close end until the

reflec'tionecfio is reduced
by 20 dB;

I measure the distance )&

betueEnthe probeaxisand

I the edge of the reference

block;

I inadiatethe sameholetromtheoppositesideso thatthe beamaxisis centeredwith

respoct to theholelongitudinal
is at itsmaximum amplitude;
findtheposition
development; wherethereflected
echo

I lineFl'in
7. tracea reference
correspondence of the

I transducerbackside

move the transducer

I alongthe Fl' linefollowing

the procedure described
above until the height of

I the hole reflectionechois

decreasedby 20 dB and
then measure the Xr
I distanceon the block as
previouslydonewith)&.

I 9, trace a cartesian
diagramon a sheetof
graph paper with the transducer
t deviationeon the x axis and the
pathsL on they axis readon
ultrasonic
the time axis, or calculated
with the
I formula:
L-
d - g,1j
c08d

I whered is the depthand 0,75mm is the

holeradius;
I
I
CcwreE. Gandolfi
Sa@rr+Training lE5
I
IilTT - ULTRASOI{IC TESTING
I
10.at the distance L that
correspondsto a 1S-mm
I
depthmarkthe Xr35 and
Xe.?S deviations of he
transducer,where35 (mm)
I
is the hole length; if the
beamis symmetricalthe
differences
areeguah
two I
11.inadiatethe holes at the
otherdepthsand carryout
I
steps1 to I of thedescribed
procadure;mark the value
of each deviationof the
I
transducer
axis;
on the x and y
I
12.at the end of these
operations,join the points
markedon thediagram:the
I
resultingprofileis the real
profileof the beamemitted I
by th6 transduceron the
horizontalplane.
I
I
Antplifimtionresenrc

The amplificationreservetells I
of how many decibel a
referenceecho can be further
increasedafter it has been led I
to U5 of the screenheight,on
conditionthat the disturbance
echoes do not exceed 1/5 of I
the screenheight.

The amplification
reserveis essentialtodefineth6 sensitivity
of testingeguipment.
1
$uch informationdependsnot onlyon the characteristics
of the transducer,but also on the
propediesof the componentsof the searclrunit. In case of comparativetests between I
ultrasonicprobes,the tests ar6 meaningrful
only if the same generatorand the same
cablesare used,the transducersbeingthe onlyelementsthatarechanged.

I
i
186 Sa4cmTraining(ture E. GailoIfr
I Testingby ultasound

I block:
Reference BlockV1

I Erssedun:
Once all the hreshold or signal alterationcontrolshave been excluded,proceedas
I folloun:

1. positionthe probe on the block, in

t corre$pondenceof the center of the
10Omm radiusarc;

I 2. bring th6 echo to 40% of the screen

height and note down the set
value(Ar);
amplification
I
I
t
I
3. increasethe amplificationuntilthe disturbanceechoesadjacentto the mainechoare
I higherthan 20% of the screen height;
reserueVr is givenby:
amplification
note downthe set amplificationvalue Ar; the

I Vr=4a-1t

I Transverseresolvingpower

The transverse(or angle)resolvingpoweris the parameterthat put$the beamspreadin

I relationwiththe beampath,contributing
to the definitionof the resolvingpower,that is the
abilityto separateedroescomingfromadjacentreflectors.

I The smallerthe ultrasonicbeamcrosssection,the easierit will be to handlethis type of

obst8cles.

I
I
I GoodReeolution Bad Heeolutlon
I
CuureE. Catdofi
SarpemTraining It7
I
ITDT- TJLITASONIC TESTING
I
Referenceblock: $teelblock25x150850mm t
Efsrcdslg:
1. Poeitionthe probeso as
I
to irradiatethe @1-5mm
hole at a half-ekip
distancaR16;this distance
I
can b6 erpressed by
means of the block
thickness t and of the
I
probe emissionangle a,
ag: I
*x=#
maximize the reflected
I
echo and bring it to 80o/o
of the scrsenheight; I
place a straightguideon
the block behind the I
transducerso that it can
be movedperpendicularly
to the blockaxis and mark
the position of the
I
transducer on the guide;
4. move the transducerto
I
the left and to the right,
parallelto the guide,until
the heightof the echo is
I
lowered by 6 dB, and
mark
positions;
the relative I
measurethe distanceD14 I
betttreenthe two Points;

6. repeat the above l.

operationspositioningthe
probeat one skip and at
one and a half skip thus I
definingthe twodistances
D1andD16. f
Theindexof transverse
resolution
is epressedas:

= = I
ttq0tx+ tt'roh=ft lt"{ohx
+ I
188 CeareE, Gaildolrt
SatpemTraining
l
I
I Testingby uhrasound

I 3.10.9. Feferenceblocke

I Heferenceblocksare indispensable
in ultrasonictestingbecausetheyallor,rr
r to check th6 functions of the employedeguipmentand transducer (periodical

I r
calibrationchecksandprobecharacterization)
;
pr€pf,r€the instrumentsto detectthe positionand size of discontinuities
encountered
I duringth6test(timebasecalibration andcontrolsensitivitycalibration).

In the followingwe will deal with a descriptionof blocks that are commonlyused for
t ultrasonic testingor r€commended in specificprocedures.

I SDHBlock

I TheSDHblockis recommended
joints.
bytheASMEcodesection
V forthecalibration
of welded

I Thisblockallowsthetimebasecalibration andtheconstruction
curv€sfor thetestingof anythickness,
correction
of thedistanc+amplitude
beamprobesand
bothwithlongitudinal
withangleprobes.
I Theblockthickness varyinfunction
andtheholediameters ofthetestpiece
thickness.

t
t Jolni
thlclomm
Block
thlclmerr
Hole
dlameter

I t (mml
I s25
T(mm)
lgorl
d (nrm)
2"38
25 <t f,50 38 ort 3.17

I 60<t s t00
t00 <r f 150
76ort
126trt
d76
6.35

I t6{l <t 9200 175oft 7.eir

I
I
I
I
TrainingLzwreE fiurfulfr
Sarpem It9
I
I
I{IIT * TJLTRASONICTESTING
I
lOW block t
The 10W block, also called
'Dutch block', is a steel block
(dimensions354x1ff)x75mm)
t
specificallydesigned for the
delinitionof the profile of the
ultrasonicbeamemittedby an
I
angletransducer.

To understandhow this block

I
is employed, soe the
procedures
for the definitionof: I
. profileon the verticalplane

. profileon the horizontalplane 3it

I
I
I

t
I
t
t
Sfeetblock25x150fr50mm I
This steel block is used to define the transverseresolvingpower of angle beam
transducers. I
25
I
l-
ffi I
]

t
f
I
190 CcureE. Ganfulfi
SatpemTraiaing

I
I Testingby ultasound

I SAIPEM
block
to inspectweldedjointson pipeshavinga diameterranging
Thisblockis usedby SAIPEM
I betrrveen
10" (254mm)and60"(1524mm)anda thid<ness notbiggerthan50 mm.
Theblockis madeof th6samematerial as thepipesbeingtestedandalsohasthe sam6
I thidmess.lt hasbeendesigned
to allow:
. the construction of the SEct . CC

I various calibration curves:

D.A.C,sensitivitylevel,stc.
I

(horizontalholeN. t)'
t the adjustmentof the reject
level (calibrationon vertical
hole N.2); the signal(echo)
I from the verticalhole can be
compared with the signal
fromthe discontinuitiesin the
I weldedjoints;
to chackthe equipmentverti-
cal and horizontallinearity;
I to checkthe proberesolving
powtsr (vertical holes N. 3
andN.4).
t r,rptofllrm
W.T.:
The applicationof the conversionfactorfrom the referenceblockto the materialbeing
testedis not necesssrysinceffie blockis madeof the samematerialas the pipe,
I llw Vl Block

I This blockcan be madeof steelor othermaterials,and has a perspexinsertfixed in

@50 mm hole. lt is characterized
by the sidenotchesin correspondence
the sectorwith H = 100mm,that allowto obtainsuccessions
of the centerof
of echoesfrom the circular
I surface.The shape of the blockhas beendesignedto allowditferenttypes of tests and
calibrations
of ultrasonic
equipment.

I In the followingyou canfind a listof the calibrations

ultrasonic equipment usinga Vl block:
andchecksthatcan be carriedout on

. tifiie basecalibrationwithfongitudinal
I beamtransducer;
. time basecalibrationwithanglebeam
probes;
I . checkof horizontallinearity;
. checkof veilicallinearity;
. checkof the emissionpointof the
I ultrasonicbeamfor angletransducers;
. checkof the emissionangleof the
ultrasonicbeamfor angletransducers;
I . checkof the (longitudinal)
power;
resolving

. definitionof the maximumpenetration

I the beam.
of
Allmeesure$
ereepressadInmm.

CcnrcE. Gurdolfr
SaipemTraining l9l
I
I
NDT- T]LTRASONICTESTING I
llW UEBloak I
The V2 blockis madeof steelor othermaterial,and is mainlyemployedfor the time base
calibrationwhenanglebeamtransducersnot biggerthan B x g mmare used. I
This blockalso alloweto checkthe ultrasonicbeamemissionangle,followingthe same
procedureas withthe Vl blockthat usesthe beamre{lec,tions
fromthe 5 mm drilledhole. I
Observethat the blockhas no notchesin correspondence
with radius25 and 50 mm;a$ a consequence,
of the centerof the two sectors
whateversurfacethe beamis directedto,
the refleciionechowillbe obtainedalsolromthe otherone.
I
I
t
I
I
I
All mr|3ur* arr rxF|lstd lh mm.
t
ASTMBlod<s I
This is a seriesof blocksdesignedin compliance
madeof aluminiumor steel,cylindrical,
withthe ASTME-127standard.They are
holedrilledin the centerof one
witha flat-bottom
I
of the bases.

Eachblockis identified
by twonumbers
thattell
I
respectively:
. thediametar
A of thehole,in 1/84of aninch;
t
. thg distanceB betweenthe extomalsurface
and the flat bottomof the hote(actuatpath I
covered bythebeam),in 1/100of aninch.
Examole5 - 0800:A = 5/64of an inch
l
B = 800/100of an inch
I
I
192 &ntrc E. Gandolfi
SaipcmTraining
I
I
I Testingby uhrasound

I The regulationsin force identify three $eries of ref6r6nc6blocks, each of them

recommended for a specifictypeof check.
I lo serps (suilawamplltude)

I The firet series is composedof I blocks

having ditferentdimensions,drilled at the
samedepth(B=76.2mm).
EIoet
1-0300
l-0300
t
0.395
0.793
B
75.2o
76.20
c
95.t5
95,t5

I With this saries wB can find the existing

relationshipbetweenthe dimensionsof the
3-0300
a - 0 30 0
5-0300
1. 190
r-E87
1.981
7 6. 2 0
76.20
76.20
95.t5
95.15
95.25
5-0300 1.381 76.20 95.2S

I reflectingsudaceand the amplitudeof the

echo(sudace- amplitude
reflec'ted curve).
7-0300
8*0300
2.778
3.175
76.10
76.20
95.15
95.25

t The measure of A, B and C

is expressed in run.

I ll" series(distance- amplitude)

The secondseriesis composedof threegroupsof blocks,and each group includes30

I pieces.

In each group th6 hole diameter(A) is constant,while the distancebetwtsenthe hole

I bottom(B) and the entrysurfaceof the ultrasonicbeamvaries.

Blocksbelongingto theseseriesallowthe definitionof the existingrelationshipbetween

t the distancecoveredby the ultrasonicbeam and the amplitudeof the
(distance-.amplitude
curv6).
reflectedecho

I ro
grouD
A-1. 190
rrc
llaoul)
l-1. 98{
IIIO
grouD
l-3.175 B e
ro
grrouD
A -1.190
rro
EIEOUD
l-1.981
IIIO
gronD
4.3.175
g c

t Flock
3-00lt
3-00ts
Block
5-00lt
5-0025
Block
s-00lt
E*0025
3. 1 7 s t t . 3 2 s
6.35 25.1
BIock
3-0300
3- 0 3 2 5
BIock
5-0300
5-0325
BIoch
B - 0 30 0
g'0315
76.2 95.15
92.55 101.5

I 3-0039
3-0050
3-006t
5-0038
5-0050
5-0051
8-0038
B-00s0 LZ.7
8-0052
9 .515 28.575

15,875
31,78
3 4. 9 3 s
3-0350
3-0375
3-0400
5 - 0 35 0
5-0t75
5-0400
8*0350
B-0t75
8-0400
88.9 r07.95
9 5 .1 5 1 l { . 3
101.5 120.55

I t-0075
3-008s
3-0100
5-0075
5-0099
5-0100
8-0075
8-0088
0- 0100
1 9. 0 5 3 B . l
22.225 a l . 1 7 5
t5.a at.a5
3- 0 { t F
3-0{50
3-0475
5-04t5
s-0450
5-0475
0-0{t5
8-0{50
8-0{?5
107.9s 127.0
11r.3 133.35
110.6s139,7
3-0lt5 50.g 3-0s00 g-0500

I
5-0125 8-0125 31.75 5-0500 LT7.O 1 4 6 . 0 5
3-0150 5-0150 8-0150 t8 .1 5 7. 1 5 3-0525 5-0525 B-0525 1 3 3. t 5 1 5 t . 4
3-01?5 5-0175 8-0175 ta.{5 6 3. 5 3-05S0 s-0550 8-0550 139.7 158.75
3'0100 5-0200 8-0200 50.8 69.E5 3-0575 5-0575 g-0575 1t6.05 155.1

I 3-0e2s
3-0150
3-017s
5-0215
5-02$0
5-0275
8-0225
B-0t50
0-0t75
5 7 .1 5
6 3. 5
69.85
76.2
82.55
0 8. 9
3-0500
3- 0 6 2 5
3-0550
5*0500
5'0625
5-0650
B*0600
g-0625
8-0650
152.4 171.45
158.75 L77.8
155. 1 lBtl .15

I The measure of A, B and C is expregged in tnm.

t
SaipemTrainingCewreE Gandolfr 193

I
I
FTI}T- TJLTRASONICTESTING
I
lll'seric(base) I
Theblockswithinthisseriesarejust
a selectionof blockstakenfromthe
othertwoseries.
Blocco
3-0300
5-00lt
I
1.190
1. 984
E
7 6 .l 0
3.175
c
9 5 .1 5
33.tt5
I
They are enoughto traceboth the
surface- amplitudecurveand the
$-00t5
5-0050
s-0075
l.gsa
t.gst
1.981
6.35
L2.7
19.05
t5,a
31.75
3s.l
I
I
- amplitude 5*0150 1.981 38.1 57. l5
distance curve. 5 - 0 30 0 1. 981 69.85 95.25
5*0600 1.981 146.05 17l. t5
B - 0 30 0 t.175 69.85 9 5 .t 5
g-0600 3.175 146.05
The meagure of A, B and C
1 7 1 .{ s
l,
is expressed in run

I
OtherWs of blocks
An importantgroupof blocksis composed of referencepiecesthathavegeometrical and I
structuralcharacteristicsthEt are similarto those of the testpieces,wher6 artificial
havebeenproduced,
discontinuities
thatcanbeactuallyencountered
suchas holesor notches,
in thepieces.
thatrepresent
the defects I
Theseblocksare specifically realizedcaseby case,depending on the specificneedsof
the ultrasonictesting,so that an adequatecalibrationof the controlsensitivitycan be
carriedout.
Asanexample, forgings,
weshowa typicalblockforthetestingof hollow
notcheshavebeenpracticed
ontheinternalandexternal
where'U' or 'V'
surfaceof theforging.
I
NOTCH('U' shapc)
RECTAIIGULAH NOTCH('V' rhape)
TRIANGULAR I
I
I
lu
Drilr
h
tidtl
sl
Longth
I
0opth
h
Hdh
w
Lffieth
I
I
IltrftE 3tlt rfth
rl|ltrro
(rrdnu
6.35nr)
I'l ?5.i1rn tlictr:rr r
a^- a a!--!
2.1 25rl
l*
ASTMdandard A 388
I
J
194 SaipcmTrainingCcntreE. Gandolfr
t
I
 I Testingby ultrasourd

I 3.11. THETEST

I 3.11.1. Testingoporations

I Suilaw prepantbn
The couplingsurfacebetweenthe probeand the testpiece(surfaceto be scannedor
checked)mustensurethegoodtransmission
I easyslidingof theprobe.
of the ultrasonic
beamenergyas wellas an

I Before any dreck the surface

mustthereforebe cleanedfrom
any dirt, rust,slag,ureldspafters
t andoxidelayers.
Besides, to allow a good
t transmission
of the beamenergy,
the surface must not be too
rough,and a light grindingis
I sometimesnecessary.

I Galibmtbnaf the equlpment

I Beforestartingthe test, the operatormustcheckthe eguipmentefficiencyand veritythat

the calibration
is stillvalid.

t Theentireunit(instrument,
cables,probe)mustbe periodically
calibrated.

I
I The testingproceduresare grouped, dependingon the testpiecetypology,as follows:

I r t6st$on non-welded(seamless)
r testson wEldeditems.
items(castings,
rolledplates...);

I
I
I
I
CcureE. Gatrdolfr
SaipemTraining 195
I
I
I{DT - TJLTRASOMCTESTING I
Non-wdldeditems:te.sfswithlongrtudinalprobes I
probesare mainlyusedto test rolledplatesand seamlesspipesto deted any
Longitudinal
defectsuchas segregates,
laminations,6tc... I
Dependingon the detectionmethodbeingused,the te$tcan be done:
. bYPoints . in continuous
I
I
t
Upesof indications
ThrEE canbedisplayed
on thescreen:
t
t
. intermEdiateindicationsbetween
the emission
echoandthe bottom
I
echo;
t
I
. indicationsof very large defects
thateliminatethe bottomecho(the
wholesignalis reflected);
I
t
I
absence of indicationsand of
bottomechoesbecauseof defects
orientedso as to preventanyecho
I'
frombeingreflected.
I
oEnisclon echo
. DiseontlDulty eebo
T
r,BotEon echo
t
J
t
196 SaWmTrainhgCentre
E Gandolfi

I
I Tesrtngby uhrasouttd

I In tha nearzon€the indications

ar€notnecessarily proportional
to
size.
I the discontinuity
Thiscan be solvedbYcalibrating
a fulFecalevaluethatallowsmore
! reflections(double,
triple,...)thus
avoidingthe evaluationbetween
th6 first bottomecho and the
I secondone.
rDlscontlnulty
rBogEoEt Etrho
ecbe

I Beside,it shouldbe remembered thatthe

initialEdrocoversa small
thicknessh (the
t deadzone)and that any indication
that thicknesscannot be
from
displayed by
msan$of a longitudinal
Probe.
I Therefore,this thicknesscan be scanned
eitherwith an angleprobeor by testingit
I fromtheotherside.

I
I
I the operatorshall use the followingdetection
In case of indicationsof a discontinuity,
methodin orderto evaluateits characteristics:

I
l . The depth P of the
can be read
discontinuity
I on the screen(remember
to keep into accountthe
full-scale
value).
I
t
l
I
Sat4emTrainingCentreE. Gilttdolfi

I
II{I}T - TJLTRASOMC TESTING

o the dimensions Lr andL: (and

of ilre discontinuity
thereforethe extensionLr.Lc)can be evaluated by
carryingouttransversa andlongitudinal
movements
so thatthe amplitude
theprob6movement
system)
h on the scr€enis halvedas
varies(discontinuity
echodrop rl
As the probe moves, you will also have to
determinewhetherthe diEcontinuityis continuous
t
(the echois alwayspresent)or broken(theecho
comesand goes) since the echo continuity
fragmentationatfedthediscontinuity
or
acceptability.
I
I
I
items:tesfslvffr angleprobes
Non-welded I
for each probebeing
The emissionpointand the emissionanglemustbe calibrated
involved
in thetest. l'
With thase probesthe test is carriedout
throughtwo or morescansby rotatingthe
t
probebetweenthemso as to irradiateany
asfullyaspossible.
discontinuity I
t
The procedure tor the
ass€$sment of the extension
of the discontinuity
A
is thesame
D = Pu*' rh tr
I
as with longitudinalprobes,
while the definitionof the
position (D, P) requires a P = P,'rr' cos (f I
trigonometriccalculation.
t
f
I
__f

I
t,
l9E CenreE. Gwrdolfi
SaipcmTmining
 I
I Iesfs on welcls

I Weldsare scannedby meansof angleprobes.Longitudinal

adjacentbaeematerialbeforetestingthe uveldjoint.
probesare used to test the

I The proceduredependson the t!rye of discontinuities that are etpected to be found

(trqryv.Eqe,longitudinal)and on the type of joint (buttjoint or T joini). Both sides of the
wEldshall be checked,and the test sudaceshall be fiee of any imfefection
lspatters,
I notches...);the ioint geometricreflectionsshouldalso be caiefullyevaluated
startingth6 test.
before

I In caseof discontinuities
'
detectedin theweldjoint,theoperatorshatl:
find the maximumamplitudeof thereflectedecho(andthereforethe importance
of the
I .
discontinuity)
by slighilymovingandrotatingthetransducefi
definethe positionon thediscontinuity
withinthe weld;

t .
'
definethe extensionof thediscontinuity;
define,.
whenpossible,the natureof the discontinuity
by observingthe appearance of
I the echogramon the screenand how it changesai tne irradi-ation
changed.
conditionsare

I 3.11.2. Testingtechniqueefor the differentproducttypotogies

I In the following-youwill find a descriptionof ultrasonictestingproceduresappliedto

variousUpes of products(rolledplates,pipes,forgedpieces.l.).These tests can be
carriedout withstraightor angleprobes.
I Iesfe on rolladplates

I Tests on rolled plates ar6

usuallycarriedout with straight
beam probes.Thi$ technique
allowsthe detBctionof intemal
laminardiscontinuitiessuchas
laminations,segregates, inclu-
I sions, that is discontinuities
whosemainplanerunsparallel
to the plate surface (most of

I discontinuities
in rolled plates
belongto thisgroup).
Only in case of v6ry thick
I plates,an anglebeamtest can
be recommended in additionto

t the straightbeamtest.
This supplementary test aims
at detectingnon-laminardis-
continuities(forging laps) or
I filiformones(cracks).
SaipemTraining(twrc E Gaildolfr r99
TIII}T- TJLTRASONICTESTING
I
Thetestis usuallycaniedoutwiththepuls+echomethod,by examining the plateon one
I
sideonly.The scannedsidemustcomplywiththe testreguirements
preparation:
absenceol dirt,non-adhering
in termsof surface
thatmighthamper
oxidesor othersubstances
of thebeamor theprobemovement.
thetransmission
I
Wateris the mostusedcoupling
uepaste.
water-glycerol-gl
fluid,butothermediacanalsobe used,sudr as oil or a
I
Theselectionol theprobedepends on thepiecethickness,
thetypeof probealsodepends
etc.;besides,
onthe materialto be scanned
ontheadoptedreference
standard. I
Thevaluesgivenon the sideare
APPtr,OXIMA'T|ECHANACIERISTICS OF PROBES
Thlclfiess Traneducer Frequenqy Diameter
I
approximate and must be
adaptedto eachcasedepending
on the specificfeaturesof the
S>60mm
20<S<60mm
SINGLE
SINGLE
2 MHz
4 MHz
25 mm
25 mm I
10<S<20mm SINGLE 4 MHz 10mm
testpiece. 6<S<10mm OUALfi/B) 4 MHz 10mm
I
I
On the dght you can find tha
oscillograms of some $pical plate
testingcases: I
. flawless
plate, I
'

plate with inclusionsor a small

lamination,
t
I
. platewithlamination-
I
The last caseis characterized
by the
totalabs€nceof bottomechoes.
l.
The full-scalevaluemustbe definedso as to allow a clear distinctionbetweenany I
disc'ontinuity
echoandthefirstbottomecho.
l*
I
l"
t
200 CcureE Gandolfi
SatpemTraining

t
I Testingby ultrasound

I A completecheckof the piece(100%examination) is not frequentlyrequired.Only the

edgesoftEnneedto be fully elglored,alonga bandthat has a widthft equalto the plate
t thickness(andin anycasenotthinnerthan50 mm).

I Whenthetotalexamination
required,the scanningof the
is not
oontralzone is canied out by
I pointsor by strip.Thismeansthat
the pieceis scannedin all the
intErsec'tions
or alongthe linesof
I a sguare drawnon thepiece
sudace.
grid

t ThesideI of the square(usualfy

100or 200 mm)is statedin the
testspecifications.
I
I
Iesfs on forgedpieces
I onthepiecegeometry.
variesdepending
Themethodology

I TheUpeof probeto be useddepends

solidforgings
onthetypeof sectionbeingscanned.
theuseof a straight
requires b6amtransducer
Thecheckof
waves,that
withlongitudinal
elploresthepiecefromtheoutsidesurfaceandfromthebutt surface.
t In hollowforgings,besidesthe $traightbeamexamination,
withshearwavesis usually
examination carriedout.
a furtherangle beam

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
SaFmTrahing CentreE, Gaildolfr 201
 * ULTRASONIC TESTING
ITTITT I
probds
Iasfs withlongitudinal
I
fn nerellelenbed-shaned forged
pieces the test is canied out by
I
movingthe probeperpendicularly to
the piece axis on two orthogonal
faces.
I
Thistechniqueensurestha detection
of discontinultiesregardlessof their
I
orientationwithin the piece. For
example,discontinuities that are
parallelto one of the faces,thatcan
t
be hardly visible from a certain
direction,are clearlydetectable
theorthogonalone.
from I
Thetestis carriedoutmanually,
percent
coversa certain
usingthedirectcontactpulse-echo
of thepreviousone(typically
a 10o/o)
Eachrun
technique.
andusuallyextendsacross
I
theentirevolume.
I
With cvlindricalforged piecesa
radialscan techniqueis applied
(moving the probe along the
I'
circurnferenceof the section
perpendicularto the axis)so that I
the entire circumference, or at ",ii
leasta 180'anglealongthe piece
axis,is covered. rdt
-$
t I
(suctrasforging
Flatdiscontinuities
cracks),thatcan be hardlyvisible
froma certaindirection,
I
areeasily
detectedat 90" fromthe previous
position. I
lfotr drtrffs trluirrc|adrfilctol pmbec
l,
Ths tl4*cal frequency ls 2 Ml{2, but difterentfrequernies can be used (1 to 5 MHz) when fwther
irilomdlon on the poeitionand odentdiond detec{eddiscontinuities are needed.The coudlng fluld is
seloct€din furrtion of the piece roughnsss;in normalconditionsthe SAE 30 oil or a mdhylcellulose-
I
water-ba8€dg€l is us€d.
l*
I
t'
2V2 $arrymTrainingCewreE Gandolfr
I
I
I Testingby ultrasound

I Tasfswith angleprcbes

I Testingwith anglebeamprobesis carriedout on hollowforgedpieces,in additionto the

straightbeamone.

I The scenningof the piece extemalsudaceis both radial and axial in order to detect
discontinuities
orientedin any directions(the straightbeamexaminationis carriedout on
the extemaland buft surfacee,likein solidforgedpieces).
I WIth very thick forgedpieceshavinga
laqe diameter, a certain emission
I angle might not allow a complete
examination of the entirethicknessfrom
th€ outsidesurface.
I This happenswhen the s/D (thickness
to diameterratio)exceedsthe limitthat
I correspondsto the emission angled
being used. (in the table you can find
the values for the most common ffi br1leetcc ro-
I emissionangles). ffiilror-rrycctcd ror-

To check the entire thickness the Mru(|MUM VALUEOFTHEdD BATIOFORTHE

I forged piece must be examinedfrom
inside, or a probe with a smaller
emissionangle must be used (see the
TESTINGOFTHEENTIRETHICKNESS
Emiersion 35"
anglea
45" 60p 70" 8tr

I tableto selectthe right probe). s/D 0.213 0.146 0.067 0.030 0.0076

I Elooms

As concernsthe scanningprocedure,see wfrat has been

I saidfor parallelepiped-shaped
forgedpieces.

t When inspectingbloomsattenuationvariationsare quite

frequent, due to the structural differencebetween the
6)demalpart (U4) and the centralregion,wheremostof the
discontinuitiesare concentrated.The high absorptionof
m--- I > |frmm

I ultrasonicenergyis causedby the bloomcoarsestructure

and requireslowfrequency transducers(0.ZS-pMHz).

I The inspectionof bloomsaims at findingout the typology

and the qualitystandardof the piecesthat can be obtained
fromthat material
I Oncethe discontinuities havebeendetected,the possibility
of re-forgingthe piece is evaluated,to state if, leavingthe
defectswithi,nportionsof materialthat will be subsequently
t removed,a finishedproductthat meetsthe requiredqualiti
standardcan be obtained.

I
SoirymTraining(*ure E. Garrdolfr n3
I
I
TI{DT- TJLTRASOMC TESTING

Ears I
Theinspec-tionproceduresarethe sameas those
for the blooms;bars,though,are not
indicatecl
goingto be r+forgedandtherefore theymustnot
I
showanomalous attenuation
in thebottomecho.
I
Shafts t
Asconcems procedure
thescanning pieces.
seewhathasbeensaidforrylindricalforged
I
Theradialscanshouldcoveran anglenotsmallerthan180'alongthe entireaxisof the
piece.lf the shaftis not excessively
withlongitudinalwaves
longerthanthe piecediameter,
is alsopossible.
a buttexamination I
I
I
I
I
Notc: Unlikein bloomtesting,dudngslrdt teds anomalou$ettenuationcf the bottomechoesare
I
not Bxp€c{ed.ll a ceilain zonEshowsa zubstsnlialreductionIn the bottornecho,this mgan$
that In thet epotthe metedal is not tromogeneous
wtthre+ect to the rEst. I
In thie ceeeft $muldbe n€c€ssaryto carryout a newheat treatmentto improvethe metedal
dnr-ture,beforedadingthEexamination.

This is alto true for ber exemlnetions.

I
t"
I
l*
t i'

I
m4
I
SairymTminhgCentreE Gardolfi

I
I Testingby uhrasourd

I Platasanddiscs

I id"| dt

I # @ I

I The test mustbe caniedout usingfirsta straightprobewithlongitudinal

an angleprobewith shearwaves.
waves,and then

The straightprobetest is caniedoutfromthe externalcylindricalsurfaceand fromboththe

I flat sudaces,becausein caseof thin pieces,any discontinuities locatednearthe surface
and in directcontactwiththe probeare betterdetectedfromthe oppositesurface.

I The angleprobetest mustalsobe carriedout fromboththe flat facesby movingthe probe

backandforth alongthetwodiameters.

I Ringsand flanges

I The test mustincludea straightprobeexaminationwith longitudinalwavesand an angle

probeexamination withshearwaves.

I In the straightprobetestingthe scanningis carriedout on the extemalbandand on the flat

sides.

I In the angleprobetestingthe scanningis

in
carriedout on the e*emal circumference T Angle probe

both clockwise and counter-clockwise

I senses.
Make sure the selectedbeam elgloration
angle actuallyexaminesthe pieceinternal
I diameter (wtrich happenswhen the ratio
between th€ extemal and the internal
diameteris smallerthan2).
I
I pipesandferrules
Couplings,

Testing with ultrasoundsis

t carriedout with straightprobes
andwithangleprobes.

I In the straightprobe testinga

radial scanningof he external
cylindricalsurfaceand a butt
I examination arecarriedout.
Radlal t ex&lBEtlon

t
SaWmTrainingCeilreE. Gandolfr
I
 - TJLTRASONICTESTING
TTIDT I
I
In the angle beam testing the
probehas a radialmovementall
alongthe pieceand in bothaxial
I
directions.
I
lxlrl cllrEcElon
I
Iesfs on castings I
Castingsaredraracterized in theircrystalline
bysubstantialvariations dueto the
structure,
differences
in the castingtemperature
strongattenuation
andto the mouldgeometry.
of the ultrasonicbeamis epected. This is wtryfrequencies above
a
In theseconditions,
I
2 MHzareseldomused.
Notall castingscanbe examined
attenuation
In somecasesthereis so highan
withultrasounds.
thatth6 piecescannotbe tested(thishappens,for instance,with austenitic
I
steelcastingsthathavea medium/high
the surfacemustalsobe assessed
particular,
to determine
in thecaseof itemshavinga complex
withbronzeetc...).Theaccessibili$
thickness,
wtrether
shape).
thetestis applicable
of
or not (in I
The methodologyfor the examinationof
I
castingsvariesdepending
of the piece
on the application
beingtested.As an examplewe
will examine castingsfor the petroleum
Valvebody
t
chemistryindustry,mainlyvalvebodiesand
the relativecomponents. t
Ultrasonic testingof valvebodiesis usually
limitedto valve couplingflanges.lt is only
withvery largevalvesthat the test is carried
I
out on the 100%of the surface.
Flrnses
I t
lo
t
Usually,longitudinalwave transducerswith a 1-2 MHz
frequencyare used. An additionaltestingwith angle beam lo
probesis carriedout whenthe echo reflEctedby the bottom
surfacecannotbe obtainedbecauseof the non-parallelism
of surfaces,or to test certainzon6sthat havebeenrepaired
by welding.
I
I
2M Centre
SairymTraining E Gaildolfi

I
I
I Testingby uhrasourd

I The instrumentcalibrations are caniedout with cast steel blockswhoseultrasonic

are similarto thoseof the piecebeingtested.Flat bottomholes(typical
characteristics

t diameterGI6 mm)havebeendrilledat different

curve.
surface-amplitude
depthsso asto allowtheconstruction
of a

I prpes
Iesfe on sF/amldss

I The maintechniquesfor the testingon seamlesspipescan be groupedin the following

threecategories:

I 1. contact
technique;
theprobeis in contactwiththesurfacebeing
I scannedby meansof an interposed
and of a thin layerof coupling
adapter
(oil,
material
I water,grease, glycerol
etc...);

I 2. immersion
technique;
the pipeand the probeare immersed
in a
I medium;
watertankthatactsasa coupling

I
3. watercolumntechnique;
t the probeis housedin "chambers"
thatarein
contactwith the pipe and the couplingis
I suppliedby a smallvolumeof water.

I The selectionof the techniquedependson the externaldimensionsof the pipe to be

t tested.

Pipesar6 generallyscannedby:

I .
r
immersion,
(or
if the diameteris small(O <= 60 mm)
contact wheneverit is possibleimmersion) if the diameteris @> 60mm

I lmmersiontestsgive betterresultsthancontacttests,also in the caseof largediameter

pipes(providedthatthe technique
canbe appliecl).

I
I
SaipemTrainhgCcwc E. Gandolfr 207
 - T'LTRASOFIICTESTING
ITTDT
I
Whicfrevertechniquehas been selected,the test is caniedout with angle beam probes
withshearwaves,applyingthe pulse-efio method.
I
and transversediscontinuities,
The test mustbe devisedso as to detec{both longitudinal
I
with respec'tto the pipeaxis.
I
The probeorientationshall be selecteddependingon the type of defectbeing searched
for; t
.
the piece,
i.e.it is to the
the beamhas a radialpositionwith respec'tto
in the caseof longitudinaldiscontinuities,
perpendicular pipeaxis; I
. the beamis directedalongthe pipeaxis.
discontinuities
in the caseof transverse
I
Ilrgl't-d{ml
I
dtrcontl,luitttr
lranatumo
{l*contintrltle*
I
l'

Dstrctlor ot Lt[trtflDlf,L
DTICIMIN'IrIES
Dctestl.or of
tf,NuEnsE
DISc|MITEIITIES
t
ln
I
lu
Ic
I
208 CentreE Gandolrt
SaipemTraining
I Testingby ultrasound

I Longitudinal
discontin
uities

t Thedetection
. ContBGt
defectsis caniedoutby meansof:
of longitudinal
technigue,
I . immersion (automatic,
technique semi-automatic
or manual),

I r watetcolumntechnique.
Belowyoucanfinda scheme of theapplication
of he mostcommon
technigues
together
t withthe rangeof external

Gontectteahnlque
diameters
theyshouldbe usedwith.

lmmeruiontechnique Watercolumntechnique
I
I
I with angleplobe pefiialimmersion rotatingprcbes

I (6-fltmm) G<A<lfllmm)

t
I wtthmunter-fEcedanglaprobee totalimmercion utetercolumnand probeEtation

I (El-30mm) (O-4 mm) 6<A< 180mm)

I
I rirrP-r,-1r:llltr-

witheinglepmbe
:ffi rii:1_+i:t;*;:

uatercolumnandpiperdation
(4<€t<6mmm) (6<g<l80Frn)
t
I
I immErsionwtthtwin-probes
(4<El<6(Dmm)

I
t
SaWm TrainingCentre
E. GandoVi

I
IITI}T- TTLTRASONIC
TESTING
I
funtacf technhue I
When using th6 contact
technique, the employed
frequenciesare 2'4 MHz.
I
? *
The transducerangle cen
b€ 40-SS,6tr70degrees;the
\i fl

Ifl . I
choicemustb6 in functionof
the extemaldiameterand of .E'
Atf I
the thickness of the pipe
rl
beingtested.
To facilftate coupling, the
probeshoe shall be shaped
Extrurlrliurtrr (rur)
I
foflowingthe pipecurvature. I
$canningis caniedoutby movingthe probealongthe pipecircumference in ones€n$e
andthen,afterrotatingthe probe, oneuntilthe entiresurfacehas been
in the opposite
with respectto the
covered.This allowsthe detectionof defectshavinganyorientation
I
beamdirection.
lf no defectsare detectedthe beam is dispersed,when the beam €ncountersa I
anechois formedwfrichmovescloseror farther,
discontinuity on the scanning
depending
direction.

lmmersbntechnique I
Whenusingthe immersiontechnique,angleprobes
with a 4 MHzfrequencyand a 10-25mm diameter
ere normallyused. I
The test anglemustbe selectedin functionof the
pipe thickness; good results are obtained by
insertingintothe pipea 45obeam.
I
The transducer corresponding distance x
calculatedby meansof Snell'sLaw.
is I
Hence:
.*.?
r- 0.?0? vn
l,-
wfrere
Vu= velocityof longitudinal
wavesacrossthefluid
Vrs=velocityof shearuravesacrossthematerial
I
Inthecaseof steelit is x = 0.33.R lo
Duringthe testthe pipehasa helicoidal
that the entire piece
movement withrespectto the probethusensuring
is scanned.In this case,too, if no defectsare detec'tedthe beamis
dispersed;when the beamencountersa discontinuity an echo is formedwtrichmoves
I (
closeror farther,depending on the directionof the pipe rotation.
I
210 SaipemTrainins
CentreE Gandolfr
t
I Testingby uhrasound

T inuities
Transvdrsadiscont

I In the detection of transverse

dEfEctswith the contasttechnique
angleprobesareused.TheyhavEa
I 2-4 MHz frequenryanda 45-6G70
degreesangle,dependingon the
thicknessof the pip6 wall being
I scanned.
To test smalldiameterpipes(tpically @ < 100 mm)the probeplexiglasshoe mustbe
I shapedfollowingthe pipecurvature.

The angleprobeis slidalongthe

I pipe with alternatingmovements
on circumferencesthat are at 2-5
skipdistanenfromeachother.On
I morecomplexsystems the pipeis
movedhelicoidallywithrespectto
theprobes.
t
I Iesfs on weldedjoints

I Weldedjoints are scannedby

meansof angleprobes.

t These are placed on the

parentmetalin proximityof the
joint and emit a transverse
I beamthat in$pectsthe ureld.

Beforecarryingout the test the

I parentmaterialaroundtheioint
must be inspected; this
preliminarycheck allowsthe
I detection of reflectors which
mightalter the interpretation
of
the test results.
t
I
t
t
t
TrainingCeilrcE. Gandofr
SaW,r4- 2ll

I
FTDT* TJLTRASONICTESTING I
Theparentmetalis scanned beamprobes.
bymeansof longitudinal
I
Th6 tgst is carriedout on both
sidee of the ioint and on its
I
entire length, by sliding the
probe along a band wide
enoughto indude the volume
I
thatthe anglebeamis goingto
cov6r during the actual
inspection(the width is given
I
by the probeanglein function
of thEiointthickness).
Portlonof parent
I
I
The reflectorsshall be locatedand their extensionassessedin compliancewith the
referencestandardspecifications.
I
Notr: probesareusednotonlyto checktheparentmetal,butalsoto determine
Longitudinal
mderialthid$ees:thie lrformation
coreredbylheultrasonicbeam.
is essential
the
d the paths
to waluatethe real lengrth I
The proceduresof weldinspectionsdependon the typologyof the epected flawsas rrell
t-
as on the type of joint.
I
Ingeneral:
. when checking for longitudinal
defects,which run parallelto the
I
joint axis (e.9.lack of penetration,
lack of fusion,wormholes, longitu- t
dinalcracks,slaglinearinclusions),
the jointmustbe irradiated so that
the beam entersperpendicularly to I
thejointaxis;

. in fre case of transversedefects,

lo,
i.e.defectshat areperpendicular
to
the joint axis (suchas wormholes
and transversecracks),the beam
I
irradiation
mustforman acuteangle
withthejointaxis. Iu
I
l{'
2t2 CcntreE. Gandolfi
SorprmTraining

I
I
I Testingby ultrasound

I Detactbn in buttioints
of longitudinaldiscontinuities

I of longitudinaldiscontinuities
ThEmaintypesof buttiointtestinginthedetection are:

l
I
. directray(DH)
ffimw
t
t
r firstreflectedray (lHH)
Mw
. tandem

J
I Theeeioints shouldalso be
scannedfor transparency,
like
l In he case of automatic
t€sting.

I
I DR and lRR kspactbns

I lf the probehas a transverseorientationwith respectto the joint axis, the beamtravels

throughthe weld with the direct ray or with the first reflectedray, dependingon the
distancebetweenthe probeandthe axis.
t Here, the most important
parameteris the secalled r
r-1 rl|1 .+r
l

t 'skip distance'wtrichis fie

distance betwEen two
successivepoints of beam
l l

t reffection from the same

sudace.

t Giventhe joint thicknesss

and the angle n of the
L-r*b*i
r Hcflcdbnpd*r
J,"Li
employed ws can
transducer,
t calculate
theskipdistance.

I
Sa@mTrainingCentrcE, Gardolfr
I
l
 - I]LTRASOI{IC TESTING
TTIDT I
At a half-sltipdistancefromthe
jointaxis (positionA) the beam
I
axis reaches the weld root
oppositethetestsurfacewithits
directray.
I
At a on+skipdistancefromthe
axis (position B) the beam
,t
reaches fie weldtopwithitsfirst
reflectedray. I
Between thetwodistances (half-
skip and on+skip) the probe
inspectsthe joint with its first
I
rellectedray.
At distancesshorterthanhalfa
I
skiphe probeerploresthejoint *rr'*or/l
withitsdirectray.

I
The weld test is canied out applying a
simultaneous(case 1) or altemate
(casE2) transverse and longitudinal
t
movementof the probe.The resultis a
zignagpath that coversthe entirelength
of the weld.
I
t
The probe displacementis usually
aocompanied by a rightor leftoscillation,
with respectto the transverse
I
direction,
having a 1G15'angle oneachside.This
aimsat helpingth6 detection of defects
thatare not perfectlyparallelto the joint
I
axis.

To enslre thet th€ lvhole weld is being

inspected,the longitndnaldisplacement
H muu be ehorterthan a cedainfrastion
of the traneducerwidth D (the ASTM
code says that H mud be srnallerthan
10%of D).

zt4 SaipemTraining E. Gandolfi

Centre
t
I
I Testingby uhrasound

I Tandeminspection
Tandeminspections implythe
I useof twotransduoers having
the eamerefractionangleu"

I one is a transmitterand the

otheris a receiver.
The hrc probes are
I mechanicallyconnectedby
meansof a stitfbracket.

I The distanceY betweenthe

probescan be adjustedand

I eachvaluecorresponds
precisedetectable
theioint.
to a
depthP of

I At each run the probesinspectonly the thicknesszone in conespondence of the

of thejoint,morerunsarerequired
distanceY; to elploretheentirethickness withditferent
I distancesbetwEen theprobes.
Thetandemtechnique is particularly to detectlacksof fusionor penetration
suitable in the
t V ioints.
centralregionof symmetricaldouble

I Detection in buttioints
dismntinuities
of transverse
The main types of butt-iointtestingfor the detectionof transversediscontinuities
I (wormholes,
transverse
cracks)are:
r testingon smoothweldcrown
I . testingwithalignedprobes
. testingon roughvtruld
crown

I Tastingon smoothweld crown

The probe is placed directly on the weld

I crown and moved along the weld axis. lts
displacementalong the weld bead usually
includesa rotation(about30") of the probe
I aroundits axis.

Once the weld has been inspectedin one

I direction,the probeis rotatedby 180'andthe
test is repeated.

t The test can be carried out only if the surfaceis smoothenoughto ensurea good
coupling,othenrrisethe weld crown metal must be refined(beinga quite expensive
operation,thisis donerarely).
I (tntrc E Gandolfr
SatpemTraining

t
FTI}T- TILTRASOMC TESTING I
Testlngon roughweldaown I
lf the firintsudacedoesnot allow
the acoustic coupling with the
probe(andif the crowncannotbE
I
smoothed),the probe must be
movedto the loint sid6 and held
slightlyinclined(1O-15')torvards
I
theweld.
Besidesbeing movedalong the
I
jointthe probecanalsobe rotated
arounditsaxis;thisrotation
should
have an angle of (about) 15'
I
towardstheweld.
I
Testingwithahgnedprobes I
The test with aligned
probes is carriedout in I
casesof very thick joints
an requiresthe useof two
probes, one is a I
andtheotheris
transmitter
a receiver,mechanically
connected by meansof a
I
stitf bracket. The hiro
probesare placedacross
the weld,inclinedtowards I
eachotherby an anglep
(45' max)with respectto
thejointaxis.
I
The distanceY between
the two probes can be
I
adjusted andmustbe fixed
in functionof the depthP
beingscanned.
f.
runs;compared
the testof the entirethicknessreguiresseveral
Lilrein the caseof tandeminspections,
withthetandemmethod,thisis morecomplicated as regardsthe correct
t
positioningof thetransducers.
lu
I
SaipemTrainhgCentrcE Gandolfi

t
216
I Testingby ultrasourd

T The above-described
in theioints.
of discontinuities
are mainlyinspection
techniques that helpthe detection
techniques

I Once an indicationhas been displayedon the

I screen, the position corresponding to the
maximumamplitudeof the reflectededto mustbe
lound by slightlymovingand rotatingthe probe

I (thesemovementsaim at changingthe irradiation

conditions).
Pur- us pathtnttremedium
(readableon the *reen)
I At this point we can locate he discontinuityby
meansof a trigonometriccalculation. c = emissionangle
D =PurBlnc
P;Pur@$a

I
t Theextension is thendetermined
ofthediscontinuity
in relationto theheightof thereference DACcurve.
thereflection
byassessing amplitude

I Spnalinteryretation

I Usefulindications
specificmovements
on the natureof the discontinuity
of theprobe
onthescreen.
of thereflEction
and obseruing
the
can be obtainedby carryingout
changesin he positionandamplitude

I Suchinformation
of thediscontinuity.
typology
(or excluding)
can help confirming the hypotheses
conoeming
the

I movement
a) Longitudinal

I It consistsof movingthe probe back and

forthparalleltothe u€ld axis.

I lf the signalremainson the screenduringa

wide movementof the probe,the movement
longitudinal
confirmsthe discontinuity shape.
I
I
I
I
I
Saiper\ TrainingCcntreE. Gandolfi 2r7
t
Iil}T - T'LTTASONIC TESTING
I
b) Axialrotation t
It consistsof rotatingthe probearoundits axis.
By this movement, urecan
I
obtain ueeful information
aboutthemostlikelynature
of a planardiscontinuity
(bl-
I
dimensional).
The fact that the signal
disappears quickly with
I
small rotation angles
suggests the presenceof a
smooth reffectingsudace
I
(e.9.laclroftusion).

Itbtc: The eilfectecf e smoothdiecontinuities on the Liltrasonicbeam is elmilsrto that d a

I
minpr on a lighfi beam: if the besm is perpendiculerto the minor, lt ls r€fl€cted
backwarde;lf it is oblique,it ls rdlect€din e direc{ionthat is differentfmnr the irrcidence
one.
t
In caseof an irregular
reflecting
sudace,forexample a crack,thesignalpersistswitha I
c€rlqinrotationangle and,at the sametime,it movesto the rightof the screen(ecfro
path)indicatinga progressive
graduallyastherotation
moreor lessfavorable
increaseof the path.The signaldoesnot deciease
angleis increased,
butit undergoesfluctuations
causedbythe I
fromtheportionof thecrackirradiated
rellection bythe beam.
c) Orbitalrotation I
It consists of rotating the
probearounda givenpointin
correspondence of the weld.
I
lf the signal remains I
unchanged on the screen
duringa wide rotationof the
probe, the movement l-
confirmsthe round shapeof
a volumetricdiscontinuity.
l*,
In the followingpageswe will examinea seriesof discontinuities
willprovide,whenit is possible,usefulindications
typicalof weldsand we
to detectand recognizethem.
I
In general,it is very difficultto recognizethe typologyof a diecontinuityby means of
ultresounds.Menurl leding wtth ultrasourrds,for example,does not supply any objectlve
l*
documentation(unlikeradiographic

The interpretetion
teding).

cf the resultsis particulailydifficultin the case of welds,due to the wide

I
vadetyof discontinuity
typologies.
l*
218 SaipemTraining
CemreE Gandolfi
I
I Testingby ultrasound

t llot cracks
I Hotcracksusuallyhavea longitudinal
directionandtheyproducea screen
I signalthatremainsunchanged while
the probeis movedalongthe joint
axiscoveringa distanceegualto the
I cracklength.

As thetransduceris rotated
thesignalamplitudechanges (fluctuation
of theecho)andat
l the sametimeit movesto the right(echopath)to indicatea progressive
path.Thisbehavior
ultrasonic is dueto theinegularity
increaseof the
of thecrackreflectingsudace.

I
Cold cracks
I It is virtuallyimpossible cracks(localized
to havea directsignalof microscopic in the weld
metalmainly).
I Conversely,the detec.tionof cracks Poe.l
under the bead (longitudinally
I orientedin the thermallyaltered
zone) is possiblethanksto their
bigger size; their signal is
I analogous to thatof hotcracks.

I To detecttransversecracksthe probe
mustbe movedto one sideof the joint
andkeptslightlyinclined.
I The detectionis carriedout by the first
reflectedray.
T
I l{otc: Th€ rnod dfid€nt prccedurefor the detectiond tranwers€crackeis to placethe tranedrcer
on the wsld srnootheuilaceend mole lt alongthe rveldltself.

I The shwing methodis alsothe mod expeneiveone endtherdore il iEeeldomapplisd.

I
t
l
SaipemTlaining
CcureE. Gandolfr
I
NDT - ULTRASONIC TESTING
l'
l-aclcof penetratbn I
On the dghtyou can see the schemefor
the detectionof lack of penetration;
this signalfrom similarones
distinguish
to t
(e.9.ercessivepenetration),
it is advisable
to measurethe distancebetweenthe I
probe and the center of tho loint and
compareit with the surfacepathcovered
bythebeam. I
Whenthe probeis slid alongthe weldthe signalremainsunchangedfor a distancethat

sudaceandthereforethe signaldisappears
The discontinuity
coffespondsto the lengthof the discontinuity. has a smoothreflecting
instantlyat a slightrotationof the probe.
1,
I
lacir of fusion
I
The detectionprocedurefor
lacksoffusionat one edgeof
the weld is shown on the I
right.
The indicationis very clearwhenthe probeis in position1 becausethe discontinuity
propagation probe
is
in
l'
orientedalmostperpendicularly to the beam direction.With the
position2 the lackof fusioncannot be detected.
I
The signalheightis usuallylimitedand tends to disappearquicklyat a probe slight
lromsmoothreflecting
rotation,as it happensin the caseof indications surfaces.
I
Undarcutting I
An undercuttingis a longitudinal
represented
discontinuity by a groove
on the weldmargins. The indication
on the screen remainspractically
unchanged whenthe probeis moved I'
parallelto the weld for the length
corresponding to the groove
extension. I
A doublepeakcan be observed on
the screenif the grooveis at the root lr'
and the probeis on the sideof the
groove.The reflectionechofromthe
oppositeside of the weld root is I
addedto thesignalfrom thegroove.
I
xn CenreE Gandolfr
SaipcmTraining
I Testingby uhrasound

I
I On the sideyou can see the schemefor
thedetectionof erceseivepenetration.
I Thesignalgenerated
or movemont
by theproberotation
alongthe wsldis thetypical
onE that we have alreadydescribecl
I for
smoothreflectingsurfaceshavinga linear
pattem(see:lackof penetration).

t
I Edgamisalignment
The signalcausedby edge
I misalignment is easilydistin-
guishedfrom other similar
ones (lack of penetration
or excessive penetration)
I becauseit is displayedonly
whenthe probeis on theside
of thelowerpiece.
I is represented
The indication
bya verysharppeak.
I Thesignalresponseto theproberotation
or movement
alongtheweldis analogous
to that
t produced
by lackof penetration.

I Gasinclusions

l Gas inclusionsare three-dimension

thatcanbevisualized
discontinuities
anydirection.
from

I Whencarryingout an oftital rotationof

the probearoundthe discontinuity you
t can notice
remains
thatthe signalon the screen
practically
unchanged.

I Conversely,the echo on the screen

suddenlydisappears if you carryout an
axialrotationof thetransducer (generally,
I a fewdegrees areenough).

I
SaipemTrainingf*ntrc E Gflitdolfr

I
TiII'T- T'LTRASONIC TESTING I
Slaglnclusions I
ff th6 inclusionsare arrangedon
both sidEs of the weld, their
detEctioncan ba simultaneous
I
due to the beam transverse
efiension. I
Besides,if the inclusionsin the
tum margins are close to each
other (this happenswhen they
I
are located at the bottom of the
weld) the signal may partially
overlap.
I
I
Tungsten
inclusions
I
Wheninclusions are particularly
theirsignalpattemis
important,
t
analogous to that of gas
inclusions,
are
althoughthe signals
genenlly lower.
I
I
Detaaionof discontinuities
in Tee ioints
I
On the sideyou can see the
schemes of the main Test wlth
t
anglc
examinationtechniquesfor the
detectionof discontinuities
Teejoints.
in
probes
I
In the case of Tee ioints,
longitudinalprobes can be
t,
usedto checklamellar
thiszone.
tEarsin
t
Tandcm
technique
l-
t i-

I
SatpenTrainingCentreE Gatdolfi
222
t
I Testingby ultrasound

I In the followingwe describea f6w emmplesof the positionsof probesfor the detectionof
defectsthat are typicalof Teejoints:
I
I a) lamellartears,a clearindica-
tion is obtainedby positioning
I a straightprobe on the side
oppositethe weld;

I
t
I
I cracksin the weldedzoneor
in the thermallyalteredzone
F.A.Z.) can be detectedby
t m6an$of angleprobesfrom
positionI (directray)or 2 (first
reflectedray);
I
I
I
l incomplete penetration;
bedetectedbyan angle
it can
probe
placed on the butt welded
t plate(1)or by a straightprobe
placedon the oppositesideof
theweld(2).
t
I
I
I
SairymTrainingCture E. Gaildolfr
I
I
II{DT* TJLTRASONICTESTING I
3.11.3. Assagsflientof reflectore t
In the followingyou can find some of the most commonlyappliedmethodsto find the
positionandthe sizeof discontinuities
detectedby meansof ultrasonictesting. I
Methodsto locatethe ddfacts I
To locate a discontinuitymeans to ascertainits positionrelativelyto a set of given
referencepoints(or planes). I
Let us nowconsiderthe exampleof a platebeingscannedwithan anglebeam.lf we take
as referenceplanea sectionthatis perpendicular
beamaxis,we can locatea discontinuity
planeand includesthe
to the supporting
by meansof two coordinates:
I
. with respectto the test sudace.
the depth P of the discontinuity l
. and the line, perpendicular
the sudacedistanceD betweenthe discontinuity
plane,thatpasseshroughthe probeemissionpoint.
to the
I
The coordinatesP and D
:* D ':
l
locatethe discontinuity
with
referenceto theprobe.
I
To locatethe discorltinuity
with referenceto the plate
(andthusobtaina reference I
point for any detected
discontinuities)you just
needto identitythe position I
of the probe on the plate
giving, for example,the
distances between the I
emission point and two
adiacent (perpendicular)
sidesol thetestsurfac6. t
These distancescan be
readonthepiece. fn
Onthe platewehavethusdefineda reference systemOxyzthatallowsthe positionof any
to be eryressedin termsof measurable
discontinuities (orcalculable)
values.Theadopted I
relerence
shallbe specified,
in anyGas6, in thetestreport.
ln
lrlotr: The coordinatesP and D identify,in any cas€,a singlepoint.An extendedrdlec{or (havinga
large dze with respec{to the beameeclion)shall be localedthroughthe positionof one cf its
centralpoint$.
I i

I
CentreE Gandolfi
NA SatpcmTraining
t
I
I Testingby ultrasound,

I Letus nowconsiderthe case

I of a wefd.
TheDandPcoordinates,
I again,locatethediscontinuity
withrespectto theprobe.

t Thepositionof theprobewith
respectto the ;bint can be
defined by mean$ of the

I distancebetweenthe probe
emissionpointand the ioint
centralline(distance
betwEen
I E and H), and the distance
betweenH on the centralline
andtheweldstarting pointO.
t Boththesedistancescan be
readonthepiece.

I On the ioint we havethusdefineda referencesystemOxp that allorirsthe positionof any

to be elpressedin termsof valuesthatcan be measured(or calculated).
discontinuities

I
Wewillnowseehowthecoordinates D andP canbe definedin thecasesof longitudinal
I andanglebeams.In anycase,thelocation
wherethetransducer
receives themaximum response
the position
shallbe carriedoutafterdefining
fromthediscontinuity echo.

I
Longitudinal
beamsnnning
I The defectis locatedimmediately: the reflectoror a
central point of its, is on the beam axis (D = 0
I becauseth6 axis is perpendicular to the probe
plane)at a depthP = Pu.that can be read on the

I screen(theinstrument
value= 50 mm).
is calibrated
witha full scale

I In this case the discontinuitydepthcoincideswith

the path covered by ultrasoundsacross the
medium.
:[trm
lfl,il'tt1tt;

I Notc: lf a delay cElibrationhaebeencanied out for the

il,,,,,,,.;{O,ii;,i;,iin
l0 r,rii:,ii,lfi,i.ii,;;.

tlme base, the epplieddelay mu$ be eddedto

I thevaluereadon lhe scre€n.

l
Saipem"TrainingCentrcE. Gandolfr
NI}T - I'LTRASONIC TESTING I
Anglebaamsanning I
Theprocedure
calibration.
D andP dependson the typeof timebase
the coordinates
to determine
I
a) pathcalibration

the depth P and the surfacedistanceD

I
are defined by means of trigonometric
calculations
applyingthetormulae: I
P=P,lCO$fl
D=Putsina
ftl SErls: tto rrn
t
Wherea is thebeamemission angleand
P* the ultrasonicpath betweenthe
probeandthe discontinuity
readon the
I
scresnon the basis of the full scale
value(intheexampleonthedghtthefull
scalevalueis 100mm);
I
I
I
I
b) depthcalibration
the depthP can be readon the scre6n;the surfacedistanceD is definedby meansof
t
trigonometric applyingtheformula:
calculations
D=P.tga I
where a is the beamrefraction
angle;
t
c) projectioncalibration
the sudacedistanceD can be readon the screen;the depthP is definedby meansof
fn
trigonometric applyingtheformula:
calculations
P=D.ctgfl t
where e is the beamre{ractionangle.
lu'
I I

I
?26 SaipemTminhgCewreE Gaildolfi
I Testingby uhrasound

I The aboveformulaeare appliedwlrenthe beamencountersthe discontinuity

ray.
with its direct

t In the followingtable,near the alreadyse€nepressions,you can find the calculation

formulaeof D and P for the caseswlrerethe beamreachesthe discontinuitywith ite first

I reflectedray in$teadof its direct ray (a is the beam refractionangle, t ie the piece
thicknessf,nd Pw=OA+AB is the ultrasonicpathbetweenthe probeandthe discontinuity).

I v 7

I
I
I Dlnct ray ld nflccted ray

I PATH
CALIBHANON D=Pursing
Purcanbe reedon ths Ecrgsn
I
I
D=Pw$inf,
I

I DEPTH
P=Purcs c I P=2t-Pncm c
P can be readon the Ecrs€n
CALIBHATION D=P.tsa
I PBOJECTION
I n=(2t-P)tgn
D can be reEdon th€ scr€en
p=D.ctss
t CALIBRATION
I P=2t-Dctga

I
l
t
I
I
t
I
SaipemTraining
CcwrcE. Candolfr 227
ITIDT- T]LTNASOI{IC TESTING
I
Methodsto sizethe defects I
To sizea discontinuity of its reflectingsurface.Thereare
meansto definethe dimensions
basicallytwo differentsizingsystems: I
I
r
systemfor the measurement of the reflectedintensity
s[$t6rnfor the definitionof the reflectoroutline I
Systemfor the measurementof the reflectedintensity I
propoltional
to the discontinuity
candeducethe discontinuityextension by meansof the DGSdiagrams.
is directly
This systemis basedon the fact that the intensityreflectedby a discontinuity
extension.Fromthe amplitudeof the reflectionecho we t
is widerthanthe beam,the echoheightis not indicativeof
Observethatif the discontinuity
of this methodto caseswith
this limitsthe applicability
the extensionof the discontinuity;
I
smallreflec'tors.
I
Smallrcflectors Laryerefledors
l
I
I
dl(d2+ Ar(4 t
t
I
I'
Therearealsosomeditficulties
relatedto the application
of thissystem:
I
- the reflectingsurfaceof a naturalreflectoris totallydifferentfromthatof an artificialone
usedas a referene,e for the evaluationof the reflectorextension;
l*
- the discontinuity with respectto the beamis hardlyeverthe idealone that
orientation
givesthe maximumreflection.
I {,

I
?28 CenrrcE Gandolfi
SaipewTraining
I Testingby ultrasound

t Systemforthedefinitionof thareflectoroutline
of a largerefledor(widerthanthebeam)is usuallydetermined
I Theextension
itsoutline.
by defining

t Thevariousmethodsbasedon thlssystemapplyditferentprocedures
thEboundaries Themostcommon
of thediscontinuity. ar6:
for the locationof

I . th6discontinuity
echodropsystem
r th€bottomechodropsystem
. thediscontinuity
echototaldropsystem
I achodropsystem(6 dB method)
Dhcontinuity
I
I 1) Thetransducer
reflected
is placedwherethe amplitude
echois at its maximum;
thenadjusted
of the
the amplification
is
so asto taketheedroto the80%of the

lr
screenheight;
t*i#*

I the transducer is moved

first along one axis (AA')
I and thEnperpendicularly
it (BB), until the
wlrere the echo from the
to
positions
o Rrfrrcncc echo

I reflector is halved (-6dB)

are defined;
{80t ot tbr tcElru}
r DicsongJ-ulrigy ccho
* Eottsr echo

I th6 distances X and Y

t between the positions

definedin the previousstep
are assumed to be the

I dimensionsof the reflector;

the extensionof the defed
is the product of its

I dimensions.

t
I
I
CcwreE. Gandolfr
SaiFcmTraining
t
 - TJLTRASOMETESTING
FTTTT I
Bottomechodropsysfem I
This methodis similarto the one
describedabove,but it uses the
bottomecho insteadof the signal
I
fromthediscontinuity.
Thereference
echois fixedby placingthe probein
a flawlesszone (no discontinuity o Rtfercsct eeho
(tot ol tht tctetD,l
I
echoes) and taking the bottom
signalto a fixedheight(80o/o)
screen.
of the
r DlacoagintriEy echo
r Bottor echo I
The pointsto be readare thosewherethe bottomechois halved(-6dB)with respectto the
referenceecho.
I
Discontinuity
dchototaldropsystem
I
The methoddiffersfrom the '6 dB
method'bEcauseherethe positions
T
to be read are those wlrerethe
discontinuityecho is reducedto
1/10,Insteadof one half, of the
I
l'
o Rcfrrence echo
reference height (80% of the (80* of the rcrecnl
screen). r DLreontlnrrllT Gcbo

t
* EoEtol ecbo
In these points the
discontinuity
is irradiated
by the beam 'external'
edge,wherethe acoustic
pressureis reducedby I
20 dB withrespectto the
valueontheaxis. I
The dimensionsX and Y
of the reflector are
calculated by measuring
I
the distancesDr and De
between the defined
positionsand subtracting 1.
fromtheirvaluethe beam
width W at the reflector
depth:
I
X=Dr-W
Y = De*W lu
I
I
2t0 SarrymTrainingCeilreE Gandolfr

t
I
t
t
I
I
t
I
I
I
I
t
t
I
t
I GTOSSARY
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Absorptioncoetficient Coetficientthatdefinesthe capability
materialto transformultrasonic
of a certain
enorgyintoother
forms.
I Acouatlcabeorption Attenuationcomponentof a wave due to the
conversionof ultrasonic
I ol energy.
energyinto otherforms

Acoueticcontact $ee'coupling'.
I Acoueticimpedance Theresistance of the mediumto the propagation

t of umves.
It is givenby the productof the densityol the
medium bythepropagationvelocity:
I Acoueticehadow See'shadow zone'.
Z=p,y

I Amplltudeof the echo Distanceon theverticalaxis,in a presentation

typeA, betweentheecfropeakandttretimeaxis.
of

I Anglebeamtechnique Testing tecfrniquewhere the probe emits

longitudinalor transversewaves wlth an
I Angle probe
incidence
angleonthepiecedifferentfromzero.
A probethathasanangletransducer.
I Angletransducer It emitsultrasonic
wavesthat propagate in the
piecebeingtestedobliquelywith respectto the

I A-scan
testsudac6.
See'presentation
oftypeA'.
I Attenuation Decreasein the pressureof a wave along its
path,dueto thecombination
of beamabsorption,
t Attenuation coefflcient
ditfusion
anddivergence.
Goefficient
that indicatesthe decreasein the
I ultrasonicpressureper distanceunit. This
coefficient
changes withfrequenry.

t Axie ol th6 b6am Locusof the pointsof maximum

ultrasonic in
pressureof an
beam thefar field,extending
thenearfield.
alsoin

I Saipemftaiains&ntrc E Gailofr zlt

I
IiTITT- ULTRASOMC TESTING I
t
I
Bacltgroundnolee
Beemdlrergence
See'grass'.
beamin thefarfield.
Widthoftheultrasonic
I
Beamdivergenceangle The anglethatmeasures
ultrasonic
beam in thefarfield.
of the
the divergence I
Beglnnlngof the echo
upwards peak
betweenthe time baseand an
The intersection
in an presentation
wtrich, of type
I
Brlllianceintenelty
theecho.
A, represents
The adjustment of a cathodicray tube, in a
I
presentationof type B, wfrere the reflected
ultrasonicpulsesare used to modulatethe
current in the cathodictube pencil thus
t
&scan
generatingmoreor lessbright.
o{typeB'.
See'presentation
t
Bottomecho Echofrom the sudaceopposingthe sudace
wheretheprobeis,thatfollowstheshortestpath.
I
I
t
Gallbratlon - Operation carried out to check the
of thetestingequipment.
characteristics I
- The procedurefor the adjustmentof the
in orderto reachthe correct
testingequipment
operatingconditionsrequiredfor a specific
I
typeof test.
f'
Gallbratlonbloclt $ee'referenceblock'.

Callbrationof control sensltivlty Operationcarriedout to adiustthe amplification

of the equipment.
I
It is done usinga referencedefector adiusting
the amplitudeof the boftomecho. l-
wave
Gompruesion wave'.
See'longitudinal
t (

l
2y $otprmTrainingCctrc E. Gailolfi
t,
I
I Glossary

I Gontactte*tingtechnique Testingtechniquewherethe pieceand the probe

are in directcontac{witheachother,by meansof
a thin layerof couplingmediumwhich ensures
I the acousticcontact.

I GontinuouswaYs A unve wlrere the successiveosciflationsare

identical.

Controlgurface
I The surfaceof th6 piece being tested wtridr is
eplored by the transducer.

t scanning
Gonvergent-beam $canningprocedure witha transmitterprobeand
a receiverprobe,wheretheseare placedacross
a weld with a coordinatedorientationso as to

t Gornereffect
showanytransverse defectsin the buttweld.

The reflectionof the ultrasonicbeamtowardsits

t own origin or towardsa very near point after

meetingtwoor moresurfaces.

I Goupllng Gonditionthat allows the transmissionof an

ultrasonicbeam betweentwo or mor6 different
media.

I Couplingmedlum Substance (water, oil, gr6ase, paste, etc.)

interposedbetwEentwo solidsin order to let the

I Grftlcalangle
beampass.
ultrasonic

Maximumincidenceangle of a wave on the

I interfacebetweentwo different media beyond

which there is no refractedwave of a certain
tyPe'
I Cdtical angle (flrct) Criticalanglebeyondwlrichthereis no refracted
longitudinal
wave.

t Crltical angle (second) Criticalanglebeyondwtrichthere is no refracted

transversewave. Beyondsuch angle we have

I Crl,Etal
totalreflection.

Part of a single crystal or polycrystalelement

I havingpiezoelectricpropertiesused to generate
pressures.
or detectultrasonic

t C-ecan
Cyllndricalweve
See'presentationof typeC'.

Waveswhosepointsin the same phase are on

J circularparallelsurfaces.
The source is representedby the axis of a
cylinder.
I
SaiptmTtaining(ntre E Catdofi 215
T
T{IIT * TJLTRASONICTESTING I'
I
I
Dampedwevetrain Wave train where the amplitudeof successive
wav6sdecreasesprogressively. t
Damper Material fixed to the back surface of the
lransducerin order to ease the damping of
unwanted vibrations.
I
Damplng Progressivereductionof the oscillationamplitude
in a material.
t
Damplnglactor The ratio between the amplitudes of two
cyclesof the transmiiledpulse.
consecutive
I
Dsadzons The materialthicknessadjacentto the beam
entrysur{acewfiereit is impossibleto recognise
t
DecibeldB
signals.
reflection

unit.
Amplification
I
Defeet This term refers to a discontinuitythat is
unacceptableon the basis of the adopted
t
Delayedtlme bas6
criteria.
evaluation

A presentationwhere the initial section ol the

I
DGSdiagram
timebaseis notshoumon the screen.

It is composedof a family of curves that

I
represent the relationship between the
amplitudesof echoes produced by different
reflectorsplacedat ditferentdistancesfrom the
I
Dlflnetion
transducer.

Diffusionphenomenon along definitedirections;

I
this occurswtrenthe beamencountersa series
periodically
of obstacles arrangedin the space. fu
Dtllueedlgllection Reflectionof a wavereflectedby a roughsurface
wherethe pressureis distributedon an angular
field rifii$ is greater than the theoretical
il
Difluslon
reflection field.

Distortionphenomenonin the propagationof

l-
waves;it occurswhenthe beamencountersan
obstaclewhosedimensionsare comparableto il (
the wavelen$hI.
I
216 Satrym Training CentrcE. Gandolfi
I GIossary

t Diecontinui$acho Echoreflected
or piece
in anymaterial
by an impedection
anddetected bya probe.
I Distance- amplltud€cut"Y6 The trendof the edto heightsproducedby a
reflecitorhaving fixed amplitudeshape and

t dimensions,
increasing
positioned
distances
alongthe beamaxis at
fromtheprobefront.
Distance- height curvo - amplitude
I Double-ruflectlon technique
See'distance curve'.
Testingtechniquewtrerethe wEldedjoint is
placedat one
I ergloredwithan angletransducer
skipdistancefromtheaxisof thejoint.
Thispermitsto avoidthetestingof thejointfrom
I Dropsystem
theoppositesudace.
Thistermdescribes a techniqueusedto calculate
I thediscontinuity
Thetransducer
size.
is placedat the boundaryof the
wherethe reflectedecho reaches
discontinuity,
I Dualprobetechnique
the50%of themaximum amplitude.
Testingtedrniquewlrereone probegenerates
pressure
I theultrasonic
thereflected
andanother
pressure.
ultrasonic
onereceives

I
I Echo(or rcflectedpulee) The pulse produced by the total or partial

I reflectionof an incidentpulsethat encountersa

discontinuity.

I Echoenvelope The curve obtainedby joiningthe points that

correspondto the maximumamplitudesof the
echo reflectedby a discontinuity
and causedS
I Echo Btart
the ditferenttransducerangles.

A special device mountedon some ultrasonic

I search units. lt allows th6 echogram to be

synchronised
pulse.
on any echo in$teadof the initial

I It is most usefulin automatictestingbecauseit

eliminates the inaccuracy caused by the
variationsin thewaterlayerheight.

I Electroacouetlc
traneducer A device that transduceselectric energy into
soundenergyor viceversa.
I
SaipcmTraining CenlreE Gaado$

I
FilTT- ULTRASONIC TESTING l-
angle
Emiaeion Thisis important
anglebetween the axis of the beam
lt is the
for angletransducers.
propagating
I
in the piece and the normalto the contact
surface.
Sinceit is a functionof the soundpropagation
I
velocity,it also dependson the materialbeing
tested.Theemission
alwaysrefersto steel.
angleof angletransducers I
Emlsslonpulse Thesignalon the screenof a cathodicray tube
thatconesponds to themoment whenan electric
I
pulseis applied probe.
to thetransmitting
Equiwlentdelect This is usedto definethe importance of the
I
dgtected
sudace,
defects.
It is a reflectorwitha knownareaand a smooth
orientedperpendicularly
to the ultrasonic
I
beam,wtrichgeneratesan echo that has tho
sameamplitude asthedetecteddiscontinuity. I
I
Farfisld The zone in the ultrasonicfield where the
I
pressurevariationsare inverselyproportionalto
the di$tance. I
Focaldistance

Focueedtraneducer
distance'.
$ee'focusing

It allowsthe concentration of the beam at a

I
certain distance
avoiddispersions.
(focussing
lt can be
distance)
realised
so as to
by usinga
curuedcrystalor applyinga speciallens on a
I
straight transducer.lt is used in immersion
testingtechniques, I
Distancefrom the focusingprobe of the point
Focueingdietance
where the ultrasonicpressure in the beam
propagation direction is at its maximum
l*,
Focusingprobe
concentration.

A probethathasa focusedtransducer.
I
The term is often improperlyreferred to twin' lo
crystalproheswtrerethe crystalsare inclined
with respectto the couplingsurfaceso that the
testedzoneis the zonelimitedby the intersection
beams.
of thetwo ultrasonic
I (.'

I
238 CcureE. Gatdolfr
t
SarpemTraining
I Glassarr

t zone
Fraunhofer's SeeTarfield'.

I Frequencyspectrum Thedistribution
of a pulse
in frequency
emittedbya
of the components
probe.
Frcgnel'szons See'nearfield'.
l
I
I It is usedto definethe controlsensitivity.
expressed in decibels(dB).Likeamplitude,
lt is
it is
I Gain adjustment
mainlyusedto compare
Instrument
twoor moreechoes.
controlthatallowsthereceived
signal
I Ghoetindication
to beamplified.
Echofromtheprevious period.
emission
I Grasg Handomindications of disturbance distributed
alongthetimeaxison the screenof a cathodic
t raytube,in a presentation
as references
discontinuity
of typeA , to be kept
for the discrimination
echosignal.
of the

I Groupvelocity The velocityalongthe propagation

theenvelope of a groupof waves.
directionof

l
I
I Height of the echo See'amplitude
of theecho'.

I
I lmmeeiontestingtechnique Testingtechniquewherethe probeandthe piece
are dippedin a liquidmediumthat ensuresthe
I Incidenceangle
acousticcoupfing.

It is the angle betweenthe incidentultrasonic

I beamand the normalto the planetangentto the
surfacein the incidentwavecontactpoint.

I
SaipemTraining(tntre E Gando$i 239
I
I
FIITT- TJLTRASONICTESTING I
Incldencspoint Thepointwlrerethe axisof the ultrasonicbeam
entersthesurfaceof thepiecebeingtested.
I
Indlcation The term is used in non-destructivE testingto
identifythe imagewith wtticha discontinuityis
I
shoun.lf the or,
discontinuity more in general,
is detectedby meansof ultrasonic
the reflector,
is the lightsignalon the
testing,the indication
I
screen.
Intensity Theenergythatpassesthroughthe surfaceunit
I
in a timeunit.lt is givenby:
,* P,
2.2
t
where:
. P is the maximumvalue of the ultrasonic
pressure;
. Z is the typicalacousticimpedance
material
involved.
of the
I
Interface The transitionsurfacebetweentwo materials
values,in
havingdifferentacousticimpedance I
contactwitheachother.
Intsrfaceecho Partialreflection
separation
beamfromthe
of the ultrasonic
sudacebetweentwomaterialshaving
I
Inspec'tlon
different
acoustic
Operation,
impedance.
consisting
eithermanualor automatic,
I
of makingthe transducermove on the piece
beingtested. I
Ineulationplate A partitioninsertedbetweenthe crystalsof a
probein orderto preventthe direct
twin-crystal
passageof wavesfrom one transducerto the
I
other.
leobar the
Thetermdefinesa closedlinethatconnects
I
pointsbelonging
to the sameplaneand having
thesameacousticpressurevalue. l*
I
Lamb'swave(or platewave) A wavethat is typicalin laminarpieceswlrose l*
thicknessis in the order of a wavelen$h.The
undulationinvolvesthe wfrolecrosssectionand
propagatesat a velocitythat is a functionof the
of th6 materialas well as ol the
characteristics
t €
productthicknessx frequency.

?fr SatpemTrainingCcrunE. Gandolfr

I Glossary

I Linearity of the tirfle baee The proportionality,

on the instrumenthorizontal
I scale,betweenthe actualdistancesb6tu,Benthe
reflectors and he distances between the
conesponding echoesdisplayedon the scr6en.
l Llquld+olumnecanning $canning procedurewhere the prob+holder
followsthe sudace of the piece being tested
t whilethe probe,whichis not in directcontactwith
such surface,is coupledto it by meansof an
interposedliquidlayeror jet.

Lobes It is wEll knoum that ultrasonicbeams are

composedof a centralsection,wfrichis the one
I consideredin ultrasonictesting, and of side
lobes,wherethe valueof the soundpressureis
negligible.
I Only in case of faulty transducersthe sound
pressurein the sidelobescanreachhighvalues.

I Longltudlnalwave A wave whose propagation in a medium

I Longitudlnalwaveprobe
I Longitudinelwavetransducgr
generates the displacementof the particles
parallelto the propagation
directionin eachpoint.
Probethat generatesand/ordetectslongitudinal
waves.
See'straighttransducef.

t
I
Meaeurerango(tlmebaee) Maximum lengthof the ultrasonic
paththatcan
bedisplayed
ona giventimebase.

I Modeconversion Phenomenon
vibration
by wtricha wavehavinga certain
modeproduces, dueto eitherreflection
or refraction,
\i.aveshavinga differentvibration
I mode.

I Multipleecho The repeatedreflectionof an ultrasonicpulse

betweentwo or moresudacesor discontinuities
inthepiece.
t
I
SaWmTtainingCcnreE Gandolfi ul
NDT - T]LTRASONIC IESTING I
I
I
l,lsarfield A zonein the ultrasonic field characterised
sharp changes in the pressure due to
phenomena
interference
by
producedby spherical
t
elementarywav6s.
theboundary
goesfromthe emissionsurfaceto
Its extension
ofthefarfield.
I
Hominalangle(angleprobe) The anglevalueprintedon the probeby the
manufacturer;suchangleshouldcoincidewith
t
Normrlincidence
therefraction
angleof steel.
Theentryof a wavein a surfacewitha direction
I
perpendicularto the tangent plane in the
point.
incidence I
I
Obllgue lncldence The entryof a wavein a surfaceat an anglethat
I
is not equalto 0' and lessthan 90' with resp€ct
to the normal to th6 tangent plane in the
incidence point.
I
I
I
Parasiticecho
Partitiondigturbancs
See'spurious
echo'.
Thesignalproduced, probe,by
in a twin-crystal
I
the direct passageof the waves from one
transducer
to theotherone. lu
Penetratloncapaclty Themaximum
beamgenerated
thickness
can be success{ully
of a certainmaterial
that
crossedby an ultrasonic
by a system(equipment - cable
t
- probe).
Such thickness often depends on the l*
characteristics
of the systemandof the material

Phantomecho
beingtested.
See'ghost
indication'.
t
I
u2 SarprmTrdh@ CentrcE. Gdndolfi

t
I
I Glossary

t Phasovelocity The velocity,alongthe propagationdirectionof a

wave,of everypointthat is in the samephase.
I Pleeoelectrlclty Typicalcharacteristicof certain natural (quarE,
Hochellesalt)or artificial(bariumtitanate,lithium
I sulphate)crystals wfrich react modifyingtheir
thicknessif they are exposedto an alternating

I Plenewav6
electricfield.

A wavewhosepointsthat are in the samephase

I Prseentf,tion
of the UTsignale
areon planeparallelsurfaces.

The form the ultrasonicsignals take on the

I Prusentation
of typoA
display.

Presentation on the screen in cartesian

t coordinateswhere the vertical axis usually

representsthe echo amplitudes while the
axistellsthe distances,proportional
horizontal to

I that generatethe
the depthof the discontinuities
echoes.

I Prc$ontationof type B Presentation on the screen in cartesian

coordinateswhereone axis representsthe probe
movementand the other one t6lls the depth of

I the detected discontinuity (cross-section

representation).
Suchpresentation can be eitherdisplayedon the

l Prssentatlonof type G
screenor recorded.

Presentationrepresentinga surface that is

I orthogonalto the propagationdirection of the

beam(top-viewrepresentation).
ultrasonic
Such presentation
can be eitherdisplayedon the

l Probe
screenor recorded.

An electroacoustic
devicethat containsone or

I Probeactualfrequency
moretransducers.

Thecentralfrequency(alsocalledfundamental
or

I mainfrequency)of the frequencyspectrumthe

pulseis composed
of.

I Probeemissionpoint In angleprobes,the exit point of the ultrasonic

beam.

I Probenominalfrequency The frequencyvalueprintedby the manufacturer

on the probe itself. This frequency should
coincidewiththeactualfrequency.

I
&turc E Gandofr
SawmTratufing

I
ITIDT- TJLTRASOI\IICTESTING
l-
Probeehoe A solid shaped element that is sometimes
I
interposedbetweenthe probe and the piece to
improvethe acousticcontact(e.9. the coupling
witha curvedsurface).
I
Proflleof the bsam(arlal) The locusof the pointsof the ultrasonicbeam
that are on an axial plane that has the same
I
relativepres$urevalueas the acousticplaneat
the samedistance.
Theselectedrelativepressurevalue(e.9.: -6 dB;
I
Propagation
veloclty
-20 dB,etc.)characterises
the profile.

Thecommonvalueof the phaseor groupvelocity

t,
Protectlvemembrane
of a certaintypeof wave.

A thin layer applied to protectthe crystallrom

I
Pulss
anymechanical damage.

Portionof a wave train composedby a finite

I'
Pulee-echo
method
numberof vibrations.

A testing method wlrere discontinuitiesare

I
of the pulses
detectedby meansof the reflec-tion
themselves.
incidenton thediscontinuities l'
Pulsercpetltlonfrequency Numberof pulsesemittedin onetimeunit.
l
Pulsewidth The interval between the upward and the
dovmnnrdfrontof a pulse,generallymeasuredat
halfamplitude. t
l,
Rayleigh'swavs wave'.
See'surface
I
Heleruncebloclr Test piece used for the calibration of the I'
equipmentand to interprettest results,usually
made of a material and having suitable
dimensionsand shape so as to rePresentthe
piecebeingexamined.
t
Refgrence
echo Signaldisplayedon the screenand producedby l*
the reflectionfrom a referencereflector(hole,
reference notctr) used to comPare the
echoin the evaluationof the defect
discontinuity I \€
importance.

SoWmTraining(ture E. Gandolfi
w
t
I GIossary

t Relercncoreflector A surfacegeometrically
defined,with a finish
I degreeusuallylowarthanthe wavelength
ueed.
to be

Rellectlngaurface wfrerean ultrasonic

Interface beam,in presence
l of a variationin the acousticimpedance,
reflected.
is

I Rellestion Phenomenon
medium
wherea waveis sent backto the
by an interface
withoutchanging,
wlrolly
I Reflectlonangle
or partly,
itsoriginalvibration
mode.
It is the anglebetweenthe axis of a reflected
t ultrasonic beamand the normalto the plane
tangentto the surfacein the incidentwave
contactpoint.
I Reflectlonfactor TheratiobetwEen
reflected
pressureof the
the ultrasonic
pressureof the
waveandthe ultrasonic
I Refracted
wavs
incident
waveonthereflecting
surface.
A umvegeneratedwhen an ultrasonicbeam
I passesobliquelyfromonematerial
propagation
a different velocity.
to anotherat

I Refractlon Theangledeviation
occurring
waveentersobliquely
whenan ultrasonic
thesurfaceof an interface
betweentwo mediathat haveditferentacoustic
I impedancevalues.
Thephenomenon followsSnell'slaw.

I Refrac'tion
angle It is the anglebetweenthe axisof an ultrasonic
beamemerging lroman interface
in the second
mediumandthe normalto the planetangentto
t Refractloninder
theinterface itself.
The ratio betweenthe velocityof the incidant
I uravein a certainmaterialandthe velocityof the
samewaverefracted
is in acoustic
in a secondmaterialwtrich
contactwiththefirstone.
t Heeolvingpow€r(axial) Thecapability
separately
of an ultrasonic
systemto visualise
or at the sametime the indications
I coming
other.
fromdiscontinuities
thatarecloseto each

l Rssonancemethod A method based on the resonance that

characterisesa piece wlren it is crossed b y a
standingwave.
I
SairymftaintutgCcntreE Gandolfr u5
I
I\TDT- T'LTRASONICTESTING I
I
I
Scalefor the location of delect A specifically graded ruler, applied to a
transversewave probe,which,startingfrom the
positionof the echoon the screenof the cathodic
I
ray tube, directly tells the position of the
discontinuityinsidethe piece. t
$caleol the dietances
Scanning
See'timebase'.

See'inspection'.
t
Scanningdalay Adjustment of the detectorcircuitthat allowsthe
echogramto be movedto the left of the screen
I
so as to obtaina scaleof the distancesuvherethe
zerois suppressed. I
Scrcendynamice This e)presses in decibels the maximum
in the amplitude
difference of the signalsthat can
be displayedat the sametime withinthe screen
I
height.

Shadowzone Portionof the piecebeingtestedthat, due to the

I
geometryof the piece or to its discontinuities,
cannotbe reachedby the ultrasonicbeam that
travelsin a certaindirection.
I
Shearwev€ See'transverse
wave'. I
Shoe A fixed or mobilesolidwedgeinsertedbetween
the transducerand the piece being tested to
obtaintransverseor longitudinalwaves at given
I
angles.
Signalto noieeratlo The ratiobetweenthe amplitudeof an echofrom I
a discontinuityin the materialand the average
amplitudeof the backgroundnoise(grass). I'
$ingle probe technique Testingtechniquewherethe probehas a single
transducerwhich is both a transmitterand a
pressure.
receiverof the ultrasonic
$kip dletance This is a veryimportantelementin the testingof
weldediointsand plateswhereangletransducers
are used.
It indicatesthe projecteddistancebetweenthe
pointwherethe ultrasonicbeamentersthe plate I
and the point wlrereit reappearson the surface
afterbeingreflectedby the bottomsurface.
I
246 SairymTrainingCeurvE. Gandolfr
I Glossary

I Soundpr€gsure It is the pressuregeneratedby the wave

propagating
in a material.
I Sphericalwavo A unvewhosepointsin the samephaseare on
spherical
concEntric
sudaces.
I Spuriousecho Indicationnot clearlyrelatedto any defector
(e.9.ghostindication,
surface grass).
I $tandingwev6 Theeffectgenerated of egual
by the overlapping
wavetrainsmovingin oppositedirections,with
I thesubsequent
antinodes.
formation of standing
nodesand

I $traightbeamtechnique
Stralghtprobe
Testing probeis used.
wtrerea straight
technique
A probethathasa straight
transducer.
t $traighttransducer It emits ultrasonicwaves that propagate
perpendicularly
to thesurface
beingtested.
I $upprcesionof backgroundnoise Heductionof the 'grass effect' throughthe
removalof all the signalsbelow a certain
I Surlacewave
(orthreshold).
amplitude
A wavepropagating alongthesudaceof a piece
I within where it
wavelength.
penetrates
for less than one

t Surlacewav6probe Probe that generatesandlordetects sudace

waves.

I
t Tandemtechnique This techniqueis used when doubleV groove
I jointsare testedto detectany lack of penetration
or in other types of joints to find transv6rs6
crackson the weldaxis.
l The arrangementof the angle transducers
(usuallyat 45")is showedin the picture:the rear
transducer is a transmitter
and the frontone is a
I Teetfrequency
recgiver.

Freguenry of the waves generated by a

t Testingtechnique
andusedin non-destructive
transducer testing.
The inspedion procedurefor the ultrasonic
I testingof a piece.

Saipemftalll,lo,gCcntreE Gaildofi

I
ITIDT- TJLTRASOI\IICTESTING
I
Thrsehold noise'.
of the background
$ee'suppression
I
Through-trensmieeion
method It consistsof measuringthe intensityof a wave
b6am,oncethe waveshave passedthroughthe
I
piecebeingtested,by meansof two transducers
(a transmifteranda receiver). t
Timeeria
Timebaee
See'timeba$e'.

Traceon the screen(timeaxis)generatedso that

I
the distancesmeasuredon the scr66n are
proportionalto time and, therefore,to the path
coveredby ultrasounds.
I
Tlmebaeecallbratlon The operationwhich definesthe scale of the
distances on the detectorscreen.
I
It is carriedout by meansof referencepiecesthat
havea knownthickness. I
Timemerker Small pulses, electronicallygenerated in a
sequenceand presentedon the time base so as I
to allowthe calibration to be less dependenton
the linearityof the timebaseitselt.
I
Total tgllestion Reflection of a wave occurring when the
incidence
angle.
angleis greaterthanthe secondcritical
I
Transmltter-rrcelverprobe A probe used to generateand read ultrasonic
pressuresby meansof a singletransducer. I
Tranemieeion
factor The ratiobetweenthe ultrasonicpressureof the
wave transmittedthroughan interfaceand the I
ultrasonicpre$$ureof the incidentwave on the
sameinterface.
I
profileof the beam
Tranaverse the evolutionof the ultrasonic
Curverepresenting
pre$sur6 along a line that intersects
perpendicularly
the acousticaxisof the ultrasonic Ir
beam.

Trangverge
wave A wave that propagatesin a solid medium t
causing the displacementof the particles
perpendlcularlyin each point to the wave
propagation
direction. lo
waveprobe
Traneverse Probethat generatesand/or detectstransverse
wav6s. t
Transversowav€trangducgr See'angletransducer'.

C*ntreE. MoIfi
SatptmTraining
I Glossary

I Twin-cryetalprobe A probethathasa twin-crystal

transducer.

I Trvin-cryetaltraneducer Transducercomposedol h,lro crystals,one

workingas a transmitterand the other as a
rEceiver.
lts mainadvantage is that it doesnot
I TwlnT/Rprobetechnlque
havea deadzone.
Testingtecfiniquethat uses two probesthat
behave simultaneously
I receivers
as transmittersand
pressure.
ol ultrasonic

I
I Ultraeonlcbeam The flow of waves,emiftedby a probe,that
propagatesfollowing
certainlaua.
I field
Ultraeonlc The regionof the materialbeingtestedthat is

t Ultraeonicfreguency
atfected
byan ultrasonic
wav6.
Vibrationfrequencyabovethe rangeof human
hearing,
normallyabove20 kHz.
I Ultrasonicpressure pressure'.
See'sound

I Ultraeonicwave An undulation frequency

at ultrasonic oomposed
of elastic vibrationsthat propagatein the
material.
I
t
I probe
Vefiable-angle Angle probe wherethe incidenceangfe can ba
changedmechanicallyandwithcontinuity.

I Vertlcalllnbarity The constrficV,on the instrumentverticalscale,

of the ratio between two echoes having a
differentamplitude
overallthe screendynamics.
t
I
I Wall echo Echoreflectedby any surfaceof the piecebeing
emminedtowardsthe probesurfacealong the
shortestpath (the terms is usually referredto
I transverseor surfacewaves).

SaipemftainingcEtErcE cf,ndoVi
I
I
ITIITT- TJLTRASOhIICTESTING I
Wavefront ldealand continuous
surfacethat includesall the
I
points of a wave characterisEdby the same
phase. I
Waw lnterferunce The occurrenceof a series of maximumand
minimumpressurovaluescausedby overlapping
waves.
I
Wavelength The distancebetweentwo wave fronts whose
phasediffersby one period.
I
Waw train A seriesof continuouswaves,havingconstant
amplitude and frequency, transmitted by a
t
common source and propagating along a
commonpath. I
WettlngEgent A $ubstanceaddedto couplingmediumto reduce
thesurfacetension. l"
I
I
I
I
I
I
l,
I
l*
t
l''
250 TrahingCcntreE. Gandolfi
Satpem
I
I Appendix- Testingof austeniticweW

t
I Untilrecentyearsausteniticweldswtsr6consideredunsuitablefor ultrasonictestingdue to
the problemscausedby the interactionof the ultrasonicbeamwiththe particularcrystalline
structurEof this typeol ste6l.Researchand technological progressheve madeit possible
T to carryout thesete$ts,althoughthereare still a few limitationsand the operatorshaveto
be specificallytrained.

I The aim of this appendixis to providea generalview on theseproblemsillustratingthe

main differsncesbetweenthis type of testingand the testingof carbonsteel, wfrichwe
havealreadyseen.
I 1.1, Thestructuruof austeniticwelde
I The weld metalof austeniticweldsis usuallycomposedof a structurewtrich,during
metallographic
tests, showsan organizedconfigurationof coarsegrains having a
I columnarpattern
(thatis longandnarrow
Each welding prooesscreates its own
structure.
I Normally, the initialgrowthof the grainsis
perpendicular to the surfacesof the joint
I edges;the grains are modified laterby the
weldingprocessand the evolutionof fie
stage.
temperature duringthe solidification
t Thegrowthis sometimes so remarkable
it affectsvariousweldruns.
that

t This structureinfluencesthe propagationof ultrasoundsnegatively,as wtswill see in the

following.

I 1.2. Problemsinvolvedin the ultrasonictesting of aueteniticwelds

I The micrographic
structureshowEdaboveis alsoanisotropic,
in all directions.
havethe samecharacteristics
wllichmeansthat it doesnot
Besides,the grainwidthis comparableto a
UT wavelength.
t As a consequencethe behaviourof the ultrasoundsean be differentfrom wtrathas been
alreadysaid about carbonsteels,wherethe structureis homogeneous and isotropic.
I In particular,
w€ can havethe followingproblems:

I . high diffusionof the beamenergy(scattering)

The energydiffusedby naturalstructuraldiscontinuities generatesnoise indications

whoseamplitudeis biggerthanin the caseof carbonsteelwelds,as well as a strong
of the beam.The vibrationmode(longitudinal
attenuation waves)andthe
or transverse
of the probe(frequency,
characteristics bandwidth,...) mustbe selectedscrupulously
I sincetheyare crucialin the separation
of defectindications
fromthe noiseindications.

SaiptrnTminhgCtureE Candolfr
NDT - TJLTRASONICTESTING t
. etfEct$ ofthevibration
of theconversion mode I
Modeconversions can occurat the interfacebetweenthe weldmetalandthe paront
motalwhen the beamhas an obliqueincidence.
taking
carefully, into all
considerations possible
Indications
changes in
shall be examined
velocity
and directionthat
l'
can be relatedto the modeconversion.
spuriousindications
Togetherwith the effectsof conversion,
fromthewEldmetalboundary surfacecanalsooccur. I
beamdistortions
The width of the ultrasonicbeam within
I
austeniticmaterialscomposedof columnar
grains can vary dependingon the angle
betweenthe directionof the incidentbeamand
I
the longaxis of the grains.In this case,the
methodsfor the defec'tevaluationbasedon
techniqueswttichassumetheknowledge of the
I
beamshape(e.9.the20 dB dropmethod),
notreliable.
are
I
variations
in he beamvelocity
Elasticanisotropyleadsto variationsin the propagationvelocityof ultrasonicwaves.
I
$uchvelocityg6nerallydependson the angl6b6tw66nthe waveiront and tlielong axis
of the grains.This changein the beam velooitycan cause a change in the beam
directionwlrichcouldleadto a laclrof precisionin the locationof the reflector.
t
r variationsln the beamprofile t
The profileof the beam(divergence)
candependon the beamdirection.Therefore,the
methodefor the evaluationof defectsthat dependon the knowledgeof the beam
profile,suchas the signaldropmethods,are notalwayssuitablefor the examination
of
I
austeniticwelds.

This imposesthe precautionto integrateultrasonic

testingwith radiographic
and sudace
I
inspections,wlrichin this caseare muchmoreimportantthan in the case of carbon(or
low-alloy)steelwelds. t
1.3. Scattercdultraeound* fu
The test frequenryand the pulselengilhcan
stronglyatfect the importanceof the noise
Low froq.pnct

xffi
lrghftS^HEl
I
relatedto thestructure.
Theamplitude of the ultrasonic
backscattered
Shct
trI$c
Iffi ffi
tFffi,*mrffiirr#r
w
s}#{ffii#ffift
ffi l'
signals(structuralnoise)increaseswith the
testingfrequenryand with the pulselength.
The use of low-frequency
pulsesis therefore
probeswith $horter
moreadvantageous.
Lottg
F&G
Tffi

tffi trffi
Iffiffiffi il*ffi,ffi
I
I
2v SalfemTrahing&urc E Gandolfr
I
t Appendix- Testingof austeniticwelds

I Besides,the diffusionof ultrasounds

on Purposefy-made
alsodependson the vnavepropagation mode.Tests
calibrationblocks have shown that transversewaves are more

T negativelyatfectedthan longitudinalwav6s.The signal-to-noise

improvedby usinglongitudinal unves-
ratio can thereforebe

I 1.4. Longitudinalwaveangleprobee
These probes are more suitable for the
t enminationof austeniticunldsbecauseof the
scatteringand strongattenuation
associated
to
theuseof transversewaveprobes.
The beam angle of longitudinal wave angle
probes,too,canbe determinedbySnell'sLaw.
t It ehouldalsobe notedthatfor anylongitudinal
unv6 angle sudr probesalso generatean

I associatedtransverseunve beamthat has a

smallerrefractionangle.
The presenceof this additionalbeam,yvfiose
intensity can be comparableto that of
I longitudinaf uaves, should always be
considered sinceit canleadto misinterpretation ft' tf ft' Jr- tf" lo'
of thetestresults. hollrrnr r{1. tr

I ilotr; Althoughthe eddtionaltranwersewave beemcan generatecoffusion dudngthe examination,

bmause a ceilain indicetloncould be locetedon either b€am,a cardul analyeied the probe
I renge,angle and poeitionwlth re+est lo the mld can helpto decidewtrichehernetiveis mod
likely.

I A furtherimportantpointthat shouldbe considered is that anglelongitudinal

beamslose
I substantial
energyuponreflection

This is wlry angled longi-

at the insidesurfaceof the piecebelngtested.

tudinal u,ave testing is

generallylimitedto half skip.

I As a conseguence,the full
volumetric examinationof
the weld requiresthe weld
I crownto be groundflat and
flush.

I It is generally
acceptedthatlargebandwidth
probesandprobesgenerating
narrowbeams
I aremoresuitable forthesetests.
SoirymTraining f*ilre E Gaidolli

I
TIIDT- T'LTR^ASONICTESTING
I
1.5. Gonclueion I
alteredzoneis difficult,
1. Ultrasonicexamination
but inspections
weldsandof thethermally
of austenitic
can be caniedout in manycases,alwayslreepingin mindthat the
lowerthatin thecaseofferriticweldsof comparable
is invariably
sensitivity thickness.
I
2. Theinspec'tion
andprocedure.
variessubstantially
capability on the selectedweldproces$
depending I
3. Themostimportant
prooessos,
theinspection,
factorsaffecting
shouldbeconsidered
the piecegeometry
including
sincethedesigningstage.
and I
4. Evenif this briefsummary
remembered that probe
doesnot describe themin details,it shouldalwaysbe
and calibration
characterisation operations,as well as the
I
definitionof ultrasonicprocedures,
specimens thatreproduce
requirethe construction
defects.
representative
weldtesting,alsoin termsof earlyplanning
Thisincreases
andpreparation
of specialreference
the costsof austenitic
activities.
I
goodknowledge of ultrasounds
of the behaviour
In particular,a
trainedoperators.
5. Testsshouldaluraysbe carriedout by specifically
andof theirpropagation
in austenitic
I
is
structures required.
I

I
I
I
I
l.
I
ln
I
I
256 Salpen TrainingC*nne E. Gandolfi

t
 Appl4E - Prggefurtlgr W emntirwtionof weldedjoints

DEPT Proc.:NDTl0l.95
TEGI/SALD

SAIPEM
VI,/ELDING
LABORATORY

CORTEMAGGIORE

PnocmURE
FoRW ExAMINATIaN
oF wEIDEDJo,NIS
Io
BEUSED
DURING
WEIDINGPROCEDURE ANDVlELDERS
e/UALIFICAIION

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FoRcoNsrRUcnoN R.Lteonr E.DrMnnsus

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CcwrcE Gandofii
SaipemTraining
NDT - ULTNASONIC TESTING I
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CONIEI,ITIi I
I. PIJNFOSE& SCOPE 2,s9

A NEERET{CTS

3.Pno(EilnE
t59

.....2f0
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3J tLrnrso

3.7TEsrsr.oc'rcs ...........261

3.&2 Comtnntionof DNarce AmplitudeConectioncuveJ........... ..,...262

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i.E.i Reference
hvcl sewitivity

3.&5 Beamangh dttumination -.... .......263

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3.9 $cemrwa sEn$trrvTrYLEvEL
3.10Exew*
3.ll Evr.urnox I
4,rEnsoNHH, QUALUICATION
5, nECORDS I
5. 1 tLmrsomc EitgNATIoN

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258 CewreE. Gandofii
SaipcmTraining

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I Appendh- Procedure
for W emntitntionof weldedjoins
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I. PURPOSE
& SCOPE
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Ihe purposeof thls procedurels to detoll the methods,technlquesond
I reportlngphilosopyto be odopted for corrylngout ultrosonlcexominoflonof
welded jolnh In the SolpemWeldlngloborotoryin Cortemoggtoredurlng
I weldingprocedureond weldersquollficotion.
Theprocedureshollbeusedto Inspectplpeshovingthe fol6wlngshel
Dlometer:l0' (2S4mm)- 60' flS24mm)
W.T.r
up to S0mm
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I REFERHNCES

I APISL
AH IIA
fiectflcatlon for ltneptpa.
Standardfor wetdtngof pipettnes
and relatedfacllitlas,
ASIV7'SNTTC
A Recommandadfrocflce for NDT
Personnal €rualificailon and
Certlfrccrtlon
aAE+RO#t0 Sualification grnd Cerilficafionof
NDTperconnel

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259
ITIITT- ULTRASOhIIC TESTING
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3. PROCEDURE
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3.1 surfoce
Exomlnotlon
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surfoceof the pipeon bothsldesof weldto be exomlned.
Externol
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3.2 $urfoce condltion
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Free from weld spotter ond ony roughnessthot would interfere wlth ftee
movementof the seorchunlt ond could lmpoirthe tronsmisslonof ultrosonlc t
vlbrotlons.
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3.3 Coupfont I
Greoseor glutolineposte
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3.4 Technique
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testingwlllbeconiedoutusingcontoctpulseechotechnlque,
Ultrosonic

Ultrosonlcflow detector

GllordonlMG9 or MGl2 or equlvolent,utlllzing'A' scon presentotlonond

operotingIn pulseecho mode. l*
3.6 Seorch unfts
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Sheorwove probes,nomlnolongle 45o- 6CF- 7V,2 + 4 MHzslnglecrlstol l'o
(nomlnolelementslzeBx g mm).
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Cetre E. Gandolfi-
SaipemTraining
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I The collbrotion of dffferentcurves (D.A,C.,sensiflvltytevel etc.) will be
constructeduslngo Solpemtest block (Flg. l). Thlsblock ls mode of the
I some moterlolond thlcknes of the plpe ond lt hos been constructedby
Solpemon the boshof voriousrequlremenhbelonglngto Internotionot rutes,
I for the followlngreosons:
O The slgnol(echo) from the vertlcolhole ls comporoblewith the
I slgnolsfromdefech in weldedjoinh
O lt ls posslbleto check the horizontolond verticollineorltyof the

I system
(D Thecollbrotionon the verticolholeollowsto odjust
the rejectlevel
I o lt ls not necessoryto opply the tronsferfoctor fiom the reference
block to moteriolto be testedsincethe referenceblock is mode

t of the $omemoterlolofthe plpe.

O lt ls posslbleverlfyimmedlotelyond eosllythe resotvingpower of
the probeond to checkthe weorof probewedge.

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I Hg.l:SolpernTstBlod(

t SaipcmTrainingCctre E. Gandon 26r

IITIIT- TJLTRASOIiIICTESTING
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3.8 Colibrotion
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3.8.1 HorEontolscole
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Fullscote wlll depend on the woll thlcknessto be exomlned ond wlll be set
by uslng llW v2 block (BS27M A4}
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3.8.2 of Dh'tsnceAmplltudeConectioncurve$
Constructlon
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The curve wlll be
constructeclby uslng
t
+
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the hole n.l drllledin
the Solpemtest block.
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Posltlonlngthe probe
of posltlonI the echo I
helght wlll be
moxlmized ond the
goln control odJusted
t
to obtoln on echo
helght of 75% tull Hg. 2; DlstonceAmplttudeCuve: po$ltlort of probe tot corgtructlon
ol DA.C. qnclr€spon$stom hol€ n.l wllh probe tn podflorBl.2J
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screenhelght.
Thlsgoln seftlngwlll be recorded;wtthoutolterlngthe goln the moximlzed I
echo helghtsfrom point 2 ond 3 ore to be plotted on the screen.The
referencecurye wlll now be drown os o smooth Ilne through the three
polnts,One curve.50%of the referencecurve,wlllolsobe constructed.
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3.8.3 Referencelevelsensttlvity
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The reference level
sensltlvlty wlll be
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odJustedby usingthe
hole n.2 drllled In the
l,
Soipemtest block. For
reference senslflvlty I
odjustmentthe probe
wlll be posltlonedon lo
Solpem test block os
lndlcotedin Flg.3. Fg. 3: Podflorr of Hobe lot setllng of refetence level sersltlvlty

Theecho helghtwlll be moxlmizedond the goln controlodjustedto obtoln

t d
on echo heightequolto the referencecurueheight,
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26? CentreE. Gandolfr
SaipemTraining
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Theresolvlngpowerof testlngsystemwlllbe checked by uslngthe holesn.3-4
I drllledIn the $olpemtest block. Forthe check of resolvingpower the probe
wlllbe posltlonedon Solpemtest blockot holf sklpond tull sklpdlstoncefrom
I the holes.Ihe resolvlngpowerlssotlsfoctorylf the echoesftom the two hotes
ore cleorlyseporoted.
I 3.8.5 Beomongledeterminoflon

I Thebeom onglewilrbe checkedby usrngthe rtw vl btock.

I 3.9 Sconnlngsensttlvlty
level

I The exomlnotion of welds wlll be performed by Increosing of 6 dB the

reference sensltlvltylevel. The evoluotion of indicotions will be corried out

I wlthout the Increosed6 dB,

I 3.10 Exomlnotloncoveroge

I Theweld wlll be exomlnedby movingthe seorchunlt over the exominoflon

surfoceso osto sconthe enflrevolumeof the weld.

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Fig.4:Dlrec{lonond extstt of scqnnlng

3.1I Evolustlonof Indlcoflons

All defech indlcotlonswlrlchexceedthe 5096of the referencecurye ore to

be investlgotedto the extent thot the operotorcon evoluotethe shope,
ldentltyond locotionin termsof the occeptonce crlterio.

tutpemTrainingCenrcE, Gandofii ?fi3

FTIIT- TJLTRASONICTESTING t-
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NELOUAUFICAT1ON
PERSON
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Uttrosonlcexomlnstlonwlll be conled out ond resulhwlll be evoluoted by
Technlclonsquollfledond ceillfled os Levelll for ultrosonlcexomlnotlonin I
occordonce wlth documentSNI-IC-IAof ASNIond wlth SolpemQAE-PRO-
ml0. I
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5.
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5.1 Uttrosonicexominstlonrepoil
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Solpemform,or equlvolent,wlllbe usedfor the exomlnotlonreport(see Flg. I
5).
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SaipmTrainingCenlreE Gandolfi€
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I Appendix- Procedurefor W emtnirution of weldedjoints

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F[. 5: Ultrasontc examtnatton report
I Sheelno
tsSalpem n'
Foglio
I UTTNA$ONIC
RAPFOHFO
ExAIIIilANOil
DELCOilTROLTO
BEPOHT
CONULTRASUONI

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8p.
hcaliaarione
dtrrnf,mrltiotl
do[eildcszini delcontollo
W.T.podtlm wxldntniEhtet
Evrfue0ryr
guaao

pcriz.r*Eorthr. p(Eiz.speee. % rnxeco

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CunpanyRqrrriarbUvoSrgmt r€
Fimatlelh Com*ttente

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