Solution 1

Natural fibres, often referred to as vegetable fibres, are extracted from plants and are classified into three categories,
depending on the part of the plant they are extracted from.

1. Fruit fibres are extracted from the fruits of the plant, they are light and hairy, and allow the wind to carry the
seeds.
2. Bast fibres are found in the stems of the plant providing the plant its strength. Usually they run across the
entire length of the stem and are therefore very long.
3. Fibres extracted from the leaves are rough and sturdy and form part of the plant's transportation system,
they are called leaf fibres.

When determining the properties of natural fibres, one has to keep in mind that one is dealing with natural products
with properties that are strongly influenced by their growing environment. Temperature, humidity, the composition of
the soil and the air all effect the height of the plant, strength of its fibres, density, etc. Also the way the plants are
harvested and processed results in a variation of properties.

Until the advent of jet propelled aircraft, propellerdriven aircraft normally landed at such relatively low speeds as not
to overtax the engaging speed capacity of known arresting gear systems. However, with the development of the
faster jet type aircraft, landing speeds have continued to increase until the engaging speed capacity of conventional
type arresting equipment has been reached. For instance, propeller-driven craft could be expected to land at speeds
between 40 and 70 miles an hour, whereas jet aircraft now are landing at speeds of up to 200 miles an hour, and it is
not unrealistic to expect that these landing speeds will continue to increase as improvements in aircraft continue to
be made.
It is, therefore, among the objects of this invention to provide improvements in conventional arresting gear means
wherein safe arrestment of aircraft can be made at landing speeds substantially greater than is now possible with
existing equipment. It is an additional object of this invention to provide aircraft arresting equipment in which woven
tape of synthetic fibers is employed to contribute favorable dynamic characteristics to the arresting gear system. It is
yet another object of this invention to provide for use in arresting gear equipment an article of manufacture
comprising novel, improved tape woven from synthetic fibers, which makes possible the employment of arresting
gear having a capacity to arrest aircraft landing at greater speeds than heretofore possible.
Among the objects of this invention to provide improvements in conventional arresting gear means wherein safe
arrestment of aircraft can be made at landing speeds substantially greater than is now possible with existing
equipment. It is an additional object of this invention to provide aircraft arresting equipment in which woven tape of
synthetic fibers is employed to contribute favorable dynamic characteristics to the arresting gear system. It is yet
another object of this invention to provide for use in arresting gear equipment an article of manufacture comprising
novel, improved tape woven from synthetic fibers, which makes possible the employment of arresting gear having a
capacity to arrest aircraft landing at greater speeds than heretofore possible.

Solution 2

A continuous and aligned glass-reinforced composite consists of40 vol% of glass fibers having a modulus of
elasticity of 69 GPa and 60 vol% of a polyester resin that, when hardened, display a modulus of 3.4
GPa.Compute the modulus of elasticity of this composite in the longitudinal direction.If the cross-sectional area
is 250mm2 and a stress of 50 MPa is applied in this longitudinal direction, compute the magnitude of the load
carries by each of the fiber and matrix phases.Determine the strain that is sustained by each phase when the
stress in part b is applied.Compute the elastic modulus of the composite material, but assume that the stress is
applied perpendicular to the direction of fiber alignment.Assuming tensile strengths of 3.5 GPa and 69 MPa,
respectively, for glass fibers and polyester resin, determine the longitudinal tensile strength of this fiber
composite. 30 GPa

Tensile stress-strain behavior depends on the fiber and matrix phases; the phase volume fractions; the
direction of loading.with longitudinal loadingin stage I, both fiber and matrix deform elastically.in stage II, the
fiber continues to deform elastically, but the matrix has yielded.from stage I to II, the fiber picks up more
load.the onset of composite failure begins as the fibers start to fracture.composite failure is not catastrophic.

Solution 3
Fibre-reinforced polymer composites (FRPs) have been used successfully in marine applications for several
decades in areas such as radomes and mass structures, super yachts, work boats and leisure craft. More
recently FRPs have been used in less well known applications such as bearings, propellers, commercial hatch
covers, exhausts and topside structures. The use of glass-fibre composites (GRP) in marine applications was
one of the first significant areas of GRP use. It has revolutionised the capability to design and manufacture
large composite structures in several sectors. Vessels are made in the UK by a variety of processes, including
hand-lay GRP, resin-infusion, thermoplastics and high performance carbon fibre prepreg for racing yachts. The
main advantages of GRP for marine applications are:

 Environmental resistance, including freedom from rotting, corrosion, etc.

 Ability to mould seamless, complex shaped structures
 Ability to tailor strength to suit loading conditions
 Excellent strength to weight characteristics - GRP marine structures generally half the weight of
equivalent steel structures.
 Low maintenance and ease of repair
 Excellent durability

Racing yachts use composites more extensively than any other marine structure. The materials used are
not typical of marine construction because of special requirements. Minimal weight and maximum
stiffness are crucially important in their design so that they can sail with maximal speed and resistance
to the impact of waves and other elements in marine environments. Carbon fibre reinforced epoxy
composites are usually used in boat hulls cored with honeycomb or foam, frames, keels, masts, poles
and boom, carbon winch drums and shafting. The use of FRPs can contribute to improved performance
and minimise the danger of sailing drawbacks and failure in the different international sailing conditions.
The main subsea application of composites has been as protection structures for subsea wellheads and valves.
The advantage of using composites is weight saving which can give substantial savings in installation cost
through the use of lower cost lift vessels. The cost of manufacture is competitive with that of conventional steel
and concrete technology.

Solution 4
Same Qualified Resin Transfer Molding (SQRTM)[edit]
SQRTM is a closed mold composites manufacturing method similar to RTM (Resin Transfer Molding). "Same
Qualified" refers to this method injecting the same resin as that used in the prepreg layup. The attributes of
"same qualified" are significant to a manufacturer because those who adopt this process need not re-qualify
resin materials for their production process. SQRTM Process: Liquid molding + prepreg What sets SQRTM
apart from standard resin transfer molding (RTM) is that, in place of a dry fiber preform, it substitutes a prepreg
layup.[3]
SQRTM is an RTM process adapted to prepreg technology. The prepreg is placed in a closed mold and during
the cure cycle, a small amount of resin is injected into the cavity through ports positioned around the part. This
resin does not go into the laminate, but only presses up against the edge of the laminate in order to establish
hydrostatic pressure on the prepreg, similar to the goal of autoclave curing. This pressure is similar to the
autoclave, on the order of 6-7 bars (90-100 psi). Hydrostatic pressure minimizes voids by keeping dissolved air,
water and resin monomers in solution in the resin. The tool can either be self-clamped and self-heated or
heated and clamped by a press. The equipment is composed of a tool, a press, an injector, and a vacuum
pump.[4]
The key factors in the SQRTM process include precision machined closed mold tooling, high pressure presses,
a high vacuum applied to the tool interior, and precise control of heating platens, injected resin volume, heat,
and pressure.[citation needed]
The advantages of the SQRTM process include a high level of integration, tight tolerances and the use of
qualified prepregs. Its disadvantages include higher tool costs and a lower level of flexibility to design changes.
[5]

Vacuum assisted RTM (VARTM)[edit]

VARTM is one of three processing alternatives that proponents claim can achieve aerospace-grade results
without resort to autoclave cure. VARTM denotes a variety of related resin infusion processes now commonly
used in the marine, transportation and infrastructure markets. The processes differ radically from prepreg
processing in that fiber reinforcements and core materials are laid up dry in a one-sided mold and vacuum
bagged. Liquid resin is then introduced through one or more ports strategically placed in the mold, and drawn
by vacuum through the reinforcements by means of a series of designed-in channels and/or carefully placed
infusion media that facilitate fiber wetout. Unlike the autoclave, VARTM cure requires neither high heat nor high
pressure. VARTM's comparatively low-cost tooling makes it possible to inexpensively produce large, complex
parts in one shot,[1] such as the tail on the Mitsubishi Regional Jet.[6]
Solution 5

Using Aluminium Honeycomb Panels In Comparison To Other Building Materials Has 5 Key Benefits
Increased strength and stability – The aluminium honeycomb provides a more consistent, greater strength
throughout the whole panel.
Lightweight – The lightweight properties can reduce the cost of transport and potentially the amount of labour
required.
Ease of installation – Easier and safer installation. As well as reduced install times. This can offset the extra cost
of aluminium honeycomb.
Manufactured and pre-fabricated to size and specification – Reduces cutting time and uncertainty of installation
on site.
Design Flexibility – Lightweight and high strength allows architects and designers to utilise these panels in ways
that heavyweight and fragile materials cannot be.
Honeycomb sandwich structures are widely used on aircraft flight control
surfaces such as rudder, aileron, spoiler, and flap. The facesheet of
honeycomb sandwiches are typically thin composite laminates and the interior
of the sandwich is mostly honeycomb cell walls made of Nomex, fiberglass, or
aluminum. The hollow structure of honeycomb sandwiches does not lend itself
to effective ultrasonic pulse-echo inspection; instead the TTU scan has been
the most widely used and effective mode for inspecting flaws and damage in
honeycomb or foam sandwich structures. The light weight and large size of
sandwich flight control structures are not conducive to immersion ultrasonic
scan, so the most widely used mode for implementing the TTU inspection for
aerospace sandwich structures has been the water squirter system.
Traditional foam or honeycomb sandwiches have been introduced into several
applications, including the Nissan Primera load floor (Bricout, 1999), using a
combination of polypropylene carpet, 4/1 biased commingled fabric with a
polypropylene honeycomb core (produced by Tubus Bauer D). General
Motors (USA) have also produced a series of undervehicle protection for a
range of Sport Utility Vehicles using balanced commingled fabric on a
PP foam core.
The limitations of flow molding materials for structural applications under
cyclic loading (due to the discontinuous and limited reinforcement content)
have prompted the development of sandwich materials. Processing aligned
fiber materials alone requires blankholders and creates substantial scrap
material. Where sandwiches are used, the aligned fiber material is generally
smaller than the tool, eliminating waste and the need for blankholders during
preheat and transfer stages. Applications of commingled fabric and GMT
cored material (Novotny, 1999) include bumper beams for the Peugeot 806
(Figure 36) where GMT has been replaced with the sandwich structure,
decreasing part weight substantially while offering improved impact resistance
and remaining in one piece during crash tests. The biased 4/1 commingled
fabric offers a higher and aligned glass content away from the neutral axis and
maintains the ability to flow mold complex features from the GMT core. Such
thickness variations and areas of complex geometry are not possible with
aligned fiber materials alone. Plastic Omnium (2000) have also developed a
bumper beam using Twintex skins with either chopped or long fiber
reinforcement as the core material. GMT cross-car beams have been
developed in the US but have not yet reached production status
. Aluminum honeycomb produces one of the highest strength/weight ratios of any
structural material. There are various configurations of the adhesive bonding of the
aluminum foil which can lead to a variety of geometric cell shapes (usually hexagonal).
Properties can also be controlled by varying the foil thickness and cell size. The
honeycomb is usually supplied in the unexpanded block form and is stretched out into
a sheet on-site.

Despite its good mechanical properties and relatively low price, aluminum honeycomb
has to be used with caution in some applications, such as large marine structures,
because of the potential corrosion problems in a salt-water environment. In this
situation care also has to be exercised to ensure that the honeycomb does not come
into direct contact with carbon skins since the conductivity can aggravate galvanic
corrosion. Aluminum honeycomb also has the problem that it has no “mechanical
memory.” On impact of a cored laminate, the honeycomb will deform irreversibly
whereas the FRP skins, being resilient, will move back to their original position. This
can result in an area with an unbonded skin with much reduced mechanical
properties.

Effects of honeycomb core damage on the performance of composite sandwich structures

Honeycomb sandwich structures consist of thin-stiff materials (facesheets) separated by a thick-

lightweight core. Generally, the facesheets are bonded to the honeycomb core by use of a thin layer of
epoxy. Primarily due to their geometry, honeycomb core materials are complex in nature. In order to
fully utilize the potential of honeycomb core materials, it is crucial to understand the influence of each
underlying contributor to the material’s global mechanical performance. As such, strength and damage
characteristics of aluminum honeycomb sandwich structures have been widely studied. These studies
include experimental measurements,1–12 finite element methods,1,5,13,14 and theoretical
calculations.15–17 In particular, Sun et al.1 studied the influence of honeycomb structural parameters
on the crushing behavior of honeycomb sandwich structures, where three-point bend tests showed that
increasing the core height resulted in an increased stiffness and peak load. Similarly, a decreased cell
size also resulted in an increased stiffness and peak load. They also determined that in axial compression
the failure mode was highly dependent upon honeycomb cell size. Regarding structural failure and
strength characteristics, Paik et al.2 experimentally determined that in axial compression the increased
core height led to delamination and ultimately decreased ultimate compressive strength. Similarly,
Wang et al.3 investigated the effects of core density on the bending strength and stiffness, by threepoint
bend tests, and discovered that an increased density resulted in an increased bending strength.
Composite sandwich structures are susceptible to impact damage, due to the typically thin gauge of the
facesheets. Sandwich structures used in aircraft or automobiles may experience indentations as a result
of impact. Low velocity impact events can lead to facesheet damage including core to facesheet
interface delamination and laminate bending failure. However, the propensity for indentation of the
facesheets is heavily influenced by the core material.14 Low velocity impact can also lead to significant
core damage, including cell wall collapse, core crushing, and plastic folding.4 Many experimental studies
have been carried out to investigate the low velocity impact and compression after impact of
honeycomb sandwich structures. Wu et al.5 conducted impact tests to study the effects of core side
length, height and impact velocity on energy absorption and peak loads. They determined that a
decrease in core side length resulted in an increased resistance to penetration. Crupi6 experimentally
analyzed the effects of cell size on through static and low velocity impact tests. He concluded that an
increase in cell size resulted in a decrease in energy absorption capacity. Similarly, Ivanez et al.13
studied the effects of cell size on the crush behavior and energy absorption capacity of aluminum
honeycomb core by creating and experimentally validating a three dimensional finite element model.
Singh et al.7–10 studied the effects of core density and thickness on compression strength and failure
modes by compression after indentation testing. They determined that a higher core density resulted in
an increased damage resistance. Interestingly, they did not observe any correlation between the
compressive strength and indenter size. Zhou and Hill11 experimentally studied the in-plane
compressive behavior of impact damaged aluminum honeycomb composite sandwich structures. They
observed that the core counteracted the local buckling caused by impact damage, ultimately changing
the location of failure.

Solution 6

Enrichment of Uranium is the basis for the production of fissile material 235U and
since it is a well proven process it is preferred by the industry. The methods to be
used for enrichment are Gaseous diffusion, Electromagnetic enrichment,
aerodynamic nozzle separation, centrifuge enrichment and finally enrichment
from lasers like AVLIS, SILEX and MLIS.

Out of the five methods the gas centrifuge is the most favorable one and can be
done by centrifuges in line cascading. Centrifuging is made by a dense called
gas centrifuge UF6 and is based on the physics of accelerating molecules in a
gaseous diffusion. This is done by centrifugal forces which separate the lighter
from heavier atoms.
Uranium enrichment and plutonium/uranium separation besides creation of
nuclear fuel for nuclear plants can also be used in creating nuclear weapons and
the paper will address this issue. It will also try to give some answers in the
nuclear programs of some Middle East countries like Iran and Israel. It will not
debate in political terms nuclear capabilities but will only mention technical facts
received from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the United
Nations.

LASER ENRICHMENT

This method is the future of uranium enrichment in the nuclear industry since it has low costs,
low energy requirements and smaller waste in the form of tails. This method is being
accomplished in molecular or atomic level.

The atomic method is the Atomic Laser Isotope Separation (AVLIS) in the USA and the SILVA
in France, but the method had no scientific results and was abandoned in favor of SILEX
(Separation of Isotopes by Laser Excitation), also known as GLE or global laser enrichment,
which mainly uses UF6[26].

SILEX operates in molecular level. This method is based on the physics of photo-ionization. In this
method, a laser of high power is tuned in the frequency of 235U and is aimed at the gaseous metal oxide
making the electrons of 235UF6 to excite from the laser power. The ionized 235 UF6 is collected in to a
plate which is negatively charged. Silex is estimated to produce 2000 tU per year by the year 2020. A
pulsed CO2 laser with a wavelength of 10.8 μm is switching its wavelength to 16 μm and
through reflecting mirrors is directed to diluted UF6, which is cryogenically cooled and comes
out with supersonic speeds out of a nozzle. The 16-μm wavelength is absorbed by the 235 UF6
which is excited in its vibration frequency and is enriched but not from the 238UF6. The process
is repeated until the required enrichment level is achieved [26]. This method requires very little
energy compared with the enrichment by diffusion and centrifuge enrichment.

Another method of laser enrichment is CRISLA. The whole process is done in chambers in low
temperatures to create coagulation of the gas, which is not ionized. The laser process is the same
as SILEX and 235U has its electrons excited by a high-power laser tunes in the same frequency
as the 235U. This condensation makes the depleted substance to remain in the chamber and the
enriched one in 235 U is taken out of the system.

Solution 7
Advantages
Better tension and compression stiffness/strength due the lack of crimping.
• Better drapability. Lack of crimping allow better conformance with round surfaces.
• Higher fiber to resin ratio.
• Easy to wet in either hand lay-up or infusion.

Disadvantages
Better resistance to crack propagation since the crack would be to propagate through the fibers (in an individual layer).
• Stitching may induce fiber fracture in stitched fabrics (I am not sure about this one).
• Better peeling resistance (why would that be? Due to nesting of the plies?)

From a manufacturing point of view, it should take the same time to add a layer of woven fabric than a biax fabric. So not
really an advantage there.

Solution 8
The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the
in-flight separation of the vertical stabilizer as a result of the loads beyond ultimate design that were
created by the first officer’s unnecessary and excessive rudder pedal inputs. Contributing to these
rudder pedal inputs were characteristics of the Airbus A300-600 rudder system design and elements of
the American Airlines Advanced Aircraft Maneuvering Program.

According to the official accident report, the first officer repeatedly moved the rudder from fully left to fully right.
This caused increasing sideslip angles. The resulting hazardous sideslip angle led to extremely high
aerodynamic loads that separated the vertical stabilizer. If the first officer had stopped moving the rudder at any
time before the vertical stabilizer failed, the aircraft would have leveled out on its own, and the accident would
have been avoided.[27] The aircraft performance study indicated that when the vertical stabilizer finally detached,
the aerodynamic loads caused by the first officer's actions produced 203,000 lb of force on the rudder, meaning
that the vertical stabilizer did not fail until far in excess of the 100,000 lb of force defined by the
design envelope.[28][29] The vertical stabilizer's structural performance was determined to be consistent with
design specifications and exceeded certification requirements.[30]
Contributing factors to the crash existed, as well. The first officer's predisposition to overreact to wake
turbulence caused panic. American Airlines incorrectly taught pilots to use the rudder for wake turbulence
recovery, resulting in the first officer's possible misunderstanding of the aircraft's response to full rudder at high
airspeeds.[31] Light rudder pedal forces and small pedal displacement of the A300-600 rudder pedal system
increased the airplane's susceptibility to rudder misuse.[4]:151

Solution 9
MAC’s® Eddy Current Testing (ECT) systems incorporate computer-based test instruments and
test coils that use two ECT coil technologies: encircling and sector coils, and spinning or rotary
probe coils.

 Encircling and sector Eddy Current coil tests perform in this manner:
 The product is passed through or adjacent to an electrical test coil, which has been
excited by an alternating current.
 This induces a flow of eddy currents around the test material or in the case of a sector
coil, in the area under the coil.
 Short, intermittent anomalies or flaws cause a variation in the eddy current pattern,
which the instrument detects.
The two major applications of eddy current testing are surface inspection and tubing inspections. Surface
inspection is used extensively in the aerospace industry, but also in the petrochemical industry. The technique
is very sensitive and can detect tight cracks. Surface inspection can be performed both on ferromagnetic and
non-ferromagnetic materials.[7][8]
Tubing inspection is generally limited to non-ferromagnetic tubing and is known as conventional eddy current
testing. Conventional ECT is used for inspecting steam generator tubing in nuclear plants and heat exchangers
tubing in power and petrochemical industries. The technique is very sensitive to detect and size pits. Wall loss
or corrosion can be detected but sizing is not accurate.
A variation of conventional ECT for partially magnetic materials is full saturation ECT. In this technique,
permeability variations are suppressed by applying a magnetic field. The saturation probes contain
conventional eddy current coils and magnets. This inspection is used on partially ferromagnetic materials such
as nickel alloys, duplex alloys, and thin-ferromagnetic materials such as ferritic chromium molybdenum
stainless steel. The application of a saturation eddy current technique depends on the permeability of the
material, tube thickness, and diameter.[9]
A method used for carbon steel tubing is remote field eddy current testing. This method is sensitive to general
wall loss and not sensitive to small pits and cracks.

Solution 10
Bridge Inspection - The US has 578,000 highway bridges. Corrosion, cracking and other damage can all
affect a bridge’s performance. Bridges get a visual inspection about every 2 years. Some bridges are
fitted with acoustic emission sensors that “listen” for sounds of cracks growing. Some bridges are fitted
with acoustic emission sensors that “listen” for sounds of cracks growing. NDT is used to inspect pipelines to
prevent leaks that could damage the environment. Visual inspection, radiography and electromagnetic testing
are some of the NDT methods used. Remote visual inspection using a robotic crawler. Radiography of weld
joints. Magnetic flux leakage inspection. This device, known as a pig, is placed in the pipeline and collects data
on the condition of the pipe as it is pushed along by whatever is being transported. Pipeline Inspection Special
Measurements Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of evaluating the Liberty Bell for
damage using NDT techniques. Eddy current methods were used to measure the electrical conductivity of the
Bell's bronze casing at various points to evaluate its uniformity.