A pproaches to Peace: Diplomacy

i. Every foreign policy has two sidesóone is the making

(formulation) of the policy, and the other its implementation. If
national interest is associated with the formulation part,
diplomacy is linked with the implementation part of a foreign
policy.
2) Definition and Use of diplomacy
i. Diplomacy is the management of IR through negotiations or the
method by which these relations are adjusted or managed.
ii. Diplomacy tries to achieve the maximum objectives (national
interests) with a minimum of costs in a system of politics where
war remains a possibility.
3) Diplomacy from a historical perspective
i. Rudimentary forms of diplomacy can be traced into ancient
history but organized diplomacy became evident in the city-states
of Greece (around 5 BC).
ii. Envoys became negotiators rather than being just messengers.
iii. During the middle ages (6 th to 18th century) the scope of
diplomacy did not grow much and diplomats were mostly
confined to maintaining archives rather than negotiating them.
iv. In the late middle ages, in Genova, the Duke of Milan (Italy)
established the first foreign mission. But this was still
diplomacy of the court rather than that of the people.
v. After the American and French revolutions, diplomacy became
more democratic and less aristocratic.
vi. The Congress of Vienna (1815) laid down procedures for
diplomatic immunities(safety) and defined diplomatic hierarchies.
4) How Diplomacy Functions
i. Diplomacy functions through a network of foreign officers,
embassies, consulates, and special missions operating around the
globe.
 ii. Diplomacy is bilateral in character but as a result of growing
international and regional organizations, it is becoming
increasingly multi lateral in character.
5) Whatís the difference between Diplomacy and Foreign Policy
(FP)?
i. Diplomacy is one of the instruments for the application of foreign
policy. In that sense, diplomacy as a concept is narrower in scope
than foreign policy.
ii. Diplomacy is the method and process by which foreign policy
is pursued but it is not a policy onto itself. (diplomat is a
cricketer, cricket or FP remains the same)
iii. Outcome of diplomatic negotiations can affect foreign policy
options.
6) Traditional vs. Modern Diplomacy
i. Traditional diplomacy assumed that major European powers had
special responsibility for maintaining world peace and the colonies
had no more significant diplomatic role than that of satellites.
ii. Traditional diplomacy was professional but secretive and relied
on a limited cadre rather than extended diplomatic channels.
iii. Modern diplomacy is more open and democratic; it requires
reciprocal bargains and compromises so it is not possible for
diplomats to spell out a given stance in advance.
iv. Multilateralism is increasingly evident in the practice of modern
diplomacy, with behind the scenes preparations by diplomatic
officials.
7) Instruments of Diplomacy
i. Most nation-states maintain Ministries of Foreign Affairs
ii. Foreign office officials include career diplomats and political
diplomats appointed by home governments.
iii. Ambassadors head foreign missions and serve as the personal
representative of the home state in host country (they can be
career diplomats or political appointees)
iv. Councilors of embassies rank second to the ambassador and
they are career diplomats.
v. Secretaries, with first, second and third rankings are mid-career
officials implementing foreign policies of their home countries.
 vi. Attaches are junior career or non-career personnel focusing on
specific areas (commercial, agricultural, naval, press attaches
are common)
8) Diplomatic Procedures and Practices
i. Agreation: Credentials of diplomatic envoys are approved by host
countries where they are to be appointed. Presentation of
credentials and assuming charge in host country involves
interaction with the host governments.
ii. Diplomatic missions and personnel enjoy certain immunities
and privileges like the rights of extraterritoriality and
inviolability. (safety, the rules on diplomats are the same as that
of their country)
iii. Home states can dismiss diplomats or they can be declared
persona-non-grata by host countries.
9) Functions of Diplomacy
i. Representation: Their main duties are to implement the foreign
policies of their governments and to protect the national
interests of their countries in the alien land. For exercising their
duties successfully, they have to cultivate social contacts on
foreign land.
ii. Negotiation: Negotiating includes transmission of messages
between foreign ministries of host and home states and the
pursuit of agreements by compromise and direct contact.
iii. Reporting: Reporting socio-cultural, economic and political
conditions of host country for formulating diplomatic strategies
and foreign policies (Economic, military attaches and political
officers are sent to get feedback to frame foreign policy);
iv. Protection of the interests of the nation and its citizens in
foreign lands; As per provisions of different bilateral and
international treaties and agreements, a diplomat shall protect
the interests of his nation and its citizens in a foreign land.
10) Tasks of Diplomacy
i. to determine the major objectives of the state, and the power
actually available to fulfill these objectives;
ii. diplomacy must assess the objectives of other states and the
power actually available to fulfill these objectives;
 iii. diplomacy must assess to what extent these objectives are
compatible with each other;
iv. diplomacy must employ the means suited to the pursuit of its
objectives.
v. According to Morgenthau, ëFailure in any one of these tasks
may jeopardize the success of foreign policy and with it the peace
of the world.í
11) Open and Secret Diplomacy
i. Diplomacy, since its inception to the later part of the nineteenth
century, was a clandestine affair. So, for a very large period
diplomatic activities were conducted secretly.The Berlin Congress
Treaty of 1878 was kept a secret.
ii. From the first half of the twentieth century, the demand for open
diplomacy gained ground. People started to denounce secret
diplomacy mainly for two reasons: the spread of democratic ideas
and the hatred that a nation incurred due to secret diplomacy.
iii. Woodrow Wilson, the former US President, was an ardent
supporter of open diplomacy
iv. Features of open diplomacy; rejection of the conclusion of secret
treaties; Conducting of diplomatic negotiations in full public glare.
12) Economic Diplomacy
i. Economic diplomacy means enhancing cooperation with other
states through increasing trade and commercial relations.
ii. Economic diplomacy avoids political differences, and places
greater emphasis on strengthening friendship through economic
cooperation.
iii. In a changed international order after the Cold War, economic
diplomacy gradually gained momentum in different parts of the
world.
iv. The Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan or the Warsaw Pact
were forms of economic diplomacy in some way or the other.
v. The onset of globalization gave a fillip to economic diplomacy.
By the 1980s, third world countries had started liberalizing their
economies. This liberalization programme had presented an
unprecedented opportunity to the developed world to engage in
economic diplomacy with the third world countries
13) Future of Diplomacy
i. In an age of spectacular development of information technology,
the role and importance of professional diplomats are coming
under scrutiny.
ii. With the spread of democratic ideals and growing demands for
open diplomacy, the traditional form of diplomacy is also facing a
crisis. Democratic institutions like the Parliament, media and
peoples ëorganizations are trying to influence the process
of diplomacy.
iii. The world of diplomacy is, therefore, no longer the exclusive
domain of the professional diplomats only; science and technology
and democratic ideals have made deep inroads into this exclusive
world.
iv. The groundwork and issues for talks between heads of different
states have to be prepared by the diplomats, because the
politicians are not always very well acquainted with every detail
of foreign policies.
14) Diplomatic prerequisites
i. Diplomacy must be divested of the crusading spirit; those who try
to achieve higher (or singular) cause become impractical and
impede negotiations.(to understand the weaknesses and strengths
of the other side, where they are coming from, not to lose your
cool and asses the other side).
ii. Foreign policy objectives must be defined in terms of national
interest and supported by adequate power, to enable diplomats to
negotiate effectively.
iii. Diplomats must be able to realize the objectives and interests of
other nations as well.
iv. Nations must be willing to show flexibility on issues not vital to
them or else diplomacy will be in vain.