Trends in Food Science & Technology 80 (2018) 51–60

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

Review

Avocado by-products: Nutritional and functional properties T

a a a b
Rafael G. Araújo , Rosa M. Rodriguez-Jasso , Héctor A. Ruiz , Maria Manuela E. Pintado ,
Cristóbal Noé Aguilara,∗
a
Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, 25280, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico
b
CBQF – Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Porto, Porto, 4202-401, Portugal

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is a tropical and subtropical fruit that is native to Mexico and
Persea americana Mill. Central America; avocado is gaining increasing worldwide acceptance and has received extensive marketing and
Nutritional value a wide distribution due to its relevant nutritional benefits for human health. Mexico harvests more than 30% of
Functional properties avocados worldwide, representing the main producer and exporter of avocado, which has become a crop of high
By-products
interest and has great economic impact on Mexico.
Scope and approach: In this paper, we describe relevant information on the production, composition and ap-
plication of avocado, with an emphasis on its by-products, focusing on the proper use of waste and the possibility
of monetizing waste for nutritional and environmental purposes. The entire avocado is rich in biocompounds
(pulp, seed and peel) and has many health benefits, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant and anticancer activities,
as well as dermatological uses and others. In this paper, we demonstrate the current panorama of production,
exportation and uses of avocado in Mexico.
Key findings and conclusions: Several food grade ingredients can be obtained from avocado wastes, particularly
premium-grade fats or extracts with a high functional power. Studies should continue to identify the profiles and
phytochemicals available to the business sector, which can also be implemented to valorize the nutritional and
functional potential of avocado seeds and peels.

1. Introduction
The word “avocado” derives from the Aztec word “ahuacatl”, which
after modifications by the Spanish language, resulted in the word
“ahuacate” or “aguacate” (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016). Avocado is
native to Mexico and Central America, and there is evidence of its
consumption in Mexico for the last 10000 years (Gutiérrez-Contreras,
Lara-Chávez, Guillén-Andrade, & Chávez-Bárcenas, 2010). The first
evidence of the existence of avocado dates to the presence of avocado
seeds in the Coxcatlan Cave, Tahuacan Valley Puebla, Mexico (Zafar &
Sidhu, 2011). Usually, avocado is referred to as butter pear due its
shape and the smooth texture of its pulp. Avocado belongs to the
kingdom Plantae, family Lauraceae, order Laurales, genus Persea, and
species P. americana (Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). Avocado is the most im-
portant and only edible fruit of the family Lauraceae and has a high
commercial value. The genus Persea has more than 150 species, of
which 70 species grow in warm regions of America (Ding, Chin,
Kinghorn, & D'Ambrosio, 2007; Ranade & Thiagarajan, 2015). Botani-
cally, the name of the avocado is Persea americana Mill., which contains
three ecological races that, in some sources, are incorrectly labelled as
botanical varieties or subspecies. However, the validity of these “bo-
tanical variants" has been questioned by researchers and requires fur-
ther studies (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016). The main purpose of this
review article is to generate interest in the research and development of
new technologies and methodologies to valorize avocado residues and
elucidate the importance and characteristics of bioactive compounds
and added value compounds of avocado to propose these residues as a
source of ingredients or additives in the food industry.
1.1. Avocado tree
The avocado tree is leafy, evergreen and tall and can reach heights
of up to 20 m (Litz, Raharjo, & Lim, 2007). Each tree can produce up to
one million flowers, although only one in a thousand flowers transforms
into a fruit, and a single tree can generate up to a thousand avocados in
a year. The flowers appear in clusters and have the peculiarity of
opening at two different times: first as a feminine flower and later as a
male, thus avoiding self-fertilization (Litz et al., 2007; SIAP, 2015). It is

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cristobal.aguilar@uadec.edu.mx (C.N. Aguilar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2018.07.027
Received 7 October 2017; Received in revised form 27 July 2018; Accepted 28 July 2018
Available online 01 August 2018
0924-2244/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.G. Araújo et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 80 (2018) 51–60

Table 1
Characteristics of principal varieties of avocado.
Variety Parentage Seed size Skin texture Blossom Fruit Shape Skin Colour Skin colour Skin Average Fruit Origin
Type Unripe ripe Thickness weight (oz)

Hass Hybrid Medium Pebbly A Narrowly obovate Green Black Medium 140–340 California
to obovate
Bacon Mexican Large Smooth B Obovate Green Green Thin 170–510 California
Ettinger Mexican Large Smooth B Narrowly obovate Green Green Thin 255–570 Israel
Pinkerton Hybrid Small Rough- A Pyriform Green Green Medium 255–510 California
pebbly
Reed Guatemalan Large Medium A Spheroid Green Green Medium 480–680 California
Fuerte Hybrid Large Medium B Obovate Green Green Medium 255–455 Puebla, Mexico
Lam Hass Hybrid Medium Pebbly A Obovate Black Black Medium 280–510 California
Williams Guatemalan Medium Medium A High spheroid Green Black Medium 225 California
Zutanno Mexican Medium Smooth B Obovate Green Green Thin 310–400 California
Stewart Mexican Small Smooth A Obovate Black Black Thin 170–370 California
McDonald Guatemalan Medium Rough B Spheroid Green/Black Black Thick 340–450 Hawaii
Lula Hybrid Large Almost B Pyriform Green Green N/A 450–680 Florida
smooth
Gwen Hybrid Medium Pebbly A Obovate Green Green Medium 170–425 California
Nabal Guatemalan Large Smooth B Spheroid Green Green Medium 450–850 Guatemala
Mexicola Mexican Large Smooth A Obovate Black Black Thin 110–185 California
Mexicola Mexican Large Smooth A Obovate Black Black Thin 170–200 California
grande
Dickinson Guatemalan Small Pebbly A Narrowly obovate Black Black Thick 170–340 California
General West India Large Mostly A Pyriform Light green Light green Medium 200–510 Morocco
Bureau smooth
Gil Hybrid Large Pebbly A Narrowly obovate Green/Black Black Thick 255–400 Israel
Dickey Guatemalan Small Rough A Pyriform Green Green N/A 340–680 Mexico
Lewis West India Medium Smooth N/A Pyriform Green Black N/A 595 Hawaii
Puebla Mexican Large Smooth A Obovate Black Black Thick 170–450 Mexico

usually necessary to wait five years to obtain the first harvest from
avocado trees that have grown from seeds, and approximately 50 fruits
are obtained during this cycle; production continues to increase with
time. Maximum production is usually achieved after 10 years, with
each tree being able to supply more than 1000 fruits (SIAP, 2015). By
contrast, with grafted trees, the production of fruits takes place in the
first 2 years and reproducibility and fruit quality are totally ensured
(Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). The avocado tree can grow in areas with dif-
ferent conditions, depending on the variety; with mild-winter condi-
tions; dry subtropical and Mediterranean climates; and cool and high
altitude tropical areas, but not under desert conditions (Zafar & Sidhu,
2011).
1.2. Avocado fruit
Avocado is known as alligator pear, vegetable butter or sometimes
as butter pear and is called aguacate, cura, cupandra, or palta by
Spanish-speaking people; abacate in by Portuguese-speaking people;
and avocatier by French-speaking people (Morton, 2004). Avocado can
be as small as 120 g and as large as 2.5 kg; can have a smooth or rough
surface; thin or thick skin; and pyriform, obovate or globose berry;
avocado may have a single seed depending on the variety (Morton,
2004). Avocado is very heterogenous and has a long juvenile period due
to the low occurrence of self-pollination. The varieties are classified as
type A or B based on the flowering pattern, and the flowers are func-
tionally female or male. However, type A is functionally a female flower
in the morning, while type B is female in the afternoon, with two days
of pollination (Litz et al., 2007). Avocado ripening is completely dif-
ferent from that of most other fruits because ripening does not happen
in the tree, but only after harvest. Avocados present in trees achieve
physiological ripening and can remain on the tree for many months
until harvest (Blakey, Bower, & Bertling, 2009; Yahia & Woolf, 2011).
Maturation in the tree is determined by the percentage of dry matter,
which is reciprocal to the percentage of moisture and has been shown to
correlate very well with the post-harvest ripening ability of avocado.
This procedure has become standard for determining avocado maturity
and is currently used worldwide (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016; Zafar
& Sidhu, 2011).
Avocado fruit is dispersed worldwide in tropical and subtropical
regions. There are numerous varieties of avocado around the world,
according to the climate in which they grow, with different shapes,
flavours, textures, colours and smells. The most well-known and mar-
keted types are the Hass and Fuerte varieties (Litz et al., 2007; SIAP,
2015).
1.3. Avocado varieties
Avocado fruit is variable size, shape and weight, depending on the
variety, climatic conditions and agricultural practices used during cul-
tivation (Arriola, Menchú, & Rolz, 1979). Currently, more than 500
varieties of avocado have been identified, but most of them are not
commercially produced due to diverse problems, such as production
time, quality in terms of protein and fat contents, resistance problems
and damage during transportation. There are many differences between
the varieties of avocado, namely, form, weight, size, and flavour, but
the most prominent difference is the colour of the bark during ripening
(Yahia & Woolf, 2011). Avocado is botanically classified into three
groups, which have been termed the Mexican (Persea americana var.
drymifolia), Guatemalan (Persea nubigena var. guatemalensis) and West
Indian (Persea americana var. americana) types or races. The names are
based on the respective origins and differences in growing conditions
and characteristics of the fruit (Bergh & Ellstrand, 1986; Morton, 2004;
Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). Currently, commercial varieties are mainly based
on the Guatemalan and Guatemalan-Mexican hybrid cultivars, for ex-
ample, the Hass variety is a Guatemalan-Mexican hybrid race (Cowan &
Wolstenholme, 2016). Other varieties, such as Bacon, Ettinger, Pin-
kerton, Reed, Fuerte and Lam Hass, are currently commercialized, as
shown in Table 1 (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016; Dabas, Shegog,
Ziegler, & Lambert, 2013).
1.4. Nutritional composition of avocado
Avocado is known for its high nutritional content (Table 2) and
health benefits, which are essentially due to the source of fat-soluble

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R.G. Araújo et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 80 (2018) 51–60

Table 2 Kylli, & Estévez, 2011). The composition of avocado or any other fruit is
Avocado pulp composition (USDA, 2011). dependent on the variety, grade of ripening, climate, composition of
Nutrient/phytochemical Unity Value per 1 fruit 1 serving soil and fertilizers (Alvarez et al., 2012).
100 g 136 g 30 g The lipid content is one of the most important factors in avocado
since it contains a large amount of oil in comparison to other fruits
Proximate
(Ranade & Thiagarajan, 2015) and is rich in polar lipids, such as gly-
Water (g) 72.3 98.4 21.7
Energy (kcal) 167 227 50
colipids and phospholipids, which are important in various cellular
Energy (insoluble fiber adjusted) (kcal) 148 201 44 processes in cell membranes (Zafar & Sidhu, 2011) as well as in
Protein (g) 1.96 2.67 0.59 monounsaturated fatty acids, which are effective in reducing the blood
Total lipid (fat) (g) 15.4 21 4.62 levels of undesirable low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and increasing the
Ash (g) 1.66 2.26 0.5
levels of the beneficial high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (Alvarez et al.,
Carbohydrate (g) 8.64 11.8 2.59
Fiber (g) 6.8 9.2 2 2012; Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016). Compared to other vegetable
Sugars (g) 0.3 0.41 0.09 oils, avocado oil is known to contain high levels of monounsaturated
Starch (g) 0.11 0.15 0.03 fatty acids (oleic and palmitoleic acids), low quantities of poly-
Minerals
unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid) and a significant quantity of sa-
Calcium (mg) 13 18 4
turated fatty acids (palmitic and stearic acids) (Duarte et al., 2016).
Iron (mg) 0.61 0.83 0.18 Other fatty acids are found in avocado oils in a small proportion, such
Magnesium (mg) 29 39 9 as myristic, linolenic, and eicosenoic acids (Carvalho, Bernal,
Phosphorus (mg) 54 73 16 Velásquez, & Cartagena, 2015). The composition of these fatty acids
Potassium (mg) 507 690 152
vary depending on the cultivars, maturity stage, anatomical region of
Sodium (mg) 8 11 2
Zinc (mg) 0.68 0.92 0.2 the fruit and geographic location of plant growth (Lacerda et al., 2015;
Copper (mg) 0.17 0.23 0.05 Tango, Carvalho, & Soares, 2004).
Manganese (mg) 0.15 0.2 0.05 The mineral content of avocado includes an abundant quantity of
Selenium (ug) 0.4 0.5 0.1
potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium and sodium, and other
Vitamins and Phytochemicals
minerals, including iron and zinc, which appear at amounts of less than
Vitamin C (mg) 8.8 12 2.6 1 mg per gram of fresh weight of avocado. The high content of po-
Thiamine (mg) 0.08 0.1 0.02 tassium and low content of sodium are beneficial for persons with low-
Riboflavin (mg) 0.14 0.19 0.04 sodium diets and protect against cardiovascular diseases (Alvarez et al.,
Niacin (mg) 1.91 2.6 0.57
2012; Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016; Zafar & Sidhu, 2011).
Pantothenic acid (mg) 1.46 2 0.44
Vitamin B-6 (mg) 0.29 0.39 0.09 Another relevant advantage of avocado is the presence of vitamins,
Folate food (μg) 89 121 27 such as β-carotene, vitamin E, retinol, ascorbic acid, thiamine, ribo-
Choline total (mg) 14.2 19.3 4.3 flavin, niacin, pyridoxine and folic acid, which are of great importance
Betaine (mg) 0.7 1 0.2
for overall health and wellbeing (Alvarez et al., 2012; Duarte et al.,
Vitamin B-12 (μg) 0 0 0
Vitamin A (μg) 7 10 2
2016).
Carotene beta (μg) 63 86 19
Carotene alpha (μg) 24 33 7 2. Worldwide production
Cryptoxanthin beta (μg) 27 37 8
Lutein + zeaxanthin (μg) 271 369 81
Avocado has a high nutritional content that has recently aroused
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) (mg) 1.97 2.68 0.59
Tocopherol beta (mg) 0.04 0.05 0.01 increasing global interest. Global avocado production in 2014 was more
Tocopherol gamma (mg) 0.32 0.44 0.1 than 5 million tons, with 547849 ha dedicated to avocado production.
Tocopherol delta (mg) 0.02 0.03 0.01 Mexico accounts for almost 30% of total avocados produced and is
Vitamin k1 (phylloquinone) (μg) 21 28.6 6.3
considered to be the largest worldwide avocado producer, producing
Lipids
1.52 million tons (FAOSTAT, 2014). In recent years, avocado produc-
Fatty acids, total (g) 9.8 13.3 2.94 tion and exportation has been increasing due to increasing demand for
monounsaturated this fruit for food and medicinal purposes due to its aforementioned
Fatty acids, total saturated (g) 2.13 2.9 0.64 properties (Chel-Guerrero, Barbosa-Martín, Martínez-Antonio,
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated (g) 1.82 2.47 0.55
González-Mondragón, & Betancur-Ancona, 2016; López-Cobo et al.,
Cholesterol (mg) 0 0 0
Stigmasterol (mg) 2 3 1 2016). Avocado production is adaptable to different tropical regions,
Campesterol (mg) 5 7 2 and for this reason, avocado is produced in more than 60 countries,
Beta-sitosterol (mg) 76 103 23 mainly Mexico, Israel, the United States of America, Colombia and the
Dominican Republic (Chel-Guerrero et al., 2016; FAOSTAT, 2014). It is
important to note that avocados are available throughout the year and
nutrients or phytochemicals (Alvarez, Moreno, & Ochoa, 2012). Avo- that the Hass variety is the most produced and dominates the interna-
cado pulp contains higher quantities of insoluble and soluble fibres (70 tional market due its quality, productivity, resistance to commercial
and 30%, respectively) and proteins than many other fruits (Cowan & management and constant availability (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016;
Wolstenholme, 2016; Dreher & Davenport, 2013) as well as sugar, in- Rodríguez-Carpena et al., 2011).
cluding sucrose and 7-carbon carbohydrates, such as d-mannoheptu-
lose, pigments, tannins, polyphenols, phytoestrogens and perseitol 2.1. Avocado in Mexico
(Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016; Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). The nutritional
composition of avocado pulp has been reported to have a moisture In 2015, avocado production in Mexico was 1.6 million tons and
content ranging from 67 to 78%, lipid content ranging from 12 to 24%, had a value of more than 1 billion dollars. Production was 6.6% more
carbohydrate content ranging from 0.8 to 4.8%, protein content ran- than in previous years, with a harvest area of 166944 ha. Michoacán is
ging from 1.0 to 3.0%, ash content ranging from 0.8 to 1.5%, fibre the Mexican state with the largest area dedicated to avocado plantation
content ranging from 1.4 to 3.0%, and energy between 140 and and provides more than 80% of national production. Michoacán is
228 kcal per avocado (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016; Duarte, Chaves, considered to be the most important avocado producing area in the
Borges, & Mendonça, 2016; Rodríguez-Carpena, Morcuende, Andrade, world due to its microclimate, which is favourable for the production of

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R.G. Araújo et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 80 (2018) 51–60

avocado (“SIAP,” 2015). Mexico contains for more than 20,000 pro- for quality preservation of avocado fruits using biodegradable, natural
ducers and more than 48 exporting and packing companies certified for and bioactive compounds of plants, such as moringa, aloe mucilage,
international export to 16 international markets. In 2015, Mexico re- purified polyphenols from Larrea tridentata, chitosan, carboxymethyl
ported values avocado exportation of 989718 tons valued at 1.9 million cellulose, candelilla wax, pectin and ellagic acid (Aguirre-Joya et al.,
dollars, which represents an increase of 32% compared to the previous 2017; Saucedo-Pompa et al., 2009; Tesfay & Magwaza, 2017). With
year. The United States of America is the main importer of Mexican these strategies, avocado shelf life can increase up to 2 weeks, which is
avocados, followed by France, Japan and Canada (SIAP, 2015). The of great importance in avocado exportation, mainly during exportation
Association of Producers and Packers Exporters of Avocados of Mi- of Mexican avocados to Europe or Occidental countries, such as Japan,
choacán, A.C., (APEAM), reported that 95,000 tons of avocados was due to the extensive transportation time, which can be up to 17 days
sent to the United States, placing this fruit as one of the food prota- (Alvarez et al., 2012).
gonists of the Super Bowl 50.
3. Avocado residues
2.2. Conservation and uses
Avocado fruit is pear-shaped, often more or less necked, oval or
The resistance to ripening of avocado is lost after one to two days
nearly round, may be 7.5–33 cm long and up to 15 cm wide. The skin or
following harvesting (Alvarez et al., 2012; Yahia & Woolf, 2011) and
peel may be yellow-green, deep-green or a very dark-green, reddish-
requires 5–7 days to achieve this level of ripening at room temperature,
purple, or such a dark a purple as to appear almost black and is
leading to an increase in ethylene production and respiration rate
sometimes speckled with tiny yellow dots. The skin or peel may be
(Wang, Bostic, & Gu, 2010). In the avocado industry, fruits are homo-
smooth or pebbled, glossy or dull, thin or leathery, up to 1/4 in (6 mm)
genously ripened in the presence of ethylene and at a controlled tem-
thick, pliable or granular and brittle. In some fruits, immediately be-
perature before processing. Different biotechnological processes have
neath the skin there is a thin layer of soft, bright-green flesh, but gen-
been used to ripen avocados, while preserving its sensory and nutri-
erally, the flesh is entirely pale to rich-yellow, buttery and bland or nut-
tional properties, to obtain avocado pulp, guacamole, avocado sauce
like in colour. The only seed present is typically oblate, round, conical
and oils for food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical purposes (Cowan &
or ovoid, 2 to 2 1\2 in (5–6.4 cm) long, hard and heavy, ivory in colour
Wolstenholme, 2016). Industrially, the main processing technologies
but enclosed in two brown, thin, papery seed coats often adhering to
are lyophilization, freezing, microwaving and high pressure; these
the flesh cavity, while the seed slips out readily. Some avocado fruits
technologies are used to preserve the qualities of the fruit and prevent
are seedless because of a lack of pollination or other factors (Morton,
enzymatic browning, which is the main conservation problem of avo-
2004). As shown in Fig. 1, the seed is composed of a very thin shell
cado pulp (Alvarez et al., 2012; Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). Colour is the most
(endocarp) that encloses the kernel (seed proper). The avocado pro-
important characteristic in judging the quality of a food since sight is
cessing industry produces essential oils, and once pulp is processed,
the first sense employed for the selection and acceptance of any com-
seeds, peels and exhausted pulp are discarded as waste, which results in
mercial product (Souza, Marques, Gomes, & Narain, 2015). Lyophili-
a large amount of solid residues that represent 21–30% of the fruit, with
zation is a post-freezing process and a potential avocado conservation
some exceptions in some varieties (López-Cobo et al., 2016). Another
method, but currently, no promising results have been obtained be-
residue that is generated in large quantities is the residual pulp from the
cause studies have shown (Souza et al., 2015) that freezing, lyophili-
extraction of avocado oils (Dalle et al., 2016). Table 3 summarizes the
zation pressure and rehydration induce darkening of avocado pulp.
chemical composition of seeds and peels of different cultivars of avo-
Microwave treatment by microwave radiation inactivates the enzymes
cado. The composition of avocado residues varies between cultivars and
polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and pectinmethylesterase in 80% of cases
sometimes varies between the same cultivar. This phenomenon is
and prevents the reactivation of PPO during storage. These effects occur
normal because each cultivar is different and there are many factors
due to changes in temperature over short exposure times (80 s with
that influence the composition of the fruit during its development, in-
11 W/g sample) and an increasing the phenolic content up to 29%;
cluding the region of avocado production, climate, altitude, precipita-
however, no significant changes in colour, chlorophyll content or
tion, genetics and others. The predominant constituents of these re-
rheological behaviour have been observed (Zhou, Tey, Bingol, & Bi,
sidues are carbohydrates, such as fibres, hemicellulose and starch
2016).
(seed), which can be a potential source of energy (bioethanol) and
Processed avocado products benefit from the use of high-pressure
produce other added value compounds (Ruiz, Rodríguez-Jasso,
technologies, which allow the maintenance of the original freshness of
the fruit, extension of the shelf-life of the product and, perhaps most
importantly, increase its commercial life. The effect of high pressures
on the enzyme polyphenol oxidase prevents browning and oxidation of
the product (Toledo & Aguirre, 2016; Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). Other ap-
proaches used to inhibit the PPO enzyme include the use of natural
extracts in avocado purees, such as aqueous extracts of Allium and
Brassica, which are effective at preventing the natural darkening of
avocado pulp for 30 days (Bustos, Mazzobre, & Buera, 2015). Ad-
ditionally, avocados are used as fresh fruits to prepare different foods or
sauces and can also be used as a dessert. In this case, the objective is to
delay ripening to extend the avocado shelf life, which consists of re-
ducing ethylene production and the respiration rate to decrease the
responses that lead to ripening, such as tissue softening, cell wall dis-
integration, and pigment degradation (Alvarez et al., 2012). Some
strategies are used to improve the avocado shelf life and preserve its
quality, such as conservation at low temperatures (2–7 °C) (Yahia &
Woolf, 2011); controlling atmospheric pressure with 1-methylcyclo-
propene, which prevents ethylene binding and consequent ripening;
decreasing internal chilling injuries (Pereira, Sargent, & Huber, 2015;
Zhang, Huber, & Rao, 2013); or using a formulation of edible coatings Fig. 1. Pericarp composition of avocado fruit.

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R.G. Araújo et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 80 (2018) 51–60

Table 3
Chemical composition of avocado seed and peel of different cultivars (dry basis, % w/w).
Cultivar Moisture Minerals Lipids Fibres Proteins Carbohydrates Reference

Seed Hass 14.55 2.81 3.32 3.97 0.14 – (Daiuto, Tremocoldi, Alencar, & Vieites, 2014)
Peel 9.87 2.15 2.18 1.29 0.17 –
Seed Hass 7.66 3.85 5.52 3.98 3.44 79.54 (Bressani, Rodas, & Ruiz, 2009)
Utz 9.44 2.79 6.32 4.24 3.09 78.37
Booth 8 1.78 3.48 6.7 4.06 4.9 72.14
Panchoy 5.83 2.73 6 2.67 3.86 81.58
Shupte 8.04 4.3 4.05 2.19 9.63 42.45
Peel Hass 14.5 6.05 9.14 50.65 8.28 62.03
Utz 12.18 2.34 5.47 53.35 2.88 77.14
Booth 8 6.65 3.82 5.62 54.63 3.34 80.57
Panchoy 10.26 3.82 5 48.3 4.39 76.53
Shupte 6.86 4.9 4.31 34.56 5.75 43.62
Seed Hass 54.45a 1.29 14.7 – 2.19 – (Vinha, Moreira, & Barreira, 2013)
Peel 69.13a 1.5 2.2 – 1.91 –

Moisture Minerals Extractives Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin

Seed Hass 7.02 0.87 35.95 6.48 47.88 1.79 (Dávila et al., 2017)
Peel 7.33 1.04 34.38 27.58 25.3 4.37

a
Data reported in wet basis.

Fernandes, Vicente, & Teixeira, 2013). Normally, avocado residues are
not utilized and are discarded as waste, representing a severe en-
vironmental problem (Camberos, Velázquez, Fernández, & Rodríguez,
2013). Avocado residues represent a prospective source of bioactive
compounds containing more phenolic compounds and several-fold
greater antioxidant capacity than blueberries, which are known for
their high antioxidant capacity (Agnieszka et al., 2012; Ayala-Zavala
et al., 2011; Gómez, Sánchez, Iradi, Azman, & Almajano, 2014; López-
Cobo et al., 2016). Another application of avocado residues is the ex-
traction of oils, essential oils and fibres, which are currently highly
sought-after ingredients for producing foods and other products.
3.1. Avocado residue phytochemical profile
The bioactive compounds produced from a plant mainly derive from
secondary metabolic processes (Guzmán-Rodríguez et al., 2013). Avo-
cado residues are rich in a complex mixture of polyphenolic com-
pounds, such as catechin, as well as high polymeric compounds, such as
proanthocyanidins (Soong & Barlow, 2004). Tables 4 and 5 show the
polyphenolic compounds found in avocado peel and seed, respectively.
Avocado residues have been shown to contain phenolic compounds,
such as quercetin glycosides, procyanidin dimers of type A and B,
procyanidin trimers of type A, catechin, caffeoylquinic acid, coumar-
oylquinic acid (Agnieszka et al., 2012; López-Cobo et al., 2016).
3.2. Bioactivity of avocado residue extracts
Extracts of avocado residues have long been used in traditional
medicine to treat many diseases. Currently it is known that avocado
extract has many interesting properties and many potential applica-
tions. Larvicidal, antifungal, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiprotozoal,
antidiabetic, antihypertensive, hypocholesterolemic, and anti-
mycobacterial activities as well as inhibition of lipid and protein oxi-
dation are the numerous biological activities reported to be related to
extracts of avocado residues (Dabas et al., 2013; Jiménez-Arellanes
et al., 2013; Leite et al., 2009; Yasir, Das, & Kharya, 2010). These re-
ported activities indicate that avocado residues contain important
bioactive compounds that can be recovered and applied for different
treatments. Some studies report anticancer properties of avocado ex-
tracts (Lee, Yu, Lee, & Lee, 2008). Previous studies have also reported

Table 4
Polyphenol compounds proposed by Agnieszka et al. (2012) in avocado seed and peel.
Peak Proposed compound Retention time UV ʎmax [M-H]- Fragment MS MS Molecular Formula

Avocado peel
1 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid 15.4 324 353 191, 179 C16H18O9
2 procyanidin dimer B (I) 17.3 278 577 289 –
3 procyanidin dimer A 18.6 279 575 289 –
4 catechin 20.2 278 289 – C15H14O6
5 procyanidin dimer B (II) 23.8 279 577 289 –
6 quercetin-3,4′-diglucoside 26.4 356 625 301 C27H30O17
7 quercetin 3-O-rutinoside 27.2 354 609 301 C27H30O16
8 quercetin-3-O-arabinosyl- glucoside 29.6 355 595 301 –
9 quercetin-3-O-arabinoside 29.7 354 433 301 C20H18O11
10 quercetin 3-O-galactoside 33.9 354 463 301 C21H20O12
11 quercetin-3-O-glucoside 35.5 356 463 301 C21H20O12
12 quercetin derivative (I) 40.3 353 479 301 –
13 quercetin derivative (II) 40.9 353 609 301 –
14 quercetin derivative (III) 44.4 355 565 301 –
Avocado seed
15 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid 10 326 353 191, 179 C16H18O9
16 3-O-p-coumaroylquinic acid 13.5 314 337 191, 163 C16H18O8
17 procyanidin trimer A (I) 19.1 280 863 289 –
18 procyanidin trimer A (II) 21.7 280 863 289 –
19 catechin/epicatechin gallate 33.8 266, 299 441 283, 269 C22H18O10

55
R.G. Araújo et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 80 (2018) 51–60

Table 5
Polyphenol compounds proposed by López-Cobo et al. (2016) in avocado seed and peel.
Peak Proposed compound Retention time UV ʎmax [M-H]- Fragment MS MS Molecular Formula

Avocado peel
1 perseitol 0.868 242/265 211.0823 101 C7H16O7
2 quinic acid 0.914 230/262 191.0561 111 C7H12O6
3 penstemide 4.344 230/272 443.1923 101, 113 C21H32O10
4 chlorogenic acid 4.496 234/295/326 353.0878 191 C16H18O9
5 quercetin-diglucoside 6.456 238/280/352 625.141 301 C27H30O17
6 quercetin-3-O-arabinosyl-glucoside 7.059 236/279/354 595.1305 301 C26H28O16
7 rutin 9.855 234/282/350 609.1461 301 C27H30O16
8 perseitol 0.872 242/265 211.0827 101 C7H16O7
9 quinic acid 0.917 230/262 191.0567 111 C7H12O6
Avocado seed
10 citric acid 1.183 230 191.0197 111, 101, 113 C6H8O7
11 hydroxytyrosol glucoside 3.126 234/280 315.1094 135, 153 C14H20O8
12 1-caffeoylquinic acid 3.585 239/293/324 353.088 191, 179, 135 C16H18O9
13 tyrosol glucoside 4.012 229/276 299.1138 119, 137 C14H20O7
14 penstemide 4.344 234/295/326 443.1924 101,113 C21H32O10
15 3-O-p-coumaroylquinic acid 4.538 238/285/311 337.093 163 C16H18O8
16 4-caffeoylquinic acid 5.075 241/284/326 353.0887 135, 173, 191 C16H18O9
17 vanillic acid glucoside 6.366 239/279 329.0878 123, 167 C14H18O9
18 (1′S, 6′R)-8′-hydroxyabscisic acid beta-D-glucoside 8.546 242/274 441.177 330,139 C21H30O10

anticancer activity via induction of apoptosis of MDA-MB-231 cells by
methanol extracts of avocado seeds, (Abubakar, Achmadi, & Suparto,
2017), while others have shown that triterpenoid compounds isolated
from ethanol extract of avocado seed have significant cytotoxic activity
against breast and liver cells MCF-7 and HepG2, respectively
(Ambrosio, Han, Pan, Kinghorn, & Ding, 2011). demonstrated that two
aliphatic acetogenins in synergism, isolated using chloroform from the
mesocarp of avocados, inhibited the proliferation of the human oral
cancer cell line 83-01-82CA. Others approaches were studied by
(Guzmán-Rodríguez, López-Gómez, Salgado-Garciglia, Ochoa-Zarzosa,
& López-Meza, 2016), who reported that the peptide PaDef, which is
present in chemically synthesized avocados, has anticancer activity
against the breast cancer cell line MCF-7, and (Brooke et al., 2011), who
reported that synthetic analogues of the avocado toxin (+)-(R)-persin
had anticancer activity on the same cancer cell line. Polyhydroxylated
fatty alcohols extracted from seed and pulp of avocados with organic
solvents have an important role as photo-protective agents against UV-
induced damage in skin cells (Rosenblat et al., 2011). Avocatin B, a
lipid derived from avocado fruit, is a novel compound with cytotoxic
activity in acute myeloid leukemia and has been shown to inhibit fatty
acid oxidation and decrease NADPH levels, resulting in ROS-dependent
leukemia cell death, which is characterized by the release of mi-
tochondrial proteins, apoptosis-inducing factors, and cytochrome c.
Many studies have been carried out to verify the antimicrobial ac-
tivity of avocado extracts (Chia & Dykes, 2010). demonstrated the an-
timicrobial activity of ethanol extracts of avocado seed (125–250 μg/
mL) in select gram positive and gram negative bacteria (Salmonella
enteritidis, Citrobacter freudii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter
aerogenes) (Leite et al., 2009). used methanol and hexane extracts of
avocado seeds (0.125–625 mg/L) to demonstrate their antifungal ac-
tivity against Candida spp, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Malassezia
pachydermatis and larvicidal activity against Artemia salina and Aedes
aegypti in vivo. In the hexane extract, a higher larvicidal activity and
higher concentration of β-sitosterol and 1,2,4-trihydroxy-nonadecane
were detected, which were associated with a high larvicidal activity
(Boadi, Saah, Mensah, Badu, & Addai-arhinand, 2015). showed that a
methanolic extract of avocado leaves exhibited a high zone of inhibition
(Falodun et al., 2014). isolated aliphatic fatty alcohol metabolites of
avocado seeds and showed a moderate antimicrobial activity against
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, P. aeruginosa and Mycobacterium
intracellulare, with IC50 values > 200 μg/mL, and strong activity
against methicillin-resistant S. aureus (IC50 13.81 μg/mL). Salinas-
Salazar et al. (2017) reported the inhibitory activity of avocado seed
fatty acid derivatives known as acetogenins against Listeria mono-
cytogenes.
Pahua-Ramos et al. (2012) found that avocado seed flour had low
toxicity and reduced cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
in a model of hypercholesterolemic mice. This effect was attributed to
the phenolic content, antioxidant activity and the dietary and crude
fibre contents of the seeds. Adeyemi, Okpo, and Ogunti (2002) showed
the anti-inflammatory activity of an aqueous avocado leaf extract on
mice with Carrageenan-induced oedema and obtained 57% inhibition
of the control writhes, similar to that of acetylsalicylic acid at 100 mg/
mL in, and 87% of that of morphine at 2 mg/kg with an aqueous extract
at 1600 and 800 mg/mL. Reactive oxygen species production and an-
tioxidative responses in unripe avocado fruits in response to wounding
were reported by Castro-Mercado et al. (2009), while isolation and
chemical identification of lipid derivatives with antiplatelet and an-
tithrombotic activities were reported by Rodriguez-Sanchez et al.
(2015).
The antioxidant capacities of avocado seed and peel of different
cultivars and various methods of extraction are summarized in Table 6.
The contents of phenolic compounds and antioxidants reported in
avocado seed and peel are high but can be increased with the use of
advanced technologies, such as microwave supercritical fluid extrac-
tion, considering several parameters, such as the stability, degradation
and biological activity, of the compounds extracted. It should be noted
that most biological activities are associated with avocado seeds, but it
has also been reported that extracts of avocado seeds possess toxic and
genotoxic activity in mice at concentrations of 500 mg/kg (Camberos
et al., 2013; Rodríguez-Carpena et al., 2011).
3.3. Avocado seed starch
Avocado seeds have been reported to be a natural source of starch
since they contain a high content of this polysaccharide, approximately
30%, making the seeds an alternative starch source (Domınguez et al.,
2014; Lacerda et al., 2015). Commercial starches are obtained from
seeds such as corn, wheat and rice and from some tubers and roots such
as potatoes, sweet potatoes and cassava, all of which are essential foods.
Starch is a natural biopolymer and the most important reserve of
polysaccharides in avocado plants (seed); starch is composed of two
polymers, amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is a linear polymer of α-
1,4-linked glucans, and amylopectin is a larger molecule with highly α
−1,6 branched chains. The morphology, structure, size of starch
granules and ratio between amylose and amylopectin vary according to

56
 Table 6
Phenolic content and antioxidant capacities reported from avocado seed and peel of some cultivars.
Portion Cultivars Region Fresh or Dry Total phenolic content ORAC (μmol DPPH (μmol TE ABTS (μmol TE FRAP (μmol Fe Method of extraction Reference
R.G. Araújo et al.

material (mg GAE g−1) TE g−1) g−1) g−1) (II)E g−1)

Seed
Slimcado Florida Fresh 19.2 229.0 128.3 – – Vortex and sonication extraction with acetone/water/ (Wang et al., 2010)
Simmonds Florida Fresh 40.2 459.3 240.2 – – acetic acid (70:29.7:0.3, v/v/v).
Loretta Florida Fresh 31.5 229.0 159.7 – –
Choquette Florida Fresh 33.4 348.9 157.8 – –
Booth 7 Florida Fresh 33.4 319.8 188.1 – –
Booth 8 Florida Fresh 35.7 368.7 207.3 – –
Tonnage Florida Fresh 33.1 464.4 162.9 – –
Hass Mexico Fresh 51.6 428.8 164.6 – –
Mexico Dry 5.7 0.006 – – 9.5c Agitation extraction with boiling water (Calderón-Oliver et al.,
2016)
Australia Dry 9.5 210.0 – 94.0 – Methanol (80%) extraction with ratio 1:8 (w/v) in a (Agnieszka et al., 2012)
Shepared Australia Dry 13.0 350.0 – 91.0 – thermostatic shaking water bath at 60 °C
Fuerte Spain Fresh 69.1 – 167500 194800 – Acetone/water (70:30, v/v) extraction by (Rodríguez-Carpena et al.,
Hass 60.8 – 130600 159300 homogenization 2011)
Portugal Fresh 7.0 – 43%a – – Water extraction by homogenization at 40 °C (Vinha et al., 2013)
Brazil Dry 57.3 – 410.7 645.8 – Water/ethanol (80:20, v/v) extraction by ultrasound- (Daiuto et al., 2014)
assisted at 25 °C
ND Spain Dry 45.0 616.5 – – – Agitation extraction with ethanol:water (56 and (Gómez et al., 2014)
44.7%) at 63 and 93.6 °C
d
ND Nigeria Dry 29.4 – – – 27.7 Extraction with 1M HCL and methanol (1:1, v/v) (Oboh, Adelusi, & Akinyemi,
2013)
ND Singapore Dry 88.2 – – 725.0b 1484.0 Refluxed Extraction with ethanol:water (1:1, v/v) at (Soong & Barlow, 2004)

57
70 °C
ND Spain Fresh 40 200 – – – Water extraction by ultrasound-assisted batch at 60 °C (Segovia, Corral-Pérez, &
Almajano, 2016)
Peel
Slimcado Florida Fresh 4.6 58.2 39.7 – – Vortex and sonication extraction with acetone/water/ (Wang et al., 2010)
Simmonds Florida Fresh 7.4 226.8 84.9 – – acetic acid (70:29.7:0.3, v/v/v).
Loretta Florida Fresh 7.6 92.3 38 – –
Choquette Florida Fresh 13.9 174.8 90.8 – –
Booth 7 Florida Fresh 13.2 164.9 80 – –
Booth 8 Florida Fresh 8.1 110.5 52.6 – –
Tonnage Florida Fresh 4.3 187.6 51.9 – –
Hass Mexico Fresh 12.6 631.4 189.8 – –
Portugal Fresh 6.8 – 35%a – – Water extraction by homogenization at 40 °C (Vinha et al., 2013)
Mexico Dry 19.7 0.866 – – 23.1c Agitation extraction with boiling water (Calderón-Oliver et al.,
2016)
Brazil Dry 63.5 – 310.0 791.5 – Water/ethanol (80:20, v/v) extraction by ultrasound- (Daiuto et al., 2014)
assisted at 25 °C
Australia Dry 25.3 470.0 – 161.0 – Methanol (80%) extraction with ratio 1:8 (w/v) in a (Agnieszka et al., 2012)
Shepared Australia Dry 15.6 290.0 – 112.0 – thermostatic shaking water bath at 60 °C
Fuerte Spain Dry 172.2 – 199610 242300 – Acetone/water (70:30, v/v) extraction by (Rodríguez-Carpena et al.,
Hass 89.9 – 88940 103800 – homogenization 2011)
ND Nigeria Dry 30.0 – – – 34.6d Extraction with 1M HCL and methanol (1:1, v/v) (Oboh et al., 2013)

ND: Non-Defined.
a
Reported in percentage of inhibition of 0.1 mg/mL of extract.
b
Reported in μmol Ascorbic Acid Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity by g of matter: μmol AEAC g−1.
c
Reported in mg Trolox Equivalents by g of matter: mg TE g−1.
d
Reported in mg Ascorbic Acid equivalent by g of matter: mg A.
Trends in Food Science & Technology 80 (2018) 51–60
R.G. Araújo et al.
the botanic source, stage of development of the plant and environ-
mental conditions, making starch granules a complex and variable
polysaccharide. Starch has been shown to undergo thickening, gelling,
stabilizing and binding, making it a widely used ingredient in the food
industry as well as allowing it to be used in other industrial applications
(textile, paper, biodegradable materials and other products) (Chel-
Guerrero et al., 2016; Henríquez et al., 2008; Lacerda et al., 2014,
2015). Bioethanol is a promising alternative to fossil fuels in the pro-
duction of energy with the added advantages of being non-toxic, bio-
degradable, and a renewable fuel source. Currently, there are three
generations of bioethanol production. The first generation includes
essential feedstocks that are rich in sucrose, such as sugar cane and
sweet sorghum, or in starch, such as corn, wheat, rice, potato, cassava,
sweet potato and barley. The second generation uses lignocellulosic
biomass, such as wood and straws, and the third generation uses algal
biomass, including macroalgae and microalgae (Lennartsson,
Erlandsson, & Taherzadeh, 2014; Mohd Azhar et al., 2017). Starch from
fruit residues such as avocado seeds can be used to produce bioethanol;
however, a physical, chemical, biological or physicochemical pre-
treatment must be carried out to liberate starch sugars and a subsequent
fermentation must be performed to produce bioethanol (Aditiya,
Mahlia, Chong, Nur, & Sebayang, 2016; Bahry et al., 2017). Avocado
starch can thus be considered a second generation bioethanol product,
which may become a new source of raw material for the production of
bioethanol (Perea-Moreno, Aguilera-Ureña, & Manzano-Agugliaro,
2016).
3.4. Technological approach
Through application of the proper technology, avocado seed and
peel can be used as sources of potent natural ingredients and additives
to provide new technological solutions. The physical and chemical
properties of the lipid constituents, polyphenols, starch, and fibres and
the low cost of avocado residues make this material a potential source
of bioactive ingredients for use in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceu-
tical industries. Currently, the use of environmentally friendly tech-
nologies to extract compounds from avocado residues is feasible. To
reduce the negative effects on the bioactivity and structural modifica-
tions of bioactive compounds, in recent years, several promising tech-
nologies have been reported (Carciochi et al., 2017; Chemat, Vian, &
Cravotto, 2012; Galankis, 2012; Wong-Paz et al., 2017). For instance,
pulsed electric field, ohmic heat, ultrasound, microwave, pressurized
liquids, and supercritical fluids can be quite interesting for such pur-
poses (Carciochi et al., 2017). Additionally, biotechnological proce-
dures can be used to extract bioactive compounds, particularly enzyme-
assisted extraction (Gómez-García, Martínez-Ávila, & Aguilar, 2012)
and fermentation-assisted extraction (Martins et al., 2011).
These technologies can be applied to avocado residues using hy-
drophilic or hydrophobic solvents to promote a better extraction of
specific compounds. In vitro studies of the bioactivity of avocado re-
sidues, such as those assessing the bioavailability of bioactive com-
pounds in a human gastric simulation, are essential to determine the
potential use of these compounds in the food and cosmetic industries as
bioactive or structural ingredients for various applications, such as
antioxidants, antimicrobial agents, vegetable oils, or additives, or to
extend the shelf life of certain foods.
4. Patents with avocado uses
Currently there are many uses of avocado that are patented in foods,
cosmetics and the medical field, but these uses mainly involve pulp or
avocado oil. Patents published that use avocado residues include the
application of avocado seeds to prepare a beverage as an antioxidant
tea and the use of seeds as a culture medium. In the future, to increase
the application of avocado residues, it is necessary to conduct more
studies and promote the properties of these residues. The following
58
Trends in Food Science & Technology 80 (2018) 51–60
applications have already been patented.
Food industry
- Application of avocado seeds in beverage and avocado seed internal
heat-reducing tea (CN2017174030 20170210)
- Culture medium derived from avocado seed material (WO2014IB66209
20141120)
- Method for making avocado tea (CN20151887121 20151207)
- Avocado vinegar and making method thereof (CN20151877929
20151204)
- Preparation method of avocado and yoghurt juice (CN201611114285
20161207)
- Apparatus and methods for cutting avocados (US201715449625
20170303)
- Formulation based on roselle plant calices compounds for disinfecting or
preserving avocado (MX20150017441 20151216)
- Avocado paste elaboration process through the ultrafast expansion pro-
cess (MX20150015352 20151105)
- Nutritional fruit juice (CN20151866395 20151127)
- Avocado wine (CN2017163431 20170203)
Cosmetic industry
- A herbal cream (PH20162000705U 20160923)
- Process of producing herbal tea and the product derived thereof
(PH2016200014 U20161215)
- Traditional Chinese medicine mask (CN20171151714 20170315)
- Avocado facial cleanser and preparation method thereof
(CN201611075684 20161130)
Health
- Avocado-derived lipids for use in treating leukemia (US201515517914
20151009)
- Natural extracts for modulating pp2a methylation, and providing anti-
oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity (US201515327875 20150722)
- Topical mosquito control product with sunscreen (US201662281369P
20160121)
- New hair repairing permanent process (KR20160084291 20160704)
5. Conclusions
Avocado is a fruit that is distributed worldwide and recognized for
its nutritional and bioactive composition and extensive health benefits.
Avocado residues are also an important part of avocado because they
are a potential source of nutritional food ingredients due to the high
quality of their starches and oils and high content of compounds with
high biological activity. The distribution of avocados worldwide and
doubled production per year makes avocado residues an easily acces-
sible raw material throughout the year.
Research on avocado residues should be more intensive in the next
few years to identify different phytochemicals and find new compounds
by implementing more adequate recovery and extraction techniques.
Bioactivity, nutritional and sensory studies are necessary to incorporate
these compounds in a final product. It is also important to implement
strategies of cooperation and awareness with the avocado business
sector to better value the potential of these residues.
6. Future trends
The promotion of avocado consumption in terms of its nutritional
and beneficial properties as well as its different applications, for ex-
ample, in cosmetic products, has led to the exponential growth of the
avocado market, with trend that will continue in the upcoming years.
Implementation of a biorefinery, such as that proposed by (Dávila,
Rosenberg, Castro, & Cardona, 2017), with advanced and renewable
R.G. Araújo et al.
technology to recover added compounds from total avocado residues
(seed, peel and exhausted pulp), coupled with the avocado packaging
and processing industry and the improvement in biotechnologies to
obtain added value compounds, can lead to the development of an in-
tegral biorefinery of avocado residues. Isolation, purification, mar-
keting and use of the specific compounds present in avocado residues
that have high bioactivity can be way to better use and valorize these
residues.
Acknowledgments
Author Rafael G. Araújo would like to thank the National Council of
Science and Technology of Mexico for the scholarship received for this
project in the PhD program in Food Science and Technology at the
Autonomous University of Coahuila, México.
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