Engineering Failure Analysis 10 (2003) 165–175

www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Failure of diesel-engine crankshafts

R.K. Pandey*
Department of Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, 110016, India

Received 31 August 2002; accepted 18 September 2002

Abstract
A failure investigation has been conducted on diesel engine crankshafts used in tractors and made from 0.45 %
carbon steel. Premature failure was reported in the web region of the crankshaft. The crankshafts were forged, nor-
malized and partly induction hardened. The investigation included determination of chemical composition, micro-
structural examination, evaluation of tensile properties and charpy toughness as well as hardness determination. The
fracture toughness was estimated from the charpy energy data. The failure zones in various crankshafts were examined
using the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and the micro mechanism of failure in the crankshafts was studied.
Fractographic studies indicated fatigue as the dominant mechanism of failure of crankshafts. Attempts were made to
estimate the stress level required for fatigue initiation from the crankpin-web fillet region. Further, fractographic
methods were used to estimate the stress required for fatigue propagation. Subsequently, the failure time was estimated
and this was correlated with the observed failure times in different crankshafts. The studies indicated that fatigue
initiation from the crankpin-web fillet region necessitated a stress level of about 175 MPa. To avoid recurrence of
failure, machining and final grinding has to be done carefully to prevent formation of discontinuities or crack-like
defects in the fillet region and induction hardening of the fillet is desirable. Also, the fillet radius needs to be increased.
# 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Crankshafts; Fatigue crack growth; Fatigue crack initiation; Engine failures; Stress concentrations

1. Introduction

Recurrence of premature breakage of diesel engine crankshafts was reported from a plant. These
crankshafts were used in tractors with a two cylinder 35 HP engine. The failure time of the crankshafts
varied between 30 h and about 700 h. As such, the design life of crankshafts was expected to be very high.
A study was necessitated to determine causes of the failure of the crankshafts. The crankshaft material was
a C45 steel forging with supposedly good cleanliness. The forging had been normalized to give a hardness
of HB 180-207 prior to machining. The crankshaft was induction hardened on pins and journals (up to a
depth of about 2–5 mm) and finished ground prior to assembling. Fillets were, however, not induction
hardened. The steps involved in the fabrication of the crankshaft are given in Table 1. Fig. 1 shows a
sketch of a crankshaft with important dimensions. The failure time and location of failure are reported in
Table 2. The failure had taken place in the web region in all cases.

* Tel.: +91-11-6596419; fax: +91-11-6581119.

E-mail address: rkp@am.iitd.ernet.in (R.K. Pandey).

1350-6307/03/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S1350-6307(02)00053-5
166 R.K. Pandey / Engineering Failure Analysis 10 (2003) 165–175

Table 1
Steps in fabrication of crankshaft

Bloom
#
Forging to shape
#
Trimming
#
Normalizing
#
Machining
#
Induction hardening
#
Stress relieving annealing (180  C, 2 h)
#
Grinding

Fig. 1. Typical diagram of the crankshaft.

 R.K. Pandey / Engineering Failure Analysis 10 (2003) 165–175 167

Table 2
Details of failure in crankshafts

Crankshaft Time for Failure

No. failure (h) location

1. 162 3rd web

2. 249 2nd web
3. 407 2nd web
4. 677 2nd web
5. 029 3rd web

2. Scheme of investigation

The failure analysis of crankshaft was conducted as per the following scheme.

1. Determination of chemical composition and microstructure of crankshaft material.

2. Evaluation of mechanical properties of the material
3. Visual analysis of failure zone
4. Estimation of fatigue initiation and fatigue crack propagation stress
5. Studies of failure mechanism using scanning electron microscope (SEM)

These are discussed in the following sections.

3. Crankshaft material and microstructure

Table 3 gives the specified chemical composition of the crankshaft material. In the same table the che-
mical composition of the material from the failed shaft is reported by employing a spectroscopic metal
analyzer. It may be seen from Table 3 that the chemical composition of the failed crankshaft is within the
expected range.

Table 3
Chemical composition of crankshaft material

Composition wt.% as specified

Carbon 0.42–0.50
Silicon 0.15–0.35
Manganese 0.50–0.80
Phosphorus 0.045 (Max.)
Sulphur 0.045 (Max.)

Composition based on analysis (wt.%)

Carbon 0.434
Silicon 0.231
Manganese 0.744
Sulphur 0.031
Molybdenum 0.017
Copper 0.173
Nickel 0.216
168 R.K. Pandey / Engineering Failure Analysis 10 (2003) 165–175

The microstructures of journal and pin were tempered martensite mostly. The microstructure of material
from the failure region (web region of the crankshaft) was obtained on a polished and etched section. This
revealed a ferrite-pearlite structure with about 60% ferrite. Some ferrite banding could also be seen in the
microstructure. The microstructure as per composition and heat treatment appears to be normal.

4. Evaluation of mechanical properties

4.1. Evaluation of tensile properties and charpy toughness

Standard cylindrical tensile specimens were machined from the web portion of the crankshaft with a
diameter of 5 mm and a gauge length of 18mm. The tensile properties were evaluated by breaking the
specimens in tension on an MTS machine by conducting at least three valid tests. The tensile properties are
reported in Table 4. The table also includes the tensile properties as specified in the standard. It may be
noted from the above table that the tensile properties of the crankshaft are within the expected range.
Hardness measurements were also conducted on the crankshaft and are reported in Table 5. The measured
hardness values are found to be within the specified range of 180–217 HB.
Standard charpy specimens were machined from the failed crankshaft and the tests were conducted at
room temperature to determine the charpy toughness. At least five specimens were tested to obtain the
charpy V-notch energy. The charpy V-notch energy was found to be as follows: Maximum Charpy
Energy=4.4 kg-m, Minimum Charpy Energy=2.2 kg-m.

4.2. Estimation of fracture toughness

It was not possible to conduct standard fracture toughness tests on the failed crankshaft due to limi-
tation of material. Therefore, the fracture toughness of the material was estimated from the Charpy energy

Table 4
Tensile properties

Tensile properties (supplied) Yield strength =34 kg/mm2 (min)

Tensile strength =60–75 kg/mm2
% Elongation =17

Tensile properties (measured) Yield strength =42.35 kg/mm2 (min) (415 MPa, 59.3 ksi)
Tensile strength =72 kg/mm2 (706 MPa, 101 ksi)
% Elongation =21
% Reduction in area =39
Strain hardening exponent (n) =0.26

Table 5
hardness measurements on crankshafts

Crankshaft Hardness BHN

No. (average) RB (converted)

1. 93.3 202
2. 92.6 198
3. 91.0 190
4. 93.2 201
5. 92.5 197
 R.K. Pandey / Engineering Failure Analysis 10 (2003) 165–175 169

data using the relations available in the literature. To obtain a conservative estimate of fracture toughness
KIC, the minimum charpy energy value of 2.2 Kg-m (15.6 ft lb) was employed.
The following relationships [1] were used to evaluate the fracture toughness.



KIC 2 CVN
¼5  0:05 ; ð1Þ

ys
ys

KIC ¼ 9:35ðCVNÞ0:63 : ð2Þ

Between these two equations, Eq. (2) is supposed to give a conservative estimate of fracture toughness.
In the pabove
ffiffiffiffi equations, KIC, sys and CVN are the fracture tougness, yield strength and the charpy energy
in, ksi in, ksi and ft-lb units respectively. Using yield strength=54.3 ksi (380 MPa) and CVN=15.6 ft-lb
(2.2pkg-m)
ffiffiffiffi for a conservative estimationpofffiffiffiffitoughness, the KIC values are found to be as follows: KIC=61.2
ksi in [using Eq. (1)], KIC=52.78 ksi in [using Eq. (2)]. pffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffi
Thus, the minimum fracture toughness of the crankshaft material is about 53 ksi in=57 MPa m.

5. Visual analysis of failure zone

Some representative photographs of failed webs of the crankshaft are shown in Fig. 2. The fracture
surface presents typical features of fatigue failure. From the orientation of beach marks and other features,

Fig. 2. Macroscopic views of fracture surfaces.

170 R.K. Pandey / Engineering Failure Analysis 10 (2003) 165–175

the fatigue appears to have initiated from the fillet region interfacing pin and web, and progressed almost
over the entire cross section of the web. In some cases multiple origins from the fillet were also noticed. On
the other hand, fatigue could also be found to have initiated from the journal side fillet in some other cases
and the two fatigue zones culminated near the oil hole resulting in final separation. The overall fatigue
surface has about a 45 inclination with respect to the shaft axis.

6. Estimation of fatigue initiation and fatigue crack propagation stress

6.1. Estimation of fatigue initiation stress

Attempt was made to estimate the fatigue initiation stress at the pin-web fillet. The following empirical
relationships were employed [2]
0:25ð0:1EÞ4=ð1þnÞ
Ni ¼ h 2=1þn i2 ð3Þ

eqv: ðSend Þ2=1þn

and
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1

eqv: ¼ Kt s; ð4Þ
2ð1  RÞ

where Ni=the fatigue initiation cycles, Send=endurance limit, E-e1astic modulus, Kt=elastic stress con-
centration factor at the pin fillet, n=strain hardening exponent, S=fatigue stress range, R=stress ratio,
a=? An approximate estimation of stress range ( S) required for initiation of fatigue was made using the
above equations. Substituting appropriate values of above factors, e.g. Send=350 MPa, E=200 GPa,
n=0.26, Kt=3.0 (estimated), Ni=107 cycles (typical value assumed for fatigue initiation), R=0, S is
found to be about 175 MPa. Thus, a stress level of the order of 175 MPa is required for the initiation of
fatigue from the pin fillet.

6.2. Estimation of stress level present during fatigue crack propagation

The fractographic studies were used to estimate the stress level present during fatigue crack propagation.
The fracture surfaces were dissected carefully from the web and cleaned to remove debris or dirt etc. The
cleaned fracture surfaces were examined under the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) at appropriate
magnifications. The fatigue striations were examined at higher magnification and the average spacing
between striations measured at different distances from the pin fillet. Measurements from crankshaft
numbers 1, 2 and 3 (Table 2) indicate a range of striation spacing of about 0.3—0.5 mm at a distance of
about 1 mm from the pin fillet (Fig. 3). This spacing was used to estimate approximate stress level during
the fatigue propagation stage.
The fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR) for the crankshaft steel may be given by the following relationship [3]:
da
¼ 3:6
1010 ð K1 Þ3 ð5Þ
dN
pffiffiffiffi
where da/dN=FCGR in inch/cycle, K1=stress intensity range in ksi in and K1 is given as [4]:
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
KI ¼ 1:43ðKt Þð
1 Þ a ð6Þ
 R.K. Pandey / Engineering Failure Analysis 10 (2003) 165–175 171

Fig. 3. SEM photographs featuring striations.

Substituting average da/dN=0.4 mm, a=1 mm, Kt=3. the stress range
1 is found to be 160 MPa.
Therefore an average stress level of about 160 MPa is likely to be present in the initial stage of fatigue
propagation.

6.3. Minimum required crack propagation stress

Once a fatigue crack has nucleated at the pin fillet, the stress required for its further propagation may be
estimated through a calculation employing pffiffiffiffifatigue crack propagation threshold ( Kth) data for the steel.
Using a typical value of Kth=10 MPa m, and initial fatigue crack depth=0.5 mm (assumed to be the
size of nucleated crack beyond which a propagation stage is considered), the
1 is found to be of the
order of 80 MPa (even if the biaxiality factor is neglected). This shows that once a fatigue crack has
nucleated, its further propagation may be continued even at a low stress level of 80 MPa or so.

7. Discussion

7.1. Estimated time for failure of crankshaft

A rough estimation of overall time for failure (including crack initiation and propagation) can be made
as follows. Assuming number of cycles required for fatigue initiation to be in the range of 107 and con-
sidering a loading frequency of 90, 000 cycles/h, time for fatigue initiation is found to be about 110 h.
172 R.K. Pandey / Engineering Failure Analysis 10 (2003) 165–175

The fatigue propagation time can be estimated using Eq. (5) as:
ð ac
da
Nf ¼ ð7Þ
10 ð K Þ3
ao 3:6
10 1

where ao and ac are the initial and the critical crack depths.
The ac is estimated using the K expression for a semielliptical surface crack as follows [4]:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
KIC ¼ ðMm =Þ
max ac ; ð8Þ

pffiffiffiffi
Using KIC=57 MPa m, Mm=1.35 and f=1.22 for the observed crack on the fracture surface, ac is
found to be=27 mm.
Employing a typical initial crack depth=0.5 mm, final crack depth=27 mm and an average stress,

=80 MPa, during crack growth the crack propagation time is estimated to be about 35 h. Thus, the
total time of fatigue failure (including initiation and propagation) is about 150 h as a rough estimate in
case favorable conditions are available for fatigue initiation.

7.2. Failure mechanism in crankshafts

The fracture surfaces of crankshafts Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 5 were examined under the SEM at appropriate
magnifications to study the mechanism of failure initiation and propagation. The results are summarized
below.

7.2.1. Crankshaft No. 1

This crankshaft had multiple nucleation of fatigue cracks form the pin-web fillet region. At least two
nucleation sites were found to be present. The initiation zone was relatively smooth and did not show
unusually long/deep inclusions or cracks. Beneath the fillet region, however, a zone of scattered micro-
cracks could be seen which appeared to be intergranular in nature (Fig. 4a) The EDAX examination of
grain boundary regions did not reveal any detrimental elements. The fatigue appears to have initiated due
to relatively high stress during the fatigue cycle at the initiation stage.

7.2.2. Crankshaft No. 2

In the pin fillet where fatigue had apparently nucleated, a number of long and deep inclusions of the
order of 200–600 mm length (Fig. 4b) and cracks about 100 mm long parallel to the interface were noticed.
The inclusions were poorly bonded to the matrix as they had separated at the interface. No intergranular
cracks were noticed as such. EDAX examination revealed the presence of Al, Si, Pb, P and S within the
inclusions. The fatigue appears to have initiated through the above surface defects which were likely to be
the source of fatigue cracking. In the presence of long and deep inclusions and micro cracks, the stress
required for fatigue initiation would be reduced.

7.2.3. Crankshaft No. 3

In this crankshaft, multiple nucleation of fatigue at the pin-web fillet was evident from the nature of
beach patterns in the initiation zone. Very close to the surface, long discontinuous cracks (about 400–800
mm length) were noticed (Fig. 4c). In another location, a surface discontinuity (micronotching, looking like
chipping-off of material) was also noticed (Fig. 4d) followed fatigue propagation by fine scale cleavage.
The presence of such defects is likely to expedite the nucleation of fatigue cracks.
R.K. Pandey / Engineering Failure Analysis 10 (2003) 165–175 173

Fig. 4. Fractographic features in the fatigue initiation zones.

174 R.K. Pandey / Engineering Failure Analysis 10 (2003) 165–175

7.2.4. Crankshaft No. 5

In the fatigue initiation zone of this crankshaft, large scale integranular cracking and a network of grain
boundary cracks were noticed (Fig. 4e). In addition, some cracks were noticed at the surface. The inter-
granular cracking zone extended over a distance of the order of 600 mm and more. EDAX examination
revealed the presence of Al, Si, Ca and Mg in addition to P and S along the grain boundaries and in the
inclusions.

7.3. An analysis of the causes of failure in the crankshafts

From the observations made in Sections 3 and 4 it is inferred that the chemical composition and tensile
properties of the crankshaft steel are within the prescribed range. Also the charpy energy/fracture tough-
ness of the steel appears to be reasonable for the given composition and heat treatment. The premature
failure of the crankshafts has been caused obviously by fatigue. The fatigue failure has initiated from the
pin-web fillet in all the crankshafts. The stress level required for fatigue initiation in normal conditions
from the pin fillet is estimated to be in the range of 175 MPa. However, in different crankshafts initiation
of fatigue has apparently been influenced by local surface/subsurface conditions prevailing in the fillet
region.
In both the crankshafts 1 and 2, higher stresses appear to be involved during fatigue initiation. In
crankshaft No. 2, initiation of fatigue has apparently been favoured due to the presence of long and deep
inclusions in pin fillet region. In crankshaft No. 3, long discontinuous cracks in the surface and subsurface
region and a surface discontinuity (micronotching) seem to be responsible for fatigue initiation. In crank-
shafts 1, 2 and 3, the stress level in the initial fatigue propagation stage appears to be approximately 160
MPa.
As apparent from earlier discussions, the situation in crankshaft No. 5 is totally different. A large-scale
network of intergranular cracking in the initiation zone has substantially cut down the initiation life. The
available fatigue life, which is as low as 29 h, is mainly composed of the propagation life (which is
expected to be in the range of 35 h). In all other crankshafts, the initiation of a fatigue micro crack and
its propagation have been necessitated resulting in relatively larger failure times compared to crankshaft
No. 5.

8. Concluding remarks

1. The failure in the crankshafts has been initiated mostly from the crank pin-web fillet region by a
fatigue mechanism. The estimated stress level for fatigue initiation is in the range of 175 MPa.
2. To avoid fatigue initiation from the pin-web fillet region, induction hardening of the fillet resulting
in a tempered martensitic structure is desirable. It may be noted that only pin and journal regions
have been induction hardened in the crankshafts.
3. The machining and especially final grinding of the crankshaft needs special care to avoid premature
failure of crankshafts. The intergranular network of cracks in crankshaft No. 5 and other crack-like
surface discontinuities in crankshafts 1 and 3 have possibly been developed during the machining
and grinding stages.
4. The crankshaft material is quite sensitive to local metallurgical defects in the pin-web fillet region.
Once a fatigue crack has nucleated from the surface defects in combination with occasional high
stressing, its further propagation under cyclic loading is possible even at a quite low nominal stress
(of the order of 80 MPa). To prevent fatigue initiation the fillet radius needs to be further
increased.
 R.K. Pandey / Engineering Failure Analysis 10 (2003) 165–175 175

References

[1] Rolfe ST, Novak SR. Slow bend KIC testing of medium strength high toughness steels, ASTM STP 463, Philadelphia, 1970.
[2] Zheng X. A further study on fatigue crack initiation life—mechanical model for fatigue crack initiation. International Journal of
Fatigue 1986;8(1):17.
[3] Rolfe ST, Barsom JM. Fracture and fatigue control in structures. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall; 1987.
[4] Murakami Y, editor. Stress intensity factors handbook, Vol. 1. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1987.