The Petrology and Geochemistry of Gharyan Volcanic Province, NW Libya

Accepted Manuscript
The Petrology and Geochemistry of Gharyan volcanic province of, NW Libya
N.M. Al-Hafdh, A.S. Gafeer
PII: S1464-343X(14)00382-3
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2014.11.006
Reference: AES 2181
To appear in: African Earth Sciences
Received Date: 22 February 2014

Revised Date: 12 June 2014
Accepted Date: 2 November 2014
Please cite this article as: Al-Hafdh, N.M., Gafeer, A.S., The Petrology and Geochemistry of Gharyan volcanic
province of, NW Libya, African Earth Sciences (2014), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2014.11.006
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The Petrology and Geochemistry of Gharyan volcanic province of, NW
Libya
Al-Hafdh, N.M. 1 & Gafeer, A S.,2

1
Department of Earth Science, Faculty of Sciences, Mosul University, Iraq
2
Department of Earth Science, Faculty of Sciences, Benghazi University, Libya
Correspondence: Alhafdh@yahoo.co.uk
Abstract - Gharyan Volcanic Province (GVP) is one of the four major outpouring volcanic provinces
(Jabal as Sawda, Jabal Al Haruj, and Jabal Nuqay) in Libya. It culminates the extreme NNW – SSE
linear trend with the other province which defining a systematic decrease in age from NWW to SSE.
The voluminous petrologic and chronologic episode in GVP is the Old Lava Series (OLS). This OLS
(55-50 Ma) is flown over 1000 km of Mesozoic rocks that are sliced by Wadi Ghan fault zone. The
second cycle is represented by the phonolite-trachyte intrusions (40 Ma). Those intrusions occur in the
form of laccoliths and plugs where Wadi Ghan fault zone has a conspicuous effect in their
emplacement behavior. The Late Volcanic Center (LVC) is the main young volcanic activity in the
province (< 12 Ma). They show different mode of eruptions on the continuous plateau of OLS. Young
Lava Series (YLS) are minor eruptions that have a distinctive appearance on the field and landsat
image by occupying an ancient buried wadies.
The compound phonolite laccoliths in Garyat Gamatat al –Gharyiha area increase in relief
northwardly due to the imparity of denudation with the OLS flows at the southern portions of the area.
One those phonolite samples show a crustal contamination due to its anomalous in Sr content. The
radial pattern of OLS flows in Urban area has some differentiation degree by their relative evolution
from basalts to basaltic andesites. The chemistry of LVC in the same area does not show close
concordance with the LVC basanitic suite of Busrewil and Wadsworth (1980). On other hand, the
basaltic sill in Garyat Gamatat al –Gharyiha area is belong to the LVC activity in GVP by their
concordant with the geochemistry of LVC basanitic phase. The ultrabasic rocks in the investigated
areas are four-phase lherozolie (olivine + orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene + spinel) restrict only in
1
LVC phase as sub-rounded nodules. These xenoliths penetrate the whole crust with relatively large
velocity by melts with sub-continental mantle source (OIB) beneath GVP.
Key words: Gharyan(or Ghiryan or Ghirian) province, basaltic rocks, geochemistry, petrology,
Tripolitania, Libya.
INTRODUCTION
Among the major outpouring volcanic provinces in Libya, GVP is the most accessible one. About
3000 km2 of continuous sheets of lava flows (Almond et al., 1974) lay in the extreme NW corner of
Libya and rest on Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. It occupies the area between Gharyan, Mizdah, Bani
Walid, and Tarhunah towns.
The northern peripheral outlines of the GVP principal body are flown over the marly, dolomitic
limestones of Sidi as Sid and Nalut Formations of Cenomanian – Turonian ages, while the eastern and
southern parts have rested over marl, shale, chalky limestone of Mizdah Formation of Santonian –
Campanian ages.
Physiographicaly, the GVP is generally considered as a part of Jabal Nafusah’s plateau. The
escarpment of Jabal Nafusah trends roughly NW – SE from Jado passing through Gharyan up to Al-
Khums and wedging out the Jifãrah Plain with the coast eastward. Westwardly, the escarpment
proceeds faintly E –W when it reaches Tunisian borders (Figure 1).
The GVP rocks are the geologically best investigated volcanics of Libya. The studies of
2
Figure (1) True color landsat images showing the locations of the major outpouring volcanic
provinces in Libya and a block diagram of the Jabal Nafusah-Jifarah area (after Miller, 1971).
3
petrology and chemistry concerns have started by Piccoli (1960), when he had the opportunity to
study in the field the volcanic phenomena of northern Tripolitania, afterwards, laboratory studies were
carried out and the results published as short notes. The main petrologic and chronologic units of
GVP established for first time, when Piccoli and Spadea (1964) have discussed the petrography and
chemistry for rocks from sporadic areas associated with age dating of 10 samples, and their results
have been summarized in English by Piccoli (1971).
Almond et al. (1974) undertook the more detailed petrographical studies with some geochemical
elaborations in the main petrologic units of GVP, due to 39 analyses illustrate the distinctive chemical
characteristics of each episode in the province.
In 1980, Busrewil and Wadsworth discussed the genesis of the basanitic suite for the volcanic centers
episode, by 21 whole-rock chemical analyses and mineral chemistry for 15 selected pyroxenes and
olivines in the suite.
Further field observations and description associated with whole-rock K-Ar age data accomplished by
Busrewil and Wadsworth (1996).
Emphasis placed on age relationships and mineralogy of the phonolites intrusions by Bausch (1978,
1980). Bausch and Meduna (1991) provided a study for the geochemical position of the Jabal Nafusa
phonolites with other worldwide phonolite provinces.
The Industrial Research Center published geologic maps of the area at scale 1:250.000 with
explanatory booklets (El Hinnawy and Cheshitev, 1975, Mann, 1975; Zivanovic, 1976; Antonovic,
1977,).
Geological and geochemical constraints on the origin of Gharyan volcanics for three phonolite-
trachyte bodies and basalt dyke-like body in the Gharyan area provided by Aboazom et al. (2006).
indications to elucidate the provenance and paleogeographic setting of the region.
Some metasomatic events were recorded by Beccaluva et al. (2006) in peridotite xenoliths of Gharyan
volcanics and discussed as metasomatic events in the lithospheric mantle beneath NW- Libya.
This study is basically a contribution to enlarge the data base of GVP from structural point of view,
creating high resolution geologic map of the investigated area, and adding new geochemical data to
the province through the chemical analysis of samples collected from new locations.
4
Eruption History of Gharyan Volcanic Province
GVP is the smallest of the four principal Tertiary volcanic areas in Libya, and consists of continuous
lava sheets in the central part of Jabal Nafusah. The other three areas are Jabal as Sawda (6000 km2)
(Woller and Fediuk, 1980), Jabal Al Haruj (50,000 km2) (Aboazom, 2005), and Jabal Nuqay (Figure
1).
The volcanic formations in GVP are predominantly basaltic associated with ultramafic rocks plus
phonolitic-trachytic intrusions. This package of volcanics has distinct phases of eruptive activity.
Their periods of volcanism, mode of occurrences and emplacements in the area, make the previous
studies to comprise those phases into four petrologic and chronologic units (Almond et al., 1974;
Busrewil and Wadsworth, 1996).
These four principal manifestations have conspicuous morphological appearance in the field and in
landsat images (Figure 2). According to absolute age dating of K/Ar method cited by Piccoli (1971),
mode of occurrences, and previous studies descriptions; the volcanism of the four major phases can be
summarized in the following scenario:
a. The earliest volcanic activity in the province is represented by those rocks forming the lower part
of highly-widespread continuous sheets of lava flows, that has assigned absolute age determination of
55-50 Ma (Early-Eocene).The principal area of this episode lies between the towns of Gharyan,
Mizdah , Tarhuna and Bani Walid. This unit has described under different names, such as flood
basalts, plateau lavas, and old lava series (OLS), in purpose of adding genetic and morphologic
impression for those continuous sheets of basalt flows. They are very uniform in composition, lying
close to the basalt-hawaiite boundary in most respects, and displaying characteristics which are
b. transitional between alkalic and tholeiitic affinities (Busrewil and Wadsworth, 1980). The whole
effusion which consists of several flows rarely exceeding 1m in thickness of a single flow sheet.
5
Figure (2) True color landsat image showing the major volcanic phases of GVP, plateau lava
phase including the old lava series and its subordinate young lava series, note the fresh color
of plateau lava revealed by degrading of wadies within it. The late volcanic centers marked
by black-reddish brown spots; and the phonolite and trachayte intrusions clustered at the foot
of Jabal Nafuah escarpment, north Gharyan town (top left), and the other group north the
plateau lava periphery (top center).
6
c. Its spatial dimensions give an impression to be a very rapid eruption, so that the basaltic cover
extended over the entire area in short time, making the inequalities of the land disappear. This fact
implies low viscosity and high temperature of the lava, which is typical of the fissure type eruption.
The variability and inconsistency of the underlying Cretaceous country rock suggesting a highly
dissected relief before they were invaded by volcanic flows (Piccoli and Spadea, 1964).
d. The second cycle in the province is represented by phonolitic -trachyitic intrusions as suggested
by their ages, ranging between 37.9-40.7Ma (Late Eocene-Early Oligocene). These intrusions are
acting as hypabysal more than deep-seated modes, and are mainly clustered into two groups, north
(e.g. Ra’s sidi Masid, Ra’s al –Ahmer, and Ra’s Shamnah); and northwest of the plateau lava (e.g. Kaf
Tekut, Kaf Abu-Ghannush,, and Kaf Mantrus ). Their features are localized in comparison with the
areal development of the flood basalts. They form prominent rising hills and display a variety of field
relationships to the country rock, from laccolith or sill-like, to plugs and ring dikes.
e. The central eruptions is the followed activity in the province, where the flood basalts carpet has
pierced by volcanic vents building positive structures of volcanic edifices above the general relief.
The age dating for the samples collected from those eruptive centers show ranges between 11.5-8.5
Ma (Middle-Late Miocene). Late Volcanic Centers (LVC) is the term used to describe this episode,
and to indicate their vent eruptions mode as a younger igneous activity in the province. Away from
the plateau lava, the centers are easily recognized even from a distance by their dark colour which
contrasts with the white Cretaceous limestones.
f. 5.7-3.5 Ma (Pliocene) are ages were recorded in the province from flows at Bani Walid and
Tigrinnah area (SE Gharyan) that are compositionally and texturally similar to flood basalts flows
OLS. Their distinctive morphologic appearance and young ages force the authors to identify them as a
separate episode rather than merge it with OLS episode. These young phases of volcanic activity have
taken place after the establishment of the drainage system, since these flows have filled the wadis and
were in their turn cut by further development of the drainage system. The distinction of the two types
of flows called by Valley Basalts Flows or Young Lava Series (YLS).
7
Geologic Outlines of GPV Province
The GVP is not a mountain range but rather a vast plateau which has been strongly affected by
erosion. The present time areal distribution of the GVP is showing many volcanic centers and some
disintegrated volcanic segments set away at distances, in some cases reach over than 20 km from the
main volcanic field. Therefore, the original extent of the basalt flows can thus be estimated to have
been about one third (30%) greater than that of today (Piccoli, 1971) (Figure 3).
Old Lava Series (OLS) and Young Lava Series (YLS) concept
The concept of OLS and its subordinate YLS can be clarified between those continuous sheets of lava
flows and the sinuous linguiform flows extending from the main volcanic region, respectively.
On field evidences, the YLS was recognized by different ways. In the vicinity of the present drainage
system of Wadi Ghan, Christi (1955) reported the existence of basalt on the crust of hard pan and
caliche had been formed previously in the wadi bed. He believed that the basalts postdated the
topographic features and must be very young, possibly of early Quaternary or late Pliocene age.
Furthermore, along Wadi Al Hamam, Busrewil and Wadsworth (1996) have observed the existence of
basalt on top of a soil-supported conglomerate.
On landsat imagery, the YLS have a distinctive appearance, particularly toward Beni Walid (Wadi
Tininai, Wadi Ghubeeen). The high tone contrast between the Upper
8
Figure (3) Geologic map showing the distribution of Gharyan Volcanic Province with
localities terms used in the text. KM=Kaf Mantrus, RT=Ras Tunat, KT=Kaf Tekut, AG= Abu
Ghannush, RSM= Ras sidi Masid, RL= Ras el-Lamouj, RH=Ras Harmel, RK=Ras al-
Khaligha, RR=Ras Rumaymin, RT=Ras Thulayb, RM= Ras al-Muhar. ( The map compiled
from I.R.C. Sheets Al-Khums Sheet:N1 33-14. Bani Walid Sheet: NH 33-2, Mizdah
Sheet:NH 33-1. Tarabulus Sheet: N1 33-13).
9
Cretaceous host rock (Mizdah Formation) and basalts depict the spreading behavior of them as valley
controlled flows. In addition, Piccoli (1971) has assigned the absolute age determinations for those
flows as upper Pliocene in age.
However, the YLS is considered as a Quaternary period of volcanism poured out small quantities of
basalt on the surface in comparison with the extensive sheets of OLS (Busrewil and Wadsworth,
1996).
Intrusive centers
Many dykes, sills and basalt dyke-like bodies were reported in different areas of the GVP (El
Hinnawy and Cheshitev, 1975; Mann, 1975; and Zivanovic, 1976). Generally, these occur in two
main areas: north of the plateau lava, notably near Gharyan town (Gray, 1971), and to the west and
south of the plateau near Mizdah.
Most of those intrusive bodies are un-mamable and have very limited length of outcropping. Their
strikes have northwest directions and occasionally northeast, coincide with the dominant structure
system in the region.
There is no significant declaring to those dikes and sills in the previous studies from genetic point of
view, if they can be considered as the feeders for plateau lavas or for LVC episode. In many
occasions, they were described as the remnants of LVC vents - (Busrewil and Wadsworth, 1980) - or
relative to phonolite-trachyate episode as a younger activity, when Aboazom et al.,(2006) have
described a basalt dyke-like body (Kabdet El-Gamel area) cuts across the phonolitic rocks.
Phonolite-Trachyte suite
In general, the phonolite-trachyte intrusions rise dioptrically the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, forming
elevated, black conical with snuppy apex hills. They are clearly laccoliths in which showing some
arched sediments along their peripheries, particularly with those broad dome-shaped intrusions. In
other examples, they strike discordantantly with steep contacts against almost horizontal sediments.
The phonolite-trachyte suite in GVP has a characterization of viscous alkaline magma rising with
varying degrees of success. Some appear to solidify at depths in a transgressive mode, while others
form domes beneath a thin roof of country rock or even protrude at the surface. This is proved by
vesicular textures observed at some hills, such as a small hill 1 km NW of Kaf Abu Ghannush
10
(Almond et al., 1974). Therefore, those bodies can be considered as hypabysal bodies when they
invaded the overburden sequence and the present erosion level of the country rock has been revealed
them at different elevations.
The phonolite-trachyte intrusions are roughly aligned in parallel lines trending NW-SE, and in few
cases the intrusions themselves is elongated in the same direction such as Kaf Abu Gannush. This can
be a reflection of their terrains structure in which is heavily dissected by normal faults trending
mainly in the same direction and occasionally NE-SW.
For phonolite-trachyte intrusions north Gharyan town are locally associated with structural domes.
Although, some of these intrusions center the structural domes, but Gray, (1971) has proved that the
outcroppings of those intrusive rocks are postdating the formation of those structural domes.
Compositionally, some of the large intrusions show a gradation differentiation from phonolite and
phonolitic trachyte at the outer margin and inwardly to trachyte, such as Kaf Abu Gannush (Aboazom
et al., 2006)
However, the geologic setting of phonolite-trachyte suite in the GVP evokes much wonderment upon
chronologic, petrogenetic, and areal distributions levels. One of these paradoxes is that the phonolite-
trachyte suite is representing the Late Eocene- Early Oligocene extreme differentiated members of
alkaline-magmatic series in the province, while the basicity is still active through younger volcanic
episodes (LVC and YLS), in which they have ages from Middle Miocene to Pliocene. The same
problem was encountered in Jabal al-Hasawinah volcanics (west central Libya) where the phonolite
suite assigned an age of 15.7-23.2 Ma and 24.6 Ma for the basaltic suite (Busrewil and Oun,
1991).Therefore, this can be a strong suggestion that the rock formation in GVP is derived from
different parent sources (Almond et al., 1974; and Aboazoam et al., 2006).
Variety of Late Volcanic Center (LVC)
The rocks of the volcanic centers show a wide range of composition than either the plateau lavas or
the phonlitic-tachytic rocks. Most of them are basanitic, but locally they display gradations toward
trachybasalt
compositions (Busrewil and Wadsworth, 1980).Even the age of this episode appears a substantial time
range, beside to those cited by Piccoli (1971) 8.5 and 11.5 Ma of Ra’s Tibrah and Ra’s al Muhar
11
respectively; younger ages were reported by Busrewil and Wadsworth (1996) from different locations
ranging from 7.7±1.5 to 1.3±0.5 Ma.
Mainly, the LVC are resting on top of OLS, also some individual volcanic centers are located around
the main lava field. The more detailed field investigations of Almond et al.(1974) revealed that most
of the centers represent the remnants of the intravolcanic (and subvolcanic) structures rather than
complete constructional edifices.
According to nature and amount of erupted material and mechanism of eruption, three types were
recognized in the province: shield volcanoes, scoria and composite cones. The later only reported at
the eastern half of the GVP (Mann, 1975; and Zivanovic, 1977).
In spite of the LVC are aligned along variously conspicuous lines running NW- SE as described by
Piccoli, (1971) and Mann (1975), the NE-SW component is present as well, at least in local scale. In
many places upon the plateau lava field – as shown up in the topographic map and landsat images –
some eruptive centers are emplaced at more close distances in NE-SW trends than in NW-SE trends.
Moreover, some individual shield volcanoes are elongated in NE-SW trends such as Ras al-Khaligha
and Ras Harmel. Their elongations are considered as a reflection to the trend of the rift zone beneath
(Blatt and Tracy, 1996).
Surface and Subsurface Emplacement of Major Volcanic Phases in GVP
The upward movement of magma in Tertiary time through about 1000m of Mesozoic rocks in the
GVP has been facilitated and controlled by pre-existing structures associated with the flexure of the
crustal block beneath. Beside to some regional reactivations of old structural lineaments reported by
Lipparani (1940) and Klitzsch (1968) in NW Libya are chronologically accompanied with the
magmatism period in the region. It seems to be those reactivations are the main cause to trigger the
volcanic activity in NW Libya.
An attempt is based on the analysis and interpretations of pre-Tertiary faults and folds in Jifarah plain
provided by Anketell and Ghellali (1991), to consider areal and spatial distribution of the major
volcanic phases of GVP on surface in terms of the dominant structure regime in subsurface.
12
The GVP is distributed in two major physiographic units, the Jifarah plain where a minor group of
phonolite-trachyte intrusions cluster at the foot of Jabal Nafusah escarpment, north Gharyan town, and
the main volcanic field rests upon the Jabal Nafusah plateau.
Like any fissure eruptions province, the GVP occurred as magma erupts to the surface through an area
that has been undergone regional extension, in which can be deduced by the presence of Wadi Ghan
fault zone (Figure 4).
The Wadi Ghan fault zone is a part of the Jifarah fault system. It is one of the spectacular in the
region, largely since many of its component faults crop out in Jabal Nafusah around Wadi Ghan. The
component faults display two dominant trends, NW-SE and WNW-ESE, NE-SW faults also occur but
are rare.
However, while it is true that the Wadi Ghan fault zone have dissected the Mesozoic sequence
underlying the GVP , but does not affect the Masterichean sediments south of the basalt plateau, it is
suggested below that this may be due to the faults having died out in this direction.
Consequently, it seems to be the Wadi Ghan fault zone has been played a significant role for the
planar conduits or feeding roots that tap the magma source and supply the flood basalts in the
province. This can be clearly correspond with the great bulk of outpourings that was extruded over
land surface – following the slopes of the upper Cretaceous paleotopography – in a distinctive
manner, giving an impression that the lava flows mainly have been issued from a specific zone which
abduce about 10km east Swani Ghan area (Figure 5).
The change in volcanic style from fissure eruptions in the earlier phases to central vent landforms
(phonolite-trachyte intrusions and LVC) is probably due to the time gaps and changing in the magma
properties between the phases. The successive rising of the magma over a sufficient time span,
eventually it solidifies and plugs the old feeders and forcing later eruptive phases to seek other
conduits nearby.
13
Figure (4) Surface and subsurface Mesozoic structural faults of Jifarah plain, NW
Libya (after Anketell and Ghellali,1991).
14
Figure (5) True color landsat image of the GVP mosaiked by overlain contour lines to depict
the spatial distribution of plateau lavas (elevation are in meters a.m.s.l.)
15
The aggregation and arrangement of phonolite-trachyte bodies’ north Gharyan and Garyat Gamatat al
Gharayah are a reflection of two aspects: The physical properties of alkalis rich magma, in particular,
viscosity and volatile content; and the faults and fractures in those areas. These two aspects were
affected the rising and emplacement mechanisms of magma on its way toward the surface without
reaching it.
The spatial emplacement of LVC shows a relative increasing in the density and size eastward over the
plateau lava, accentuating the assumption that the earlier feeding fissures of the plateau lava are
mostly dominated westward (Figures 6 and 3).
The Wadi Ghan fault zone is related to the strike slip movements on deep-seated basement faults of
the Hercynian west-east lineament (Atlas lineament or Sahara flexure) which separates the
Mediterranean from the Sahrah platform (Figure 7).
The deep seated basement fault of of Wadi Ghan zone is a NW branch of the E-W trending one in Al
Aziziyah zone. The sinistral slip was the dominant movement on the basement faults, since the
initiation of the west-east Atlas lineament at NW Libya in Permian time. This movement initiated the
Wadi Ghan fault zone in a copmressional stress field, making up them as a leading contractional fan
with reverse dip movements. This action has been continued until a regional reversing in Atlas
lineament in late Paleocene-early Eocene times, when a changing from sinistral to dextral
displacement on the basement shears, providing an extensional stress field to the Wadi Ghan faults to
reactivate their final normal dip-slip movements on the pre-existing faults and create new faults.
It is notable to say that the oldest ages assigned in the GVP are 53.5-52 Ma (early Eocene), in which
suggesting that the early eruptions occurred as a response to this late Paleocene-early Eocene
extensional stress.
Urban Area
Urban area basically comprises of vast lava flows superimposed by heavily eroded sporadic volcanic
centers. The area is permeated from the north by Wadi al War and Wadi al Marghaniyah where their
1st order tributaries issued from an apex (985 m.a.s.l.) in the south of the map area (lat. 310 58’ 57’’
N; long. 130 15’ 14’’ E). Theses wadies expose the subsequent effusions of the lava flows and
16
gradually the underlying marly limestone of Tigrinah Formation (Turonian-Coniacian) toward the
north as the wadies relief increases.
Topographically, the general slope of the area is steadily decreased from the highest point in a radial
pattern as long as the lava sheets spread out with local interruptions caused by raising the volcanic
centers above the general relief (Figure 8).
Lava Series
The lava series in the mapped area is extensively covered by its own erosional products, soil and
vegetation, particularly, those areas are dominated by gentle slopes The explicit flow structures can be
depicted only in the shallow degraded wadies and northwards at wadis al War and al Marghaniyah.
Thicknesses of individual flows vary between few dm to a meter size; with a steady thickness extend
on a km-scale. In case of those flows that are incised by the major wadies northwards, it is practically
impossible to follow them southward, as there are no obvious or significant lithologic variations
among them (Figure 9).
In few local areas, the basal levels of these rocks rest on a strongly varied base indicate that the
effluent lava flow had a low viscosity. All observed flows are pahoehoe flows and characterized by
superficial flow features, in which the discrimination between individual flows was made on
megascopic characters: thin vesicular zones at the top of a flow with pipe vesicles/amygdales (in a
cm-scale) and vesicular type contact between upper and lower flow. The amygdales that filled with
secondary calcite and the vesicles exhibit rounded ellipsoidal, irregular and elongated shapes (Figure
10).
The plateau lava has an inconsistently relief suggesting considerable variations in the country rocks
paleotopography before they were invaded by volcanic flows. This fact was approved where many
places show an entire set of flows do not exceed 2-3 m while others more than 10 m of only exposed
thickness (Figure 11).
17
Figure (6) The study area locations [red squares], A- Urban area and B- Garyat Gamatat al –
Gharyiha area; and the investigated fields of Almond et al. (1974); and Busrewil and
Wadsworth (1980) [cyan areas] in the GVP. The topography of the study area was digitized
and gridded for utilizing the Digital Elevation Model (DEM).
18
Figure (7) Schematic map of the major structural elements of North Africa since Cambrian
time. The present day basins and uplifts of the central Sahara area have to be understood
mainly as the result of the different structural eras. The Tertiary volcanism is bound to the
overlap of older structural elements (after Klitzsch, 1971).
19
Figure (8) The Gridded 3-D surface of Urban Area, a- the elevation a.m.s.l. model with 30m
intervals, and b- the geologic model. (X Scale: 1.0 in = 66.55648032 Map units; Y
scale: 1.0 in = 66.55648032 Map units; Z scale: 1.0 in = 357.7403119 Map units).
20
Outside the map area, along Swani Ghan – Urban paved road (long. 130 04’ 20’’E; lat. 320 02’ 55’’
N), a magnificent profile of lava flows (in a m-scale) extend on both sides of
Figure (9) General view of several lava flows [arrows] unconformably overlying the marly
limestone of Tigrinah Formation on the eastern side of Wadi al War.
(b)
(a)
Figure (10) Typical pahoehoe subsequent flows revealed by a gully erosion, 2 km west Ras Harmel
(a). The inflated flows have cavernous upper and lower surfaces in which are highly vesicular above,
less so below, and are compact in the central portions (b).
21
the road with smooth surfaces and a limited geographic extent. They are down flown over pre-existed
terraces with exposed thickness ranging from 2-3 m. These terraces are composed of poorly
consolidated wadi deposits predominantly of rounded to sub-rounded, low spherecity limestone grains
ranging from pebble up to boulder size associated with few embedded basaltic boulders (Figure 12).
The criteria of those flows are forcing to categorize them as one of the Young Lava Series (YLS) in
the province.
Shield Volcanoes
The shield volcanoes in Urban area are broad flat cones, with low profiles, strongly modified by
erosion, marked by the presence of radial drainage system and/or their sides are breached from the
central portions, especially, the elongated ones.
These volcanoes are relatively small (< 1 km in diameter) if compared with those 8-10 km in diameter
of Jabal as Sawda and Al Haruj Al Abiyad shield volcanoes (Woller and Fediuk, 1980; and Nemeth et
al., 2003).
The related lava flows of shield volcanoes can be easily traced in the true color landsat imagery by
their distinguishable contrast with underlying pale colored plateau lava flows. They are extended
(hundreds of meters) away from their eruptive centers under the influence of gravity into adjacent low
areas.
Ras Harmel : This volcanic center is an elliptical shield volcano with a bullet-shape in map view, and
the elongated base diameter is up to 400m striking N350E. The volcano is extensively covered by in
situ fragmentary materials, soil and its composing thin multiple flow units at the outward slopes. The
central parts are strongly affected by abrasion process that breaching the southern flank by a gully
opening southeastward. Some eruptive phases culminating by Hawaiian-style lava fountaining
associated with spatter deposits and preserved around the crater zone giving an impression to be as
parasitic cones (Figure 13).
Ras el-Ajared : This shield volcanoes is laid in the extreme south-east corner of the mapped area. Ras
el-Ajared is also an elongated shield volcano with about 800m protracted base diameter in N500W
direction. Ras el-Ajared has less volcanic complexity than Ras Harmel with a single major outpouring
phase forming the rising rim around the crater depression which is breached from two ends. The
22
inward slopes are gentler than the outward ones in between (50 to 100). It is thought that the volcanic
activity life of Ras el-Ajared is shorter than Ras Harmel.
Ras el-Lamouj : is more or less circular in map view and consists of several looped conical basaltic
ridges arranged around well developed central volcanic vent which rising about 1-2 m above general
level of the eroded crater depression. A radiating dike-like body issues from the central vent and
extends few meters northward, it is probably an extension to the larger one depicted outside the
southern flank with N-S trend. The volcano is about 500m in diameter (Figure 14).
Composite Volcano (Stratovolcano)
A small and asymmetrical remnant of composite volcano has been found at 1.6 km southeast Ras
Harmel (long. 130 21’ 01’’ E; lat. 310 59’ 51’’ N). ). It occupies an area of about 0.03 km2 with a hill-
like landform, lacking a central crater depression, and gently slopping northward.
The volcano clearly shows arranged steps of alternating layers of lava flows and pyroclasitc materials
at the western side, but they comparably fade out as the slope decreases eastward. The volcano is
crowned by two prominent satellite “pipe” structures vent and the magma had already crystallized
them before the explosive expulsion exhibiting the same arrangement between pyroclasts and dense
rocks but in a smaller scale with about 18m in diameter for each (Figure 15).
Scoria Cone
This volcano has been built by poorly stratified scoria deposits with angular, moderately vesicular, red
to brown, and lapilli-sized twisted fragments. The volcano is semi-circular in plan view with bowl-
shaped crater (approx. 150m in diameter and 25m depth), and the outward slope of eastern flank base
is cut by Urban highway (long. 130 13’ 58’’E; lat. 320 01’ 22’’ N). The large flatted base of the cone is
believed to have been deposited by fall-out, and by rolling and grain-avalanches down on the cone
slope.
23
(a)
(b)
Figure (11) The maximum observed thickness of the plateau lava in a quarry nearby Urban police
checkpoint, about 15 m of massive, structurless, and dense meso-melanocratic basalts (a). The upper
parts are characterized by presence of fibrous calcite partially filling deep cavernous vesicles (b).
(b)
(a)
(c)
Figure (12) Small cycles of normally graded bedding (in a dm-scale) composed mainly of limestone
and basalts that have the same texture and composition of the overlying flow (a), it seems to be those
basaltic boulders disintegrated from the forehead of a lava flow and derived along the wadi course in
advance before attaining and capping by a lava flow effusion. On the other side of the road, the lower
portions of the lava flows are compacted and the columnar jointing is developed as well (b), and the
metamorphism aureole is extended about 50 cm down in the underlying wadi deposits and it becomes
sharp and obvious at places where the flows overlaying finer sediments (c).
24
(a) Looking S
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure (13) From a distance Ras Harmel is viewed as a landform with a convex upward profile and
low slopes truncated by an even height, flat-topped crater rim (a). The ascending of outward slopes
toward the inward ones crosses at least 3 - 4 phases of closely spaced, parallel and prominent ridges
(in a m-scale) that cordon off the crater rim and can be seen clearly in the field or landsat image (b),
those prominent basaltic walls are later marginal flank eruptions issued from concentrical parasitic
vents and contributed in enlarging the Ras Harmel edifice. The wash (sheet erosion) on the crater
depression exposes an explosive activity or aerial expulsion period in Ras Harmel volcano represented
by piles of pyroclastic materials (c) showing irregular and vesicular lumps (cinders and bombs), and a
remarkable horizon of flat layering airfallen ash-tuff exhibiting some vertically size sorting and
olivine crystals (2-3mm) mainly concentrated in the lower portions (d).The presence of these heavy
olivine crystals in the pyroclastic fall deposits suggesting that the occurrence was in vicinity to the
explosive magmatic vent and the magma had already crystallized them before the explosive
expulsion.
25
(a)
Ras el-Lamouj Ras el-Ajared
(b)
Looking SE
Ras el-Lamouj Ras el-Ajared
Figure (14) Based on the landsat image (a) and field observations (b), the effusion style of fluidal
lava flows of both Ras el-Lamouj and Ras el-Ajared mostly can be inferred from their current
landscapes to be pit-crater effusion and fissure effusion, respectively.
26
Looking SE (a)
(b)
Figure (15) An eroded composite volcano showing the alternative periods of extruding lava and
violent pyroclastic ejections (a). The contrast in the erosion tolerance between dense and soft rocks
reveals changes in the proportion between the uniform lava sheets and pyroclastic materials giving an
impression that the structure was a prominent cone with steep summit (b).
(b)
(a)
Figure (16) The vertical view of the scoria cone showing the breaching of the ejecta accumulations
by a gully trending eastwardly (a). The cohesive masses of accretionary and welded lapilli are
pervasively oxidized (b).
27
It seems to be another or later-volcanic activity accompanied with this scoria cone which is
represented by fluidal lava flows arranged in a crescentic pattern and straitened upwardly along the
outward eastern slope of the principal scoria cone. It might be a parasitic cone (Figure 16).
The agglutinated ejecta of this scoria cone, suggesting that the eruptions were rather derived from a
near-continuous tephra uprush and jetting during violent degassing of near-surface magma, instead of
discrete bubble outburst in the upper zone of the magma-filled conduit (Head and Wilson, 1989).
Garyat Gamatat al–Gharyiha Area
The mapped area is basically comprised of the phonolite intrusions amid the broad expanses of
dolomitic and/or marly limestones of Nalut and Sidi as Sid Formations (Cenomanian-Coniacian).
Busrewil and Wadsworth, (1996) have sustained the ages of Garyat Gamatat al–Gharyiha area
phonolites beside to their equivalents at Gharyan area
which were measured by Piccoli, (1971), and the results were heavily clustered around 40 Ma with a
sporadic range from 37.7 to 47 Ma. This suggests that the data are of value and supports an Eocene
age for the early emplacement of the phonolites. It is also suggestive of relatively long emplacement
history spanning an interval of approximately 10 Ma.
Few patches and strips of fresh looking vesicular basaltic lava flows have been noted in the map area.
They are confined in certain areas such as a limited (in a m-scale) strip found around Ras sidi Masid
(location of sample B11b). The occurrence of such rocks has raised a problem of their origin. They
probably belong to those flows described and their age determined by Ade-Hall et al., (1974) and
yielded young ages of 2-6 Ma from sites in the northern part of the main lava field.
Pattern of Denudation
The southern portions of map area are conjoined by the northern terminal flows of the main lava
series field. This causing a conspicuous contrast in topography and separating the area into two levels,
high-lands and low-lands, if it can be say so. This variance of the slope is due to the pattern of
denudation.
. The high-lands are mostly dominated by the plateau lava flows capping and protecting the
uppermost facies of the underlying Nalut Formation. The low-lands are dominated by the Sidi as Sid
28
Formation (the lowest stratigraphic unit in the map area) where most of the phonolite intrusions are
emplaced with.
From a geomorphological point of view, this phenomenon can be expressed as that the extrusive rocks
(plateau lava) may affect relief immediately, while the intrusive rocks (phonolite intrusions) only
secondarily after they have been exposed by denudation (Sparks, 1971).
Hence, the fundamental importance in relief development of Garyat Gamatat al–Gharyiha phonolites
is due to the imparity in denudation from southern parts (low effect) to northern parts (high effect).
This fact interprets the increasing in relief of phonolite intrusions northwardly (Ras al Ahmer ≈ 25 m,
Ras sidi al Masid ≈ 70 m, Ras Salam ≈ 100 m, and Ras aj Jammah ≈ 150 m) (Figure 17).
Phonolite Intrusions
From structural point of view, the original intrusion level is very difficult to get structural information
about it in a vertical plane - at least in the current study field inspection - because of the harmony and
smoothness between intrusive body and enclosed sediments. However, the general impression is that
the phonolite intrusions are mainly near surface concordant laccoliths and compound laccoliths
intruded almost-horizontal strata of Upper Cretaceous sediments in a heavily faulted region (Figure
3). In a way in which many phonolite masses have aligned in relation to the country rock structure,
indicating that magma movement along faults does take place (Figure 18).
The dominant structural trends in the area can be traced from its structural controlled drainage system
(Trellis pattern). It shows two main trends NW-SE and NEE-SWW in which are absolutely
corresponded with trends of minor injectors found on top of low relief phonolite domes (ledge-
formers). Those phonolite prominent ridges are more conspicuous on surfaces of the high relief
intrusions. Two sets of these injectors were measured and demonstrated N300-700 W trends while the
other set is narrower in range with N800-850E trends. These prominent injectors are probably
reflection to the fractures in the overburden sequence that had been dominated prior the time of
emplacement (Figure 19).
29
Ras aj Jammah
Ras Salam
Ras sidi Masid
Ras al Ahmer
Figure (17) The Gridded 3-D surface of Garyat Gamatat al–Gharyiha Area, a- the elevation a.m.s.l.
model with 25m intervals, and b- the geologic model. (X Scale: 1.0 in = 1.169228277 Map units; Y
scale: 1.0 in = 1.169228277 Map units; Z scale: 1.0 in = 277.5425203 Map units).
30
(a) Looking E
Ring dike-like intrusion with pseudo-
crater form breached at the southern
side, much similar to Kaf Tekut case
in Gharyan area (Piccoli, 1971; and
Gray, 1971).
Ras aj Jammah
Ras Salam
(b) Compound Laccoliths
Figure (18) General view of Garyat Gamatat al–Gharyiha phonolite intrusions, the shot captured from
Ras sidi Masid summit (a). The high relief intrusions are occasionally congregated at close distances
forming isolated, mushroom-shaped, and conical domes. This is a sign for a dens fractured zone
intruded by viscous phonolitic magma spreading out laterally until it obstructed its lateral advance by
marginal cooling and consolidation and then rising upwardly with varying degrees of success (b-
schematic diagram explains the presence of adjacent laccoliths with keeping their own dome-shape
rater than merge in a single body- modified from Sparks, 1971).
31
Looking E Looking E
Ras aj Jammah
Ras al Ahmer
Figure (19) The high relief intrusions exhibit prominent ridges of phonolite porphyry coherent and
solid rocks of about 1m elevated above the eroded surface of the intrusion that their attitudes, in
most of respects, running NW as observed on Ras sidi Masid, Ras Salam, and Ras aj Jammah (a).
32
The low relief domes which are associated with Ras al Ahmar intrusion show clearly two sets of
the injectors among the dislodged-fragments of country rocks (b-c). There is probably a
connection between the two low relief domes and Ras al Ahmar, if they considered as minor
laccolithic masses with feeder dikes that are tangential with respect to Ras al Ahmar, or each
laccolith has its own feeding, central channel, and in both cases, they comparable with the
dominant NW fault system in the area
Ras sidi Misid is apparently the most straightforward simple laccolith in the area with overlying
sediments. Those sediments are strongly arched over flanked arms that are extended in a radial pattern
around the original and symmetrical dome-shaped body.
These overlaid sedimentary segments on Ras sidi Misid are also injected and disintegrated by
prominent phonolite porphyry ridges with NW trends, at the east and west sides of the intrusion. Ras
sidi Misid has a sharp break of slope when the phonolites bulge out beneath the sedimentary skin at
lower levels and then the general slope abruptly becomes steeper toward the summit, suggesting that
the laccolith is formed by forcible injected magma along narrow central feeding channel beneath the
elevated central apex (Maynard, 2006).
Basaltic Sill
East to Ras sidi Misid, nearly attached to it, an igneous mass forming more or less tabular, flattened
body with basaltic composition. This igneous mass occupies an area of about 0.5km2, with very low
relief (<10m) if compared with those phonolite intrusions in the area. It is surrounded by low gentle
slopes dipping outwardly, whereas the central portions are slightly inward with small gullies adjoined
into a main one sloping westwardly. The plan view depicts this igneous body as a volcano with
crater, but actually it is one solid continuous piece with no volcanic features can be found at the upper
surfaces, such as gas cavities or fragmentation, and the best term can describe it is a transgressive sill
(Figure 20).
33
PETROGRAPHY
Twenty-five samples were selected to be made into thin sections. The primary petrography is
considering the description of the petrologic units in GVP. Involving samples from the lava series
(A1; A4, A6, A7, B12,; A15; A16; C20; C21; A27; A28; C30; C31), late volcanic centers (A5; A7;
A14; A16; A18), Phonolite intrusions (B10; B11; K.T), and the basaltic sill (B22; B23; B24; B25,
B26), which have been analyzed for major and trace elements. Petrographic examination for the
investigated Gharyan volcanics manifested them to be categorized, petrographically, into three main
groups.
Olivine Basalts
Generally, these rocks are encountered in the lava series, LVC, and basaltic sill samples with variable
amounts of olivine, clinopyroxene, plagioclase, and opaques as well as, significant contrast in the
crystallization sequence and cooling rate that are represented by their phyric textures (Plate 1).
Amygdales infilled with calcite and surrounded by glassy materials were noted. Demonstrating gas
escape from the melt and indicating low pressures, especially, with those samples obtained from the
upper surfaces of the extruded pahoehoe lava flows.
In the olivine-phyric basalts, euhederal to subhedral olivine phenocrysts, ranged 3 – 0.5 mm in size,
are easily recognizable in hand specimens. Microphenocrysts 0.5-0.2 mm in size, are also present. The
common characteristic feature among all olivine phenocrysts is completely and/or partially altered.
Apart from finely-divided opaques, the red-brown mineraloid iddingsite is the ubiquitous product of
alteration. The early-forming olivine crystals show marginal iddingsitation accompanied by complete
replacement for the fine groundmass olivine (Plate 1 a).
The interstitial filling plagioclase, to some extend, can be used as a decisive criterion between the lava
series, LVC, and basaltic sill samples. The olivine-vitrophyric texture is the dominant in the samples
B22; and B23 (basaltic sill). Showing their early-formed skeletal olivine phenocrysts embedded
among very tiny crystals (plagioclase) and vitric groundmass. Alternatively, these olivine phenocrysts
crystallized at depth before the groundmass minerals cooled rapidly when the liquid of the sill invaded
the country rocks (Plate 1 b).
34
The lava series texture samples are graded into sub-ophitic (smaller pyroxenes, that still partially
envelop the plagioclase) with a significant component of interstitial glass (Plate 1 c). For LVC
samples, the intergranular texture is well developed, in which the plagioclase and pyroxene crystals
are subequal in size and glass is still relatively minor.
Plagioclase forms the dominant phase in the groundmass of olivine basalt slides, with lath-shaped
ranging in size 0.2-0.3 mm as microlites up to 2 mm. In most of respects, the plagioclase laths are
shown in a pale first order yellow interference color, possibly indicating their enrichment in Ca.
Plagioclase microphenocrysts are also occasionally noted copious component all olivine basalt
35
Looking SW
Phonolite exhibiting trachytoid olivine basalt encountering

texture ultramafic xenolith
Figure (20) This odd combination of phonolite and basalt intrusions can be a good example
for emplacement behavior between the fluidal basaltic magma and the slightly viscous
phonolitic magma. The conspicuous variance in vertical range between the two intrusions-
(a)-is a function of the fluidity of magma, the rate of cooling of the magma at extreme
horizontal sites, the resistance of the host rock to the injection of the magma and the pressure
of the overlaying mass of rocks (Maynard, 2005). The core of Ras sidi Misid is partially
exposed at NE side (b), showing several stacked ridges of phonolite porphyry
36
Plate (1) Photomicrographs of the olivine basalt group, the field of view splits into two halves,
left half in XPL and right half in PPL: a- Olivine basalt with partly iddingstized olivine
phenocrysts and a calcitic amygdule to the bottom of the field of view, magnified inset shows a
skeletal olivine microphenocryst trapping the melt indicating rapid growth. b- Olivine basalt with
two generations of plagioclase, interstitial laths and microphenocrysts, magnified inset shows
zoned plagioclase crystal twinned on carlsbad law with composition An78 (small ext. angle.= 260 ;
large ext. angle.= 450). c- Olivine basalt with sub-ophitic texture in which pale brown-green
clinopyroxene partly enveloping plagioclase laths, magnified inset shows a clinopyroxene crystal
in which the innermost zone encloses small crystals (probably earlier generation of
clinopyroxene) and some lath-shaped plagioclase, and the outermost zone of the crystal has a
composition zoning as shown by the difference in the interference colors between the main part of
the crystal and the rims.
37
and are exhibited as anhedral crystals with slight zoning (Plate 4.1 b).
Although, clinopyroxene is not a major phenocryst phase, but pale-brown and faintly pleochroic
microphenocrysts, and fine grains in the groundmass are presented sporadically. The relatively large
crystals are compositionally zoned, particularly, in peripheral zones (Plate 4.1 c).
Opaques vary in abundance from slide to slide. Their habits are ranged form euhedral to anhedral
grains, rods, skeletal grains and fine dusts. Occasionally, the opaques occur in two generations as
large usually euhedral grains and as inclusions within the large crystals. Glass is the in slides and
sometimes shows pale brown patches in the groundmass, probably due to alteration.
Pyroxene Peridotite Nodules
Another petrographic feature only observed locally at restricted locations of the investigated areas, is
the occurrence of peridotite xenoliths (Plate 2). These xenoliths seem to be restricted to LVC activity,
as noted in a parasitic cone in Urban area (location of sample A14). In correspondence with, the
xenoliths mentioned by Almond et al. (1974) and Busrewil and Wadsworth (1980) which they
described them as having a stint occurrence with some LVC and small necks close to Gharyan-
Mizdah road.
The basaltic sill in Garyat Gamatat al–Gharyiha area is also extensively occupying resorbed and
rounded peridotitic nodules. Sometimes reaching 10 cm in diameter and hosted by the olivine-
vitrophyric basalt (samples B22; B24; B25; B26) (Plate 2 a). Megascopically, some nodules show
reddish brown stains as an alteration product (serpentization) in which can be seen that,
microscopically, along the peripheries and internal fractures of olivine grains and as well some high
relief pesoudomorphed orthopyroxene crystals (sample B22).
B26 is a typical peridotite xenolith that has been analyzed for major and trace elements. It consists of
olivine, ortho-clinopyroxene, and a minor proportion of deep colored spinels, with medium grains size
ranging between 1 – 2 mm of allotriomorphic forms (Plate 2 b). Although, the proportion between
olivine and pyroxenes varies to some extent from slide to slide, but olivine always is the dominant
phase.
The olivines occur in granular anhedral grains, with no visible zoning, and they show a considerable
range in size due to traversing by randomly oriented cracks. The relatively large cracks among the
38
xenolith crystals are healed by a secondary calcite as noted in the sample B22, probably because of
exposing its outcrop to weathering.
Such lower crustal xenoliths are found in many alkaline basaltic lavas (White, 1966; Irving, 1978;
Boyd and Meyer, 1979; Menzies, 1983; Frey and Rodin, 1987). Whereas the basalts have a mantle
source, therefore, in order to carry such dense olivine-rich nodules in suspension to the surface,
transport was apparently rapid (Winter, 2001).
Phonolites
The phonolite hand specimens display color gradation from dark green to grey, reflecting the
proportion between light alkali-feldspar and sodic- feldspathoid minerals against dark clinopyroxene
minerals (Plate 3).
All samples are virtually porphyritc phonolite and phonolite porphyry, except B10 is mostly aphyric
with only nepheline in a well crystallized phase, which obtained from a small plug showing
outstanding striations facing the sedimentary host rock (Plate 3 a).
The flow structure is the dominant texture in all B11 and K.T. slides, in which megaphenocrysrs of
white elongated alkali feldspar crystals (0.5-1 cm) are well aligned in a fine grained groundmass.
Under the microscope, they are composed of alkali feldspar represented by euhedral prismatic cloudy
sanidine crystals having patchy and sector extinctions. They exhibit a significant amount of late stage
alteration.
Euhedral nephline phenocrysts (1-3 mm) occur as rectangular in outline and some are hexagonal.
Those that are hexagonal are black or very nearly black in the view of crossed polars. They are
frequently disposed parallel to the flow direction, and occasionally form glomeroprophyritic textures
embedded and wrapped by a fine groundmass. The quantity of nepheline is variable, as shown by
increasing the brightness in PPL, particularly, from B11 slides to K.T slides, indicating nepheline
enrichment in the groundmass (Plate 3 b).
Clinopyroxene minerals are occurred into two generation. Pale brown augite and strong pleochroic
aegirine-augite phenocrysts , and as short laths and microlites in groundmass. Accompanied and close
packed with alkali feldspar microlites exhibiting a typical trachytic texture (Plate 3 c-d).
39
PPL XPL
PPL XPL
Plate (2) Hand specimens and photomicrographs of the peridotite nodules: a- Rounded
peridotite nodule embedded in a vitric groundmass of olivine basalt, the olivine phenocrysts
in the fine groundmass are euhedral and skeletal crystals. Therefore, they are not genetically
related to the ultrabasic xenolith. b- Purely extracted ultrabasic nodule, dominated by
allotriomorphic olivines and orthopyroxenes, the individual olivine crystals show different
interference colors because they represent different orientations of cutting of the crystals and
the orthopyroxene can be seen best in the PPL view with pale brown color and first order
interference colors in the XPL view.
40
Plate (3) Photomicrographs of the phonolites group, the field of view splits into two halves, left
half in XPL and right half in PPL: a- Phonolite with patchy cryptocrystalline groundmass and
felty nepheline microlites, magnified inset shows dark cliopyroxene minerals in a plumose
texture in which is an indicative of rapid cooling. b- Phonolite with fluxionally arranged
sanidine (the prismatic altered phenocryst to the bottom of the field of view) and low relief
rectangular nepheline phenocrysts, magnified inset shows a nepheline oikocryst including
microlitic aegirine crystals (to the top-right of the field of view). c- Euhedral augite
microphenocryst nearly cut perpendicularly to the C axis, wrapped by a flow alignment of
sanidine, nepheline and needles of aegirine in the groundmass. d- Elongated aegirine-augite
phenocryst in which dark brown augite occupying the core and mantled by grass green aegirine
as shown in PPL view, note the simple twinned sanidine phenocryst to the bottom of the field
of XPL view.
41
Deformation fabrics within the phonolites are lacking and this clearly indicates that the intrusions
occurred prior to any significant crystallization of magma. Busrewil and Wadsworth (1996) have
described that as typical of high-level forceful intrusions.
Geochemistry
Twenty-seven samples representative of basalt and phonolite of the study area were selected for bulk
and trace element analysis. Of these, only one sample is of ultramafic origin. Analytical procedure
and some data can be found in Gafeer, A.S. (2007)..
Major and Trace Element Characteristics
Plotting the major and trace elements content of the rock suite against silica (Tables 1,2 and Figures
21 and 22) revealed a small compositional gap between basalt (LVC, Sill, and lava series) (SiO2=
44.13-52.50 wt%) and phonolite (SiO2=55.33-58.78 wt%). The amount of TiO2, Fe2 O3* and CaO is
considerably higher in basalt than it is in phonolite. The same trend is obvious for MgO and P2O5,
whereas alumina shows an opposite trend as it is low in basalts (9.90-14.54 wt %) and is high in
phonolite (17.74-18.76 wt %). Alkalis follow a similar pattern as alumina (5.11-10.24 wt % in
phonolite) compared to 0.21-5.17 wt % in basalt.
The igneous rock suite spans a range between alkali-olivine basalt (sill samples) and transitional
basalt (lava series samples)( Appendix 1). The trends of magnesia, lime, and TiO2 on one hand and
alumina and potash on the other run in reverse. Whereas the former components show decline with
increasing silica, the latters show enrichment. These trends can be explained in terms of crystal liquid
fractionation of olivine, clinopyroxene and plagioclase phenocrysts.
Compared to basalt, phonolite is depleted in compatible elements (Table 2 Figure 22), which indicates
extensive fractionation of feldspar, olivine and pyroxene (Aboazom et al., 2006). Anomalous Sr
content in one phonolite sample (B11a) is probably due to crustal contamination as described by
Busrewil and Oun, (1991) for one of their samples.
For rock classification on geochemical basis, variation of silica and total alkalis is one of the most
important discrimination techniques. The IUGS total alkalis (TAS) classification of volcanic rocks of
LeBas et al. (1986) is adopted and shown in Figure (23). Fields of occurrence of similar rocks in the
42
general Ghiryan area in published data by Almond et al. (1974) and Busrewil and Wadsworth (1980)
(Figure 23) are outlined on the diagram and show close concordance with the present suite.
The analyzed rocks straddle the compositional fields of basalt and phonolite. The later show
intermediate silica content, high alkalis and noticeably low lime content averaging around 1.17%.
Within the suite, the lava series falls into two fields: basalt and basaltic-andesite. One sample (A27)
plots in the trachybasalt field and is classified as hawaiite. On the other hand, sill samples having
silica content averaging about 45.08% and relatively intermediate alkalis content (Table 2) are most
primitive and fall into three different fields: tephrite (normative olivine < 10%), hawaiite, and basalt.
The LVC chemically covering a relatively wider range than other rocks and is not coherent enough as
a group to lend strong petrogenetic significance. This is perhaps due to its diversity as it included
settings of scoria cone, parasitic cone, pyroclastic bomb, and shield volcano.
The TAS diagram of Irvine and Baragar (1971) shows distribution in both the alkaline and subalkaline
fields (Figure 24). Phonolite lies in the alkaline field with high normative nepheline (16.17 – 21.51%)
and, moreover, is of a peralkaline character as indicated by a 5% normative acmite. The boundary of
Irvine and Baragar (1971) shows the sill samples to be alkalic with normative nepheline (5.95 –
17.47%), whereby normative olivine is high and modal olivine is abundant in the groundmass. In
general, the suite as a whole is strongly sodic with soda/potash ratios exceeding 2:1. Hence, theses
rocks are classified as alkali olivine basalts (Woller and Feduik, 1980). The relative high content of
normative diopside (ranging from 36.21 to 40.86%) is also noteworthy and reflects high lime and
alumina content in the parent magma (Busrewil and Wadsworth, 1980; and Hegazy, 1999).
43
Table (1) Whole rock major element analysis (in wt%) of the investigated Gharyan volcanics,
accompanied with C.I.P.W. norms.
44
Table (2) Trace element analysis (in ppm) of the investigated Gharyan volcanics.
45
Figure (21) Harker diagrams illustrating the major element variations.
46
Figure (22) Harker diagrams illustrating the trace element variations. On the contrary,
phonolites are characterized by relatively higher contents of the incompatible elements Hf
(16.2-50.6 vs. 2.5-6.1 ppm), Th (15.7-59.6 vs. 0.9-6.4 ppm), Zr (493.9-1704.8 vs. 31.2-152.7
ppm), Nb (48.9-377.2 vs. 3.6-44.9 ppm), Rb (66.9-172.9 vs. 1.5-12.4 ppm).
47
Figure (23) Total alkali vs. Silica (TAS) diagram of Gharyan rocks (according to LeBas et
al., 1986). (1: Basanite and Tephrite, 2: Trachybasalt).
Figure (24) Total alkali-silica diagram (Irvine and Barager, 1971).
48
The lava series demonstrates a subalkaline affinity as shown by its basalt and basaltic andesite, which
typically contain normative hypersthene (although three of the analyzed samples contain minor
amount of normative nepheline). Generally, the term “transitional” applies to basaltic rocks that
exhibit a nepheline-free norm (LeBas et al., 1986). Wilkinson (1986) considered hypersthene
normative rocks to be transitional or mildly alkaline, a characterization which Almond et al. (1974)
had used to define the suite of lava series within Ghiryan Volcanic Province.
Obviously, the basaltic sill in Garyat Gamatat al–Gharyiha area (B22, B23, and B26a) is part of the
LVC activity in GVP, because of its geochemical consistency with the basanitic suite of Busrewil and
Wadsworth, (1980). Although there is similarity between the lava series of current study data to
counterparts in the study of Almond et al. (1974) the present suite shows a wider compositional range
as it attains a differentiation index (D.I.) of 28-41 compared to a differentiation index of 35-40 as
reported by Almond et al. (1974).
On the FSM ternary diagram proposed by Pfeifer, (1979), the pyroxene peridotite nodule in GVP
tends to be of a lherzolitic composition (Figure 25).
Figure (26) is a pressure-temperature phase diagram created by experimental studies on mantle-type
rocks of aluminous lherozolite composition. The diagram shows such spinel lherozolites observed in
this study to have been brought up by their host magmas from depths ranging 35-80 km.
Tectonic Setting and Origin
Based on geochemical data, alkali-olivine basalt and transitional basalt of the area of study appear to
have been emplaced continentally within plate. Use of immobile HFS elements Th-Hf-Ta as proposed
by Wood (1980) for alkali basalts plots alkali basalt in the field of “within plate basalts” (Figure 27),
whereas the most differentiated members of subalkaline transitional basalts lie in the range of
“continental basalts” field of Pearce et al. (1977). This is shown in Figure (28), which encompasses
both subalkaline basalts and basaltic andesites.
Generally, continental intraplate basalts are regarded as sourced from melting of the upper mantle
during major lithospheric extension or when a mantle plume impinges the base of the lithosphere
(Richard et al.,1989; Campbell and Griffiths, 1990; Campbell, 1998). Alternatively, they could be the
49
product of interaction between continental material and mantle-derived magma (Duncan et al., 1984;
Ellam and Cox, 1989).
Judging from their D.I. of 41 and Ni content of 58.5 ppm at minimum (Tables 2 and 1), the
transitional basalts do not appear to be primitive. Busrewil and Wadsworth, (1996) suggested that
transitional basalt in the province might not have been derived directly from a primary magma, but
rather from a fractional melt. These basalts have probably been affected by some degree of fractional
crystallization from more primitive members, as shown in the systematic decrease of magnesia with
increasing silica content (Figure 21). The presence of plagioclase, olivine and pyroxene phenocrysts
lend support in favor of fractional crystallization as a process of evolution for this suite, at least in
Urban area where most analyzed samples were obtained from. On other hand, the relatively high
magnesia in the alkali-olivine basalt suite (7.71-9.99 wt %) and Ni content of (134.5 ppm) at inimum
(Tables 1 and 2) point to a fairly primitive nature.
Trace element ratios, especially those that do not change extensively during generation and evolution
of basaltic magmas (e.g. Rb/Sr and Th/Nb), are proven valuable to define magmatic source
characteristics (McDonough, 1990). The Rb/Sr and Th/Nb ratios of the primitive alkali-olivine basalt
suite are clearly comparable to those of the OIBs (Oceanic Island Basalts) and are different from those
of the crustal rocks (Figure 29). These chemical imprints demonstrate that the basaltic suite originated
from asthenospheric parental source in which essentially no continental lithosphere was involved.
50
Figure (25) FSM diagram. Fields after Pfeifer (1979), S=SiO2+Al2O3-Na2O,

F=FeO+CaO-(2 Na2O+ Al2O3), M=MgO+CaO+(2 Na2O+ Al2O3).
30
80
Figure (26) Phase diagram of aluminous lherozolite with melting interval (grey),
sub-solidus reactions, and oceanic geothermal gradient. Note that pressure
increases downward, to reflect the trend in the Earth. After Wylli (1981).
51
Figure (27) The Th-Hf-Ta discrimination diagram
for basalts (after Wood 1980). The Fields are: A, N-
type MORB; B, E-type MORB and within plate
tholeiites; C, alkaline within plate basalts; D,
volcanic-arc basalts. Island-arc tholeiites plot in field
D where Hf / Th >3 and calc-alkaline basalts where
Hf / Th <3. The broken lines indicate transitional
zone between basalt types.
Figure (28) The MgO - FeOtot – Al2O3
diagram (after Pearce et al., 1977) showing
the discriminant boundaries for a range of
tectonic settings.(The plotted data are
recalculated dry and in silica range SiO2= 50-
54 wt%).
52
(a) (b)
Figure (29) SiO2 vs. Rb/Sr (a) and Th/Nb (b) binary diagrams for the alkali basalts
suite. OIB fields are from Fitton (1991) and the data of the average lower and upper
crust are from Taylor and McLennen (1985).
53
The origin of phonolite in continental settings is still highly debatable and a variety of models have
been developed to explain their genesis. These rocks are commonly regarded as products related to
mantle-derived basaltic magmas by fractional crystallization or some other process such as magma
mixing and crustal contamination (Aboazom et al., 2006). However, phonolite of this study is
noticeably enriched in Zr (493.9-1704.8 ppm) (Table 2 and Figure 21). Zircon enrichments has been
recorded for alkaline rocks from Cameroon (e.g. Ngounouno et al. 2000, 2003), a situation that stands
in contrast to Zr-poor felsic lavas whereby zircon crystallization is suppressed (Watson, 1979). High
Zr content is not related to bulk assimilation of partially melted crustal material by the magma from
which these felsic lavas were derived, as crustal material are characterized by rather low Zr content
(Ngounouno et al., 2003).
DISSCUSION AND CONCLUSION
Charyan Volcanic Province is the smallest of the principal Tertiary volcanic areas in Libya, and form
a generally continuous sheet in the central part of Jabal Nafusah. The others are Jabal as Sawda, Jabal
Al Haruj and Jabal Nuqay. Those volcanic fields represent the Tertiary-Quaternary outpouring
volcanic activity and define a NNW-SSE linear trend with a decrease in age from NNW to SSE. The
volcanic formations in GVP comprise four petrologic and chronologic phases, in which are: Old Lava
Series (OLS) and its subordinate Young Lava Series (YLS) (Early-Eocene to Quaternary), phonolite -
trachyite intrusions (Late Eocene-Early Oligocene), and Late Volcanic Centers (LVC) (Middle-Late
Miocene) (Piccoli, 1971; Almond et al., 1974, Busrewil and Wadsworth, 1980; Busrewil and
Wadsworth, 1996; Hegazy, 1999; Aboazoam et al., 2006).
In Gharyan case, although, Almond et al., (1974) imputed the crust faulting to the Hun graben and its
prolongated NW faults at SE areas of GVP (Sirt basin), but the more substantiative is that the wadi
Ghan fault zone is the intermediary for surface and subsurface volcanic emplacement in GVP. The
reversing in the movement of Atlas lineament (NW Libya) in late Paleocene-early Eocene has
provided extensional environment to the NW faults of Wadi Ghan zone (Anketell and Ghellali, 1991).
This movement is probably the trigger of the mildly alkaline lava series phase where the main
spreading epicenter of these flows in Urban area (Figure 5) have assigned ages cited by Piccoli (1971)
to be from Early Eocene to Late Oligocene.
54
The volcanic rocks of Urban area represent the northern continuation of the main lava field of GVP.
This area show the lava series phase spread in a radial pattern (Figure 7) with infrequent uprising for
LVC phase that demonstrate different mode of eruptions, such as shield and composite volcanoes, and
scoria cones. However, these flows of lava series phase have some degree of differentiation as shown
by their relative evolution from basalts to basaltic andesites (D.I. 28-41) (Figure 22). This can be
interpreted as a subsequent eruptive phases propagated from the magmatic chamber that has been
dominated by a fractional crystallization process. Consequently, this fractionation evidence can be
used as a function of time, and in supporting the age dated samples of Piccoli (1971) in which
considered by Busrewi and Wadsworth (1996) as conjectural and suspect dates.
On other hand, the mapped area of Garyat Gamatat al –Gharyiha has a distinctive appearance for the
phonolite laccoliths where their relief increases northwardly as a response to the pattern of denudation
(Figure 16) and their injectors are strongly corresponded with Wadi Ghan fault zone trends of this
area (Figures 4 and 18). The shallow level basaltic sill in the area has a circumstantial evidence that
the emplacement is postdated the phonolite-trachyte episode. This is indicated by the geochemistry of
the basaltic sill in which is concordant with the geochemistry of LVC young phase (Figure 22), such
evidence also confirmed stratigraphically by Aboazoam et al. (2006) when a basalt dyke-like body
cuts across both the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks and phonolitic rocks north Gharyan town.
Petrographically, the observed rocks of lava series and LVC are composed of black to dark grey-
olivine basalts, with abundant amygdales filled with calcite. They are characterized by the
groundmass assemblages of olivine, plagioclase and opaque minerals. The rapid cooling characteristic
is the distinctive criterion for the basaltic sill rocks at Garyat Gamatat al –Gharyiha area, as shown by
their vitrophyric textures and skeletal olivine phenocrysts (Plate 1). The identified rocks of phonolite
intrusions are megascopically light to dark grey, typically rough on the surface, dense, with local
tabular feldspar crystals. Microscopic examination indicates that the rocks exhibit a trachytoid texture
with sanidine, nepheline, and aegirine and aegirine-augite phenocrysts (Plate 3).
In Gharyan province there is no obvious reason to relate phonolite to the basaltic lava series, since no
intermediate compositions are represented, and there appears to be a substantial time interval (~
10Ma) between the two episodes. Another possibility is that the phonolites have been produced by
55
fractional crystallization of more basic magma at moderate depths, and that only the residual salic
fractions succeeded in migrating to upper levels of the crust (Almond et al. 1974).
The xenolith-bearing volcanics are nepheline-normative alkalic basalts that only restricted in LVC
phase. This is indicated by the presence of spinel-lherozolite xenoliths in the parasitic cone at urban
area and basaltic sill at Garyat Gamatat al –Gharyiha area (Plate 2). Such evidence is consistence with
Busrewil and Wadsworth (1980), who were concerned especially with LVC at western border of GVP
(Ras Thulayb, Ras Tawil Ghurrat Musbah, Ras Tawil at Telayhah and the small necks close to the
Gharyan-Mizdah road). It is thought that the xenolith-bearing nepheline-normative alkalic basalts of
LVC phase are induced to the upwelling mantle beneath GVP, in which, it has been suffered a
depletion by extraction of basic melts at depths, in general, between 30-80 km (Figure 26) and then
penetrated the whole crust with relatively large velocity.
The spinel-lherozolite xenoliths can be considered as a composition of the lithospheric mantle beneath
GVP. This fit the xenolith assemblages in alkalic magmas that were erupted along the Arabian margin
of the Red Sea rift, in which mantle, upper crust and lower crust xenoliths located on the flanks of the
Red Sea rift in Saudi Arabia, about 350 km from the rift axis (McGuire, 1988). In addition, it seems to
be the upper mantle in Libya that has a homogenous composition whereas the same four-phase
lherozolie nodules (olivine + orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene + spinel) have been observed both in
Jabal as Sawda. (Woller and Fediuk, 1980) and in Al Haruj al Abyad (Peregi et. al., 2003).
Structurally, the regions of major outpouring volcanic provinces in Libya were undergone
attenuations within the lithosphere during pre-Tertiary time as a pre-rift stage, followed by
lithospheric extensions over a rising asthenosphere. This fact is a characteristic for CFB’s
(Continental Flood Basalt Provinces) which are typically fissure-fed, corresponding to extensional
tectonics and continental rifting. Therefore, it is thought that the Tertiary volcanicity in Libya is
related to rising of the asthenosphere causing thermal instability in the mantle, rather than to a
stationary hot spot as proposed by Hegazy (1999). Moreover, Farahat, et. al., (2006) have shown that
Al-Haruj and the other Libyan volcanics are attributed to a rift system that developed in association
with asthenospheric upwilling.
56
In conclusion, the intraplate volcanism and sub-continental mantle source (OIB) of the GVP (Figures
25, 26 and 27) incorporate melts with two affinities and different volumetric proportions among the
major volcanic phases: 1) Alkaline magmatic series which is represented by the basanitic suite of
LVC -(The term deliberately used by Busrewil and Wadsworth, 1980, to all rocks associated with
Late Volcanic Centers)- and the phonolite and trachyte suite that are the extreme differentiated
members of this series. 2) The mildly or sub-alkaline magmatic series which is represented by the lava
series.
The same melt association of East Africa rifting that form a complete suite and differentiations
parallel with time is compared with the current study analysis in Figure (30). East Africa is the most
varied province of Cenozoic continental volcanism and floods of alkaline basalt have issued from
fissures along active rifts extending southward from a junction with the red sea since Eocene time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to to express deep appreciation to the individuals who have contributed to the
achievement of this study. Special thanks to Cann, J.R and El-Khazmi, R. for their critical reading
and useful suggestions and encourgement . Reviews by ElZoki, A. and Aboazom, A., were
considerably helpful. Thanks must go to El-Amawii, M. for the coordination and communications
with the Central Laboratories of the Geological Survey of Egypt (Petroleum Ministry) to access and
analyze the samples.
57
Figure (30) Comparison between Gharyan volcanic province and East Africa rifting volcanism.
We are very grateful to the staff of Geology Department, University of Tripoli, for their cooperation
and assistance to this project. In particular Busrewil M.T., El-Makhrouf A.A. and Oun K.M. Many
thanks are due to Al-Augali R., Moktar M. and Ashour K. from the geological laboratory of the
Gulf Oil Company, for their technical support.
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63
64
65
" Research Highlights"
1. Petro chemically and chronologically continuity variations between four phases.

2. Age span of the Gharyan volcanic province, apparently from Tertiary-Quaternary.
3. Ig. activity define a NNW-SSE linear trend with decrease in age from NNW to SSE.
4. High pressure fractionation of more basic members to produce phonolite-trachyite.
5. The spinel lherzolite xenoliths evidenced inhomogenity in the source material.

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The Petrology and Geochemistry of Gharyan volcanic province of, NW Libya

N.M. Al-Hafdh, A.S. Gafeer

To appear in: African Earth Sciences

Received Date: 22 February 2014

The Petrology and Geochemistry of Gharyan volcanic province of, NW

Al-Hafdh, N.M. 1 & Gafeer, A S.,2

image by occupying an ancient buried wadies.

velocity by melts with sub-continental mantle source (OIB) beneath GVP.

Walid, and Tarhunah towns.

proceeds faintly E –W when it reaches Tunisian borders (Figure 1).

have been summarized in English by Piccoli (1971).

characteristics of each episode in the province.

olivines in the suite.

Busrewil and Wadsworth (1996).

phonolites with other worldwide phonolite provinces.

indications to elucidate the provenance and paleogeographic setting of the region.

Eruption History of Gharyan Volcanic Province

Busrewil and Wadsworth, 1996).

summarized in the following scenario:

plateau lava periphery (top center).

contrasts with the white Cretaceous limestones.

of flows called by Valley Basalts Flows or Young Lava Series (YLS).

Geologic Outlines of GPV Province

basalt on top of a soil-supported conglomerate.

Sheet:NH 33-1. Tarabulus Sheet: N1 33-13).

flows as upper Pliocene in age.

south of the plateau near Mizdah.

system in the region.

relative to phonolite-trachyate episode as a younger activity, when Aboazom et al.,(2006) have

them at different elevations.

mainly in the same direction and occasionally NE-SW.

Variety of Late Volcanic Center (LVC)

ranging from 7.7±1.5 to 1.3±0.5 Ma.

complete constructional edifices.

(Blatt and Tracy, 1996).

Surface and Subsurface Emplacement of Major Volcanic Phases in GVP

volcanic activity in NW Libya.

fault zone (Figure 4).

abduce about 10km east Swani Ghan area (Figure 5).

Libya (after Anketell and Ghellali,1991).

the spatial distribution of plateau lavas (elevation are in meters a.m.s.l.)

mostly dominated westward (Figures 6 and 3).

Mediterranean from the Sahrah platform (Figure 7).

north as the wadies relief increases.

centers above the general relief (Figure 8).

among them (Figure 9).

thickness (Figure 11).

and gridded for utilizing the Digital Elevation Model (DEM).

overlap of older structural elements (after Klitzsch, 1971).

limestone of Tigrinah Formation on the eastern side of Wadi al War.

less so below, and are compact in the central portions (b).

central portions, especially, the elongated ones.

opening southeastward. Some eruptive phases culminating by Hawaiian-style lava fountaining

parasitic cones (Figure 13).

activity life of Ras el-Ajared is shorter than Ras Harmel.

Composite Volcano (Stratovolcano)

Ras el-Lamouj Ras el-Ajared

Ras el-Lamouj Ras el-Ajared

landscapes to be pit-crater effusion and fissure effusion, respectively.

pervasively oxidized (b).

Garyat Gamatat al–Gharyiha Area