– MOOCs

Learning Material

Fundamentals of Outcome-based
Curriculum in Engineering
Education
MODULE–1: Introduction to Curriculum Development in
Engineering Education
Unit 1.4: Approaches to Curriculum Design

Dr. V.H.Radhakrishnan
Professor of Curriculum Development ( Engg. Related Fields),
National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training Research,
Shamla Hills, Bhopal M.P.INDIA 462002
 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

The main objective of this course is to develop in the participant (means teacher or
potential teacher) the following competency:
 Plan to scientifically design an outcome-based engineering curriculum for
employability enhancement and fulfillment of the industry/society needs
following the principles of curriculum development.

Outcome of Module 1 – Introduction to Curriculum Development in Engineering Education

The participant (means teacher or potential teacher) of this course will be able to:
 Select relevant approach to develop occupation specific engineering education
curriculum.

Unit 1.4: Contents of ‘Approaches to Curriculum Design’

S.No. TITLE Page No.

1.4.1 Introduction 3
1.4.2 Humanistic Approach 3
1.4.3 Discipline/Subject-based approach 5
1.4.4 Analytic or System's Approach 7
1.4.5 Social demand Approach 10
1.4.6 Futuristic Approach 11
1.4.7 Does anyone approach fits all requirements of an engineering 11
programme?
1.4.8 Engineering Education Curriculum Design in the current 12
scenario - An Eclectic approach towards Outcome-Based
Education
1.4.9 Summary 13
References and Bibliography for further reading 13

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 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

UNIT 1.4

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DESIGN

Unit Outcomes: After studying this unit you will be able to:
1. Explain the salient features of the some of the approaches to curriculum development.
2. Choose a suitable approach to design an engineering curriculum.

1.4.1 INTRODUCTION
From the review of literature, it is noted that different philosophical approaches have been
discussed by curriculum experts and educationists, which reflect traditional values of higher
education system, beliefs on the needs and understanding of how students construct their
learning and relevance to the requirements of knowledge and performance and
understanding of social and environmental aspects.
In this unit some approaches to curriculum design are briefly discussed, though they
are not discrete as we all know that engineering programme curricula are not always
coherent. The importance and values attached in the curricula are normally reflected
through the objectives/outcomes specified, time and weight allocated to different
courses/topics, opportunities provided to students for learning activities and assessment
aspects.
The broad approaches to curriculum design include Humanistic Approach,
Discipline-based Approach, Analytic or Systems Approach, social demand approach and
Futuristic Approach, which are not necessarily mutually exclusive. An approach need to
be adopted or formulated depending upon the broad aims/goals of education. Some of
these approaches are briefly discussed in this unit.

1.4.2 HUMANISTIC APPROACH

The humanistic approach of curriculum development considers human development is
progressive and continuous. The views in this approach consider welfare of mankind as
a major concern. Person's well being is the basis with progressive movement, which
have implications for curriculum, role of teacher and management of the educational
institutions. Some of the views expressed in respect of Humanistic Approach include:
a) Learning situations are unstructured and curriculum focus is on felt concerns;
b) There is freedom to Individual to learn choice of his/her subjects with flexible
time schedule and open classrooms;
c) The progressive philosophy considers the total development of individual as
learner:
d) In curriculum, the total development of the individual is the prime consideration. The
learner is at the center of the curriculum with focus on social, personal development

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 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

and life skills:

e) Self exploration, conflict resolution, interpersonal communication, sensitivity
and conduct towards others with humane feelings are important for
development;
f) Cultivation of mind is through study of language, history, literature, humanities.

The humanistic approach is in-fact an umbrella term. This approach emphasizes

on the 'humanizing' of learning. We can see humanistic approach can mean many things to
us. Some say that this approach is vague, ambiguous and student might learn what they
want but not what they need to learn. This approach has greater implications for general
education. Also, sometimes this approach is referred as 'individual approach'. The 'individual
needs approach' [CPSC, 1982] could be said to be an example of the humanistic approach.
In primary or elementary schools, the education is meant to be for growth and
development of the child to his/her fullest potential. There are individual differences in ability,
rate of learning, interest, motivation and each may have different need for growth and
development. This approach is more inclined towards 'Child -Centered Curriculum', wherein
within the arenas of classroom and institutions teachers' have the responsibility to meet the
interests and needs of students, probably through collection of information and data
pertaining to students. In this approach of curriculum development, the growth and the
development of an individual is considered as of prime importance and the curriculum
design is focused on the development of the student's fullest potential. Here, the child is
compared with a budding flower and the teacher is expected to tenderly handle the child to
develop according to his/her interests and needs.
The focus of this approach has been to prepare and organize curriculum around life
rather than disciplines or subjects. The approach considers the life experience as important
aspect for curriculum, wherein knowledge is valued from its usefulness to individuals. The
requirement of knowledge and skills to be included in curriculum gets developed and
structured through collaborative efforts between teacher and students, keeping the student
interests in mind. Here the teachers try to be a guide rather than prescribing
knowledge/skills to be taught based on his/her expertise.
Figure 1.4.1 depicts a typical model to develop the curriculum based on the
individual-based approach. The feedback box depicts that formative evaluation is
undertaken so that at any stage of the curriculum development, mid-course corrections
should be undertaken to fine tune and fulfill the major aims of curriculum development.

1.4.3 SUBJECT/DISCIPLINE-BASED APPROACH

The subject/discipline-based approach is based on the philosophy that content is divided
into separate and distinct subjects or disciplines, such as language, science, mathematics,
and engineering/technology or social sciences. It is more like a traditional approach wherein

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 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

courses are derived and decided rationally based upon a structured body of knowledge in
the discipline. The philosophy of such an approach is believed to be around the received
body of disciplines specific knowledge and knowable structures. The curriculum is organized
around separate specific subjects or disciplines. Therefore 'discipline' in the context of
'curriculum' shall have definite meaning to understand it better.

Design research tools to identify student needs

the student as an individual Identification

Administer designed research tool and collect data

Analyse responses and prioritise them F

e
e
d
Design curriculum to develop the individual needs of student b
a
c
Develop learning resources to implement the designed curriculum k

Implement the curriculum to develop the student needs

Evaluate the curriculum

Figure 1.4.1 Individual-based Approach

The discipline is an organized body of knowledge and there is a logical order in the
structure of knowledge within the discipline. The body of knowledge in the discipline is the
key to learning of students. The term ‘discipline-based’ covers the range of
interconnectedness and derivative subjects or fields of study, both, the more traditional and
the newer areas. Typical examples of discipline/subject-based approach may be found in the
procedures used in developing curricula through various national curriculum projects in
subject areas like physics, mathematics/ biology and even for postgraduate studies of basic
sciences in many countries. It is seen as an organised body of knowledge in many areas like
sciences, technology disciplines, medicine, law, history and others.
The structure of concepts and principles in the body of knowledge in areas/subjects like
physical science, mechanics of structures, fluid mechanics are characterized by
interconnectedness and derivations that make linkage of one idea with the other. At the
same time there are areas and subjects of study those by themselves are not disciplines as

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 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

per the above meaning of disciplines e.g. Electrical Wiring, Estimating and Costing, Steel
Structures, Composite Blocks etc.
Topics covered are mostly represent the breadth of the discipline, the depth is
normally not given much weight and content in the topics generally are logically placed with
appropriate sequencing. The problem here is to decide what should be included and what
should be left out. Figure 1.4.2 depicts a typical model to develop the curriculum based on
the subject based approach and the feedback taken at all stages to fine tune the curriculum
development. The emphasis is on identifying "organised bodies of knowledge" and inclusion
of those into curriculum. Critique also points out that keeping an extreme view that areas of
study which are not considered as 'discipline' are not suitable for instruction may not be
correct, as instruction in the 'discipline' alone will not establish the relationship within and
with other disciplines or with real life work problems and jobs.
The approach is built around the conceptual clusters of the discipline that constitute
the work of people in the specific discipline. It is a kind of "product" oriented approach of
curriculum development". Learners must have frequent and recurring opportunities to
practice their disciplinary skills throughout their fields of study in a way that allows later
courses to build on the work of earlier ones. The discipline-based curriculum tends to be
specific, current, and covering information and skills as it emerges from the discipline
experts. A discipline-based curriculum approach characterizes teaching practice within one
subject and encourages teachers for specialization in the subjects related to the discipline.
This kind of approach does not necessarily give importance to the social issues, interest of
individuals and their learning requirements.

Design research tools to identify subject needs

the student as an individual Identification

Design curriculum to enrich subject knowledge F

e
e
d
Identify learning resources to implement the designed curriculum
b
a
c
Implement the curriculum to enrich body of knowledge k

Evaluate the curriculum

Figure 1.4.2 Discipline/Subject-based approach.

1.4.4 ANALYTIC OR SYSTEM'S APPROACH

Before we discuss about analytic or system's approach in the context of curriculum, let
us understand the concept and some characteristics of system.

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 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

System: Shrode and Voich (i) define a 'system' as "A set of interrelated parts,
working independently and jointly, in pursuit of common objectives of the whole,
within a complex environment".
In general systems theory, a system is any collection of interrelated component parts
or elements that together constitute a larger whole. These component parts, or elements of
the system are intimately linked with one another, either directly or indirectly, and any
change in one or more elements may affect the overall performance of the system, either
beneficially or adversely.

B Output
Input to
a System A C from a
System
D

Figure 1.4.3 Typical System Interaction between or Subsystems -A, B, C, D

The system consists of four distinct elements or components A, B, C, D, which are

related to or dependent upon each other as indicated. Note that some interrelationships
may be two-way, while others may be one-way only. These elements may themselves be
capable of further breakdown into other smaller components and may thus be regarded
as sub-systems of the overall system.

INPUT: Students, PROCESS:Teaching OUTPUT:Students With

Teachers, Curriculum, Learning Process & Improved Knowledge, Skills,
Resources, Equipments, Other Transformation Attitudes, Teachers with
Space, Time, Finance etc Processes Enhanced Competence, etc

FEEDBACK

Figure 1.4.4 Basic ‘Systems’ model of Technical Education Institution

One of the important feature of the systems’ approach is its output orientation,
as a product/s. In the context of curriculum development, from systems' point of view,
the analysis of these products of the system is the basis for determining the quantity,
quality of different inputs, their mix and the transformation process needed for
producing the expected output with value addition. "System analysis" as a tool is used
in this approach for curriculum design.
It is important to know the other characteristics of ‘system’, apart from product
orientation. These are:

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 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

a) Holism: The idea is that the ability of all components/elements to accomplish

collectively the common purpose or objectives for which the whole exists. That
is to say synergy and combined action is the characteristic of any system.
b) Transformation: A system transforms inputs, by utilizing resources to accomplish
its purpose.
c) Openness: To get the maximum benefit from a systems point of view,
educational systems are and must be open and dynamic to respond to the
environmental influences and changes.
d) Interrelatedness: Systems consists of subsystems, which are inter -related and
this relationship cannot be ignored. One subsystem cannot be changed in
isolation, without considering the implications on other subsystems. e.g. the
change in technological advancements would necessitate the change in
curriculum to respond to the labour market relevance and employment
requirements.
e) Control Mechanism, Feedback, Adaptation: An open system with feedback
mechanisms utilizes the feedback information for improvement, control or
adapting changing needs of the environment or its own internal needs.

This approach is less philosophical but more technical in terms of achieving

purposeful and expected ends of performance by students. More so the approach is more
closely related to Tyler's work and subsequent refinements and elaborations by other
educationists towards 'instructional systems' approach. the specific content for the
curriculum courses are derived from need analysis focused on industry requirements and
world of work in terms of jobs and skill performed by students.
From the systems' point of view, in the context of curriculum design, the analyses
are required to determine and for producing the expected output with value addition.‘
Systems Analysis’ is the tool for Curriculum Design, output orientation (product), value
addition and transformation processes. Based on the systems’ approach and the curriculum
rationale provided by Ralph Tyler; Taba Hilda developed the model of curriculum design
development with following sequential steps.
a) Identification and analysis of needs
b) Specification formulation of objectives
c) Selection and organization of content
d) Selection and organization of instructional methods resources
e) Design of evaluation methods, tools
f) Pilot tryout
g) Evaluation/Review
h) Large scale implementation.

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 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

Figure 1.4.5 depicts a typical simple diagram to design and develop the curriculum
from system's point of view. Model consists of subsystems such as identification of needs,
formulation of objectives, selection and organization of content, which are interdependent
and interrelated. Applying the concept of systems/analytic approach, each subsystem can
be analyzed further into elements. Consider the analysis of subsystem of 'identification of
needs'. The input to such sub system could be Govt. policy manpower demand, job
functions performed by engineers, socio economic environmental issues, Industrial
service sector growth and so on.

Figure 1.4.5 A Model for curriculum Design and Development- System's View

The processes would involve needs assessment through surveys, search conferences,
interviews and identifying future developments trends/ forecasting of changes in
technology role of engineers by expert teams/curriculum teams. The expected output from
such an analysis would contain activity profile of engineers, competency identified, job
description of engineers, personal development needs, professional growth needs and
needs related to social and environmental aspects. Similarly all sub systems can be analyzed
for obtaining that subsystem related outputs. The output of any subsystem, as a result will
be input for one or more subsequent subsystems.

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 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

Based on the valid and reliable information and data, considered decisions by the
groups working on curriculum would produce a draft document containing all the above or
some of the above major components. It would be appropriate and justifiable to try out
such a plan on a select institutions containing above aspects/ components to take corrective
measures and refinements before large scale implementation.
It would be more practical to visualize the model that as a part whole system of total
technical education, the major objective/aim of which is to provide technical manpower of
the right kind, and of right quality and quantity for the development of country. The
systems’ approach is also common with state universities / some boards of technical
education, where large masses of students are to be educated. The content normally is not
influenced by teachers or by students’ interests. It is derived from the analysis of needs and
required practices in the profession. But there seems a logical question to the systems’
approach when used for curriculum design. While analyzing subsystem /system the
possibility of absence of data or distortions of data-intended or otherwise leading to the
decisions based on inadequate or partially incorrect data cannot be ruled out. Under
such conditions is it possible to precisely predict or define the quantitative/qualitative
characteristics of the expected output/product by analyzing the output?
Competency based curriculum and skill-based curriculum are some examples of such
an approach. All aspects of teaching -learning and assessment are more inclined towards
application and demonstration of performance as expected of students when they join the
world of work. The assessment of student's achievement is expected to be based on
performance criteria.

1.4.5 SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH

This approach draws its philosophy from the premise that in creation and development of
institutions the social aspects play significant role. Socially critical dimensions like
humanities, social sciences, environmental aspects have influence on technology and
engineering and vice- versa. The content of curriculum need to be addressed keeping in
view the significant social problems and environmental impacts with respect to science,
engineering and technology.
The philosophy underlying the social-demand approach [CPSC, 1982] (ii) is that, if
education is to satisfy the needs of the society, then the curriculum should be relevant to
those needs. In other words, the thrust of this type of curriculum is concerned not only with
the socially critical dimensions like humanities, social sciences, environmental, but also
vocational career and economic aspects of life to address skill employment issues . Skilling
people through various trade/vocation specific programmes can also be considered
examples of social demand approach, as that will provide them livelihood through proper
employment and business skills..The philosophy is sound but when used by curriculum
experts and teachers for designing a curriculum, the approach takes a different form making

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 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

it job/trade specific approach. For instance, the most recent example is the curriculum for
‘bachelor’s in vocational education’ and ‘diploma in vocational education’ announced by
AICTE can be considered under this approach.
Other typical examples of this approach are also found on analysing the curricula of
training programmes of ‘finishing schools’ around the country which are designed to
improve the employability levels of specific groups of people. Short-term training
programmes to meet the industrial and military needs are also examples of this type of
curricular approach.

1.4.6 FUTURISTIC APPROACH

Will the ‘future’ be like ‘present’ or will it be drastically different? Should the technical
education graduates be prepared for the jobs they are likely to take up immediately
after graduation or beyond that period predicting the changes in social, technological,
industrial or managerial spheres? But the perception of future can differ considerably
between individuals. The preferred future as forecast by a group comprising a
representative cross section of individuals has a strong likelihood of materializing.
Therefore, in a world of rapid technological change and changing roles of the technical
graduates as technical manpower, how can the system of technical education prepare
people to cope-up with challenges of future change!! This calls for implications to be
considered with respect to transformation process employed in technical education
rather than the content. For example, the abilities like "learning to learn" need to be
developed deeply in students as a part of processes of transformation to cope with such
uncertainties and changes.

1.4.7 DOES ANY ONE APPROACH FITS ALL REQUIREMENTS OF AN ENGINEERING

PROGRAMME?
Each of the approaches discussed above considers different position and philosophy in
respect of engineering education. Each has its contextual merits, demerits and related
consequent implications for the engineering education programme offered. It may not be
out of context to view technical manpower as a product of technical education system
and the 'systems approach' for curriculum design for technical programmes can be
more appropriate. But at the same time the discipline-based approach has its'
advantages of identifying and organizing subject matter content in respective sectors or
covering body of knowledge. Whereas the humanistic and futuristic approach would
help in deciding on the transformation processes in technical education such that our
manpower is well equipped with knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes to develop as
a person and be prepared to cope-up with the future. No one approach is ideal and no
one approach may suit a full programme. Probably an eclectic approach, utilizing the merits
of all the above approaches can be seen as promising alternative.

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 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

1.4.8 ENGINEERING EDUCATION CURRICULUM DESIGN IN THE CURRENT SCENARIO -

AN ECLECTIC APPROACH TOWARDS OUTCOME-BASED EDUCATION
If we try to respond to a question that which is the best suited approach for engineering
/technology curriculum? Most of our responses may say that we include best features of all
these philosophies; That is to say that, we should consider the broad-based discipline
specific organized body of knowledge, needs analysis from industry and world of work
including performance requirements, cognitive development and creativity, personally
useful, relevant and meaningful learning and addressing social and environmental issues
with future perspective of change in technology and skills requirements. Therefore, one
may consider using an ‘eclectic approach’ taking the advantages of all the above
approaches as a suitable option for curriculum design of an engineering programmes. It
seems valuable to think back over a programme and find what would a graduate remembers
and uses knowledge, ability, skills and attitude, and still finds helpful, three to four years
later after graduation from diploma or degree programme respectively.
Outcome-based approach is the buzzword that is presently resounding in the
education sector all around the country. This approach is based on the premise that, every
educational programme will have its objectives of existence and outcomes expected from
the graduates of the programme which are relevant to the world of work life skills to be
learnt by the graduates. Although it is recognized that all curricular outcomes cannot be
stated in specific measurable terms, many of the outcomes may be written down in such a
manner that the broad curricular goals are made more quantifiable. The commanding
reason for this approach to have caught the attention of the governments and community
at large, is because there is considerable amount of clarity and preciseness in many of the
processes. The learner becomes more accountable and responsible. The role of a teacher
becomes a facilitator to develop required abilities in graduates. The assessment becomes
criteria based, valid and reliable. Figure 1.4.6 depicts a typical simple diagram to develop the
curriculum based on the outcome-based approach.
In the current scenario of engineering education, the recent examples of
‘Competency-focused outcome based curriculum’ (OBC) in the states of Gujarat and
Maharashtra (phased development was undertaken by NITTTR Bhopal) for diploma
programmes appears to be a good example. Also, the curricula of significant number of
diploma programmes in the state Chhattisgarh are being designed and developed by NITTTR
Bhopal on the outcome-based philosophy with an effort to align it with NBA requirements
.The curriculum for the UG engineering programmes can also be considered for designing it
from outcome-based approach point of view. The model based on this eclectic approach is
discussed in more detail as a model of outcome-based curriculum design development in
Module 4 of this course.

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 Course Name: Fundamentals of Outcome-based Curriculum in Engineering Education
Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

Design research tools to identify outcomes of educational programme

Administer designed research tool and collect data

Analyse responses and prioritise outcomes F

e
e
d
Design curriculum to develop prioritised outcomes b
a
c
Implement the curriculum to develop the prioritised outcomes k

Evaluate the curriculum

Figure 1.4.6 Simple Typical Diagram for Outcome-Based Curriculum

Approach
1.4.9 SUMMARY
Various approaches have been discussed as used by curriculum experts and
educationists in developing a curriculum at different times suiting the required
purposes. Every approach has its merits and demerits. No one approach is ideal and no
one approach may suit a full programme. It may be fitting to use an approach of
curriculum development which not only takes into account human development
requirements, social order with psychology of learning, but also outputs from system’s
or analytic approach at all levels and of components, focusing on disciplines specific
body of knowledge ,addressing future requirements/needs and life skills development.
It is important that for an approach to be satisfactory for curriculum design and
development, knowledge of philosophy, sociology, psychology and principles of
pedagogy would be essential and beneficial requirements.

******
REFERENCES, BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READINGS
[1] Balu S.A. (1983) Overview of Curriculum Design and Development- CPSC Course Module-Course in
Technician Curriculum Design, and Evaluation Process- 83/106 /1983)
[2] Banthiya N.K.et.al., (1999) Module -7 "Develop Curriculum for a subject/ programme"-' A
competency- based self- learning module' REC-British Council Project July 1999 coordinated
authored by a team led by Dr . N.K.Banthiya et.al. Technical Teachers' Training Institute (TTTI)-Bhopal,
Publication,
[3] Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education (1989) - 'Aspects of Curriculum for Technician
Education', CPSC publication 1989 ,MIA D 3120 Philippines
[4] Jain K.K. and Radhakrishnan V.H. (2014) " Identification of labour market oriented abilities for
curriculum of a diploma programme: industry perspective-a case in India" International Journal of

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Unit 1.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

Business and Management Studies, CD-ROM. ISSN: 2158-1479 :: 03(03):329–339 (2014) Copyright c
2014 by University Publications.net
[5] Heywood John, Engineering Education -Research and Development in Curriculum and Instruction IEEE
Press Willey –Interscience
[6] Radhakrishnan V.H. and Jain K.K. (2017) "outcome based curriculum of diploma programmes in the
state of Gujarat: implications with respect to Implementation and assessment" Journal of Teaching
and Education, CD-ROM. ISSN: 2165-6266 :: 07(01):393–406 (2017)
[7] Radhakrishnan V.H. and Earnest, Joshua (1997) ; "A snap study to ascertain the labour market
orientation of the skills required of technicians as listed by curriculum development centre of the
state of Gujarat"- a report May 1997 TTTI Bhopal
[8] Radhakrishnan V.H. (2013) : Power point Presentation and video progranmme on " Syllabus,
Curriculum and Implementation Aspects" , NITTTR Bhopal Production Nov. 2013
[9] Radhakrishnan V.H.: " PPT on Approaches to Curriculum Development" NITTTR Bhopal 2009
[10] Radhakrishnan V.H. (2013) : "Employability and curricular Interventions in Technical Education "-
Journal of Engineering, Science and Management education-Vol. (6) III 145-154, 2013
[11] Radhakrishnan V.H. (2013) : “Revised PPT on Curriculum implementation - System's View NITTTR
Bhopal 2013.
[12] Radhakrishnan V.H. (2004) : Handout- Resource material on “quality learning in the context of
effective curriculum implementation" March, 2004,NITTTR Bhopal
[13] Radhakrishnan V.H. (2015) : PPT notes on "Curriculum Framework -Curriculum Development
Methodology” in a National Workshop on Innovations in Curriculum, Teaching and Instruction for
Teachers of Professional and Technical Institutions Organized by CEDBEC, Christ University,
Bengaluru 4-6 the March 2015
[14] Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) 'Curriculum theory and practice' the encyclopedia of informal education,
www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm, last updated 4th Dec 2007, accessed on 12.12.2007 and 02.10
2018.
[15] Susan Toohey (1999) , “Designing courses in Higher Education , -'The society for Research into Higher
Education Open University Press 1999.
[16] Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and practice, New York: Harcourt Brace and World.
[17] Tyler, R. W. (1949) Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

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