See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/294786952

Ice Cream: Uses and Method of Manufacture

Chapter · December 2016

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00384-6

CITATIONS READS

5 45,140

4 authors:

Shital Deosarkar Chandraprakash D. Khedkar

Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences University Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences University
13 PUBLICATIONS   59 CITATIONS    158 PUBLICATIONS   468 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Shrikant D Kalyankar Anand Rangrao Sarode

Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences University Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences University
64 PUBLICATIONS   162 CITATIONS    13 PUBLICATIONS   22 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Effect of mushrooming of softwares aimed at quick writing of scientific publications on the sustainance of scientific vigour in the budding scientists View project

Studies on microbiological analysis of vendor's milk in Pusad Taluka View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Chandraprakash D. Khedkar on 29 September 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 This article was originally published in the Encyclopedia of Food and Health published by Elsevier, and the
attached copy is provided by Elsevier for the author's benefit and for the benefit of the author’s institution, for
non-commercial research and educational use including without limitation use in instruction at your institution,
sending it to specific colleagues who you know, and providing a copy to your institution’s administrator.

All other uses, reproduction and distribution, including without limitation commercial reprints, selling or
licensing copies or access, or posting on open internet sites, your personal or institution’s website or repository,
are prohibited. For exceptions, permission may be sought for such use through Elsevier's permissions site at:

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissionusematerial

Deosarkar S.S., Khedkar C.D., Kalyankar S.D. and Sarode A.R. (2016) Ice Cream: Uses and Method of
Manufacture. In: Caballero, B., Finglas, P., and Toldrá, F. (eds.) The Encyclopedia of Food and Health vol. 3, pp.
391-397. Oxford: Academic Press.

© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

 Author's personal copy
Ice Cream: Uses and Method of Manufacture
SS Deosarkar and CD Khedkar, College of Dairy Technology, Pusad, India
SD Kalyankar, Government College of Dairy Technology, Udgir, India
AR Sarode, College of Dairy Technology, Pusad, India
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Ice cream is a frozen dairy product made by freezing the ice
cream mix with agitation. It is composed of a mixture of food
ingredients like milk products, sweetening materials, stabi-
lizers, colors, flavors, and egg products. Ice cream had its
origins in Europe and was introduced later to the United States
where it developed into an industry. It is widely believed that
ice cream evolved from iced beverages and water ices. Ice cream
probably came to the United States with the early English
settlers. In 1851, the first wholesale ice cream industry in the
United States was established in Baltimore, Maryland. Ice
cream plants were then established in New York, St. Louis,
Chicago, Washington, and Cincinnati. The development of
condensed and dried milks and the introduction of the pas-
teurizer and homogenizer, improved freezers, and other pre-
serving equipments accompanied the growth of this industry
after 1900. The ice cream soda was introduced in 1879, and ice
cream cone and Eskimo Pie were introduced in 1904 and 1921,
respectively.
Global per capita consumption of ice cream and related
products is presented in Table 1. The US ice cream market in
2007 was $23 billion. The global value of the ice cream industry
is US$59 billion, growing on an average by 4% per annum with
a growth rate of 7–9%. More than 90% of American households
purchase ice cream. Global market share, according to point of
manufacture/consumption, take-home, impulse, or artisanal
products, is shown in Table 2. The take-home category is
defined as grocery store purchases and home consumption,
the impulse category is categorized by hand-held, single-serving
eat-on-the-spot products (sometimes referred to as novelty
products), and the artisanal category is defined as being manu-
factured at the site of purchase and consumption or sold directly
by the manufacturer to the consumer (e.g., ice cream parlors and
street vendors). There are very large differences globally,
impacted in large part by the presence of home freezers.
Ice creams are unique frozen food because they are consumed
in the frozen state, usually as a scooped product or as a single-
serving item, sometimes on a stick and often with other confec-
tionery items. These products rely on a concomitant freezing and
whipping process to establish the desired structure and texture.
The manufacturing process for most of these products is similar.
It involves the preparation of a liquid mix, which is prepared by
blending the desired ingredients, followed by pasteurization,
homogenization, and aging. It is followed by whipping and
freezing this mix dynamically under high shear to soft, semi-
frozen slurry. The flavoring ingredients are then incorporated in
this partially frozen mix. It is then placed in molds for desired
shaping and packaging the product. It is further subject to freez-
ing (hardening) under static, quiescent conditions. Swept-surface
freezers are used for the first freezing step, while forced
Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00384-6
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 391-397
convection freezers, such as air blast tunnels or rooms, or plate-
type conduction freezers are used for the second freezing step.
A wide variety of ingredients are used to produce ice creams.
Even any one kind of ice cream can be made by combining the
ingredients in any of several different combinations of ingre-
dients. Ice cream mix is the unfrozen mixture of the ingredi-
ents, consisting of all the components of ice cream with the
exception of air and flavoring materials. The composition of ice
cream is usually expressed as a percentage of its constituents,
for example, percentage of milk fat, milk solids-not-fat, sugar,
egg solids, stabilizers, and the total solids.
Ice Cream Mix
Ice cream mix comprises milk fat, milk solids-not-fat (MSNF),
sweeteners, stabilizers, colors, emulsifiers, and water. Dairy and
other ingredients used to supply these components are chosen
on the basis of their cost, availability, and quality of the finished
product. An account of composition of various frozen dairy
desserts is presented in Table 3. The source of fat that is derived
from milk ingredients (e.g., cream and butter) is common in
North America and many other parts of the world, while fat
derived from nondairy sources (e.g., coconut oil and palm kernel
oil) is more common in parts of Europe and Asia. The triglycer-
ides in milk fat have a wide melting range of 40 to 40  C.
Consequently, at refrigeration temperatures, there is always a
combination of liquid and crystalline fat within the globules.
The resulting solid–liquid ratio at freezer barrel temperatures is
important for formation of ice cream structure, as crystalline fat is
required for partial coalescence. Nondairy fat sources must also
be chosen to provide a suitable solid fat content.
The Milk Solids-Not-Fat
It comprises lactose, casein, whey proteins, minerals, vitamins,
and other minor components of the milk or milk products from
which they were derived (e.g., skim milk powder, condensed
milk, and whey protein concentrate ingredients). Proteins con-
tribute much to the development of the structure of ice cream,
including emulsification, whipping, and water-holding capacity.
Whipping of proteins in ice cream contributes to the formation
of the initial air bubbles in the mix. Emulsification of proteins in
the mix arises from their adsorption to fat globules due to
homogenization. Viscosity of mix is enhanced due to water-
holding capacity of proteins, which imparts a desired body to
the ice cream, increases the meltdown time of ice cream, and
contributes to reduced iciness.
391
 Author's personal copy
392 Ice Cream: Uses and Method of Manufacture

Table 1 Per capita consumption of ice cream and related products in Sweeteners
selected countries (2002, unless otherwise noted)
Sweeteners improve the texture and palatability of the ice
Country Consumption
cream, impart sweet taste, and enhance flavors. They also
New Zealand 22–23 (2006) lower the freezing point of the mixture, which imparts a mea-
The United States 18.3 (2007) sure of control over the temperature–hardness relationship. In
Australia 18 (2006) determining the proper blend of sweeteners for an ice cream
Finland 14 (2006) mix, the total solids required from the sweeteners, the sweet-
Sweden 12 ness factor of each sugar, and the combined freezing point
Italy 9.2 depression of all sugars in solution (including lactose from
Ireland 9.0
the dairy ingredients) must be calculated to achieve the proper
Denmark 8.7
solids content, the appropriate sweetness level, and a satisfac-
Canada 8.7 (2007)
The United Kingdom 6 (2007) tory degree of hardness. The most common sweetening agent
Chile 5.6 used is sucrose. It provides sweetness, depresses freezing point,
Malaysia 2.0 affects freezing performance, affects body and texture,
China 1.9 (2006) enhances flavor, and contributes bulk or total solids and
impacts on economics. Generally, the equivalent of 15%
Source: Goff, H. D. (2011). Ice cream and frozen desserts: product types. In: sucrose is considered optimal sweetness in ice cream. Substi-
Encyclopedia of dairy science, 2nd ed., pp. 893–898. London: Elsevier. tute sweeteners derived from starch hydrolysate syrup (glucose
syrup) for all or a portion of the sucrose can also be used as it is
relatively cheaper. Glucose syrups impart greater smoothness
by contributing to a firmer and chewy body, provide better
meltdown characteristics, bring out enhanced fruit flavors, and
reduce heat shock potential that improves the shelf life of the
Table 2 Global market share characterized by point of finished product. Nonnutritive sweeteners, which do not
manufacture/consumption (2006) provide any significant calories can also be used for diabetics.
They include sucralose, aspartame, saccharin, cyclamates,
Take-home Impulse Artisanal acesulfame-K, and many others. As little as 0.07% aspartame
Global, by volume 41 50 8 can provide the sweetness equivalent to 15% sucrose.
Global, by monetary value 26 52 21
Regional, by monetary value
North America 43 34 21
Stabilizers
Western Europe 21 45 34
Australasia 39 49 19
Asia Pacific 10 86 4 Apart from sweeteners, stabilizers are also important nondairy
Eastern Europe 28 67 5 ingredients. The term stabilizer is used for a group of sub-
Latin America 24 63 13 stances that help stabilize the structure of ice cream. The com-
monly used stabilizers in ice cream mix are a group of
Source: Goff, H. D. (2011). Ice cream and frozen desserts: product types. In: ingredients (polysaccharides) such as guar, locust bean gum,
Encyclopedia of dairy science, 2nd ed., pp. 893–898. London: Elsevier. carboxymethylcellulose, and xanthan. Stabilizers increase the

Table 3 Approximate composition (%) of commercial frozen desserts by formulation category

Group Milk fat Milk solids-notfat Sweetenersa Stabilizersb Total solids

Nonfat ice cream <0.5 12–14 18–22 1.0 28–32

Low-fat ice cream 2–5 12–14 18–21 0.8 28–32
Light ice cream 5–7 11–12 18–20 0.5 30–35
Reduced-fat ice cream 7–9 10–12 18–19 0.4 32–36
Economy ice cream 10 10–11 15–17 0.4 35–36
Standard ice cream 10–12 9–10 14–17 0.2–0.4 36–38
Premium ice cream 12–14 8–10 13–16 0.2–0.4 38–40
Super premium ice cream 14–18 5–8 14–17 0–0.2 40–42
Frozen yogurt: regular 3–6 9–13 15–17 0.5 30–36
Frozen yogurt: nonfat <0.5 9–14 15–17 0.6 28–32
Sherbet 1.2 1–3 22–28 0.4–0.5 28–34
a
Includes sucrose, glucose, corn syrup solids, maltodextrins, polydextrose, and other bulking agents, some of which contribute little sweetness.
b
Includes ingredients such as locust bean gum, guar gum, carrageenan, cellulose gum, and cellulose gel, as stabilizers, and also mono- and diglycerides and polysorbate 80, as
emulsifiers.
Source: Goff, H. D. (2011). Ice cream and frozen desserts: product types. In: Encyclopedia of dairy science, 2nd ed., pp. 893–898. London: Elsevier.

The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 391-397

 Author's personal copy
viscosity of the mix; produce smoothness in body and texture;
retard or reduce ice and lactose crystal growth during storage,
especially during periods of temperature fluctuation, known as
heat shock; and hold flavorings in uniform suspension. The
mechanism of action of stabilizers in enhancing frozen stabil-
ity is related primarily to its effect on the ice and unfrozen
serum phases. Stabilized ice cream has smaller ice crystals than
unstabilized ice cream after storage at fluctuating temperatures.
Usually, stabilizers are used at 0.1–0.5% levels in the mix, but
the actual amount depends on the type and strength of the
stabilizer, total solids and fat level of the mix, duration and
temperature of storage of ice cream, and the method of pas-
teurization. High-fat and high-total solid mixes require lower
levels of stabilizers. More stabilizer is needed for ice cream that
is stored for a long period of time or if the temperature fluctu-
ation during storage is frequent.
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers are sometimes integrated with the stabilizers in
proprietary blends, but their function and action are very dif-
ferent from the stabilizers. They exert their action on the fat
phase of ice cream. These are surface-active agents. Emulsifiers
facilitate the mixing of fat and water because these molecules
have two domains, one that likes water (hydrophilic) and
another that likes fat (hydrophobic). When the hydrophobic
part of a surfactant interacts with the fat, the water-loving part
of the molecule can interact with water, thus facilitating the
suspension of fat in water. Generally, mono- and diglycerides
and ethoxylated esters of sorbitol (polysorbates) are the com-
monly used emulsifiers. Mono- and diglycerides are derived
from fatty acids and glycerol. Therefore, emulsifiers are fatty
substances. They also show fatlike properties such as melting
point and crystallinity, and they can be composed of saturated
or unsaturated fatty acids. The presence of emulsifiers in ice
cream leads to smoother texture and better shape retention
while improving the ability of the mix to incorporate air. The
mode of action of emulsifiers is related to their activity at the
air–serum and fat–serum interfaces. At the fat–serum interface,
they displace proteins from the surface of the fat globules,
rendering the fat globules more susceptible to partial coales-
cence and structure formation during the freezing and whip-
ping process.
Figuring the Mix
Ice cream processing operations can be divided into two dis-
tinct stages: figuring the mix and freezing operations. Once a
formula has been finalized, a recipe has to be created. Formulas
specify composition of the desired mix in terms of percentages
of fat, MSNF, sweeteners, stabilizers, and emulsifiers. A recipe
calculates the weight and/or volumes of ingredients needed to
meet the formula requirements. These calculations are called
mix calculations. Mix calculations are essential for manufactur-
ing consistent quality finished products. When composition of
raw materials varies or the economics of ingredients changes,
the recipe for making an ice cream mix has to change. Further,
this change has to occur in a manner that the finished product
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 391-397
Ice Cream: Uses and Method of Manufacture 393
composition is not altered. In some instances, changing regu-
latory definitions and health claims may necessitate manufac-
ture of products to carefully defined specifications.
Mix calculations are important in standardizing mixes prior
to freezing. Ice cream plants now use computer software pro-
grams to calculate the amounts of various ingredients to con-
form to required specifications of composition of ice cream
mix. However, for basic understanding, the fundamentals of
the mix calculations are discussed here. Mix calculations can be
performed by Pearson’s square, algebraic methods, and arith-
metic methods. Pearson’s square is of limited utility; algebraic
methods are complicated and involve the use of simultaneous
equations and matrices. Arithmetic calculations are simpler
and require fewer computations than algebraic methods.
Figuring the mix consists of the following unit operations:
combination and blending of ingredients, batch or continuous
pasteurization, homogenization, and mix aging. Ingredients
are usually preblended prior to pasteurization, regardless of
the type of pasteurization system used. Blending of ingredients
is relatively simple if all ingredients are in the liquid form, as
automated metering pumps or tanks on load cells can be used.
When dry ingredients are used, powders are added either
through a pumping system under high velocity or through a
liquefier that chops all ingredients as they are mixed with the
liquid.
Pasteurization
It is designed to destruct pathogenic bacteria, if any are present.
In addition, it serves a useful role in reducing the total bacterial
load and in solubilizing some of the components (proteins
and stabilizers). Both batch and continuous (high-temperature
short-time (HTST)) systems are in common use. In a batch
pasteurization system, blending of the ingredients is done in
large jacketed vats equipped with some means of heating,
usually saturated steam or hot water. The product is then
heated in the vat to at least 69  C and held for 30 min to satisfy
legal requirements for pasteurization. This is necessary for the
destruction of pathogenic bacteria. Various time–
temperature combinations can be used, depending on the
legal jurisdiction. Continuous pasteurization is usually per-
formed in an HTST heat exchanger following the blending
of ingredients in a large, insulated feed tank. Regulations con-
cerning time–temperature combinations for continuous pas-
teurization usually specify a minimum temperature of 80  C
for at least 25 s.
Homogenization
Following pasteurization, the mix is homogenized using high
pressures. It is responsible for the formation of the fat emulsion
by forcing the hot mix through a small orifice under pressures
of 15.5–18.9 MPa, depending on the mix composition. The
resulting eight- to tenfold increase in the surface area of the fat
globules is responsible in part for the formation of the fat glob-
ule membrane, composed of adsorbing materials attempting
to lower the interfacial free energy of the fat globules. With
single-stage homogenizers, fat globules tend to cluster as bare
 Author's personal copy
394 Ice Cream: Uses and Method of Manufacture
fat surfaces come together or adsorbed molecules are shared,
especially in ice cream mix. Therefore, a second homogenizing
valve is frequently placed immediately after the first with applied
back pressures of 3.4 MPa, allowing more time for surface
adsorption to occur. The net effects of homogenization are in
the production of smaller, more uniform fat droplet size, result-
ing in a greater stability of fat droplets during aging, a better
whipping ability, and a smoother, more uniform final product
with a greater apparent richness.
Aging of the Mix
The time of 4 h or greater at 2–4  C is recommended for aging
following mix processing prior to freezing. Aging is performed
in insulated or refrigerated storage tanks, silos, etc. or in single-
walled tanks in chilled rooms, where valves and pipeline can
also be kept cold. Aging allows hydration of milk proteins and
stabilizers (some viscosity increase occurs during the aging
period), crystallization of the fat globules, and a membrane
rearrangement to produce a smoother texture and better-
quality product. Nonaged mix exhibits a low viscosity, is very
wet at extrusion from the dynamic freezer, and exhibits vari-
able whipping abilities. The appropriate ratio of solid–liquid
fat must be attained at this stage, a function of temperature and
the triglyceride composition of the fat used, as a partially
crystalline emulsion is needed for partial coalescence in the
whipping and freezing step. Emulsifiers generally displace milk
proteins from the fat surface during the aging period. The
whipping qualities of the mix are usually improved with
aging. Mix temperatures should be maintained as low as pos-
sible without freezing.
Flavorings
Flavor is an important attribute of a food. It is a sensory
response that has three components, olfactory (odor/smell),
gustatory (taste), and tactual (mouthfeel). Ice cream is cold,
creamy, refreshing, and sweet and releases aroma upon melting
in the mouth. When the word ‘flavor’ is used in everyday
parlance, we imply taste and olfaction. Taste compounds are
sweet, salty, bitter, and sour. Generally, compounds imparting
these tastes can be detected at levels of 0.01–0.5. Olfactory
compounds (smelly stuff) are volatile and have thresholds in
the parts per million to parts per trillion range. Threshold is
defined as the minimum concentration that at least 50% of the
population can detect. Threshold of aroma compounds are
10–10 million times less than taste compounds.
Perception of aroma is affected by the composition, physi-
cal structure, and temperature of the food. Undesirable flavors
are called off-flavors. Off-flavors affect the overall flavor qual-
ities of the food. Deteriorative reactions are time-dependent
and cumulative. Therefore, the length and conditions of storage
have a profound influence on the perception of overall flavor.
These deteriorative reactions occur in ingredients used in ice
cream manufacture. Therefore, careful attention should be paid
to the quality of ingredients used in ice cream manufacture.
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 391-397
Glass Transition Temperature
Temperature stability of ice cream has focused on carbohydrate
glass formation as a function of temperature. A glass is charac-
terized as a metastable solid with a high viscosity. At the glass
transition temperature, polymeric materials change from a
viscoelastic liquid to an amorphous solid (glass) with an asso-
ciated increase in viscosity. For ice creams, this temperature is
defined as the glass transition temperature of a maximally
freeze-concentrated solution. The interest in glassy state in ice
creams has increased steadily since the last 15 years. It is now
well established that the glassy-state temperature influences the
storage stability as above these temperatures, the solutions are
unstable and reactive. Ice crystallization can also occur in this
phase. Below the glass transient temperature, the materials
become glossy and no molecular motion or chemical reaction
occurs. The ice crystallization is prevented and the shelf life of
the product is prolonged. Glass transition temperature for ice
cream is 32  C. Storage of ice cream at this low temperature
to maintain the glassy state for enhanced stability is not
practical.
Freezing Process
The process of freezing of ice cream in simple words is the
creation of ice from water in the mix. Therefore, the only
constituent of the mix being frozen is water. During the
freezing process, the equilibrium between water and ice is
altered. Freezing is facilitated by the removal of heat from a
substance. In the old salt and ice machine, used prior to
mechanical refrigeration, ice served as the refrigerant and
addition of salt lowered the freezing point of water. The
brine extracts heat from the mix. The mix temperature is
lowered and the brine temperature increases. Brine is not a
good refrigerant. With the advent of mechanical refrigeration,
the use of ice and salt for freezing ice cream was relegated to a
hobby status.
Modern ice cream freezing consists of two distinct stages:
(1) passing the mix through a swept-surface heat exchanger
under high-shear conditions to promote extensive ice crystal
nucleation and air incorporation and (2) freezing the pack-
aged ice cream under conditions that promote rapid freezing
and formation of small ice crystals. The freezing and whip-
ping process is one of the most important unit operations for
the development of quality, palatability, and yield of finished
product. Due to the incorporation of air, foam is created. It
leads to the formation of the ice phase and the partial desta-
bilization of the fat emulsion. The objective of ice cream
manufacturers is to produce ice crystals that are below the
threshold of sensory detection at the time of consumption.
This threshold has been suggested to be between 40 and
50 mm. Therefore, the freezing steps of the manufacturing
process and the temperature profile throughout the distribu-
tion system are critical factors in meeting this objective. Fla-
voring and colorants are added as desired to the mix prior to
passing through the barrel freezer, and particulate flavoring
ingredients, such as nuts, fruits, candy pieces, and ripple
sauces, can be added to the semifrozen product at the exit
from the barrel freezer prior to packaging and hardening.
 Author's personal copy
Continuous Freezers
Continuous freezers are commonly used in larger ice cream
manufacturing plants where more than 500 gal (1875 l) of ice
cream per day may be manufactured. These freezers have larger
capacities and can be operated continuously, ingredients can
be added in-line, and packaging can be also automated. Also,
continuous freezers make it possible to produce ice cream of
different shapes through extrusion devices. Novelty extrusions,
such as sandwiches, prefilled cones and cups, and cakes, are
possible through the use of continuous freezers. The ice cream
from a continuous freezer is smoother and creamier than a
product from a batch freezer. This is because the ice crystals
formed in a continuous freezer are smaller and the air cells may
also be more uniform. The ice cream exiting a continuous
freezer is also generally colder than that coming out of a
batch freezer. There are a number of different types of contin-
uous ice cream freezers; some are vertical freezers, especially for
smaller-scale operations; others are horizontal ice cream
freezers. Regardless of whether the freezing cylinder is horizon-
tal or vertical, all continuous freezers have a set of blades for
scrapping the walls of the freezers. In a continuous freezer, a
mixture of air and the mix is introduced at one end and is
progressively frozen until ice cream is discharged at the other
end. The conveyance of the mixture of air and the mix and the
discharge of the ice cream may be facilitated by coordinated
pumps in some models. Also, the newer models of freezers are
equipped with microprocessor controls that monitor and con-
trol the discharge temperature of the ice cream, the viscosity of
the ice cream, and the overrun of the ice cream. Further, these
microprocessors can work in tandem with other downstream
equipment such as ingredient feeders and packaging lines.
These freezers dominate the commercial ice cream indus-
try. In this type of process, ice cream mix is drawn from the
flavoring tank into a scraped-surface heat exchanger, which is
jacketed with a liquid, boiling refrigerant (usually ammonia;
a chlorinated, fluorinated hydrocarbon (CFC) such as R-12,
R-22, or R-502; or one of the newly developed CFC
substitutes).
A continuous freezer is usually operated under pressure, to
minimize the volume of air in the ice cream and thus maxi-
mize heat transfer. Air bubbles expand rapidly when the ice
cream is drawn through the outlet valve to atmospheric pres-
sure. The introduction of low-temperature extrusion equip-
ment has been a recent development in ice cream freezing
technology. This is a continuous-flow heat exchanger in the
form of a screw extruder that reduces the temperature of ice
cream from the draw temperature of the barrel freezer,
typically 5  C, to a range of 10 to 14  C. The ice cream
passes at low shear through a twin-screw or single-screw
design with a residence time of 1–2 min. Ice cream that results
from such processing shows much smaller ice cream and air
bubble sizes, and the fat is agglomerated into a structure that
provides a creamy texture.
When the product emerges from the low-temperature
extruder, it is still pliable, so some particulates can be added
to it, and it can be cut and packaged, but it sets up very quickly
thereafter to a very firm consistency. Hence, the claim is made
that low-temperature extrusion can replace the need for con-
ventional hardening of ice cream.
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 391-397
Ice Cream: Uses and Method of Manufacture 395
Batch Freezers
Batch freezers are commonly used by small ice cream units that
make ice cream on the premises. In batch freezers, a predeter-
mined amount of mix is charged into the freezing chamber;
refrigeration is turned on as is the agitation. Generally, the mix
will occupy half of the barrel. The mix is agitated and whipped
while being cooled. After some time, the mix begins to freeze,
and when it achieves a certain consistency, it begins to incorpo-
rate air. Incorporation of air in conjunction with the freezing
stiffens the ice cream. At this point, the refrigeration should be
turned off and agitation continued for some additional period
of time. When the desired overrun is achieved, the ice cream is
discharged from the barrel with the agitator mechanism still on.
Just prior to discharge of the ice cream, fruits and nuts can
be added to the barrel, but the preferred method of addition of
particulate inclusions is to fold them into the ice cream as they
are being discharged from the barrel. Once this process is
complete, the next batch of mix can be charged into the freezer
barrel and the process repeated.
The batch freezer differs considerably from the continuous
systems described in the preceding text. The barrel of a batch
swept-surface heat exchanger is jacketed with refrigerant and
contains a set of dashers and scraper blades inside the barrel. It
is filled to about one-half volume with the liquid mix. Barrel
volumes usually range from 2 to 12 l. The freezing unit and
agitators are then activated, and the product remains in the
barrel for sufficient time to achieve the desired degree of over-
run and stiffness. Whipping increases with time and cannot
exceed the amount that will fill the barrel with the product
(i.e., 100% overrun when starting half full). Batch freezers are
used in smaller operations where it is desirable to run individ-
ual flavored mixes on a small scale or to retain an element of
the ‘homemade’-style manufacturing process.
The formation of the ice phase during the continuous freez-
ing stage is responsible in part for the structure and texture of
the final product. The crystallization of water to ice involves
two major steps: nucleation and crystal growth. Nucleation
occurs at the wall of the heat exchanger during start-up. After
start-up, the continual scraping action of the blades acts as a
seeding mechanism, by providing a source of tiny crystals into
the bulk where they grow.
Overrun in Ice Cream
Incorporation of air into ice cream, termed the overrun, occurs
at this stage. Some overrun is necessary to produce desirable
body and texture. Two main types of air incorporation systems
are used in continuous freezers. In older systems, the pump
configuration resulted in a vacuum either at the pump itself or
on the mix line entering the pump. Air was then incorporated
through a spring-loaded, controllable needle valve. Newer types
of freezers use compressed air, which is injected into the mix.
This type of air handling system allows for air filtration
(0.65 mm micropore filter) prior to admission into the mix.
Following aeration, the water in the mix is partially frozen
as the mix and air combination passes through the barrel of the
heat exchanger. Ice forms on the inside wall of the heat
exchanger from the water in the mix, resulting in a freeze
 Author's personal copy
396 Ice Cream: Uses and Method of Manufacture
concentration of the dissolved solutes. Rotating knife blades
are responsible for continually scraping this frozen mix off the
surface of the heat exchanger wall and mixing it into the bulk
flow of freeze-concentrated liquid mix, where these tiny ice
crystals grow. The dasher keeps the product agitated inside
the barrel and provides a more homogeneous mixture of ice
and freeze-concentrated liquid. Residence time for mix
through the annulus of the freezer varies from 0.4 to 2 min,
although some products may remain for much longer times;
especially with open cage dashers, freezing rates can vary from
5 to 27  C min 1, and a draw temperature of 6  C can easily
be achieved.
Hardening of Ice Cream
After freezing, the flavors, nuts, chocolates, etc. are added, and
the product is packed and immediately transferred to a hard-
ening chamber ( 30  C or colder, either forced convection or
plate-type conduction freezers) where the majority of the
remaining water freezes. Rapid initial freezing is essential to
set up as many crystal nuclei as possible so that during the
maturation or growth stage, their size stays small. In the same
context, rapid hardening is also necessary to keep ice crystal
sizes small.
Further temperature reduction during hardening accounts
for continued growth of the preformed crystals. As water freezes
out of solution in a relatively pure form, the formation of ice acts
to concentrate the dissolved sugars, lactose, milk proteins, salts,
and hydrocolloids in an ever-decreasing amount of water. Water
and its dissolved components are referred to as the serum or
matrix of the mix. Because the freezing point of the serum is a
function of the concentration of dissolved solids, formation of
more ice concentrates the serum and results in an ever-
decreasing freezing temperature for the remaining serum.
Therefore, at temperatures several degrees below the initial freez-
ing temperature, there is always an unfrozen phase present. Ice
cream hardness is a function of temperature due to its effect on
this conversion from unfrozen water to ice and further concen-
tration of the serum phase surrounding the ice crystals, which
helps to give ice cream its ability to be scooped and chewed at
freezer temperatures.
Structure Formation During Manufacture
The texture of ice cream is perhaps one of its most important
quality attributes. It is the sensory manifestation of structure.
Hence, establishment of optimal ice cream structure is critical
to maximal textural quality. The structure of ice cream begins
with the mix as a simple emulsion, with a discrete phase of
partially crystalline fat globules surrounded by an interfacial
layer composed of proteins and surfactants. Ice cream is a
complex food colloid in that the mix emulsion is subsequently
foamed, creating a dispersed phase of air bubbles, and is fro-
zen, forming another dispersed phase of ice crystals. Air bub-
bles and ice crystals are usually in the range of 20–50 mm. The
serum phase is freeze-concentrated. In addition, the partially
crystalline fat phase at refrigerated temperatures undergoes
partial coalescence during the concomitant whipping and
freezing process, resulting in a network of agglomerated fat,
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 391-397
which partially surrounds the air bubbles and gives rise to a
solid-like structure.
Packaging of Ice Cream
A good package must contain the product, protect it, provide
convenience, and provide information on the product to the
consumer. Food packages provide protection against physical,
chemical, and biological damages. It also provides information
useful to the consumer, for example, ingredient label, nutri-
tional label, net contents, serving suggestion, and methods of
preparing the product. Besides these attributes, a good food
package keeps the food at nearly the same quality as when it
was manufactured. During distribution, packages are subjected
to physical abuses such as shocks, vibrations, compression,
and, in the case of ice cream and frozen desserts, heat shock.
For frozen dessert packaging, three main factors have to be
considered. First, the package has to protect the product against
temperature fluctuations, photooxidation, dehydration, and
odor transmittance. Second, it has to take into consideration
distribution-related factors such as package integrity, thermal
shock, and cube efficiency. Third, municipal solid waste man-
agement factors have also to be considered.
Storage and Distribution
Frozen and hardened product is stored and often distributed
prior to the enjoyment by the end consumer. The intermediate
steps involved in storage vary depending upon the scale of
manufacture, market share, point of sale, and consumer pref-
erences. In the simplest case of a retail ice cream manufacturer,
the product is made fresh in the store and sold very soon after
manufacture, and this requires relatively few controls. Ice
cream is unique in that it is the only product that is consumed
in the frozen state. Therefore, once it is manufactured, it has to
be stored, transported, distributed, and sold in the frozen state.
In the United States, frozen foods are distributed in a separate
chain than ice cream is because the cold chain for frozen foods
is 18  C (0  F) and is inadequate for ice cream. Ice cream cold
chain maintains 23  C ( 10  F). The distribution chain is
called the cold chain and varies from manufacturer to manu-
facturer. Regardless of variations, the cold chain is imperfect.
This imperfection affects the quality of the product at the point
of purchase and impacts consumer satisfaction. Factors affect-
ing the shelf life of ice cream are manufacturing procedures,
warehouse equipment, warehouse handling practices, trans-
portation, storage at retail premises, retail display equipment,
and retail handling practices.
Uses of Ice Cream
Ice cream is such a frozen dessert that is liked by all age groups.
It is an energy-rich product and may be a part of countless
recipes and gastronomic specialties. It can be used as a most
promising carrier medium for probiotic organisms.
See also: Ice Cream: Composition and Health Effects.
 Author's personal copy
Further Reading
Berger KG (1997) Ice cream. In: Friberg SE and Larsson K (eds.) Food emulsions, 3rd
ed., pp. 413–490. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.
Gaff HO (2002) Formation and stabilization of structure in ice cream and related
products. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science 7: 432–437.
Goff HD (1997) Colloidal aspects of ice cream – a review. International Dairy Journal
7: 363–373.
Goff HD (2003) Ice cream. In: Fox PF and McSweeney PLH (eds.) Proteins.
Advanced dairy chemistry, vol. 1, pp. 1063–1082. New York: Kluwer Academic,
3rd ed.
Goff HD (2006) Ice cream. In: Fox PF and McSweeney PLH (eds.) Lipids. Advanced
dairy chemistry, vol. 2, pp. 441–450. New York: Kluwer Academic, 3rd ed.
Goff HD (2009) Ice cream. In: Fox PF and McSweeney PLH (eds.) Lactose, water, salts
and minor constituents. Advanced dairy chemistry, vol. 3, pp. 69–79. New York:
Springer, 3rd ed.
Goff HD and Tharp BW (eds.) (2004) Ice cream II. Brussels, Belgium: International Dairy
Federation, Special Issue 401.
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 391-397
View publication stats
Ice Cream: Uses and Method of Manufacture 397
Hartel RW (1996) Ice crystallization during the manufacture of ice cream. Trends in
Food Science and Technology 7: 315–321.
Kyle SB and Stice E (2013) Elevated energy intake is correlated with hyper responsivity
in attentional, gustatory, and reward brain regions while anticipating palatable food
receipt. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 97: 1188–1194.
Marshall RT, Goff HD, and Hartel RW (2003) Ice cream, 6th ed. New York: Kluwer
Academic.
Walstra P, Wouters JTM, and Guerts TJ (2006) Dairy science and technology, 2nd ed.
New York: CRC Taylor and Francis.
Relevant Websites
http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/early/2012/02/14/ajcn.111.027003.abstract –
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
http://www.berryondairy.com/Milk.html – Berry on dairy.
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-5945/12/13 – British Medical Council.