processes

Article
Utilization of Pyrolytic Carbon Black Waste for the
Development of Sustainable Materials
Faizan Ali 1 , Mishmal Ahmed Khan 1 , Muhammad Ahmed Qurashi 1 ,
Syyed Adnan Raheel Shah 1, *, Nasir Mahmood Khan 2 , Zia Khursheed 1 , Hafiz Shahzaib Rahim 1 ,
Hunain Arshad 1 , Muhammad Farhan 1 and Muhammad Waseem 3
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Multan 60000, Pakistan;
bababukhari1980@gmail.com (F.A.); 2kx8civil33@piet.edu.pk (M.A.K.); 2kx5civil114@piet.edu.pk (M.A.Q.);
2kx8civil31@piet.edu.pk (Z.K.); 2kx8civil34@piet.edu.pk (H.S.R.); hunainarshad@piet.edu.pk (H.A.);
muhammadfarhan@piet.edu.pk (M.F.)
2 Pakistan Engineering Council, Ataturk Avenue (East), G-5/2, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan; kmnasir@pec.org.pk
3 Bayreuth Centre for Ecology and Environmental Research, University of Bayreuth, 95440 Bayreuth,
Germany; muhammad.waseem@uni-bayreuth.de
* Correspondence: syyed.adnanraheelshah@uhasselt.be; Tel.: +92-300-791-4248




Received: 29 December 2019; Accepted: 1 February 2020; Published: 4 February 2020


Abstract: The sustainable development of materials is one of the key targets in the modern era of
engineering. These materials are developed by different waste products, following the concept of
the circular economy. This study focuses on investigating the properties of concrete using carbon
black as a partial replacement of natural fine aggregate at different percentages. Experiments were
designed according to the British Standard (BS1881-Part-119) and American Standard (ASTM C-78) by
including carbon black in concrete beams to perform as filler material to develop sustainable concrete.
In this study, mechanical properties of concrete were targeted by developing beams using different
percentages (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) as a replacement of fine aggregates. These beams were
tested for flexural strength and, later on, the same beams were cut in the form of cubes, following the
equivalent cube test mechanism for the compressive strength test. The waste carbon black lightweight
concrete developed in this study was utilized for both structural and non-structural purposes. At 25%
and 50% replacement, the strength of lightweight concrete varied from 20–18 MPa, and according to
American Concrete Institute (ACI) standards, lightweight concrete at 28 days strength with ≥17 MPa
can be used as structural concrete, and the remaining 75% and 100% replacement concrete can be
used for non-structural purposes. This study will help in the development of economical eco-friendly
sustainable concrete materials.

Keywords: sustainable; eco-friendly; materials; waste management

1. Introduction
Globally, for development purposes, the material that is utilized the most is concrete [1]. Due
to the rapid utilization of concrete, the manufacturing of cement is also expanding every day, which
contributes to environmental pollution due to the release of CO2 [2,3]. Moreover, the demand for
concrete manufacturing ingredients, i.e., cement, sand, and aggregate, is also varying concurrently [4].
On a regular basis, conventional concrete is used for infrastructure development [5]. However, the
density of that type of concrete is very high, which contributes to the high self-load for structure [6,7].
To resist this loading effect, extra measures (i.e., reinforcing) are required to be taken [8]. Because of all
these aspects, the consumption of lightweight concrete is expanding day by day [9,10]. Lightweight
concrete is very helpful in minimizing this effect and makes a construction durable and strong due to

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Processes 2020, 8, 174 2 of 16

less density, better strength, and thermal insulation [11–13]. The development of lightweight concrete
as a structural material has been under way ever since the Roman Empire. Likewise, their sensible
utilization occurred when lightweight concrete ships were developed by the American Emergency
Fleet Corporation [14]. Furthermore, a series of investigative reviews has been conducted by numerous
scholars on the evolution of lightweight concrete by employing a variety of substances, such as
ceramist and pottery [15], leca, argex and arlita [16], limestone [14], eps beads [17], rice husk ash [18],
vermiculite [9], automotive shredder residues [19], waste polystyrene [20], polyolefins waste [21],
polyurethane foam [22], etc. Moreover, approximately 1.5 billion tires are traded every year worldwide
and about 50% is disposed of due to the lack of productive use [23,24]. Each year about 2.5 million tons
of tires are disposed of in North America, with 4 billion scrap rubber tires already found in landfills [25].
According to Thomas et al., the disposal amount will increase to 1.2 billion annually at the end of
2030 [24]. To address this problem, waste rubber is added into the concrete as a replacement of fine
aggregate. A lot of investigational studies have been conducted to utilize the recycled tire by cutting
them into fine units (i.e., crumb rubber) in concrete and pavement [4,26–28]. Earlier research indicates
that the physical and durable characteristics of concrete have been enhanced due to the accumulation
of crumb rubber [29–31]. Nevertheless, the analysis suggests that the mechanical characteristics of
crumb rubber concrete are reduced [32,33]. The primary factor of this decrease is the weak adhesion
tie among rubber and cement particles as the rubber surface is very smooth [28,34]. Meanwhile, a lot
of investigative approaches show an enrichment of durability and elastic performances and a lack of
compressive behavior [35]. At the same time, microcracks are improved due to the enhancement of
strain capacity [36]. Another material that contributes to environmental pollution and affects the soil
and water characteristics, as well, is carbon black, which originally emerged due to the large-scale
utilization of rubber tires [37–39]. The fundamental unstructured material that is obtained from rubber
tires is carbon black that is utilized as filler material in rubber and plastic products. It is a very
popular material in the rubber industry because it enhances the resistance and mechanical properties
of rubber. Usually, it is identified as a pyrolytic carbon black due to its higher % friction in tires
and carbonaceous materials [37,40], since around 74–76% of tires are manufactured with carbon built
substantial [41]. Earlier experimental studies on the recycling and utilization of carbon black have
been done by numerous researchers [25,41–43]. Previous research also elaborates that carbon black
is helpful to minimize the crack appearance in concrete prisms when they are subjected to bending,
and it also enhances their conductivity and mechanical assets [42,44]. Similarly, another research
examines the performance of concrete by substituting various fractions of cement and sand with
carbon black [3,45]. Furthermore, efficient results have been obtained by a substitution of nanocarbon
black into concrete as an additive. The effect of nanocarbon black is amended by the conductivity
and mechanical characteristics of concrete [46]. Meanwhile, various researchers used carbon black
for various experimental purposes, such as the manufacturing of Na-ion batteries [47], to check the
impact of carbon black concrete on the corrosion of steel [48], for the advancement of elastic electronic
devices [49], by using it as an alternate microfiller [50], for laser displays [51] and sensors [52], to
develop concrete that can resist radiations (i.e., shielding concrete) [53], to be utilized as an additive [54],
for the use as mechanical reinforcement additive [55,56], etc.
The primary aim of this research is to produce a versatile lightweight concrete by utilizing the
material that contributes to environmental pollution (i.e., carbon black). Furthermore, the behavior
of specimens is reviewed by applying two sorts of tests, namely destructive and non-destructive
testing. With the help of destructive testing, compression and flexural strength are analyzed, and
ultrasonic pulse velocity tests are used for non-destructive analysis purposes. An innovative procedure
is developed for the compression testing of a standard specimen. The results are analyzed through
experimental, analytical, and statistical methods. A relationship is developed between numerous
parameters to investigate the performance of carbon black-based concrete.
Processes 2020, 8, 174 3 of 16

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

2.1.1. Basic Material Characteristics

The basic cementitious material used in this research is according to ASTM [57] with Grade 53 of
Type-1 cement manufactured by Maple Leaf Pvt. Ltd. The physical and chemical properties of cement
are shown in Tables 1 and 2 [58–62].

Table 1. Chemical properties of ordinary Portland cement.

LOI SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 CaO MgO SO3 K2 O Na2 O

3.48 20.80 4.97 3.15 63.17 1.86 2.64 0.66 0.42

Table 2. Basic physical properties of the materials.

Property Unit Result Standard

Ordinary Portland Cement
Bulk Density kg/m3 1440.00 ASTM C-188
Normal Consistency % 28.00 ASTM C-187
Fineness % 96.34 ASTM C-184
Initial Setting Time mints 135.00 ASTM C-191
Final Setting Time mints 190.00 ASTM C-191
Soundness mm 1.00 BS 196-3
Fine Aggregates
Fineness Modulus __ 2.17 ASTM C-136
Bulk Density kg/m3 1529.00 ASTM C-29
Coarse Aggregates
Bulk Density kg/m3 1500.00 ASTM C-29
Aggregate Impact Value % 20.45 BS 812-3
Aggregate Crushing Value % 26.50 BS 812-3
Los Angeles abrasion % 31.00 ASTM C-131
Water Absorption % 3.50 ASTM C-127

The fine aggregate utilized in this research is “Chenab River (sand)” and the maximum size of
fine aggregate is 4.75 mm. A coarse aggregate used in this research—“Sakhi Sarwar aggregates”—is
composed of mixed limestone (55%) and sandstone (45%). It is well-graded and the maximum size is 20
mm. The physical and gradation curve of these aggregates are shown in Table 2 and Figure 1 [63–69].

2.1.2. Carbon Black

Carbon black is an extremely fine, one-dimensionally conductive, and spherical shape material
that has a higher surface to volume ratio due to its size. It contains a very small quantity of oxygen
while the extent of carbon in carbon black is >98% [41]. Moreover, it can be produced underneath
the control environment due to the deficient ignition or thermal decomposition of gaseous or fluid
hydrocarbons [3,41]. The material is usually obtained from waste tires through the help of the pyrolysis
technique [46]. The gradation curve at various replacement percentages of sand with carbon black and
the physical properties of carbon black is shown in Table 3 and Figure 1 [63,65]. As the replacement of
sand increased, the fineness of fine aggregates decreased, and the gradation curve became gap graded.
In this study, the size of most particles was 0.15 and 0.075 mm.
Processes 2020, 8, 174 4 of 16

Table 3. Basic physical properties of waste carbon black.

Property Unit Result Standard

Fineness Modulus __ 0.835 ASTM C-136
Bulk Density
Processes 2019, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW kg/m3 801 ASTM C-29 4 of 16

110

100

90

80

70

60
% Finer

50

40

30

20

10

0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Grain size (mm)
Coarse Aggregates 100% Sand 75%S+25%C.B
50%S+50%C.B 25%S+75%C.B 100% Carbon Black

Figure 1. Gradation curve of aggregates.

Figure 1. Gradation curve of aggregates.
2.2. Mix Design and Preparation of Test Specimens
2.2. Mix Design and Preparation of Test Specimens
The utilization of carbon black as a filler material was carried out in this research. Basically, M20
The utilization of carbon black as a filler material was carried out in this research. Basically, M20
grade was used in this study at a 0.65 w/c ratio. Fine aggregate was replaced with carbon black by
grade was used in this study at a 0.65 w/c ratio. Fine aggregate was replaced with carbon black by
volume at numerous percentages. The mix proportion of waste carbon black lightweight concrete is
volume at numerous percentages. The mix proportion of waste carbon black lightweight concrete is
shown in Table 4.
shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Mix proportion of Waste Carbon Black (WCB) Lightweight Concrete.
Table 4. Mix proportion of Waste Carbon Black (WCB) Lightweight Concrete.
Mix ID Unit WCB-0 WCB-25 WCB-50 WCB-75 WCB-100
Mix ID Unit WCB-0 WCB-25 WCB-50 WCB-75 WCB-100
W/C Ratio __ 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
W/C Ratio
Water Liter __ 0.65
269.18 0.65
269.18 0.65
269.18 0.65
269.18 0.65
269.18
Water
Replacement of WCB % Liter 0269.18 269.18
25 269.18
50 269.18
75 269.18
100
Cement
Replacement of WCB kg/m3 % 414.120 414.12
25 414.12
50 414.12
75 414.12
100
Fine Aggregate kg/m3 660.31 494.27 330.15 164.12 0
Cement kg/m3 414.12 414.12 414.12 414.12 414.12
Coarse Aggregate kg/m3 1293.90 1293.90 1293.90 1293.90 1293.90
Fine Aggregate
Waste Carbon Black (WCB) 3
kg/mkg/m 3 0660.31 494.27
85.88 330.15
173.66 164.12
259.54 0
345.42
Coarse Aggregate kg/m3 1293.90 1293.90 1293.90 1293.90 1293.90
Firstly,
Waste the fine
Carbon and
Black coarse aggregates
(WCB) kg/m3and cement
0 were mixed for
85.88 2 min. After
173.66 259.54the waste carbon
345.42
black was added, it was mixed again for 2 min. Then, the required water was added. We mixed until a
Firstly,and
homogenous the uniform
fine and lightweight
coarse aggregates andwas
concrete cement wereFor
formed. mixed formix
every 2 min. After the awaste
proportion, freshcarbon
concrete
black was added, it was mixed again for 2 min. Then, the required water was
test was performed to determine the consistency of concrete according to ASTM C-143 added. We mixed
[70].until
After
a homogenous and uniform lightweight concrete was formed. For every mix proportion, a fresh
successful preparation of a homogenous concrete, the molding of the standard specimen (i.e., 500 mm
concrete test was performed to determine the consistency of concrete according to ASTM C-143 [70].
× 100 mm × 100 mm) was carried out and after 24 h the specimen was demolded and put into a water
After successful preparation of a homogenous concrete, the molding of the standard specimen (i.e.,
500 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm) was carried out and after 24 h the specimen was demolded and put
into a water tank for curing purposes according to ASTM C-192 [71]. For each mix ID, three
specimens were cast for 7 days and, relatively, for 28 days. For this purpose, a compaction vibrating
table was used.
Processes 2020, 8, 174 5 of 16

tank for curing purposes according to ASTM C-192 [71]. For each mix ID, three specimens were cast
for 7 days
Processes and,
2019, relatively,
5, x FOR for 28 days. For this purpose, a compaction vibrating table was used. 5 of 16
PEER REVIEW

2.3. Testing Methods

2.3. Testing Methods
After demolding, the specimens were dried at room temperature at 23 ± 2 ◦ C and then both
After demolding, the specimens were dried at room temperature at 23 ± 2 °C and then both
destructive
destructive and
and non-destructive
non-destructive tests
tests were
were applied
applied to
to investigate
investigate the
the behavior
behavior of
of waste
waste carbon
carbon black
black
lightweight
lightweight concrete.
concrete.
2.3.1. Non-Destructive Testing
2.3.1. Non-Destructive Testing
In this testing, an ultrasonic pulse velocity test was conducted on a standard specimen to determine
In this testing, an ultrasonic pulse velocity test was conducted on a standard specimen to
the carbon black concrete characteristic and uniformity [72,73]. For this aim, the MATEST (Italy) brand
determine the carbon black concrete characteristic and uniformity [72,73]. For this aim, the MATEST
apparatus of ultrasonic pulse velocity was employed. The equipment consists of two probes with
(Italy) brand apparatus of ultrasonic pulse velocity was employed. The equipment consists of two
a frequency of 55 kHz, a measuring range of 0–3000 µs ± 0.1 µs, and the coupling agent for a firm
probes with a frequency of 55 kHz, a measuring range of 0–3000 µs ± 0.1 µs, and the coupling agent
connection and better transmission. The test was conducted according to ASTM C-597 [74] and the
for a firm connection and better transmission. The test was conducted according to ASTM C-597 [74]
operational diagram is shown in Figure 2.
and the operational diagram is shown in Figure 2.

Schematic diagram of ultrasonic pulse velocity.

Figure 2. Schematic

Firstly,
Firstly, non-destructive
non-destructive testing
testing was
was applied
applied toto every
every specimen
specimen before
before destructive
destructive testing. Then,
testing. Then,
the waves were passed through each standard specimen. Afterwards, the travel
the waves were passed through each standard specimen. Afterwards, the travel time was noted. time was noted. Then,
with
Then,the help
with ofhelp
the the following equation
of the following listed inlisted
equation ASTMinC-597 ASTM (1)C-597
and (2),
(1) the
andvelocity
(2), the(V) and dynamic
velocity (V) and
modulus of elasticity (E
dynamic modulus of elasticity
d ) were determined and the Poisson’s ratio for lightweight concretes
(Ed) were determined and the Poisson’s ratio for lightweight concretes was taken
(0.28) [17,75].
was taken (0.28) [17,75].
L
V= , (1)
= , T (1)
where
where
L = travel path length (m), T = transit (µs), V = pulse velocity (km/s).
L = travel path length (m), T = transit (µs), V = pulse velocity (km/s).
s
( E ()1 − µ)
=
V = ( )(
d . . (2)(2)
)
ρ(1 + µ)(1 − 2µ)
µ = Poisson ratio;
µ = Poisson
V = pulse ratio;
velocity (m/s);
V = pulse
ρ =density of concrete
velocity (m/s); (kg/m3);
ρ =density
Ed = dynamic modulus
of concrete (kg/mof3 );elasticity (GPa).

Ed = dynamic modulus of elasticity (GPa).

2.3.2. Destructive Testing
In destructive testing, a compressive and flexural strength test was carried out on specimens to
determine their behavior under specific loading. The technique that we applied for the destructive
testing on specimens is given below:
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Processes 2019, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

2.3.2. Destructive Testing
InStep
destructive testing,
1: The third a load
point compressive and flexural
flexural strength strength
test was testonwas
applied carried
standard out on
prisms specimens
(i.e., 500 mm to
× 100 mmtheir
determine × 100behavior
mm) according
under to ASTMloading.
specific C-78 [76],The
as shown in Figure
technique 3a. applied for the destructive
that we
testing Step 2: After the
on specimens is flexural strength test, the prism was broken into two pieces and the length of
given below:
each
Step 1: The third point loadmeasuring
piece was evaluated with tape, astest
flexural strength shown
wasin Figure on
applied 3b.standard prisms (i.e., 500 mm ×
100 mmStep 3: After
× 100 measuringtoeach
mm) according ASTM piece,
C-78two pieces
[76], of 100inmm
as shown × 100
Figure 3a.mm × 100 mm cubes were
produced by cutting. The mechanism is shown in Figure 3c.

(d) (a)

(c) (b)
Figure
Figure 3. 3.(a)(a)Flexural
Flexuralstrength
strengthtest
testmechanism,
mechanism, (b)
(b) broken
brokenbeam
beamdiagram
diagramafter
aftertest, (c)(c)
test, cutting section
cutting section
of of cubes
cubes from from thethe same
same beam
beam pieces,
pieces, (d)(d) compression
compression strength
strength testtest
forfor cube
cube pieces
pieces of 100
of 100 mmmm × 100
× 100 mm.
mm.
Step 2: After the flexural strength test, the prism was broken into two pieces and the length of
each piece Stepwas
4: The completion
evaluated withofmeasuring
compression strength
tape, test in
as shown cutting conducted
Figure 3b. on standard 100 mm ×
100Step
mm3: × 100 mm cubes to investigate their strength is shown
After measuring each piece, two pieces of 100 mm × 100 mm × in Figure 3(a). For100
thismm
purpose,
cubes the
were
MATEST brand device was utilized at a loading
produced by cutting. The mechanism is shown in Figure 3c. rate of 5 KN/s with a maximum machine capacity of
2000 KN following the ASTM C-39 [77].
Step 4: The completion of compression strength test cutting conducted on standard 100 mm ×
100 mmFor × a100
better
mmunderstanding of the results,
cubes to investigate the flexural
their strength strength
is shown inwas computed
Figure 3(a). Forby this
using equationthe
purpose,
(3) listed in ACI 318 [78].
MATEST brand device was utilized at a loading rate of 5 KN/s with a maximum machine capacity of
2000 KN following the ASTM C-39 [77]. = 0.7 ′. (3)
For a better understanding of the results, the flexural strength was computed by using Equation
fc’ = compressive strength (MPa);
(3) listed in ACI 318 [78].
fr = flexural strength (MPa). q
fr = 0.7 fc 0 . (3)
3. Results and Discussion
fc ’ = compressive strength (MPa);
fr =3.1. Fresh Concrete
flexural strengthTest
(MPa).
To know about the workability of fresh waste carbon black, a concrete slump test was
performed on every replacement of fine aggregates. As the replacement increased, the workability
values increased, as shown in Table 5.
Processes 2020, 8, 174 7 of 16

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Fresh Concrete Test

To know about the workability of fresh waste carbon black, a concrete slump test was performed on
every replacement of fine aggregates. As the replacement increased, the workability values increased,
as shown in Table 5.
Processes 2019, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16
Table 5. Workability of Waste Carbon Black (WCB) Lightweight Concrete.
Table 5. Workability of Waste Carbon Black (WCB) Lightweight Concrete.
Mix ID Slump (cm)
MixWCB-0
ID 5.08 Slump (cm)
WCB-25
WCB-0 13.97 5.08
WCB-50
WCB-25 15.24 13.97
WCB-75 16.51
WCB-50
WCB-100 7.62 15.24
WCB-75 16.51
WCB-100 7.62
It is clearly shown in Table 5 that with the increase in replacement, the workability has increased
It is clearly
which results in theshown
decreasein Table 5 that with during
of workmanship the increase in replacement,
the casting of concretethe workability
structures. At has
100%
increased
of carbon which
black, results
the in the decrease
workability was alsoof very
workmanship during
good, which the casting
indicates thatofthe
concrete
carbonstructures.
black hasAt not
100% ofacarbon
absorbed black, Therefore,
lot of water. the workability
withwas also water/cement
a lower very good, which indicates
ratio, a goodthat the carbon
workable blackcan
concrete hasbe
not by
made absorbed
utilizinga lot of water.
waste carbonTherefore,
black as awith
fillera material.
lower water/cement ratio, a good workable concrete
can be made by utilizing waste carbon black as a filler material.
3.2. Density
3.2. Density
When the percentage replacement of carbon black increases, the density of concrete decreases due
When weight
to the lighter the percentage
of carbon replacement
black with of carbontoblack
respect increases, the
fine aggregates. density
The of concrete
consequence decreases
of carbon black
due to the lighter weight of carbon black with respect to fine
replacement on concrete density and weight reduction is shown in Figure 4.aggregates. The consequence of carbon
black replacement on concrete density and weight reduction is shown in Figure 4.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 4. 4.
%%replacement
replacementofofcarbon
carbonblack.
black. (a) Effect on
on density,
density, (b)
(b)effect
effecton
onweight
weightreduction.
reduction.

AsAsshown
shown ininthe
theabove
aboveFigure
Figure 4, asas the
thecontent
contentofofcarbon
carbon black
black varies,
varies, the the weight
weight reduction
reduction of
concrete is
of concrete is increased
increased up up to
to approximately
approximately16%, 16%,and andthe
theweight
weightisisreduced
reducedatat100%100%replacement.
replacement.
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, at 100%
at 100% replacement,
replacement, the density
the density is 2050 kg/m3kg/m
is 2050 . The3. density
The density of waste
of waste carboncarbon black
black concrete
liesconcrete lies 2370
in between in between 3 2370 kg/m
kg/m –2050 kg/m –2050
3
3 kg/m25%
. At every 3 . Atreplacement
every 25% replacement
of sand withofcarbon
sand with
blackcarbon
at about
black
3.5%, at about
weight 3.5%, weight
is reduced is reduced
relative relative to
to conventional conventional
concrete weight.concrete weight.

3.3.3.3. Non-Destructive
Non-Destructive Testing
Testing
In In
thisthis research,
research, thethe ultrasonic
ultrasonic pulse
pulse velocity
velocity testtest
waswas
alsoalso
usedused to analyze
to analyze the the waste
waste carbon
carbon black
black quality
concrete concreteandquality and their uniformity
their uniformity and presenceandof presence ofbrief
voids. The voids. Theanalysis
result brief result analysis of
of non-destructive
non-destructive
testing is shown intesting
Figureis5.shown in Figure 5.
Processes 2020, 8, 174 8 of 16
Processes 2019, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

Processes 2019, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure (a)
5. Non-destructive
5. Non-destructive testing:(a)
testing: (a)%%replacement
replacement of
of carbon
carbon black effect(b)
black effect on
onUPV
UPVand
and(b)
(b)dynamic
dynamic
modulus
modulus of of elasticity
elasticity (GPa).
(GPa).
Figure 5. Non-destructive testing: (a) % replacement of carbon black effect on UPV and (b) dynamic
modulus of elasticity (GPa).
TheThe higher
higher thethe percentage
percentage replacement,the
replacement, thelower
lowerthethe value
value of velocity.
velocity. At
At0%0%replacement,
replacement,the the
value
value ofTheof higher
velocity
velocity was was 4370
4370 m/sm/sat at 28-days
28-days curing,
curing, and
and the
the value
value of
of Ed was about
about
the percentage replacement, the lower the value of velocity. At 0% replacement, the 36
36GPa.
GPa. OnOn the
theother
other
hand,
hand,
value atvelocity
at of
100%100% replacement,
replacement,
was 4370 them/stheat value
value of of
28-days velocity
velocity
curing, was was
and about
about
the 2600
value 2600 m/s
ofm/s
Ed andEd
and
was Edwas
about was
361111GPa.
GPa.GPa.
OnTheThe valueof
thevalue
other
of
thehand,the
velocity velocity
at 28-days
at 100% at 28-days curing
curing the
replacement, varied
value varied
from from 4370
4370 m/s–2600
of velocity was aboutm/s–2600
m/s. m/s.
Meanwhile,
2600 Meanwhile,
m/s and Ed thewas
value the value
of theThe
11 GPa. of
velocitytheat
value
velocity
7-days
of thecuringat 7-days
varied
velocity curing
from 4150
at 28-days varied from
m/s–2448
curing 4150
m/s.
varied m/s–2448 m/s.
Furthermore,
from 4370 m/s–2600Furthermore,
the Ed value
m/s. the Ed value
varies from
Meanwhile, varies
the32value
GPa–9from
ofGPa 32at
the
GPa–9
velocity
7-days GPa
curing. at
at 7-days
For 7-daysandcuring.
7-curing varied
28-days Forcuring,
7- and
from 28-days
4150
the curing,
m/s–2448
difference m/s.the difference
Furthermore,
between between
the Ed
the velocity the velocity
value
values atvaries values
from 32at
0% replacement
was 0%
GPa–9 replacement
aboutGPa was about 5.25%.
at 7-days curing. For 7- and 28-days curing, the difference between the velocity values at
5.25%.
0% replacement was about 5.25%.
3.4.3.4. Destructive
Destructive Testing
Testing
3.4. Destructive Testing testing results were very helpful to analyze the true behavior of specimens
TheThe destructive
destructive testing results were very helpful to analyze the true behavior of specimens under
under specific loading. In this research,
werecompression and flexural
analyze strength tests were ofapplied to the
specificThe destructive
loading. In this testing
research,results
compression veryandhelpful
flexuralto strength the true
tests werebehavior
applied to thespecimens
standard
standard specimen
under specific loading. according to the technique discussed above. The destructive testing results at
the7-
specimen according to theIntechnique
this research, compression
discussed above. andThe flexural
destructive strength tests
testing wereatapplied
results 7- and to 28-days
and 28-days
standard curing
specimen are shown
according in Figure 6.
curing are shown in Figure 6. to the technique discussed above. The destructive testing results at 7-
and 28-days
3.5 curing are shown in Figure 6. 25
7 Days 25 7 Days
3.5
3 28 Days
728 Days
Days 7 Days
(MPa)

20
3
(MPa)

2.5 28 Days 28 Days

(MPa)

20
Strength
(MPa)

2.5 15
Strength

2
Strength

15
Strength

2
Compressive

1.5 10
Flexural

Compressive

1.5 10
1
Flexural

1 5
0.5
5
0.5
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
0 0
0 25 % Replacement
50 75 100 % Replacement
0 25 50 75 100
% (a)
Replacement % (b)
Replacement
Figure 6. Destructive(a)testing: (a) compressive strength at 7-days and 28-days
(b) curing, (b) flexural
strength
Figure
Figure at 7-days and
6. 6.Destructive
Destructive 28-days(a)
testing:
testing: curing.
(a) compressive strength atat 7-days
compressive strength 7-daysand
and28-days
28-dayscuring,
curing,(b)(b) flexural
flexural
strength
strength at at 7-days
7-days and28-days
and 28-dayscuring.
curing.
 2019, 8,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

At 0% replacement, the value of compressive strength was approximately 13.40 MPa and the
flexural 0%
At replacement,
strength was about the3value
MPa.of compressive
The strengthshows
graphical analysis was approximately
that percentage 13.40 MPa and and
replacement the
flexural strength was about 3 MPa. The graphical analysis shows that percentage replacement
destructive testing results are inversely proportional to each other. As the curing period increased, and
destructive
the results oftesting results are
destructive inversely
testings showedproportional to eachresults
more efficient other. of
Aswaste
the curing period
carbon blackincreased, the
lightweight
results of destructive testings showed more efficient results of waste carbon black
concrete. At 28-days curing, the compressive strength at 0% was approximately 21 MPa and the lightweight concrete.
At 28-days
flexural curing,was
strength the compressive
3.5 MPa. The strength at 0% difference
percentage was approximately
at 7- and2128-days
MPa and wastheonly
flexural
40%strength
for 0%
was 3.5 MPa. As
replacement. Thethe
percentage
percentage difference at 7- and
replacement 28-daysthe
increased, was onlyof
value 40% for 0% replacement.
destructive As the
testing decreased.
percentage
At 28-days curing, the strength was not much increased at 75% and 100% replacement comparedthe
replacement increased, the value of destructive testing decreased. At 28-days curing, to
strength
the 7-dayswascuring
not much increased
results. at 75% and
It indicates that100% replacement 85%
approximately compared to the 7-days
of strength at 75% curing
andresults.
100%
It indicates that
replacement approximately
was achieved at85% of strength
7-days curing.at 75%
The and 100% replacement
comparison between was achieved atflexural
experimental 7-days
curing. The comparison between experimental
strength and by using Equation (3) is shown in Table 6. flexural strength and by using Equation (3) is shown in
Table 6.
Table 6. Comparison between flexural strength—fr (MPa).
Table 6. Comparison between flexural strength—fr (MPa).
Mix ID Experimental fr (MPa) ACI fr (MPa) % Difference
Mix ID Experimental fr (MPa) ACI fr (MPa) % Difference
WCB-0 3.31 3.20 –3.43
WCB-0 3.31 3.20 –3.43
WCB-25 WCB-25 2.93
2.93 3.07 3.07 +4.78 +4.78
WCB-50 WCB-50 2.71
2.71 2.96 2.96 +9.23 +9.23
WCB-75 WCB-75 2.54
2.54 2.40 2.40 –5.51 –5.51
WCB-100 2.15 2.27 +5.58
WCB-100 2.15 2.27 +5.58
The experimental values are very close to the value computed through the ACI equation. The highest % difference
The
is experimental
+9.23 for WCB-50. values are very close to the value computed through the ACI equation. The
highest % difference is +9.23 for WCB-50.
3.5. Destructive and Non-Destructive Results
3.5. Destructive and Non-Destructive Results
Non-destructive testing (NDT) results are very helpful to investigate the performance of destructive
Non-destructive
testing (DT) results. NDT testing (NDT)
properties areresults
observed arewith
very
the helpful to investigate
help of ultrasonic the performance
pulse velocity and dynamicof
destructive
modulus testing (DT)
of elasticity results.
values. NDTDT
However, properties
propertiesare observedby
are collected with the help
destructive of ultrasonictesting
machine-based pulse
velocity and dynamic modulus of elasticity values. However, DT properties
equipments, such as compressive strength testing machines. Figures 7 and 8 show the comparativeare collected by
destructive
results machine-based
of 28-days destructivetesting equipments, such
and non-destructive as compressive strength testing machines.
testing.
Figures 7 and 8 show the comparative results of 28-days destructive and non-destructive testing.
22
Compressive Strength (MPa)

20

18

16

14

12

10
2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

UPV (m/sec)

(a)
Figure 7. Cont.
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Processes 2019, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16

3.40
3.40

Flexural Strength (MPa)

3.20

Flexural Strength (MPa)

3.20
3.00
3.00
2.80
2.80
2.60
2.60
2.40
2.40
2.20
2.20

2.00
2.00
2500
2500 3000
3000 3500
3500 4000
4000 4500
4500
UPV (m/sec)
(m/sec)

(b)
Figure
Figure 7. 7. Non-destructive
7. Non-destructive
Non-destructive testing
testing
testing (NDT)–destructivetesting
(NDT)–destructive
(NDT)–destructive testing (DT):
testing(DT):
(DT):ultrasonic
ultrasonic
ultrasonic pulse
pulse
pulse velocity (UPV)
velocity
velocity (UPV)
(UPV) vs.
vs.vs.
(a) (a)(a) compressive
compressive
compressive strength
strength
strength andandandflexural
(b) (b)flexural
(b) flexural strength.
strength.
strength.

2525
Compressive Strength (MPa)
Compressive Strength (MPa)

20
20

15
15

10
10 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Ed (Gpa)
Ed (Gpa)
(a)
(a)
3.40
3.40
3.20
Flexural Strength (MPa)

3.20
Flexural Strength (MPa)

3.00
3.00
2.80
2.80
2.60

2.60
2.40

2.40
2.20

2.00
2.20
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
2.00
10 15 20Ed (Gpa) 25 30 35 40
Ed(b)
(Gpa)

Figure
Figure8. 8. NDT–DT: dynamicmodulus
NDT–DT: dynamic modulus of elasticity
(b)(Ed) (Ed)
of elasticity vs. (a)vs. (a) compressive
compressive strength
strength and and (b)
(b) flexural
flexural strength.
strength.
Figure 8. NDT–DT: dynamic modulus of elasticity (Ed) vs. (a) compressive strength and (b) flexural
strength.
Processes 2020, 8, 174 11 of 16
Processes 2019, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

Figures 77 and
Figures and 88 clearly
clearly show
show the
the relationship
relationship between
between destructive
destructive and
and non-destructive
non-destructive testing
testing
results. As the values of velocity increased, the same the values of destructive testing also improved,
results. As the values of velocity increased, the same the values of destructive testing also improved,
which indicates
which indicates aa direct
direct relationship
relationship among
among these
these testing
testing techniques.
techniques. Moreover, the amount
Moreover, the amount ofof the
the
dynamic modulus of elasticity varies. Higher velocity values indicate the uniformity
dynamic modulus of elasticity varies. Higher velocity values indicate the uniformity and homogeneity and
homogeneity
of of standardBecause
standard specimens. specimens.
fewerBecause fewerpresent,
voids were voids were present,
the values of the values of compressive
compressive and flexural
and flexural strength were high. Meanwhile, the highest value of compressive
strength were high. Meanwhile, the highest value of compressive strength shows the high strength shows
valuethe
of
high value of ultrasonic pulse velocity and dynamic modulus of elasticity. Flexural strength
ultrasonic pulse velocity and dynamic modulus of elasticity. Flexural strength also varies simultaneously also
varies
to simultaneously
compressive to compressive strength.
strength.

3.6. Statistical Analysis

The statistical
The statisticalanalysis
analysis is very
is very helpful
helpful to analyze
to analyze the variation
the variation of values
of testing testingthat
values
werethat were
obtained
obtained during the entire testing. For this purpose, the standard deviation and regression
during the entire testing. For this purpose, the standard deviation and regression analysis was used to analysis
was used to
investigate theinvestigate
trending ofthe trending
results. The of results.deviation
standard The standard deviation
for various for various
parameters parameters
at 28-days curing at
is
28-days
listed in curing
Table 7.isFigure
listed in Table 7. Figure
9 showing 9 showing
the statistical the statistical
analysis analysis
of compressive of compressive
strength, flexural strength,
flexural
and strength,
ultrasonic andvelocity
pulse ultrasonic pulse velocity
at 28-days curing. at 28-days curing.

Table 7.
Table 7. The standard deviation of destructive
destructive and
and non-destructive
non-destructive testing.
testing.

Mix ID
Mix ID UPV (m/s)UPV (m/s) Flexural Strength
Flexural (MPa)
Strength (MPa) Compressive
Compressive Strength
Strength (MPa)
(MPa)
WCB-0WCB-0 4370.44 ± 11.41
4370.44 ± 11.41 3.31 ± 0.07
3.31 ± 0.07 20.86
20.86 ± 1.43
± 1.43
WCB-25
WCB-25 4058.464058.46
± 9.96± 9.96 2.932.93
± 0.07
± 0.07 19.25
19.25 ± 1.15
± 1.15
WCB-50
WCB-50 3616.253616.25
± 16.78± 16.78 2.712.71
± 0.06
± 0.06 17.92
17.92 ± 2.56
± 2.56
WCB-75 ± 20.21± 20.21
WCB-75 3312.803312.80 2.542.54 ± 0.06
± 0.06 11.75 ± 1.34
11.75 ± 1.34
WCB-100 2620.66 ± 21.08 2.15 ± 0.07 10.51 ± 1.41
WCB-100 2620.66 ± 21.08 2.15 ± 0.07 10.51 ± 1.41

25.00
Compressive Strength (MPa)

20.00

15.00 y = 4.5166e0.0003x
R² = 0.7004
10.00

5.00

0.00
2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
UPV (m/s)

Figure 9. The statistical relationship between compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity.
Figure 9. The statistical relationship between compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity.
Figure 9 indicates that the R-Square is 0.70, which demonstrates a satisfactory relationship between
Figure 9 indicates that the R-Square is 0.70, which demonstrates a satisfactory relationship
ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength at 28-days curing. Furthermore, an exponential
between ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength at 28-days curing. Furthermore, an
equation is proposed for future research. In Figure 10, the regression analysis is shown, indicating a
exponential equation is proposed for future research. In Figure 10, the regression analysis is shown,
R-Square of 0.9455, which demonstrates a very good relationship between ultrasonic pulse velocity
indicating a R-Square of 0.9455, which demonstrates a very good relationship between ultrasonic
and % replacement at 28-days curing.
pulse velocity and % replacement at 28-days curing.
Processes 2020, 8, 174 12 of 16
Processes 2019, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

5000
y = 4495.3e-0.005x
UPV (m/s) 4500 R² = 0.9455

4000

3500

3000

2500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
% Replacement

Figure 10. The statistical relationship between % replacement of carbon black and ultrasonic
Figure 10. The statistical relationship between % replacement of carbon black and ultrasonic pulse
pulse velocity.
velocity.
3.7. Cost Analysis
3.7. Cost Analysis
After the statistical and graphical investigation of waste carbon black lightweight concrete results,
After of
the impact thesand
statistical and graphical
replacement with waste investigation
carbon blackofinwaste
terms carbon black
of cost are alsolightweight concrete
shown in Table 8.
results, the impact of sand replacement with waste carbon black in terms of cost are also shown in
Table 8. Table 8. Cost analysis for 1 m3 concrete produced using waste carbon black.

Mix ID 8. Cost
Table Cement
analysisAggregate Sandproduced
for 1 m3 concrete WCB Total carbon
using waste Cost Saving
black.
USD($) USD($) USD($) USD($) USD($) (%)
Mix ID Cement Aggregate Sand WCB Total Cost Saving
WCB-0 29.39 9.81 3.93 0 48.34 –
WCB-25 USD($)
29.39 USD($)
9.81 USD($)
2.94 USD($)
0.48 USD($)
47.83 (%)
1.06
WCB-0
WCB-50 29.39
29.39 9.81
9.81 3.93
1.96 0
0.98 48.34
47.35 --
2.05
WCB-75
WCB-25 29.39
29.39 9.81
9.81 0.98
2.94 1.46
0.48 46.85
47.83 3.08
1.06
WCB-100 29.39 9.81 0 1.95 46.36 4.10
WCB-50 29.39 9.81 1.96 0.98 47.35 2.05
WCB-75 29.39 9.81 0.98 1.46 46.85 3.08
Table 8WCB-100
shows that as29.39 9.81 replacement
the percentage 0 1.95 the46.36
increases, 4.10because at 100%
cost decreases
replacement of sand, the fine aggregate cost is approximately zero. This is economically very beneficial
Table
for the 8 shows industry
construction that as the percentage
in order to savereplacement increases,
a lot of money theutilization
against the cost decreases because
of waste at black.
carbon 100%
replacement of sand, the fine aggregate cost is approximately zero. This is economically very
4. Conclusions
beneficial for the construction industry in order to save a lot of money against the utilization of
waste carbon
This studyblack.
focused on the utilization of waste carbon black as filler material for the development
of concrete. Moreover, the development of lightweight concrete through the utilization of waste carbon
4. Conclusions
black was very effective. Approximately 16% weight was reduced through the replacement of sand
with This
wastestudy
carbonfocused
black and, onsimultaneously,
the utilizationa lotof ofwaste
dead load
carbon saving
blackoccurred duematerial
as filler to the utilization
for the
of waste carbon
development ofblack in concrete.
concrete. A new
Moreover, thetechnique
developmentfor theofinvestigation
lightweightofconcrete
compressive strength
through the
was appliedofwith
utilization reference
waste carbonto black
the equivalent
was verycube test mechanism.
effective. ApproximatelyThe results
16% obtained
weight wasthrough this
reduced
technique
through the were excellent and
replacement of sandverywith
helpful
wasteforcarbon
future experimental investigations.a Destructive
black and, simultaneously, lot of dead loadand
non-destructive
saving occurredtesting,
due to and, later on, statistical
the utilization of wasteanalysis were conducted.
carbon black in concrete.The performance
A new techniquethrough
for the
the value of the coefficient of determination (R-square) was 0.70 between the
investigation of compressive strength was applied with reference to the equivalent cube test ultrasonic pulse velocity
and compressive
mechanism. strength
The results results at
obtained 28 daysthis
through of curing
techniquecondition. Correspondingly,
were excellent the R-square
and very helpful for
for future
% replacementinvestigations.
experimental and ultrasonic Destructive
pulse velocityand was 0.94. The wastetesting,
non-destructive carbonand,black-based
later on, lightweight
statistical
concrete developed in this study can be utilized for both structural and non-structural
analysis were conducted. The performance through the value of the coefficient of determination purposes. At
25% and 50%
(R-square) wasreplacement the strength
0.70 between of lightweight
the ultrasonic concreteand
pulse velocity varied from 20–18
compressive MPa and,
strength according
results at 28
to ACIoflightweight
days concrete,Correspondingly,
curing condition. if 28 days strength theis ≥ 17 MPa,for
R-square it can be used as structural
% replacement concretepulse
and ultrasonic [79].
The remaining 75% and 100% replacement concrete can be used for non-structural
velocity was 0.94. The waste carbon black-based lightweight concrete developed in this study can purposes. This
be utilized for both structural and non-structural purposes. At 25% and 50% replacement the
strength of lightweight concrete varied from 20–18 MPa and, according to ACI lightweight concrete,
Processes 2020, 8, 174 13 of 16

study will help in the development of economical eco-friendly sustainable concrete materials and black
carbon waste management.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.A. and S.A.R.S.; data curation, F.A., M.A.K., M.A.Q., and Z.K.; formal
analysis, M.A.Q., S.A.R.S., and H.A.; investigation, Z.K. and H.S.R.; methodology, S.A.R.S. and H.A.; project
administration, S.A.R.S.; resources, F.A., M.A.K., and Z.K.; software, M.A.Q.; supervision, S.A.R.S., N.M.K., H.A.,
and M.F.; validation, N.M.K. and M.F.; writing—original draft, M.A.Q. and S.A.R.S.; writing—review and editing,
N.M.K., H.A., M.F., and M.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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