THI

English
for the Oil Industry

P.L. Sandler
Specialist Language Services (U KI Ltd

sse English by Radio and Television

Author's Acknowledgements For Heather and Rachael and Flo "••_ . .

The author would like to acknowledge his indebtedness

to Jill Welfare, Producer, BBC English by Radio and
Television, for her creative and sympathetic contribu-
tions to the radio series which was the starting-point of
this project. The author is also very grateful to Barry
Tomalin, Senior Editorial Assistant, for his help and ad-
vice throughout the difficult planning stages of the
book's content and format; to Douglas Cooksey,
Publications Officer, for his guidance in matters of
presentation, layout and typography as the work was be-
ing translated from manuscript to printed page; to
Elizabeth Weaver, for her assistance in design and art-
work; and to Pat Hill, for her criticisms, suggestions
and corrections in the final editing of the galleys. The
author owes a further debt to Gareth Hughes, and to
other friends and colleagues at York , who gave the
author constant encouragement and the benefit of their
specialized knowledge on many of the finer points of
English for Specific Purposes.

The author would like to thank in particular M. Jean-

Marie Demanche, District Manager, Total Oil Marine,
Scotland. Without M. Demanche's assistance, the
author would not have been able to move as freely as he
did 'in the oil patch', where most of the present
materials were developed and tested. The author alone,
of course, is responsible for any errors that may remain.

Biographical Details
Philip L. Sandler has taught English as a Foreign
Language in many different parts of the world. His
works in this field include both text books and BBC
broadcasts in the English by Radio series. At present
Mr. Sandler is a freelance EFL consultant, with special
reference to profession-specific materials production.

S.L.S. Ltd.
Specialist Language Services (UK) Limited, with its
headquarters in York, England, is a consultancy com-
pany, specializing in the teaching of English for Occupa- Design: Elizabeth Weaver Ltd
tional Purposes and the development of appropriate Cover: Anne Davison
teaching materials. It has extensive experience in cater-
ing for the needs of the petroleum industry, on the basis © The British Broadcasting Corporation 1980
of which the BBC commissioned the Petroleum Pro- Printed by Eyre & Spottiswoode at
gramme and the Petroleum Book. Thane! Press. Margate
Reprinted 1984
CONTENTS
Introduction
How to use this book
Unit I The Rig I
Unit 2 Fishing Johs 8
Unit 3 Traps and Geology 14
Unit 4 Reservoir Fluids 20
Unit 5 Natural Flow 26
Unit 6 Blowout Control 32
Unit? Drives and Stimulation 38
Unit 8 Directional Wells 45
Unit 9 Jobs on the Rig 51
Unit !O Gathering Centres 56
Unit II Downstream of Production 62
Unit 12 Primary and Secondary Refining 68
Unit 13 Finishing Processes 74
Unit 14 Refinery Products 79
Unit 15 Safety 85
Unit 16 Ways of Improving Recovery 90
Unit 17 Unconventional Sources of Oil 96
Unit 18 Oil and the Environment 101
Unit 19 Oil Conservation 106
Unit 20 Into the Future 111
Index of Special Words and Expressions 117
Key to the Exercises 121
INTRODUCTION
The aim: The aim of The Petroleum Programme
is to help native speakers of other languages to
develop their ability to read, speak and write
English as it is used in the petroleum industry. The
course also aims to deal directly with descriptive
technical English and the varieties of spoken
English that are used in the major areas of activity
in petroleum technology.
What the course contains: The course consists of
a book accompanied by three C60 cassettes con-
taining dialogues and drills. The material is partly
based on the English by Radio series The
Petroleum Programme, but it is also designed to
be used quite independently of the broadcasts as
well.
Who the course is intended for: The typical stu-
dent will be, say, a process operator or middle-
management trainee who has a basic knowledge of
standard English and who now needs to improve
his competence in the language for his job, when
English is the medium of expression. The student
doesn 't need to have practised his English re-
cently, however. The contents have been carefully
graded to incorporate a revision course in the
basic elements of English structure and sentence
patterns. These are introduced in contexts that
have to do with oil and in relation to things the
student will need to say. No attempt is made to
teach grammar for its own sake.
What each unil contains: Each unit is divided in-
to five sections labelled A to E.
Section A: Reading Comprehension.
This is a thematic introduction to the unit, which
explains the oil-related concepts involved and in·
cludes all the grammatical and vocabulary items
that the student will meet.
It is important to pay close attention to the rela-
tion between the text and the accompanying illus-
trations since some words and expressions which
are not explained in the text are explained in the
diagrams.
Some of the diagrams form the basis of later
exercises and so it is important to make sure the
student understands them.
The ability to explain something on the basis of
a chart or diagram is an important skill in the
petroleum industry and the student is encouraged
to speak and to write about such data in the way
that he might be expected to do in his job, when
communciating in English.
Section B: Listening Comprehension I.
This is the first of two listening comprehension
passages in each unit and is on the cassette. The
conversation reviews the main teaching points of
Seclion A in a dramatic form and it also em-
phasizes the elements of language that can be best
demonstrated aurally, e.g. accent, register, pro-
nunciation" dialect, mood, hierarchy of the
speakers, etc.
Section C: Structure Practice.
In this section the language patterns introduced in
sections A and B arc practised intensively in a
petroleum industry context. Exercises marked
with the cassette symbol have been recorded for
aural/oral practice as drills. Not all units are
accompanied by recorded drills.
Section D: Listening Comprehension II.
This conversation, recorded on the cassette, rein-
forces and consolidates what has been learned in
the first three sections. If any new words or ex-
pressions have had to be included these are always
explained at the end of the conversation.
Section E: Writing Practice.
In this section the student is asked to use what he
has learned in practical writing exercises which are
aimed at building up the skill of writing short
reports in English.
At the end of the book there is a word-list with
special reference to words used in the petroleum
industry, and an answer key.
In conclusion, it should be emphasized that this
course doesn't aim 't o teach ihe subject-matter of
petroleum technology. It does aim to teach a cer-
tain vocabulary of oil-specific terms (e.g. fish ,
fourble, hydrofraccing) but the vocabulary is in
no way intended to be definitive or exhaustive,
HOW TO USE THE PETROLEUM
PROGRAMME - Self Study
I Using the book and cassettes_
SECTION A: Work through Section A, paying
careful attention to the diagrams and pictures. As
you read through for the first time, don't refer to
the special words and expressions immediately
when you see a word or expression you don't
know, but see if you can understand it from the
context. When you read through a second time,
check the, words you don't know in the Special
Words and Expressions section. After that, do the
comprehension exercises . When you've finished,
check your answers in the answer key. If you've
made a mistake, go back to the original reference
in the text and find out why you were wrong.
SECTION B: Cover the text of 'Listening Com-
prehension I' with a piece of paper and read down
the comprehension questions below. This will tell
you what to listen for in the conversation.
Now play the conversation a few times and try
and answer the questions. After that, play the
dialogue through again, and follow it in your
book. Note how the words and expressions you
learned in Section A are used in the dialogue. Also
notice how the people speak to each other and
how they express commands, anger, and so on.
Lastly, play the tape again and this time speak at
the same time as one of the characters. Don't try
to imitate their accent but do try to speak with the
same rhythm and speed.
SECTION C: Do the exercises in order and
check your answers in the answer key.
Exercises marked with a cassette symbol are
recorded on the tape as drills. Lisen to the example
first and then practise it before you begin the drill.
To do the drill, listen to the model and then give
the answer in the pause provided. Do not attempt
to record your answer on to the tape. Then listen
to the model answer. If you find you're not able to
give your answer in the time provided, don't
worry. Use the pause button on your recorder,
practise your answer and then say it. As your
fluency increases you'll be able to give the answer
in the time allowed. Remember to use the drills
not just for grammar practice hut also for increas-
ing nuency _
SECTION 0: Listen to the conversation on your
cassette without looking at it in the book. See if
you can understand it. Then read the explanation
and listen again. Next, listen and follow the con-
versation in your book. After that, listen once
more, and do the exercise. Finally, play the con-
versation again and speak at the same time as one
of the characters.
SECTION E: Go through the examples and
follow the diagrams and charts carefully. Then do
the exercises Or activities.
HOW MUCH TIME TO SPEND: Don't try lO
do everything a! once. You may only wish to do a
single section or part of a section in a session.
How much time you spend is up to you, but
remember these two rules for self study:
a. A little every day is much better than a lot once
a week .
b. When you star! work, spend a few minutes
revising what you learned last time, either
by playing the tape or by reading through the
urilt so far .
2. Using the radio broadcasts.
First check whether the radio series is on either
your local radio or on BBC English by Radio
broadcasts from London. For information about
BBC broadcasts from London in your area, write
to:
BBC English by Radio and Television
Post Box 76
Bush House
London WC2B 4PH
England
It is important to use the radio broadcasts for
listening practice and not have your book open
while you listen. Use the book and cassettes after
the broadcast to consolidate and extend what
you've Jearned. Don 't worry if the radio series is
not being broadcast in your area. The book and
cassettes are designed for use independently of the
radio programmes.
 THE RIG

Look at the diagram of the rotary rig. Notice

Unit 1 the string. This is made up oj 'joints' or 'singles' .

The Rig
Each joint or single is a hoI/ow section of pipe,
30 ft. long. The string is made up of a number of
these singles, all joined together. The bit is con-
nected to the bottom of the string. At the top of
the string there is a special pipe called the' kelly' .
Section A
The kelly isn ' t round, but hexagonal. It fits into a
READING COMPREHENSION hexagonal hole in the rotary table. The rotary
Read the following passage. If there are any table turns the kelly, the kelly turns the string, and
words or expressions that you don't understand, the string turns the rotary bit.
look under Special Words and Expressions.
The diagrams will also help you . The Mud System
Oil is contained in rocks under the ground and
in rocks under the sea. To find it, oilmen have to
drill boreholes. The equipment for drilling these
holes is the drilling rig. Most rigs work on the
rotary system. A bit rotates at the end of a pipe. Kelly hose
As the bit rotates, it cuts and crushes the rock at
the bottom of the hole. The cullings are carried to Mud pumps
the surface by a special fluid. This fluid is called
'mud' . Mud is a mixture of clay, water and Kelly
chemicals.

Rotary Drilling Rig

\ Mud tank
Standpipe
C;;:~~~;;J-------- Crown Block
IL-------=--~ Derrick
Travelling Block
Hook Annulus -Mud down
Swivel -+M ud up
Kelly Hose Kelly
Rotary table
Drawworks
Mud Tanks Bit
Standpipe Shale Nozzles
Shaker

Mud is not only used for carrying the cuttings

up to the surface. It is also used for keeping the bit
I H~ ____ _______ AnnuJus cool. The mud is pumped down through the
String string. It comes back up again through the an-
} Joint / Single nulus. The mud engineer or 'mud man' is in
charge of the mud. For example, he tells the
0-- - - -- - - -- -- - Bit floormen how to mix the mud at the mud tanks.

It is often necessary to pull the string out of the
hole. There are different reasons for this.
Perhaps, for example, the drill bit is dull. If the bit
is dull, it must be changed. To do this, the driller
and the floor men must trip the pipe . They must
pull the string out (a), change the bit (b) , and then
run the string back into the hole (c). Tripping the
pipe is also called 'making a round trip' . Round
trips are expensive. Oilmen make them only if they
must.
Special Words and Expressions
boreholes In the petroleum industry, the words
'borehole', 'hole', 'well' and 'oil well' usually
mean the same thing.
rotary turning like a wheel.
rotates turns around and around like a wheel.
crushes .breaks up into small pieces, using great
power.
cuttings the pieces of rock drilled by the bit.
fluid anything that flows. Liquids, gases and
melted substances are all fluids.
clay an earthy material, plastic when it is Wet.
THE RIG
The most common clay in drilling fluid is ben·
tonite. Bentonite consists of calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg) and aluminium (AI).
is made up of consists of. Bentonite is made up
of Ca, Mg and AI.
hollow having an empty space on the inside.
Drill pipe is hollow, so that mud can pass
through it.
hexagonal having six angles and six sides.
Ketly Kelly A Hexagon
Cross-section.
o
floormen workers on a rig. Floormen are also
called' roughnecks'. A mud man or driller can
tell a floorman what to do.
dull not sharp; worn out; gone. If the bit is
gone, it must be changed.
driller the person in charge of the drilling.
THE
Comprehension
Answer the following questions. The informa-
tion can be either in the reading passage and
diagrams or in Special Words and Expressions.
a. What is the driller's job? (He is ... )
b. How long is a single? How long is a joint?
(They are both ... )
c. As- the bit rotates, what two things does it
do?
d. In the petroleum industry, what is mud?
e. What is the string made up of?
f. What is the name of the space between the
drill pipe and the sides of the borehole? (The
space is called ... )
g. Who mixes the mud? Where is the mud
mixed?
h. O i l m e n make round trips only if they must.
Why? (Because ... )
i. What is bentonite? What does it consist of?
j. Why is the drill pipe hollow?. (So that ... )
Now choose from these words and expressions
to complete the paragraph below: cuttings, fluid,
shale shaker, rotary, mud tanks, annulus,
crushes.
The ... bit cuts and .. . the rock at the bottom
of the hole. Drilling ... carries the ... from the
bottom of the hole, up the ... to the surface.
The cuttings D U H separated from the mud at the
. . . , and the clean mud then returns to the
6HFWLRQ B
LISTENING COMPREHENSIONI
1. Listen to the conversation between Bob
and George.
BOB: H e y , George! O v e r h e r e !
GEORGE Y e a h ?
BOB: We'll have to trip the pipe.
GEORGE: What?
BOB: I said we'll have to trip the pipe.
GEORGE: What's wrong, Bob?
BOB: I ' m not sure. W e ' l l have to bring it up
and find out.
GEORGE: Any ideas?
BOB: I think the bit's gone.
GEORGE: The bit?
BOB: Aye, the bit.
GEORGE: It was changed last shift, Bob.
BOB: I know, but I think i t ' s gone. Let's bring
up the string and find out.
(The crew trip the pipe o u t of the hole)
BoB: Well, look at that.
GEORGE: You were right. It is worn out. We'll
have to change it.
BOB: Thanks for telling me.
2. Now see if you understood the tape. Answer
the following questions. If you have difficulty,
listen to the tape again .
a. Who is in charge, Bob o r George? Who's the
driller? Who's the roughneck? What gives
you the answers to these questions?
b. Bob uses another word for 'yes'. What word
does he use?
c. Any ideas? is a short way of saying Have
you g o t any ideas? Now make complete
sentences for these short expressions: Any
cigarettes?, Any problems?, Any answers?,
Any tools for the job?.
d. What does Bob want to find out? (He wants
to find out if ... )
e. Offshore, LQ the North S e a drilling crews
X V X D O O \  Z R U N  1.2-hour shifts. Onshore, they
usuallywork 8-hour shifts. Do you work
1 2 - h o u rR U 8-hour shifts?

Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
~ =,11 1. See if you remember these sentences
from the tape.
'We' ll have to trip the pipe.'
'We' ll have to bring it up and find out.'
'We'll have to change it.'
Those sentences all mean that it will be
necessary to do something.
Example: It will be necessa·ry for us to trip the
pipe. (We'll ... )
• We'll have to trip the pipe.
Now say the following.
a. It will be necessary for us to check the mud
tanks . (We' ll ... )
b. It will be necessary for us to run the pipe
back in . (We'll ... )
c. It will be necessary for me to ask the driller
for permission to do that. (I'll ... )
d. It will be necessary for you to come to work
on time. (You'll ... )
e. It will be necessary for him to work two
shifts tomorrow. (He'll . .. )
~ 2. To explain the function of something,
we can use for followed by a verb with -ing (the
gerund).
The equipment for drilling these holes is the
drilling rig.
Mud is not only used for carrying the cuttings
up to the surface.
Study this example:
Mud is also used ... the bit cool. (keep)
• Mud is also used for keeping the bit cool.
Now complete the following in the same way.
a. The fluid .. . the bit is called mud. (cool)
b. The draw works are used . .. the drill pipe.
(raise and lower)
c. The bit is used ... the rock at the bottom of
the hole. (cut and crush)
d. The equipment ... boreholes is the rig. (drill)
e. The drill pipe is hollow. This is ... the
drilling fluid. (carry)
THE RIG
[,= ,11 3. Passive Voice
The cuttings (carry) to the surface by a special
flu id.
• The cuttings are carried to the surface by a
special fluid.
This fluid (call) mud.
• This fluid is called 'mud'.
In these sentences, put the verbs in brackets
into the same passive form.
a. The string .. . a number of joints or singles .
(make up of)
b. If the bit is worn out it .... (change)
c. Round trips ... only if they are necessary .
(make)
d. The drilling fluid ... by the mud engineer.
(control)
e. Cuttings ... to the surface in the drilling
fluid. (carry)
4. Tenses and Questions: Present Simple
What does a roughneck do? He/wo rk/ rig floor
• He works on the rig floor.
Answer the questions below in the same way.
a. What do the drawworks do? They / raise
and lower / pipe
b. Where does a floorman mix the mud? He /
mix it / mud tanks
c. When is the bit changed? When / driller /
think it is worn out
d. What is a fluid? A fluid / anything / that /
flow
e. At what temperature does water boil?
Water / boil / 100°C
II ~,11 S. Now look at this example:
Ask what the driller does. (What / driller / do)
(in charge of drilling operation)
• What does the driller do?
He's in charge of the drilling operation.
In the same way, make questions and answers
for these.
a. Ask where the floormen work. (Where /
floormen / work) (rig floor)
b. Ask what the mud does. (What / mud / do)
(keep bit cool)
 THE RIG

c. Ask how the mud reaches the bit. (How /

mud / reach / bit) (pass through hollow
string)
d . Ask what bentonite consists of. (What /
bentonite / consist of) (calcium, magnesium
and aluminium)
e. Ask why oilmen make round trips only if
they must. (Why / oilmen / make round
trips / only if they must) (because expensive)

6. Present Continuous
In the picture below. something is happening
now.
Look at the first picture .
• What is the driller doing? Floormen/ mix/ clay and chemicals
He's examining the bit.
Now make two sentences for each of the other
pictures .
==

Drilling crew/ trip/ pipe out of hole

Driller/ examine/ bit Mud man/ check/ drilling fluid

 THE RIG

(Peter comes to talk 10 Bob)

BOB: Oh good, there you are, Peter.
PETER: What can I do for you, Bob?
BOB: The hole's getting tight.
PETER: Tight?
BOB: Yup. How's the mud?
PETIiR: The mud's OK.
BOB: What' s bottoms up?
PETER: About an hour.
BOB: All right then. We' ll give it an hour and
see.
PETER: Ri ght.

(An hour passes)

Supply boat/deliver/ bentonite PETER : How's the hole now, Bob?
BOB: Better. I don't think we have to worry.
PETER: Good.
BOB: How' s the mud?
PETER: No problems.
BOB: Then let' s make hole.
Tight spot Bottoms up

.: Annulus

sand falling
into
borehole
Bit
C9 i
Mud
up

Roughneck/ move back/single

Bottom
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II 2. Read this explanation.
Bob is worried because th.e hole is becoming
I ,~,II 1. Listen to the conversation between Bob 'tight' . When the hole is tight, it's difficult to turn
and Peter the string and to move the pipe up and down in the
BOB: Hey , George. Over here. hole. There can be different reasons for this.
GEORGE: What's up, Bob? Perhaps rock or sand is falling back into the hole.
BOB: Get me the mud man. Perhaps the mud isn't supporting the open sides of
GEORGE: Who? the hole. Perhaps the mud isn't moving the
BOB: The mud man , George. The mud man. cuttings away from the bit. To find out, Bob .
GEORGE: An ything wrong? wants Peter to check the mud from the bottom of
BOB: Later. Now go and get Peter. Get a move the hole.
on. How can Peter check the mud from the bottom
GEORGE: Right, I' m going. of the hole? He must wait for the mud to travel
fro m the bottom, up through the annulus to the c. The driller is making a round trip. The
a
surface. In deep hole this can take a long time. reason for this is to make it possible for the
The time that it takes is called 'bottoms up'. driller to examine the bit.
Bottoms up is the time that it takes for the mud to d. Rotary bits are made of very hard steel. The
navel from the bottom of the hole to the surface. reason for this is to make it possible for the
Some oilmen also use the expression 'lag time'. rotary bits to drill through many feet of rock
without getting dull too quickly.
3. Listen to Bob and Peter again. Then do the e. The kelly is hexagonal. The reason for this is
exercises below. to make it possible .for the rotary table to
a. Choose the right expression: What's up? turn the kelly without slipping.
means (i) What is that up there? (ii) What
can I do for you? (iii) What's the matter?
b. Choose the right expression: Get a move on
means (i) Move that for me (ii) Put
something on (iii) Hurry up.
c. Why doesn't Bob explain to George what the
trouble is?
d. Bob can say Get me the mud man to George,
but George cannot say Get me the mud man
to Bob. Why not?
Co What's another expression for 'bottoms up'?

Section E
WRITING PRACTI.CE

Sentences
Look at these examples:
Drill pipe is hollow. The reason for this is to
make it possible for the mud to pass through it.
• Drill pipe is hollow, so that mud can pass
w ough it.
The kelly hose is made of rubber. The reason
f...- th is is to make it possible for the kelly hose
10 bend without breaking .
• The kelly hose is made of rubber, so that it
DIn bend without breaking.
ow join the sentences below, using so that
- can.
a. Mud is heavy. The reason for this is to make
it possible for the mud to support the open
sides of the borehole.
b. Peter is going to the mud tanks. The reason
for this is to make it possible for Peter to
check the drilling fluid.
 FISHING JOBS

Unit 2
a type of fishing tool called a 'junk basket', and
there is another type called a 'spear'. Look at the
diagrams below.
Fishing Jobs Junk basket Spear

Section A
READING COMPREHENSION
Read the following passage. Rem emb~r to look
under Special Words and Expressions if you
have difficulties. The diagrams will also help Teeth uU'.L-....J.
you with unknown words and expressions. Tool-joint
box

Hollow
barrel

fingers
Teeth in

with
hard-faced
centre teeth

As you can see, these fishing tools are very

Sometimes, items of drilling equipment get lost
in the borehole. When an item of equipment is lost
in the hole, it' s called ·a 'fish'. A lost item is also
called . ' junk'. Drilling cannot continue until the
fish or the junk is recovered from the hole. To
recover the lost item, a fi shing job is necessary.
Special fishing 100is are used for latching on to the
fish and hoisting it up to the surface. There are
many types of fishing tools. For example, there is
different. The spear is used for recovering lost
casing. The spear enters the bore of the lost pipe.
The diameter of the spear, therefore, must be
smaller than the diameter of the pipe in the hole.
When the spear enters the pipe, its teeth push out
and grip the inner sides of the pipe tightly. Then it
is usually possible to hoist the fish out of the
borehole.
The junk basket is used for latching on to
smaller pieces of junk. It's used for recovering lost
bit cutters, for example. The bottom part of the.
basket is a shoe with hard-faced teeth. The shoe
 FISHING JOBS
has a hole in its centre. The fish is forced through
me hole and enters the barrel of the basket.
Spring-loaded fingers prevent the fish from
d ropping out of the barrel and falling back into
me well.
Before a fishing job can begin, the string must
be tripped out of the hole. First, the kelly is
broken out and is set in the ratho/e. Then the
string is broken out in stands and the stands are
stood back on the rig floor. When all of the stands
are stood back, the fishing can begin. The
too/pusher usually takes charge of the fishing
o peration.
Special Words and Expressions
item each thing in a group or list of things.
latching on to getting hold of.
hoisting raising into position using rope or wire.
bore the inside diameter of a pipe or tube.
diameter the length of a straight line through
the centre of an object.
D Comprehension
A-O = Diameter
8-C = Bore
therefore for this reason; because of this.
grip hold with force.
inner situated farther in. The opposite of 'inner'
is 'outer'.
bit cutters The teeth of the bit are set in the bit
cutters. The cutters hold the teeth of the drill
bit.
hard-faced having the outer surfaces made of
very hard metal.
spring-loaded closing quickly, powered by
springs.
Springs
is broken out is unscrewed and separated .
ratho/e The rathole is a shallow hole near a
corner of the rig floor. The kelly stands in
the rathole when it isn' t needed .
stands Stands are 90 ft. sections of drill pipe.
A stand is made up of three joints or singles,
all joined together.
are stood back are placed on end; are stood
back .
too/pusher the person in charge of all operations
on the rig. A tool pusher can tell a driller what
to do. Some oilmen also use the word
'toolpush' .
Answer the following questions. Remember that
the information can be either in the reading
passage and diagrams or in Special Words and
Expressions.
a. Why is a junk basket hollow?
b. Why are there many types of fishing tools?
c. What is the toolpush's job?
d. Where is the rathole? What is it used for?
e. What is a spear for? What's a junk basket
for?
f. How does a spear hold a lost piece of pipe?
g. Before a fishing job can begin, the string
must be tripped out of the hole. Why?
h. A string is 3,960 feet long. How many stands
is it made up of? How many singles is it
made up of?
 i. What is the difference between 'diameter'
and 'bore'?
J. The string is tripped out of the hole in
stands, not in singles . What is the reason for
this?
\ KEITH: But what is a 'fish'? What does that
Now choose from these words and expressions
to complete the paragraph below: in charge of,
junk, toolpusher, item, run back in, fished,
tools, lost, tripped.
When an ... of drilling equipment is ... in the
hole, it must be ... out. The person usually ...
... ... the fishing operation is the ... The string is
... out of the borehole and fishing ... are run in.
A fter the ... is recovered, the string is ... .. .
and drilling can begin again.
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
= 1. Listen to the conversation between
Keith, Barry and Peter. Keith is from the
Petroleum Programme, a BBC radio series
about the language of the oil industry.
KEITH: How do you do, Barry. My name's
Keith. I'm from the Petroleum Programme.
BARRY: How do you do. Can I help you?
KEITH: Would you mind explaining what the
driller and the floormen are doing? I notice
they're not drilling today. The rotary table
isn't turning. And where has the kelly gone?
BARRY: Well, first of all, the kelly's over
there. In that hole over there, in the corner
of the derrick floor. See?
KEITH: Oh yes, I see it. And is that the rathole
it's standing in?
PETER: That's what we call it. How did you
know that?
BARRY: Yes, you' re certainly right. When
we're not using the kelly, we set it in the
rathole, in the derrick floor.
KEITH: Why is the kelly in the rathole now?
BARRY: Because we've pulled out. We've
hoisted the pipe out of the hole. We' ve
stacked the pipe and we can't do any drilling
because there's a fi sh in the hole.
PETER: We're going to fi sh for it now. We' re
getting the fi shing tools ready.
word mean? Would you mind explaining it,
please?
PETER: Barry?
BARRY: Sure. A fi sh is something we've lost
in the hole. Sometimes it' s a tool or another
piece of equipment. Sometimes it' s a part
of the drilling string .
PETER: Today it's one of the cutters. We've
lost one of the cutters from the bit. It's in the
hole.
BARRY: So, we're goi ng to fish for it.
KEITH: When do you think you'll catch it?
P ETER: Oilmen don't say 'catch' a fish, Keith.
BARRY: We say 'latch on to' a fish. We're
going to try to latch on to the cutter now .
We're going to use special fishing tools.
PETER: And I sure hope we latch on to that
fish soon.
BARRY: So do I. Then we can run the drilling
string in again-
PETER: - and hoist the kelly out of the
rathole -'
BARRY: - and start making hole again.
KEITH: Good luck , then. I hope you latch on
to that fish soon.
PETER: Thanks a lot , Keith.
2. To see if you understood the tape, answer the
followin g questions.
a. From your listening practice in Unit 1, you
know that Peter is the mud engineer. What
job do you think Barry does? Why do you
think so?
b. Why is the kelly in the rathole now?
c. In the oil business, what is a fish?
d. What are the crew going to do about the
junk in the hole?
e. Keith politely asks Barry to explain what the
driller and the floormen are doing. What
expression does he use?
 FISHING JOBS
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
1 II 1. Do you remember these sentences from
1 ,=
the tape?
'We're going to try to latch on to the cutter
now.'
' We' re going to use special fishing tools.'
'We're going to fish for it now.'
Those sentences all mean that the crew plan to
do something soon.
Look at this example about somebody
planning to do something.
There's a cutter in the hole. (toolpush/try to
latch on to it)
• The toolpush is going to try to latch on to it.
Now make similar sentences for the following.
a. There's something wrong with the bit.
(crew/trip the string out)
b. The mud's light. (Peter/~bentonite to the
tanks)
c. I'm not sure what to do. (I/ask the driller)
d . The fish is small. (Barry/use the junk basket)
e. I don't know what the trouble is. (I1find out
now)
!=,II 2. Passive Voice
otice the verbs in these sentences:
Before a fishing job canbegin, the string must
be tripped out of the hole. (Section AI)
U the bit is dull (must change).
• If the bit is dull, it must be changed. (Unit I
Section AI)
. Put the verbs in brackets below into the same
passive form.
a . Safety instructions (must obey).
b . Safety boots (must wear) on the rig floor at
all times.
c. Fire doors (must keep) closed.
d . Smoking (must not permit) on or near the
rig.
e. The string (must trip out) in stands, not in
singles.
:~,II 3. Past Simple and Present Perfeci Tenses
Examine these pairs of sentences.
we've pulled out.
We pulled out an hour ago.
We've learned about the word 'annulus'.
We learned about the word 'annulus' in Unit 1.
Those actions all happened in the past. The
first sentence in each pair, however, does not
give liS any information about when the actions
happened.
Examples:
We stopped drilling when we lost the cutler.
• We' ve stopped drilling.
I completed the job last shift.
• I've completed the job.
Re-form the sentences below without using the
words in italics.
a . The drilling stopped when the cutler was
lost.
b. As soon as they got thejunk out of the hole,
they ran in again.
c. We tried the junk basket at five o'clock and
we tried the spear forty-five minutes later but
that fish is still down there.
d. While he was on the rig, Keith learned some
interesting things about fishing operations.
e. The kelly's in the rathole because we hoisted
the pipe out a couple of hours ago.
MJ 4. Past Simple Questions
Ask when the drilling stopped. (When /
drilling / stop) (when the cutter was lost)
• When did the drilling\ stop?
It stopped when the cutter was lost.
In the same way, make questions and give
answers for the following .
a. Ask when Barry arrived. (When / Barry /
arrive) (an hour ago)
b. Ask when the bit broke down. (When / bit /
break down) (very soon after it was run in)
c. Ask when the supply boat left. (When /
supply boat / leave) (early yesterday
afternoon)
d. Ask what time he came on shift. (What
time / he / come on shift) (at 9.30 am)
e. Ask when he shut down the pumps. (When /
he / shut down the pumps) (when the
toolpush told him to do so)
 FISHING JOBS

5. Look at this example: MICHAEL: Hello, Barry.

Junk is (lose/lost/losing) equipment in the hole. BA RRY: Welcome to the rig, Michael.
• Junk is lost equipment in the hole. MICHAEL: Well then, Barry, where's the BOP
Do the following in the same way. Choose the stack?
right words. BARRY: Not here on the rig floor. It's under-
a. A stand is made up of three singles, all neath us. Follow me and I'll show you.
(joint / joining / joined) together.
b Would you mind (to repeat / repeating / (They climb down some steel steps)
repeat) that, please? BARRY: Here it is, right in the middle, under
c. Spears are smaller in diameter (from / than / the rig floor. The rotary table is just above
to) the bore of the drill pipe. it - and us.
d. The rathole is (in / on / at) a corner (to / MICHAEL: So this is the BOP stack. It's quite
from / of) the rig floor. a big piece of machinery .
e. Most derricks are (between / to / of) 100 BARRY: It has to be big, and strong. If there's
and 136 ft. (deep / long / high). a kick or a blowout, the BOP stack will shut
in the well and control it.
MICHAEL: And what's this? What' s this that
Section D the stack is standing on?
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II BARRY: That's the well-head , Michael. That' s
where the casings are connected here at the
!1,= .I1
1. Listen to the conversation between top of the hole.
Michael and Barry. While you are listening, look MICHAEL: I see. And what' s the working
at the diagram below. pressure of the stack?
BARRY: That depends, of course, on the depth
L ------::-;;::=::: Kelly of the well and the pressure that we expect.
Rotary table
The working pressure of this BOP system is
Rig Floor
ten thousand pounds per square inch.
MICHAEL: Ten thousand p. s.i. You must be
BOP Stack ;::=1-- - -- - Mud return plapning to drill down a very long way.
Blind rams BAR-RY: We are. Or at least, that' s our pro-
gramme.

=c::dJIt:)lli::f;== ~
MICHAEL: Do you mean that you may be
Manual lucky, and hit an oil zone soon?
BARRY : In this business, Michael, you never
=L::[~:mtt2:== ~controlS know. It's full of surprises.

Pipe rams 2. Answer these questions about the tape.

rtJ''1lJ-r - -- - - - Well. head
a. BBC stands fo r Briti sh Broadcasting
Corporation . BOP stands for blowout
preventer. What does p. s. i. stand for?
b. Is Barry's rig onshore or offshore? How do
you know?
c. A 'kick ' is a sudden push upwards, against
the drilling fluid. If there's a kick, what will
the BOP stack do?
FISHING JOBS

d. What' s the working pressure of the BOP
system on Barry's rig?
e. The working pressures of BOP stacks are not
all the same. What does the working pressure
of a BOP stack depend on?
In Western Europe in 1976, oil consumption
was seven hundred and six million lannes and
production was forty-five million tonnes.
Consumption was greater than production by six
hundred and sixty-one million tonnes .

Now write similar sentences for the other

Section E
areas on the chart. Begin with the U.S.A.,
WRITING PRACTICE
North Africa and Australasia.
In the U.S.A. in 1976, ...
Sentences and Numbers
In North Africa in 1976, .. .
Notice how easy it is to make sentences from the In Australasia in 1976, .. .
information on the chart below.
Examples: In the Middle-East in 1976, oil
consumption . was seventy-three million tannes
and production was one thousand, one hundred
million tonnes. Consumption was less than
production by one thousand, twenty-seven
million lannes .
 TRAPS & GEOLOGY

of drilling 'that first well was not the rotary

Unit 3 method . In 1866, cable-lOol drilling was used. To-

Traps & Geology

day very few cable-tool rigs exist.
Anticlinal Trap

Section A
READING COMPREHENSION

Read the following passage.

Petroleum was formed by nature in very ancient

times. Most of the petroleum that oilmen drill for
was formed between 30 and 500 million years ago.
Outside of the petroleum industry, many people
believe that oil and gas are contained in large
underground lakes or caves. This belief is, of
course, false. Petroleum is contained in the
pores of reservoir rocks, rather in the same way
Non-porous & impermeable
that water is contained in the pores of a sponge. cap rock
The most common reservoir rocks are sandstone,
limestone and dolomite. These are sedimentary Synclinal trap
Cap rock
rocks. Sedimentary rocks may be porous and
permeable to oil, gas, and water. They can
therefore act as reservoir rocks.

Seep or Show

Most underground ~i1 is contained in traps such

Places where oil has reached the surface are call-
ed 'seeps' or 'shows' . In Trinidad in the West In-
dies there are a number of active seeps. The first
well in Trinidad was drilled in 1866. The method
as those in the diagrams above. A trap is an
underground formation which prevents the escape
of oil contained in it. Notice the cap rock at the
top of each trap. Cap rock is non-porous and
impermeable to the fluids below . Therefore,
underground pressure cannot force the reservoir
fluids through the cap rock and up to the surface.
TRAPS & GEOLOGY

Aerial Survey sponge a porous product used for washing

and cleaning.

Pores

Cameras
Magnetometers
Sponges

sandstone a rock which consists of sand

Seismic Survey cemented together, usually by silica (Si0 2)
or calcium carbo~ate (CaCO,).
Geophones Cables Recording truck
limestone a rock wh\ch was , formed from
deposits of CaCO,.
dolomite a type of limestone which consists
of calcium magnesium carbonate
(CaMg(CO')2)'
sedimentary rocks Sediment is solid material
which sinks to the bottom of a liquid.
Sedimentary rocks were formed from
sediments on the bottom of lakes, rivers,
oceans, etc.
permeable allowing fluids to pass through.
Reflected shock waves Shock waves
Permeability describes the fluid-transmitting
How do oilmen know where to drill? That' s the property of a substance.
job, generally, of the petroleum geologist. He can cable-tool drilling In this method, the bit breaks
use the results of aerial and seismic surveys to get the rock by pounding up and down.
information about rock features beneath the sur- geologist a scientist who studies rocks, how they
face. Rocks at the surface also supply informa- are arranged and how they were formed.
tion, and fossils can help him to calculate the age fossils the remains of animals or plants,
of the rocks. preserved in rocks.

Special Words and Expressions

ancient belonging to the distant past.
false The opposite of 'false' is 'true'.
pores very small holes or spaces. Anything
which contains pores is porous. Porosity
describes the fluid-holding property of a Rock piece
substance.
reservoir rocks rocks which store petroleum
and allow it to be recovered.

Comprehension
Answer the following questions.
a. , What are the three most common reservoir
rocks?
b. When was most of our oil formed?
c. In what year was the first well in Trinidad
drilled?
d. What three things does a geologist study?
e. If a porous sandstone is impermeable to oil,
it can't be a reservoir rock. Why not?
f. If a rock is porous and permeable to oil, it
can't be a cap rock. Why not?
g. What's the difference between rotary drilling
and the cable-tool method?
h. How is a seep different from a trap?
I. One type of sedimentary rock was formed
from deposits of calcium carbonate. Which
one?
J. What can fossils do for the petroleum
geologist?
True or False?
Example: Petroleum is contained in
underground lakes or caves.
• False. Petroleum is contained in the pores of
reservoir rocks.
Say whether the following are true or fal se. If
a statement is fal se , correct it.
a. The chemical symbol for silica is SiO, .
b. The chemical symbol for calcium carbonate
is CaMg(CO,), .
c. Most oil was formed between 50 and 300
million years ago.
d. In a seismic-reflection survey, shot points
pick up the reflected shock waves.
e. Porosity describes the fluid-transmitting pro-
perty of a substance.
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
= 1. Listen to the conversation between
Michael and Tom.
TRAPS & GEOLOGY
TOM: Here we are, Michael. Up here. May I
help you?
MICHAEL: No. No thank you, Tom , I' m quite
all right.
TOM: Good.
MICHAEL: Well, is this the outcrop you were
telling me about?
TOM: This is it. I'll chip a piece off for you.
(Tom chips off a piece of rock)
There you are.
MI CHAEL: So this is sedimentary rock.
TOM: That's right. We're standing on a sand-
stone outcrop. It's just the sort of sedimentary
rock we' re looking for.
i:!Q~;;':, " ' .
\
Sa,,'dsllone formation
MICHAEL: Most sandstones are nn'Me:, aren't
they?
TOM: Yes, they are, but they don' t all Mn",,"-
oil. This outcrop, for instance , doesn't. Still,
there may be oil in it at depth. Not here, but
some miles away, where this rock goes under-
ground.
MI CHAEL: When you find an outcrop like this,
do you immediately know where to drill?
TOM: Far from it, Michael. We've got to know
a great deal more. We need much more
information. We can see what the rock is like
here, where it has come to the surface. But
we've got to get some idea about what it' s
like at depth, where there may be a trap .
MICHAEL: How do you do that, Tom?
 TRAPS & GEOLOGY
How do you get information about what 's
under the ground?
TOM: In a number of ways. By aerial survey,
for example, and by seismic survey, too. Then
of course there's-
MICHAEL: Excuse me, Tom. Aerial survey?
Seismic survey? May I ask you to tell me a
little about them first?
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. Tom is carrying a tool. What sort of tool is
it? How do you know?
b. What job do you think Tom does? What
makes you think so?
c. Choose the right expression: Far from it
means (i) Move away (ii) At a distance from
here (iii) Certainly not.
d. When an outcrop like this is found, why
doesn't drilling begin immediately?
e. Which word indicates that Tom and Michael
are being polite when they ask certain ques-
\ tions?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
~-----; I
~.JJ 1. Do you remember these sentences from
the tape?
' We' ve got to know a great deal more.'
' We've got to get some idea about what it's like
at depth.'
The expression have/has got to indicates that
th ere is a need or a necessity to do something.
Example: He's hurt badly. (We/get doctor)
• We've got to get a doctor.
Do the following in the same way.
a. This just isn't enough information. (You /
find out more)
b. Before you can start to fish, ... (you/trip
string out).
c. Possibly you're right but ... (llbe sure).
d. He can't do it without permission. (He/ask
driller first)
~\II 2. Passive Voice
atice the verbs in these sentences.
Petroleum was formed by nature in very ancient
times. (Section A I)
The first well in Trinidad was drilled in 1866.
(Section A I)
Put the verbs in brackets below into the same
passive form.
a. The Amposta field in Spain (discover) in
1971.
b. The bit (change) last shift.
c. During the 1960s, exploration (increase) in
the Java Sea.
d. Oil exploration in Albania (begin) by the
Italians. ~
e. The first wells at Masjid-i-Sulaiman,
Iran, (drill) using the cable-tool method.
~_.! 3. Questions in the Passive
Example : Ask when the first offshore discovery
was made in Tunisia. (1947)
• When was the first offshore discovery made
in Tunisia?
It was made in 1947.
Now make questions and give answers for the
following.
a. Ask when most of the petroleum that oilmen
drill for was formed. (between 30 an(i 500
million years ago)
b. Ask when the first well in Trinidad was drill-
ed. (1866)
c. Ask why the pumps weren't inspected earlier.
(because no instructions were received)
d. Ask how the junk in the hole was recovered.
(by using a spear)
e. Ask when oil exploration and development
were started in Venezuela . (1910)
4. Definitions with which
Study the definition of limestone. Notice that
it is made up of three parts: (i) Subject
(limestone), (ii) General Category (sedimentary
rock), (iii) Specific Description (was formed
from deposits of calcium carbonate).
• Limestone is a sedimentary rock which was
formed from deposits of calcium carbonate.
Use the table on the following page to write
five more definitions like that.
 TRAPS & GEOLOGY

SUBJECT GENERAL CATEGORY SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION

Cap rock a fi shing tool has not struck oil

A spear ear/hy materials traps oil undergound
A shale non-porous and are plastic when they
shaker is/ are impermeable rock which are wet
Clays an item of rig removes cuttings from
equipment the drilling fluid
A duster any borehole is used for
recovering casing

5. Definitions with who '

Example: What's a geo,logist? (scientist / study /
rocks) ,
• A geologist is a scientist who studies rocks.
Now give definitions in answer to the
following.
a. What's a toolpush? (oilman / be / in charge
of rig operations)
b. What's a roughneck? (rig worker / help /
around the rig floor)
c. What's a seismologist? (scientist / study / MICHAEL: Thanks, Tom, that's mu clearer
underground shock waves) now. I think I've got a good idea about ial
d. What's a derrickman? (oilman / work / high and seismic surveys. Now what are some of
up in the derrick) the other ways of getting information about
e. What's a switcher? (oilfield worker / direct / rocks that may contain oil?
oil from wells into pipelines) TOM: Well, it's very important to check the
drill cuttings and cores from-other wells in the
area.
Section D MICHAEL: DriJl cuttings, yes. But how does an
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II oil geologist get the cuttings?
TOM: One of the floormen brings them. He
II ,~, II 1. Listen now to the rest of the gets them at the shale shaker.
conversation between Mich"JI' and Tom. MICHAEL: I see. And what do you do with
them?
Core bit TOM: I wash the cuttings. I dry them, and then
I examine them under a microscope.
Hole in ~--- Threads MICHAEL : A microscope? Why do you have to
centre-+=
for core use a microscope?
TOM: Because some of the things I'm looking
for are very small. Tiny fossils, for example,
and very small pieces of rock from formations
at depth.
 T~APS & GEOLOGY

MICHAEL: What kind of information do you Section E

get? WRITING PRACTICE
TOM: I find out what type of rock is in the
cutting. If it can be a reservoir rock, I look to Sentences from Tables
see if it's porous. I look for signs of oil. And
Look at the table below, then study the
if there are fossils in the cutting, they help me
example.
find out the age of the rock
M ICHAEL: When you said that you had to
check the drill cuttings, you also said that you DISCOVERY PRODUCTION
FIELD
had to check something else, too- YEAR AV. BPD, 1976
TOM: That's right. Cores. I have to check the
cores. From a core, a geologist can learn a lot Providencia, Peru 1967 1,050
more about the rock. But coring is expensive. Rumaila, Iraq 1953 800,000
It costs a lot of money and it takes a lot of Ahmadi, Kuwait 1952 148,983
time. Most of a hole is drilled and not cored. Tut, Pakistan 1968 567
A geologist gets his information from the Meji,~eria 1965 22,192
cuttings. Provost, Canada 1946 9,252
MICHAEL: And, as we've already learned , from
aerial and seismic surveys. Example: The Providencia field in Peru was
TOM: Right. And from field surveys, too. We discovered in 1967. By 1976, the field was
can learn a great deal by coming out to places producing an average of one thousand, fifty
li ke this. By looking, by examining rocks at barrels per day.
outcrop. Now write similar sentences for the other
MICHAEL: And I' m sure there are many other fields in the table. Begin with Rumaila.
ways of getting information about rocks at the The Rumaila field in Iraq ...
surface an.;! rocks at depth.
TOM: There certainly are, Michael. Lots of
other ways.

2. ow do this exercise based on the tape.

a.. Why does Tom have to use a microscope?
b. How does Tom get the cuttings? Where do
they come from?
Co Most of a hole is drilled and not cored.
Why?
d.. Tom is doing a type of survey now. Which
type?
Co What does the expression 'at depth' mean?
 RESERVOIR FLUIDS

Unit 4
A certain amount of water always occurs
together with the oil in the middle zone. The pro-

Reservoir Fluids portion of water to oil is usually about 10 to 30 per

cent. Water also occurs in the gas cap, but the pro-
portion of water to gas is frequently lower than
the proportion of water to oil. The section of rock
in the diagram has beell greatly magnified to show
Section A
the distribution of water and hydrocarbons. The
READING COMPREHENSION
water which is found in the oil and gas zones is
called 'interstitial water' or 'connate water'.

Reservoir rock sample

~,
.o-_lL
Upper zone

Middle zone

lower zone l
Read the following passage.

In a reservoir rock, the distribution of fluid s

depends on their densities and on the capillary
properties of the rock. Generally speaking, if a
reservoir rock contains uniform pores, and if the
pores are evenly distributed, there will be three
zones of fluids in the trap: an upper zone, a mid- Magnified view of sample
dle zone, and a lower zone.
The rock pores in the upper zone in the diagram
have been filled mainly by gas . This part of the
trap is the gas cap. In the middle zone, the pores
have been filled mainly by oil with gas in solution.
In the lower zone, the rock pores have been filled
by water.
RESERVOIR FLUIDS
High-viscosity crude Low-viscosity crude
Does not pour easily Pours easily
Reservoir crudes differ. Some crudes are very
heavy and viscous; others are light and thin. A
crude of high viscosity contains little or no dissolv-
ed gas, and is usually found under conditions of
low pressure. A crude of low viscosity contains a
large amount of dissolved gas, and is usually
found under conditions of considerable pressure.
North Sea oil is an example of low-viscosity crude.
Venezuelan crudes are of high viscosity.
Special Words and Expressions
distribution the arrangement or position (eg., of
fluids in a reservoir) over an area.
densities This is the plural of 'density'. Density
is the relation of mass to volume; eg ., grams
per cubic centimeter (g/ cm') , pounds per cubic
foot (lbs / ft3).
CIlpillary having a very small bore; resembling a
hair-like tube.
uniform always having the same form and size.
evenly without variation; to the same extent.
solution a liquid containing a dissolved sub-
stance or substances. Seawater is a solution.
Salts 'a nd other substances are dissolved in it.
proportion the relation of a part to the whole,
or of one part to another.
has been greatly magnified has been greatly
enlarged in appearance. Telescopes magnify
distant objects ; microscopes magnify small
objects.
hydrocarbons compounds which contain only
carbon and hydrogen. Petroleum consists of
hydrocarbons. The lightest of all the
hydrocarbons is methane (CH,) gas .
crudes Crudes are petroleum before it has been
refined .
differ are not all the same; are different.
viscous having a resistance to flow; not flowing
easily. Viscosity describes the resistance of a
fluid to flow .
dissolved Look at the definition for 'solution' .
Comprehension
Answer the following questions.
a. What is the usual proportion of water to oil
in the oil zone? (Generally speaking, the
proportion of ... )
b. How is gas contained in reservoir crude?
c. What does the distribution of fluids in
reservoir rocks depend on? (It depends on
the ... and on the ... )
d. What is a hydrocarbon? Give a definition .
e. Why has the rock section been magnified?
(In order to ... )
f. Under what conditions is low-viscosity crude
usually found?
g. In Section A there is a word which means
' the relation of a part to the whole'. What ' s
the word?
h. Viscous liquids don't pour easily. Why don't
they?
I. How much dissolved gas does a high-
viscosity crude contain?
j. Which parts of the trap does the oil zone lie
between?
True or False?
Say whether the following are true or false. If a
statement is false, correct it.
a. The lightest of all the hydrocarbons is
heptane (C,H 16).
b. A crude of low viscosity is difficult to pour.
c. The proportion of water to gas in the gas cap
is frequently lower than the proportion of
water to oil in the oil zone.
d. Seawater is a solution.
e . Water is a solution.
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION
~ 1. Listen to the conversation between
Leila and Ahmed.
LEILA: Coffee, Ahmed?
AHMED: Ah, yes. Thank you, Leila.
LEILA: What are you listening to?
AHMED: The BBC.
LEILA: News?
AHMED: No. English by Radio.
LEILA: Is it the Petroleum Programme? I think
you said it was quite interesting.
AHMED: I did. And yes, it is interesting. Now,
may I?
LEILA: Sorry.
(Ahmed listens for a moment more)
VOICE I: But here's a problem.
VOICE 2: If a trap contained only crude oil and
water -
VOICE I: - only an oil zone and a water
zone-
VOICE 2: - where would the gas come from?
VOICE I: Or -
VOICE 2: - to put the problem another way-
VOICE I: - how can an oil well also produce a
lot of gas?
AHMED: Because the crude contains gas in
solution . That's how.
LEILA: What were you saying?
AHMED: They' re asking how crude oil can
produce natural gas.
LEILA: And? What's the answer then?
AHMED: See this coffee?
LEILA: I see it, Ahmed.
AHMED: It contains sugar in solution. The
sugar is dissolved in the coffee.
LEILA: Thank you. But how can natural gas
come from crude oil?
AHMED: Because gas can be dissolved in crude
oil under pressure. Dissolved, something like
sugar dissolves in coffee. Deep in the
reser voir, pressure and temperature keep the
gas in solution with the oil.
LEILA: I see. Go on.
AHMED: It's quite simple. When the crude rises
to the surface, the pressure drops-
LEILA: - and when the pressure has dropped
enough, the gas comes out of solution.
AHMED: Yes. That is, urn, about the way it
happens.
LEILA: Ah ... more coffee?
AHMED: Just half a cup, thank you.
LEILA: With or without a little sugar in
solution?
AHMED: Leila, Leila ....
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. Deep in the reservoir, what two conditions
keep the gas in solution with the oil?
b. When the crude rises, what happens to the
pressure?
c. When the pressure has dropped enough,
what happens to the dissolved gas?
d. Was Ahmed' s explanation easy or difficult
for Leila? How do you know?
e. Ahmed says 'May P' to Leila. What is he
as king for ? Is he pleased? Is he annoyed a
little? Why?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
[<?2 1. Conditionals
Do you remember this sentence from the tape?
'If a trap contained only crude oil and water,
where would the gas come from?'
We can answer that question like this: If the
trap contained only oil and water, the gas would
come from solution.
Examples: Suppose that you didn't know exactly
what to do. Who would you ask? (I / go /
person in charge)
RESERVOIR FLUIDS
• If I didn't know exactly what to do, I would
go to the person in charge.
Suppose that a cutter were lost in the hole.
How could the crew get it out? (they / try /
junk basket)
• If a cutter were lost in the hole, they could
try the junk basket.
Answer the following in the same way.
a . Suppose that the mud pumps broke down.
What would happen? (we / lose / returns
from the hole)
b. Suppose that a fire broke out on the rig.
What would you do? (I / shout 'Fire' and
sound the alarm)
c. Suppose that Peter had to examine a very
small rock sample. How could he do it?
(he / use / microscope)
d. Suppose that you weren't sure about your
instructions. How could you make sure? (I /
ask for an explanation)
e. Suppose that the BOP system failed. What
might happen? (the well ! blowout of
control)
2. Passive Voice
Notice the verbs in these sentences.
In the lower zone, the rock pores have been
filled mainly by oil with gas in solution. (Section
A)
The section of rock in the diagram has been
greatly magnified to show the distribution of
water and hydrocarbons . (Section A)
Now compare the two pictures of the
geologist's laboratory. In the second picture,
notice how many things have been done.
Example: microscope (put into its case)
• The microscope has been put into its case.
Now make similar sentences to say what has
been done to the following:
a. cores (take away)
b. light (switch off)
c. bunsen burner (move from shelf to
workbench)
d. rock samples (tag)
e. window (shut)
f. safety helmet and goggles (remove from
workbench)
g. tap (leave running)

~) .3. Adv.e rbs of Freq uency
In these sentences, notice particularly the
positions of the adverbs.
A certain amount of water always occurs
toget her with the oil in the middle zone. (Section
A)
The proportion of water to gas is frequently
lower than the proportion of water to oil
(Section A)
Example: The toolpush takes Charge of fish ing
operations. (usually or seldom?)
• The toolpush usually takes charge of fi shing
operatio ns.
Do the fo llowing in the same way.
a. Cap rock acts as a reservoir rock. (always or
never?)
b. Non-porous rock contains petroleum. (often
or rarel y?)
c. The proportion of water to oil is 10 to 300;0.
(seldom or usually?)
d. Water occurs together with reservoir crude .
(frequently or always?)
e. High-viscosity crude contain s a large amo unt
of dissolved gas. (never or rarely?)
4. Choose the right words. For examples, see
Exercise 5, page 12.
a. It has been magnified (for showing / for to
show / to show) the distribution of water
and (compounds/solutions/hydrocarbons).
b. In the (upper / lower / middle) (area /
section / zone) the pores have been filled
mainly (from / with / by) gas.
c. Density is the (relati ve / relation) of
(weight / mass) to (space / volume) ; (etc. /
ego / p.s.i.) , grams per (cubic / square)
centimeter.
d. A solution is a liquid (who / it / which)
contains a (dissolves / dissolving / dissolved)
substance (and l or / but) substances.
e. A crude of low viscosity contains a large
amo unt of dissolved (oil / water / gas), and
is (seldom / sometimes / usuall y) (finding /
fo und / find s) under conditions of (low /
high / considerable) pressure.
RESERVOIR FLUIDS
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
~ ~,ll1. Listen to the conversation between
Michael and Ah med.
MICHAEL: When you heard Ah med' s
explanation did you guess that he's an
oilman? Well he is, and he' s here with me
now . You're from Kuwait, Ahmed, aren' t
you?
AHMED: I am, yes. I work as a petroleum
engineer there.
MICHAEL: Is this your first trip abroad?
AHMED: Not at all. I' ve come to England
many times. And I've travelled to the States,
as well. In fact I worked there, in Texas, for
two years .
MICHAEL: And may I ask the purpose of your
visit here to Bri lai n this time?
AHMED: I'm very interested in North Sea gas.
MICHAEL: You haven't come here to buy, have
you, Ahmed?
AHMED: No, not to buy. To learn a little,
perhaps, but not to buy. In Kuwait we have
been more concerned with oil than with gas.
MICHAEL: I see. But, seriously, Ahmed, could
you tell us a little more about the production
of natural gas from crude oil?
AHMED: What would you like to know?
MICHAEL: Well, we've already heard that an
oil well can produce millions of cubic feet of
gas. I was wondering if you could give us
some idea of how much gas a certain volume
of crude can contain.
AHMED: Yes. But fir st of all, I must say that
it' s difficult to give a simple answer. You will
understand, of course, that crude oils differ
from well to well and from reservoir to
reservoir. Permeabilities differ, pressures
differ, and so on.
MICHAEL: Certainly.
AHMED: But perhaps I can give you a
particular example.
RESERVOIR FLUIDS

MICHAEL: Fine, Ahmed. Section E

AHMED: In my country, at a place called WRITING PRACTICE
Burgan, we have a very large reservoir ·with a
great many oil wells. The pressure of the Numbers and Proportions
crude when it reaches the surface is about 500
to 600 p.s .i. Example: In the Burgan field, four hundred and
MICHAEL: P .s.i.? one wells have been drilled. Twenty·seven of
AHMED: Oh, yes, p.s.i. That means 'pounds these have been dusters. The proportion of dry
per square inch', Michael. It's a pressure holes to producible wells is about seven per cent.
measurement. Using the table below, write similar sentences
MICHAEL: Then it's a number of pounds of about the other fields in Kuwait.
force over a number of square inches of area.
A force in pounds, over an area in square WELLS PRODUCIBLE
inches. FIELD
DRILLED WELLS
AHMED: That's it. So, just to give you this
example from Burgan, the crude reaches the Burgan 401 374
surface at five to six hundred p.s.i. In the Minagish 23 14
reservoir, Burgan crude contains about eighty Bahrah 8 2
times its own volume of dissolved gas. Umm Gudair 35 31
MICHAEL: Eighty times its own volume. Well, Magwa 108 99
that means that one cubic foot of Burgan Raudhatain 58 49
crude can produce about 80 cubic feet of gas at Sabiriyah 51 45
the surface. , Ahmadi 83 78
AHMED: True. About 80 cubic feet of
dissolved gas in every cubic foot of crude in
the reservoir.
MICHAEL: And when you lower the pressure
on the crude, the gas comes out of solution.
AHMED: There are other ways, but that's one
way of separating the gas from the crude, yes.

2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.

a. Why has Ahmed come to Britain? How long
did he work in Texas?
b. Why is it difficult for Ahmed to give a
simple answer to Michael's question? What
exactly is Michael' s question?
c. What's the pressure of Burgan crude at the
wellhead?
d . How much gas does Burgan crude contain?
e. What information is given by a p.s.i.
measurement?
 NATURAL FLOW

Unit 5
of the reservoir rock and out into the bottom of
the well bore.
The flow rate of reservoir crude depends on
Natural Flow bottom-hole pressure, reservoir pressure, rock
permeability, and the viscosity of the oil. The
greatest flow takes place through the zones of
highest permeability, since these zones offer the
Section A
path of lowest resistance into the well. For this
READING COMPREHENSION reason, fractured reservoirs have the highest

•
permeabilities of all. In such reservoirs, most of
Surface
pressure the flow is carried by the cracks and fissures in the
fractured rock .
The flow rate of reservoir gas depends on the
same four factors as the flow rate of reservoir
crude. Natural gas consists of hydrocarbons of the
methane series. which are sometimes known as
'paraffinic' hydrocarbons. These are the lighter
hydrocarbons such as ethane (C,H.) , propane
(C,H,), butane (C4 H IO ), and, of course, methane
itself. At normal temperatures and pressures,
these compounds are always gases.
Natural gas consists mainly of methane. If a
natural gas contains a relatively large quantity of
the other lighter hydrocarbons, it is called a 'wet'
gas. A natural gas is called a 'dry' gas if the quan-
tity of the other lighter hydrocarbons is relatively
small. Some natural gases are absolutely dry; that
is, they consist only of methane.
Well bore - -- - - -- -11-

Production casing - - ---

Methane gas - - - - - -

Hydrocarbon droolets - - - -
in suspension

Read the following passage.

All gas wells and most oil wells are initially Entrained water particles - - -JI-'
flowing wells. Flowing wells can produce
hydrocarbons at the surface by natural means.
The basic production mechanism in naturally
flowing wells is the result of pressure differences.
If the bOllom-hole pressure is lower than the reser-
voir pressure, the oil will move through the pores
NATURAL FLOW

A relatively wet gas rises in the well as a mist. Comprehension

This consists of methane gas with droplets of
Answer the following questions.
other lighter hydrocarbons held in suspension. It
a. The flow rate of a reservoir fluid depends on
may also carry connate water in the form of en-
four factors. What are these factors?
trained water particles. Solution gas from oil wells
b. Why do high flow rates occur in zones of
is usually wet, and is known as 'associated' gas.
high permeability?
c. What is the difference between a wet gas and
Special Words and Expressions a dry gas? (A wet gas contains ... whereas a
dry gas ... )
initially at first; first of all.
d. What is the difference between a solution
mechanism a process or technique which
and a suspension? (In a solution ... whereas
achieves a result.
in a suspension ... )
bottom-hole occuring at the bottom of a well.
e. How is most of the flow carried in a
flow rate the quantity which flows in a certain
fractured reservoir?
time, eg., barrels per day (bpd).
f. In what state is butane at normal
f ractured containing cracks and l or fissures.
temperatures and pressures?
g. How may interstitial water from a gas
reservoir reach the surface?
h. To which hydrocarbon series does natural
gas belong?
i. What is solution gas from oil wells known
as?
j. In naturally flowing wells, what is the
production mechanism the result of?

Now choose from these words to complete the

paragraph below: oil, high, higher, relatively,
considerably, mainly, paraffinic, light,
proportions.
The gas in many fields is ... methane. Small
quantities of the next ... members of the .. .
hydrocarbons occur in it when .,. is present. The
L -__ ~ ________ ~y _______________ ... of these and other ... hydrocarbons rise ...
Fracture when the reservoir is under ... pressure and at a
... high temperature.

fissures See the diagram above.

reiarively comparatively; not absolutely; not
purely or completely .
.molutely purely or completely. In this passage,
' relatively' and 'absolutely' are opposites.
droplets tiny drops; very small liquid particles .
.. suspension hanging in a fluid or a solid, but
Dot dissolved in it.

Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
II ,~.! 1. Listen to the conversation between Mr.
Smith and Mr. Jones
SMITH: Good morning. My name's -
JONES: - Mr. Mason, of course. How do you
do. My name's Jones. Please sit down.
SMITH: Excuse me, Mr. Jones, but 1-
JONES: Take a chair, Mr. Mason. That's
better. Now -
SMITH: - urn, I beg your pardon, Mr. Jones"
1-
JONES: - just a few simple questions, Mr.
Mason. I'm SUfe you won't have any
difficulty. Tell me, Mr. Mason, which is
heavier: oil or water?
SMITH: Vh, water is heavier than oil. I think.
JONES: Quite right, Mr. Mason. So, which is
lighter: water or oil?
SMITH: Oil is, urn, lighter than water. Isn't it?
JONES: It is indeed. Very good. Now which is
the heaviest: oil, water, or gas?
SMITH: Water is the heaviest.
JONES: Excellent. And which is the lightest:
water, gas, or oil?
SMITH: Gas is the lightest.
JONES: Right again, Mr. Mason-
SMITH: - look, Mr. Jones, I really must-
JONES: - now, now, Mr. Mason, we've almost
finished. Where was I? Oh yes. Is it correct to
say that oil is light? I mean, it isn't usually
heavier than water, is it?
SMITH: Well, I suppose it isn't. It's usually
lighter than water.
JONES: But gas is lighter than oil and it's also
lighter than water, correct?
SMITH: Correct.
JONES: But oil is still lighter than water, do
you agree?
SMITH: Yes, I agree.
JONES: So, if we put some water, gas and oil
together, which would be on the bottom,
which would be in the middle, and which
would be on the top?
NATURAL FLOW
SMtTH: The water would be on the bottom, the
oil would be in the middle, and the gas would
be on the top.
JONES: That's fine , Mr. Mason. Now, can you
tell me the difference between porosity and
permeability?
SMITH: Porosity and permeability? Sorry.
JONES: Sorry? Do you mean that yo u are not
able to explain the difference between porosity
and permeability?
SMITH: I'm afraid I'm not, Mr. Jones.
JONES : Then I'm afraid that I must tell you,
Mr. Mason, that I am not able to give you the
job.
SMITH: Job? What job?
JONES : What job? Why, working with Liz,
Michael and Keith on the Petroleum
Programme, of course.
SMITH: Mr. Jones, I really must tell you, my
name is Smith, not Mason.
JONES: You're not Mr. Mason?
SMITH: No, I'm not. And I, urn, haven't come
about a job on the Petroleum Programme,
either.
JONES: Then what have you come about?
SMITH: Actually, I've come about your
daughter.
JONES: My daughter?
SMITH: Yes. You see, we're thinking of getting
married.
JONES: What? Married? But I don't even know
you. I've nev~r seen you before in my life.
SMITH: That's, urn, what I've come to see you
abouLMy name is George Smith, and 1-
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. What mistake has Mr. Jones made?
b. What isn' t Mr. Smith able to do? Why?
c. Who is Mr. Jones waiting for?
d. What has Mr. Smith come about? What does
Mr. Jones think he has come about?
e. Does Mr. Smith know very much about
petroleum? How can you tell?
f. All but one of Mr. Jones's questions are
simple. Why, then, does Mr. Smith reply so
slowly? Why does he hesitate?
NATURAL FLOW

Section C E,ii 2. Passive Voice

STRUCTURE PRACTICE
! ,~,~ 1. Conditionals
This answer is from the tape you've just listened
to:
'The water would be on the bottom, the oil
would be in the middle, and the gas would be on
the top.'
This was the question, also from the tape:
'If we put some water, gas and oil together,
which would be on the bottom, which would be
in the middle, and which would be on the top?'
Example: The well might blowout of control.
(BOP system fail; what happen?)
• If (1)e BOP system failed, what might
bappen?
The well might blowout of control.
Examples: People drilled the famou s Spindletop
well in 1901.
• The famous Spindletop well was drilled in
1901.
People have obtained gas from 21,465 ft. at
Lake Washington, Louisiana.
• Gas has been obtained from 21,465 ft. at
Lake Washington, Louisiana.
Express the ideas below without using the
word 'peopl~'.
a. People designed the first known blowout
preventer in 1882.
b. People have manufactured these new drill
collars using a special heat-treatment process.
c. People introduced the rpller cone bit in 1909 .
Drill pipe

Here are the answers to certain conditional

questions. Use the words in brackets to make
suitable questions. Drill
collars
a. The well couldn't flow. (bottom-hole section
block up with sand; what result be?)
b. I'd operate the manual controls. (BOP's Teeth
automatic system break down; how you
Roller
close the rams?)
c. He'd probably be .the assistant driller. (which Drill
person be in charge; driller leave rig floor?) collars
concentrate
d. I'd multiply its mass by its volume. (you weight
wish find out the density of a substance ;
what operation you perform?)
e. I could ask for an explanation. (you .not
understand your instructions; how you
make sure of them?) Bit

d. People have greatly magnified the rock

section in the diagram.
e. People needed a well-drilling process-control
system in Indonesia last year/... (f) ... so people
constructed a system using a small but
powerful computer.

3. Comparison of Adjectives
'The greatest flow takes place through the zones
of highest permeability, since these zones offer
the path of lowest resistance into the well.'
(Section A)
'Oil is lighter than water.' (from the tape)
Example: Which is (heavy): oil or water?
• Which is heavier: oil or water?
Put the adjectives in brackets below into
suitable forms.
a. For reservoir crude to flow naturally, the
bottom-hole pressure must be (low) the
reservoir pressure.
b. The (difficult) drilling conditions in the
world at present are in the North Sea.
c. The oil-bearing rocks in Nigeria are (young)
most others.
d. Ethane is (light) propane.
e. The (deep) well is now over 30,000 feet.
4. Choose the right words.
a. In a (solution I suspension) the (parts I
pieces I particles) are dissolved in the fluid,
(so I therefore Iwhereas) in a (solution I
suspension) they hang in it.
b. A relatively (dry I wet) gas (rises I raises) in
the well (so I like las) a mist.
c. (Dissolved I Suspension I Solution) gas is
(never lalways lusually) wet, and (is
knowing as I knows as I is known as)
'associated' gas.
d. Flow rate (tells I describes I explains) the
(quality I quantity) (who I which I it) flows
in a certain time, (ie. I eg.), (BOP I bpd).
e. (Relatively I Absolutely) dry gas consists only
(from I of I about) (propane I methane I
butane).
NATURAL FLOW
Section 0
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
~ ~!II 1. Listen to the conversation between Mr.
Jones and Mr. Mason.
JONES: Come in.
MASON: Mr. Jones?
JONES: Yes?
MASON: My name is Mason, Mr. Jones. I've
come about that job on the Petroleum
Programme.
JONES: You're late, Mr. Mason. Very late
indeed. I expected you io come on time.
MASON: I'm very sorry, Mr. Jones. I don't
know London very well, you see, and I, um-
JONES : Never mind. Take a chair. And let' s
just hope you know something about
petroleum.
MASON: Thank you.
JONES: You may not thank me after you've
heard my questions.
MASON: Oh.
JONES: Now then. What comes to the top of a
well together with natural gas?
MASON: Urn, lighter liquid hydrocarbons. And
water.
JONES: How?
MASON: As very tiny drops. They're carried
along in the gas.
JONES: Carried along in the gas? That's not
what an oilman would say. What would an
oilman say, Mr, Mason?
MASON: In suspension, Mr. Jones.
JONES: H'mmm. And what, exactly, are
usually carried in suspension?
MASON: The lighter liquid hydrocarbons.
JONES: And the water? What about the water?
MASON: Urn ... erm ... it's entrained. The
water is usually entrained with the
hydrocarbon gas.
JONES: Is that good or bad?
MASON: Bad.
JONES: Why?
MASON: Because the water has to be separated
from the gas.
 NATURAL FLOW

JONES; And the lighter liquid hydrocarbons? Section E

MASON; They have to be separated too.
JONES; H'mmm. Very well. Thank you, Mr.
Mason .
MASON; Is that all, Mr. Jones?
JONES; That's all for today. I'll send you a
letter.
MASON; Do you think I'll get the job?
JONES; That depends.
MASON; On what?
JONES; It depends on the other people who
come to see me. Lots of people come to see
me. And most of them come on time, too.
MASON; Oh.
JONES; But, urn, tell me. Do you know a man
by the name of George Smith?
MASON; George Smith? No. I'm afraid I
don't.
JONES; Well, that's one good thing anyway.
WRITING PRACTICE
Comparisons & Connectives
Look back at the descriptions of the petroleum
gases in Section A, then study the paragraph
below.
The chemical symbol for propane is C,H"
which means that one molecule of this compound
contains three carbon atoms and eight hydrogen
atoms. Propane is lighter than butane but heavier
than both ethane and methane.
Now write similar paragraphs for ethane,
butane, and methane.

2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.

a. What has Mason come about?
b. Jones expected Mason to come on time. Did
he? Why not? How late was he?
c. Why doesn't Jones think that an oilman
would say 'carried along in the gas'?
d . What about the water? What has to be done
with it at the surface?
e. What does Mason's getting the job depend
on?

Unit 6
Blowout Control
Section A
READING COMPREHENSION
Read the following passage.
Hydrocarbon accumulations are becoming
more and more difficult to find, and oilmen are
drilling deeper and deeper in their search for them.
In Louisiana, for example, there is a gas-
producing formation called the Tuscaloosa Sand,
in which the pay zones are about four miles deep
on average. At that depth, pressures are extremely
high , so there is always the risk of a blowout. A
well which blows out of control is known as a
'gusher' or a 'wild well'.
To prevent a well from blowing out, the mud
KILL LINE
TO KELLY
weight is carefully controlled. By itself, bentonite
. will not make a: mud which is heavier than about
823 grams per liter. The most common material
for weighting a drilling fluid is ground barite
(BaSOJ.
If the bit suddenly enters a high-pressure forma-
tion, the weight of the mud column may not be
great enough to hold back the pressure of the gas,
oil or water in the borehole. Then, there will be a
kick; and if the BOP rams cannot be closed quick-
ly enough, the well will blowout. The flow must
then be brought under control, so that heavy mud
can be pumped to the well through the kill line. In
the case of a gas-well blowout, it may be necessary
first to divert the gas into a flare pit. The gas is set
ablaze in the flare pit in order to prevent an explo-
sion.
Logging the well can provide information which
may help to avoid dangerous situations down
hole. Before the logging tools can be run in, the
hole must be clean. If there are any tight spots, for
example, it may be necessary to make a dummy

\.._"""",. -:-- MUD CROSS

-~~~

KILL LINE

PREVAILING WIND

BLIND RAMS

/,/
DIKES FLARE
PIT
BLOWOUT CONTROL
trip before the drill string is pulled out. In a dum-
my trip, the string is hoisted only a quarter or a
third of the way up; then it is run back to bottom
again. In this way the bottom-hole assembly can
be used to clean up the well and prepare it for log-
ging.
Special Words and Expressions
accumulations quantities which have gathered
together in a certain area. A reservoir is an
underground accumulation of natural
hydrocarbons.
pay zones formations which contain producible
oil and / or gas accumulations.
risk dangerous possibility or factor.
weighting adding weight to ; increasing the
specific gravity of. Specific gravity is the
relation between the density o f a certain
volume of one substance (eg. a crude) and the
density o f the same volume of another
substance (eg . pure water).
ground crushed to a powder.
column the vertical shape of any fluid
accumulation in a well. For 'vertical' see the
diagram below.
to divert to turn from one course or path to
another. When a gas well blows out , the
escaping gas jet is vertical. To get the gas into
a flare pit , the gas must be di verted from the
vertical to the hori zontal at ground level.
is set ablaze is set on fire; is ignited.
VERT ICAL
HORIZONTAL
1t~~~~~~==~~D~I~V~ER~T~E~R~LI~NE --------... TO FLARE
" GROUND LEV EL
logging getting information about rock density,
permeability, angle of the hole, etc. , by using
special downhole instruments or tools. To
make a borehole survey, the hole is logged.
bottom-h ole assembly the tools, instruments,
etc. which are connected to the end of the
string.
Comprehension
Answer the following questions.
a . What must be don e to barite before it can be
used in the mud?
b. The bottom-hole pressure of the mud column
is usually controlled at 150 p.s .i . more than
the formation pressure. For what purpose?
c. Is the specific gravity of the drilling fluid
programmed to be higher or lower than the
specific gravity of the cuttings? Why?
d. If for any reason the mud circulation stops,
the cuttings will be held in suspension . How?
Why?
e. Which particular danger increases with
depth?
f. What is the driller's first protection against a
blowout ? What's his second protection ?
g. One mile is approximately equal to 1.61
kilometers. What is the average depth , in
meters, of the Tuscaloosa Sand?
h. What is the difference between a kick and a
blowout ?
i. What is the difference between a dummy trip
and a round trip?
J. For what reason may gas be ignited in a flare
pit?
Choose from these words to complete the
paragraph below: added, controlled, related ,
weighting, drilling, increasing, particle, column ,
ground .
Pressures .. . to subsurface gas , oil or water
can be ... by ... the specific gravity of the .. .
fluid. This will therefore increase the hydrostatic
head of the driliing fluid .. . A ... material,
usually barite, is . .. to a certain ... size and is ...
to the drilling fluid at the mud tanks.

Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
= 1. Listen to the conversation between
Anthony Parsons and David Slothrop.
PARSONS: This is Anthony Parsons, ladies and
gentlemen, reporting to you from Louisiana
where the great gas gusher of 1977 blew out
two months ago. Everything's under control
now, but perhaps you can hear the work on
the well that 's going on behind me. Now, with
me today, I'm very pleased to have Mr. David
Slothrop of the Can pan Oil Company. How
do you do, Mr. Slothrop.
SLOTHROP: How do you do.
PARSONS: Tell us in your own words, Mr.
Slothrop, just what happened here on that
night two months ago, and what's been
happening since then.
SLOTHROP: Well, on that night back in
August, we drilled into a zone of very great
pressure at 21,345 feet. The gas and steam
blew the BOP stack off, and the well blew out
of control.
PARSONS: What did you do then?
SLOTHROP: For six weeks we had a crew of
blowout experts here, trying to cap the well.
PARSONS: And how did they make out?
SLOTHRO?: They didn't succeed in capping it.
The gas jet was just too strong. They
managed to divert the gas to that open pit
over there, and, urn, they set it ablaze.
PARSONS: What was the reason for setting it
ablaze?
SLOTHROP: To prevent an explosion, until we
could divert the gas into a pipeline. If that gas
had exploded, a lot of people might have been
killed. That's one reason why blowouts are so
dangerous.
PARSONS: And what happened after that?
What happened then?
SLOTHRor: We managed to get the gas into a
pipeline, but it was flowing at 140 million
cubic feet a day. Then we had to control the
rate of flow.
BLOWOUT CONTROL
PARSONS: Why didn't your company just shut
it off?
SLOTHROP: Because of the pressure. If we had
tried to shut the gas off, it would have blown
the control equipment out of the hole.
P ARSONS: SO what did you do?
SLOTHROP: We killed the well with drilling
fluid. And when the flow of gas had been
stopped , we were able to fix the proper
control equipment to the wellhead.
PARSONS: And what have you been doing since
you brought the well under control?
SLOTHROr: We've been getting ready to go on
stream.
PARSONS: And when do you think that will be?
SLOTHRor: Around four months from now,
maybe.
PARSONS: And how much gas will the well
produce when it goes on stream?
SLOTHROP: Oh, about 20 million cubic feet a
day.
2. Answer these questions based on the tape .
a. Why didn't Mr. Slothrop's company just
shut the well off?
b. What blew off? What blew out?
c. What was the flow rate during the time that
the well was wild? What will the flow rate be
when the well goes on stream?
d. What are Mr. Slothrop's men doing now?
How long have they been doing it? When
exactly did they start?
e. How did the blowout experts make out?
How long did they try?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
I ,= ,I[ 1. Conditionals & Past Perfect Tense
Notice this sentence from the tape.
'If we had tried to shut the gas off, it would
have blown the control equipment out of the
hole.'
Example: (If / mud / be heavier) , the well
mightn't have blown out.
BLOWOUT CONTROL
• If the mud had been heavier, the well
mightn't have blown out.
Do the following in the same way.
a. (If / George / ask for permission to smoke),
Barry wouldn't have been so angry.
b. (If / the crew / make up the tools sooner),
the company mightn't have lost so much rig
time.
c. They could have avoided the problem, (if /
they follow the drilling superintendent's
instructions).
d. The gas might easily have exploded (if / they
not divert it and set it ablaze).
e. The well would not have blown out like that
(if / they set up the BOP system properly) .
Now answer these questions about the exercise
you've just done.
a. From the first sentence above, do you think
that George did or did not actually ask for
permission to smoke?
b. From the second sentence, did the company
actually lose rig time? Did the crew make up
the tools sooner?
c. From the third sentence, were the
superintendent's instructions followed? Was
the problem actually avoided?
d. Did they divert the gas and set it ablaze? Did
the gas explode?
e. Did they set up the preventer system
properly? Did the well blowout?
2. Too + adjective/adverb
In the examples, notice that the structure
too + adj / adv always carries a negative meaning
or idea.
Examples: The gas jet was so strong that we
couldn' t shut it off.
• The gas jet was too strong for us to turn it
off.
The fluid was so viscous that it wouldn' t pour.
• The fluid was too viscous to pour.
Re-write the following using too + adjective /
adverb.
a. The reservoir pressure was so low that the oil
wouldn't flow naturally.
0
b. The fish was stuck in the hole so tightly that
we couldn't get it out.
c. He speaks so quickly that I can't understand
a word.
d. The mud is so light that it won ' t hold the
cuttings in suspension.
e. The flare pit is so close to the rig that it isn' t
safe.
3. Adjective/ adverb + enough
The weight of the mud column may not be great
enough .. . (Section A)
If the BOP rams cannot be closed quickly
enough ... (Section A)
Example: That tool is too hot to handle. (not
cool enough)
• That tool isn't cool enough to handle.
Re-write the following in the same way.
a. The table's turning too slowly. (not fast
enough)
b. The work wasn't too difficult. (easy enough)
c. The hole's too tight. (not loose enough)
d. You're not too short for the job. (tall
enough)
e. The mud' s too light to hold the cuttings . (not
heavy enough)
4. Passive Voice & Past Perfect
Do you remember this sentence from the tape?
'When the flow of gas had been stopped, we
were able to fix the proper control equipment to
the wellhead .'
Explanation: First, the flow of gas was stopped .
When that had been done, we were able to fix
the proper control equipment to the wellhead.
Example: First, somebody started up the mud
circulation. After that had been done, the table
was turned again.
• After the mud circulation had been started
up, the table was turned again.
Now join the following pairs of sentences .
a. First, somebody took the pressure, volume
and temperature readings . When that had
been done, the pumps were switched on .
b. First, people prepared the well for
production . When that had been done , it was
brought on stream .

c. First, people made up the connection. After
that had been done, the string was run in
again.
d. First, somebody surveyed the borehole.
When that had been dorie, drilling was
continued normally.
e. First, people carried out aerial and seismic
surveys of the whole area. After that had
been done , a suitable weBsite was chosen.
5. Choose the right words.
a. When a gas well blows (off ! out), the
escaping gas (column ! jet) is (vertical !
horizontal).
b. Specific gravity is the (related! relatively!
relation) between the (weight ! density !
mass) of a (special ! certain) volume of one
substance and the (weight ! density ! mass)
of (one ! other ! another) substance.
c. (Weighting! Ground) materials are
(weighted ! ground) to a certain particle size
and are (adding ! added ! in addition) to the
mud at the tanks.
d. Bentonite (with ! from ! by) (itself ! himself)
will not make a mud which is heavier than
(803 ! 823 ! 832) grams per liter.
e. They (got ! had got ! have been getting)
ready to go on stream since the well
(brought ! was brought ! is brought) under
control.
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
l.cal· 1. Listen to the conversation between
Barry, Bob and Peter.
BARRY: ' Okay, Bob. I think we can start now.
BOB: Everything set, Barry?
BARRY: We' re ready to go. We' re at logging
depth, and Peter here says the mud's in shape.
PETER: Yup. The mud' s in real good shape.
BOB: Great. But what about those tight spots
we saw on the last trip?
BARRY: Urn , make a dummy trip through
them , Bob.
BLOWOUT CONTROL
PETER: I think that would be a good idea. And
when you get back to bottom, Bob, I'd like to
see you circulate a couple of hours to clean
the hole.
BARRY: All right then, Bob? Dummy trip, and
circulate a couple of hours . Then pull out.
BOB: Okay, Barry. Tell the logging crew we' ll
be ready about three o'clock.
BARRY: Three o'clock. Right. I'll let them
know.
PETER: See you when the hole's clean, Bob.
BOB: See you later, Peter.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. Who is the mud engineer? Who's the
toolpush. Who's the driller? In each case,
how can you tell?
b. What about those tight spot s? What does
Barry want Bob to do about them?
c. Peter would like to see Bob circulate a
couple of hours. How can this help to clean
the hole?
d. Choose the right expression: The mud's in
real good shape means (i) The vertical shape
of the mud column is correct (ii) The
condition of the mud is very satisfactory (iii)
The drilling fluid is in its proper position.
e. Choose the right expression: We 're ready (0
go means (i) Everything is set for logging (ii)
It' s time for us to leave (iii) We're preparing
to go off shift.
Section E
WRITING PRACTICE
Notice how this short paragraph about the
Wilson Number Four well has been built up
from the information in the table.
The producing . zone of the Wilson Number
Four well is at a depth of fi ve thousand, three
hundred and thirty-two feet. Fifteen days of rig
time were required to reach the well's total depth
of five thousand , five hundred and fifteen feet. For
BLOWOUT CONTROL

future wells, it has been estimated that fourteen

days of rig time will be required.

PRODUCING DAYS FUTURE

WELL TD
ZONE ToTD ESTIMATE

Wilson NO.4 5332' 5515' 15 14

Kay No.2 3350' 4510' 8 same
Bernie No.1 8310' 8988' 22 20
Boyt No.3 4477' 4495' 12 11
Irvine No.4 11,072 ' 12,278' 40 37
White No.1 6300' 6600' 26 24

Write similar paragraphs for the other wells in

the table.
Unit 7
Solution-gas drive

Drives &
Stimulation
Section A
READING COMPREHENSION
Christmas tree

Gas-cap drive

Water drive

Read the following passage.

The only visible part of a flowing well is the

Christmas tree, which is the assembly of valves
and chokes at the production wellhead. The tree
controls the rate of flow to the surface and directs
the oil into flow lines. Via these flow lines, the oil
is directed into storage tanks or into gathering
lines. Some Christmas trees have separate valves The forces that push reservoir fluids upwards to
bolted together, some have all the valves let into the tree are called 'drives'. These natural produc-
one block of steel (called 'solid block' trees), and tion mechanisms are relative to the three sources
others have a combination of the two. of potential energy in the reservoir. As we have
DRIVES & STIMULATION
already seen, these sources of energy are the three
pressurized reservoir fluids: gas, oil, and water .
When the well has been opened to the surface,
there is a pressure drop in the vicinity of the well
bore . This means, in the case of solution-gas
drive, that gas which is dissolved in the oil begins
to come out of solution and to expand. As the gas
does so, it displaces the surrounding oil horizon-
tally into the well. In the case of gas-cap drive,
the expansion of the free gas displaces the oil
downwards into the well . In water drive, the ex-
pansion of the aquifer water sweeps the oil out of
the rock pores and upwards into the well.
After a well has come on stream , the production
rate may not be high enough. A common cause of
this is low permeability of the reservoir. To raise
the production rate, the well will have to be
stimulated. There are many ways of stimulating a
well, but the main ones are hydraulic fracturing
and acidization.
Hydraulic fracturing is a method of breaking
. _~*_-- Fracturing fluid
Tubing ---lI---~_
Mud - - -_ _4k~
Casing - - _-II
PAY ZONE .
Propping agents hold fissures open
open cracks and fissures in the pay zone around
the borehole. The fracturing fluid, usually a gel, is
squeezed to the formation under a pressure which
is high enough to break the formation down.
When the pressure is released, however, the cracks
must be kept open. For this reason, propping
agents are carried in the gel and are left behind to
hold open the cracks and fissures. The most com-
mon propping agents are rounded sand grains,
glass beads , and walnut shells.
A cidization can be used to stimulate reservoir
rock which is soluble in acid. By dissolving the
formation, the acid opens up and enlarges fissures
in the rock around the borehole. In order to
stimulate reservoirs consisting of limestone and
dolomite, hydrochloric acid (Hel) is generally
used. Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is used to stimulate
certain kinds of sandstone reservoirs . It is also
used to clean up pore spaces which have been
blocked by drilling-fluid clay .
A'rOllD;"D i3gents
Glass beads
98 0
0-0 0
° 0
Packer
Walnut

Special Words and Expressions
visible capable of being seen.
valves A valve is a device which stops, starts, or
regulates flow.
chokes A choke is a device which controls flow
pressure.
via along the path of; by way of.
bolted together fastened together by means of
bolts.
Bolts
potential energy the energy that a body has
because of its position or the arrangement of
its parts.
in the vicinity of in the area or region of; near
to.
to expand to increase in volume . Metals expand
when they are heated. The opposite of
'expand' is 'contract'.
displaces takes the place of; pushes out of place .
stimulated To stimulate something is to make its
activity greater.
hydraulic operated or effected by means of a
liquid.
gel a very heavy liquid suspension.
is squeezed to is forced into; is compressed into.
propping agents materials which keep open, or
prop up, cracks and fissures in reservoir rock.
is soluble in can be dissolved in.
acid a water-soluble coinpound which can react
with a base to form a salt containing
hydrogen. Acids turn litmus paper red; bases
turn litmus paper blue.
Comprehension
a. By what route is oil directed into storage
tanks?
b. Define a solid-block tree.
c. How can a liquid be tested to find out
DRIVES & STIMULATION
whether it's an acid or a base? (By . .. )
d. Name three substances that are water-
soluble.
e. If the drive mechanism in a reservoir comes
from the water zone, what is the water zone
called? How does it operate?
f. What is a combination tree made up of?
(Some valves .. . , and others .. . )
g. 'As the gas does so .. .' (Section A) As the
gas does what?
h. What is the difference between hydraulic
fracturing and acidization?
i. What are the two uses of hydrofluoric acid
in well stimulation?
j. If propping agents aren't used in the
fracturing gel, what will happen to the
fissures in the vicinity of the borehole?
True or False?
Say whether the following are true or false.
Correct the false ones.
a . The chemical symbol for hydrochloric acid is
H,SO,.
b. Natural drive mechanisms depend on
reservoir fluids.
c. In a common garden hose, the device at the
business end is a valve.
d. HCl is rarely used to stimulate dolomite
reservoirs.
e. Archimedes' Principle states that the upward
force on a body in a liquid is equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced.
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
1 := \11 1. Listen to the conversation between
Fred, Dave and Steve.
FRED: Right, then. Let' s just go over the three
diagrams again - and be SUfe we're clear
about what these different traps indicate.
DAVE: In relation to drive, Fred?
FRED: Yeah, but, urn, tie them in a little with
recovery, too.
DRIVES & STIMULATION

DAVE: Okay. Go ahead, Fred. a. Barite which has been ground is commonly
FRED: We'll take this one first. Steve? used to weight drilling muds.
STEVE: Water drive. Good recovery, but the b. Pore spaces that are blocked can be cleaned
usual problems with entrained water. up by acidization.
FRED: Right. And this one, Dave? c. Gas which is dissolved in reservoir crude can '
DAVE: Dissolved-gas drive. Fairly slow be an important production mechanism.
recovery. d. Items of equipment that have been lost in the
FRED: Thanks Dave. Now what about this hole must be fished out.
third one. Steve? e. Reservoirs which are fractured have the
STEVE: Just a second. It's a bit difficult to see. highest permeabilities.
Sure. Gas-cap drive.
FRED: And recovery? Dave.? 2. Nouns from Verbs
DAVE: The free gas cap here is a large one, so stimulate stimulation
recovery would probably be very high. recover recovery
FRED: Good. Tomorrow we can have .another displace displacement
look at- Now put the verbs in brackets into their noun
STEVE: - Christmas trees, Fred? forms.
FRED: Right again, Steve. a. (Produce) rates can be increased by
DAVE: Subsea or surface? (stimulate).
FRED: Both, Dave. b. Gases can be converted to liquids by
(pressurize).
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape. c. The (expand) of free gas displaces the oil
a. What are the three men studying? What is downwards.
Fred asking for? What job do you think d. Some trees are a (combine) of valves bolted
Fred does? together and ones let into a solid block of
b. Choose the right expression: Tie them in with steel.
recovery means (i) Join them to recovery (ii) e. (Acidize) is used to enlarge the fissures in the
Relate them to recovery (iii) Point to the rock around the borehole.
diagrams about recovery. f. The diagram shows the (distribute) of water
c. Which two types of trees does Dave and hydrocarbons in a typical trap.
mention? Where is each type used? g. The (magnify) of the sample in this picture is
d. What expression is used instead of 'solution- x20.
gas drive'? h. Viscosity describes the (resist) 'of a fluid to
e. Why does Steve hesitate over the third flow.
diagram? i. On page 39 there is a (describe) of hydraulic
fracturing.
J. Hydrocarbon (accumulate) are found only' in
Section C porous or fractured (form).
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
3. Phrasal Verbs
, ,~ II 1. Adjectives from the Passive stand back
Example: Sand grains which have been rounded blowout
are a common propping agent. make up of
• Rounded sand grains are a common Stands are stood back on the rig floor. (Unit 2)
. propping agent. The well blew out on that night back in August.
Do the following in the same way. (Unit 6)

The string is made up of a number of singles.
(Unit I)
Cheese frem these phrasal verbs to. cemplete
the sentences belew: latch en to. , go. ever , find
out, wear out, clean UP. run back in.
a. The bettem-hele assembly can be used ... the
well.
b. The bit ... so. it was changed.
c. After they had changed the bit, they ...
again.
d. Quick, ... these cellars!
e. If yeu want ... what gees where, ask the
superintendent.
f. Let's just ... the three diagrams ence mere.
4. By + Gerund
Netice that this structure can be used to.
describe how er by what method something can
be dene.
'By dissolving the fermatien, the acid epens up
and enlarges fissures in the rock areund the
berehele.' (Sectien AI)
Example: Hew can a liquid be tested to. find Qut
whether it's an acid er a base? (wet)
• By wetting a piece ef litmus paper in it.
Answer these questiens using the structure
by + gerund.
a. Hew can a delemite reserveir be stimulated?
(pump)
b. By what methed weuld yeu try to recever a
lest roller cene? (latch en to.)
c. Hew de walnut shells help to. stimulate flew?
(prep up)
d. By what methed are berehele surveys made?
(leg)
e. Hew is selutien gas first treated? (separate)
f. Hew can the specific gravity ef a drilling
fluid be increased? (weight)
g. In the case ef a gas-well bleweut, hew can
an explesien be prevented? (divert/and set
ablaze)
h. Hew is square measurement calculated?
(multiply)
i. By what methed are ceres taken? (run)
j. Hew de the drawwerks retate the bit? (turn)
DRIVES & STIMULATION
5. Adverbs ef Degree
'At that depth , pressures are extremely high ... .'
(Unit 6)
'The sectien ... has been greatly magnified.'
(Unit 4)
Leek back at Exercise 3, page 24; then de the
exercise below.
a. Reserveir permeabilities differ. (censiderably
er slightly?)
b. Hydraulic-fracturing pressures are high. (net
very er extremely?)
c. Seme natural gases are dry; that is , they
censist enly of methane. (relatively er
abselutely?)
d. The rams must be clesed to. prevent the well
from blewing eut. (tee quickly er quickly
eneugh?)
e. In disselved-gas drive, recevery is slew.
(extremely or fairly?)
6. Cheese the right words.
a. (In case ef / In the case ef) selutien-gas
drive, gas which is disselved in the eil
(centracts / expands) and so. (brushes /
sweeps) the eil tewards the well.
b. Trees which have all (there / their / they're)
valves let (in / to. / into.) a single bleck ef
steel are called (bleck selid trees / selid
bleck trees / trees selid bleck).
c. Petential energy is the energy that a
(bedy/mass) has because ef (it's / its)
(place / pesitien) er the arrangement ef
.(it's / its) (parts / pieces / items).
d. A fracturing fluid is a (glue / gel) which is
squeezed to. a fermatien (under / with / by)
a pressure (lew eneugh / high eneugh / tee
high) to. break the fermatien (dewn / up /
eut).
e. When a well (came / has ceme) en (stream /
flew / productien), the preductien rate (will
net be / may net be / cannet be) high
eneugh, and it will (So. / therefere) (must
be / have to be) stimulated by fracturing er
acidization.
DRIVES & STIMULATION
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
Overburden
RESERVOIR
KEl 1. Listen to the discussion between Mr.
Armstrong and his students.
ARMSTRONG: And that, gentlemen, is all I
have to say today on hydraulic fracturing.
Any questions? Yes?
VOICE I : What is the hydrofraccing pressure in
relation to overburden pressure?
ARMSTRONG: It varies from field to field, of
course, as I've indicated. But it's usually, oh,
between 65 and 85 per cent of the overburden
pressure.
VOICE I: Thank you, Mr. Armstrong.
ARMSTRONG: Any other questions? One over
there?
VOICE 2: Yes. You've, urn, mentioned
propping agents such as sand, glass beads and
walnut shells. I was just wondering which are
used where.
ARMSTRONG: That depends entirely on the
nature of the formation. I'll be discussing that
in a later lecture. Okay?
VOICE 2: Sure, fine. Thanks.
ARMSTRONG: Now, then. Anything else?
VOICE 3: Yes. Next week's lecture?
ARMSTRONG: I was just coming to that.
Acidization, gentlemen. And on that exciting
thought, thank you for your attention.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a . Where is this discussiun taking place? How
can you tell? .
b. What answer does Mr. Armstrong give to the
question 'Which are used where?'?
c. Which other word is used for 'hydraulic
fracturing'? How do you think the word is
written?
d. What is meant by 'overburden pressure'?
What is the relation of fracturing pressure to
overburden pressure?
e. To what degree does the choice of propping
agent depend on the nature of the
formation?
f. When does Armstrong intend to discuss
acidization?
g. When will he be discussing propping agents?
Section E
WRITING PRACTICE
Study this description of the fireboat Forties
Kiwi; then write similar paragraphs for the other
fireboats in the table.
The fireboat Forties Kiwi, operated by BP, has
been assigned to the Forties field. The boat will be
working routinely on maintenance, storage, and
accommodation. In case of fire, the Forties Kiwi
will be capable of delivering fifteen thousand
gallons of water per minute.
OPERATOR FIREBOAT NAME GAL/MIN AREA ROUTINE USE

BP Forties Kiwi 15,000 Forties maintenance/

storage/
accommodation
Elf Rig Chief 10,000 Frigg stand-by/ supply
Shell Capalonga 30,000 Brent maintenance/
inspection/
diving support
Phillips Seaway Falcon 30,000 Ekofisk maintenance/
inspection/
work support
Conoco Star P egasus 20,000 Viking maintenance/
inspection/
stand-by/ diving
support
DIRECTIONAL WEllS
Unit 8
Directional Wells
Section A
READING COMPREHENSION
Read the following passage.
It is often undesirable or impossible to drill
all of a hole vertically to TD. For environmental
reasons, for example, it may be necessary to spud
in a well some distance away from the target, as in
the diagram above. A borehole such as this is drill-
ed straight down to a certain depth and is then
deviated away from the vertical in the direction of
the target. . single location.
Cement PlUg}
Fish
Deviated
hole
A well may also have to be deviated if its direct
vertical progress is blocked; eg., by a fish which
cannot be recovered. In a case such as this, the fish
will first be cemented over. Then, by directional
drilling, the fish will be sidetracked and the new
section of hole will be continued parallel to the
original. At the kick-off point, the hole which is
drilled through the casing is referred to as the
'window'.
Production platform
Directional wells
Flow
lines
Directional drilling is essential in deep offshore
operations such as those in the North Sea. If each
well in an offshore field had its own production
platform, the oil andlor gas would be much too
expensive to produce commercially. In 1979, the
total cost of one production platform was about
two hundred million pounds sterling. The cost of
draining a whole offshore field can run into
billions of pounds. By means of directional drill-
ing, twenty-five or thirty wells can be sunk from a
 DIRECTIONAL WEllS

Mud stream

rig

Turbodrill ~-------- Topsub

:t:====- Rotors

SLEEVE
JOINT

Bit
BALL
JOINT

-DiE,m,md drill bit

When kicking off, the bottom-hole assembly

usually consists of a turbodrill and a bent sub. The
angle is carefully built up by about IOta 2 for 0

every 100· metres of hole. During build-up, to

Offshore rigs are of two general types: fixed and
floating. On fixed rigs, in fairly shallow water, the
rig floor is connected to the hole by a rigid con-
ductor pipe. On floating rigs, in relatively deep
water, the rig floor and the hole are connected by
a flexible riser pipe.
make sure that the angle and direction are correct,
the hole is regularly surveyed. An inclinometer
and a camera are run in, through the drill pipe, to
take the required measurements and recordings.
For this reason, the collars above the bent sub are
non-magnetic. The s~rvey tools are run on a wire
line.
DIRECTIONAL WELLS
Special Words and Expressions
undesirable not what is wanted; not desirable .
environmental concerning all of the
surroundings (land, sea, and air) and the
animals that live in them . OUf environment,
generally speaking, is the world we live in.
to spud in to drill the first few feet of a new
hole.
is then deviated is then moved from the original
course or path .
directional drilling controlled drilling at an angle
from the vertical.
will be sidetracked will be by-passed; will be
drilled around instead of through .
parallel Parallel lines extend in the same
direction, are always the same distance from
each other, and do not meet.
kick-off point the point at which a directional
well is started or, as oilmen say, is 'kicked
off' .
is referred to as is known as; is called.
essential absolutely necessary.
commercially so that it can be sold at a profit.
draining recovering as much as possible of the
oil.
billions Oilmen have agreed that 'billion' will
have the American meaning; ie., 109 .
rigid not being able to bend easily. The opposite
of 'rigid' is 'flexible'.
inclinometer A driller's inclinometer tells him
the angle of the hole and the direction in
which the hole is heading.
non-magnetic not behaving like a magnet.
Bar magnet
Field of
magnetic force
Comprehension
a. Why are risers flexible?
b. A hole is built up at 1\I, degrees for every
100 meters of hole. What is the angle of the
hole at 1200 meters from kick-off?
c. Give three environmental reasons for
deviating a hole .
d. 105 is read as ten to the fifth or ten to the
power of five. Read the following and say
what number each refers to: 10 6 , 10" 10',
109 , 10 10 , 10".
e. When downhole instruments are run, why
must the drill collars be non-magnetic?
f. Why doesn' t each deep offshore well have its
own production platform?
g. Drilling crews have to know how to take
compass readings . Why?
h . What is the difference between a sleeve joint
and a ball joint?
i. During turbodrilling, the string doesn't
usually turn. Why not?
j. Explain why it is essential for oilmen to
agree on the meaning of the word ' billion' .
Choose from these words to complete the
paragraph below : horizontally, vertically, busy,
technique, location, depth, offshore , develop,
conditions , relativel y, required , desirable, target,
various.
For ... reasons, it is not always possible to
drill ... into an oil or a gas reservoir. The .. .
bottom of the hole may be directly under a
town , just off a popular beach, or under a .. .
lake or river. In order to drill wells under these
... , directional drilling is needed . Using this ... ,
it is possible to direct the hole into a ... small .. .
up to 7000 ft. away .. . at a ... of 10,000 ft. This
method is also used to ... a field from an ...
multi-well platform, where it is ... to drill
several wells from one ....
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
II ,= ~ 1. Listen to the conversation between
Keith Washington and Mr. Williams.
GIRL: Good afternoon. Petroleum Information
Service.
KEITH: Good afternoon. My name's Keith
Washington. I'm-
GIRL: Would you mind spelling that, please?
KEITH: Certainly. (Spells) W-a-s-h-i-n-g-t-o-n.
GIRL: Can I help you, Mr. Washington?
KEITH: Thank you, yes. I'm calling from the
BBe. We're preparing a broadcast on
offshore drilling -
GIRL: - offshore drilling? I'll put you through
to Mr. Williams. I'm sure he'll be able to help
you.
KEITH: Thank you.
GIRL: One moment, please.
WILLIAMS: Williams here.
GIRL: I have a call for you, Mr. Williams,
from a Mr. Keith Washington, from the BBC.
He'd like some information about offshore
drilling.
WILLIAMS: Thank you. Put Mr. Washington
through, please .
GIRL: You're through to Mr. Williams now .
Go ahead , please.
KEITH: Mr. Williams?
WILLIAMS: Hello, Mr. Washington. Can I help
you? I understand you're preparing something
on offshore drilling.
KEITH: We 'are, yes. In fact we're almost
ready. I'd just like to make sure that our
information is correct.
WILLIAMS: What would you like to know?
KEITH: First of all, Mr. Williams, urn, about
conductor pipes and riser pipes with offshore
rigs.
WILLIAMS: Yes?
KEITH: Would we be right in saying that a
conductor pipe connects a borehole to a fixed
rig, and that a riser pipe connects a borehole
to a floating rig?
WILLIAMS: That's right, Mr. Washington.
Conductor pipes to fixed rigs, and riser pipes
to floating rigs.
KEITH: And would we be right in saying that
the wellhead and BOP stack are connected to
the top of the conductor pipe? That they're
above the water, and just below the platform?
WILLIAMS: That's the idea, Mr. Washington.
KEITH: But when a hole is drilled from a
floating platform, the wellhead and BOP
stack are down on the sea bed. Is that it?
WILLIAMS: Correct, Mr. Washington.
KEITH: And so basically, then, the only
difference between drilling a hole onshore and
drilling a hole offshore is, urn, the method of
connecting the well to the rig.
WILLIAMS: Basically, yes. The difference is in
the way that the well and the rig are
connected.
KEITH : Thank you very much, Mr. Williams,
you've been a great help.
WILLIAMS: My pleasure, Mr. Washington .
Please call anytime.
KEITH: Thank you. Good afternoon, Mr.
Williams.
WILLIAMS: Good afternoon.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. Would we be right in saying that a conductor
pipe connects a borehole to a floating rig,
whereas a riser connects a borehole to a fixed
rig? If not, why not?
b. Would we be right in saying that the
wellhead and BOP stack are connected to the
top of the riser? If not , why not?
c. What's the basic difference between drilling a
well onshore and drilling one offshore?
d. Choose the right expression: Put Mr.
Washington through means (i) Show him
how to get here (ii) Connect his call to my
phone (iii) Tell him to come through.
e. What is the BBC preparing? What isn ' t Keith
sure about?
 DIRECTIONAL WEllS
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
1. Passive Voice
... the fish will first be cemented over.'
(Section A)
'Then, by directional drilling, the fish will be
sidetracked and the new section of hole will be
i(ontinued parallel to the original.' (Section A)
In the paragraph below, put the verbs in
brackets into the same passive form .
Spudding in
Usually the hole (spud in) with a 24-inch diameter
rock bit. First, the mud pumps (start up) and the
table (rotate). Next, the bit (lower) by the driller to
me bottom of the conductor pipe and drilling
(start). Downward progress (make) until the top
of the kelly has reached the table . Then the pumps
(stop) and the bit (pull out). When that has been
done, a drill collar (connect) into the bottom of
the kelly and the tool-box joint of the bit.
2. Prefixes
submersible semi-submersible
write rewrite
So far in this book, we have also used these
prefixes: im-, non- , mu/ti-, dis-, under-, un-,
hydro-.
Add suitable prefixes to the following words
1O complete the sentences below: possible,
electric, magnetic, porous, well, place,
permeable, screw, ground.
a . It is ... to take clear pictures .. . without
using ... drill collars.
b. After the bit has been ... , the first drill collar
can be connected.
c. Cap rock must be ... and .. . to reservoir
fluids.
d. Offshore ... platforms can make deepwater
fields commercial.
e. .. . power is energy which is generated from
the movement of water.
f. The expansion of dissolved gas, in solution-
gas drive, ... reservoir oil into the well bore.
What two meanings can the prefix hydro- have?
Explain what the following mean: microfossil,
microporous rock, multidirectional joint, subsea
tree, non-return valve.
3. Choose the right words.
a . Deviated wells are (desirable / essential) in
(deep / shallow) offshore operations .
b. (In a case / In case / In case of) such (so /
like / as) this, the fish will (first / then /
next) be cemented over.
c. Oilmen have agreed that (' million' / 'billion')
will have the (American / British) meaning;
(eg. / etc. / ie.), 10' .
d. A borehole such as this is (drilled /
directed / deviated) straight down to a
(certain / special) (deep / depth) and is
(first / next / then) (diverted / deviated)
away from the (horizontal / vertical) in the
direction of the (aim / goal / target) .
e. The (necessary / desirable / required) bottom
of the hole (will / can / may) be directed
under a busy or protected area.
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
I,=J 1. Listen to the conversation between
Alec and Jim.
VOICE: Tour change. Tour change.
ALEC: Tour change. Thank God for that.
JIM: Yeah , I'm tired . Really tired.
ALEC: Me too.
JIM: Come on, Alec. Let's get something to
eat.
ALEC: Aye, good idea, Jim. I could eat a
horse.
JIM: Right. And then a nice hot shower, and
bed , and sleep.
ALEC: Great. Eat, wash, and sweet dreams.
(They leave the derrick)
JIM: That chicken was great.
ALEC: And I thought I was hungry. You ate
two chickens .
JIM: Shut up, Alec. I want to get some sleep.
ALEC: Do you think that this tour will kick
off?
JIM: No way. They're not even ready to
wireline yet.
ALEC: So it will be kick-off on our tour, then.
JIM: Yeah . Now let me get some sleep.
ALEC: Sweet dreams, Jim.
JIM: Shut up, Alec.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. What job do you think Alec and Jim do?
What makes you think so?
b. Drilling crews often use another word for
'shift'. What's the word they use?
c. What did Alec say he could eat? What did he
actually eat?
d. What does Jim want to do before he goes to
bed?
e. How will the survey instruments be run in?
f. Choose the right expression : No way means
(i) Certainly not (ii) In any direction (iii) Be
quiet.
g. Are Akc and Jim good friends? How can
you tell?
h. Jim twice tells Alec to shut up. What's the
reason the first time? The second time?
Section E
WRITING PRACTICE
When you have studied the following paragraph ,
use the table to write similar paragraphs about
the other offshore rigs .
The jack-up rig Scarabeo 2, operated by Agip
imd located off Italy, is presently drilling the Nada
I well. The hole, which lies at a depth of forty
metres, was spudded in on September 7th, 1978.

OPERATOR RtG TYPE LOCATION HOLE SPUD DATE DEPTH

Agip Scarabeo 2 JU Italy Nada 1 7.9.78 40m

NAM Britannia JU North Sea L2/ 6 12.11.78 43m
Shell Penrod 70 SS Tunisia Hopeful 3.12.78 360m
Elf Petrel DS North Sea Brest 8. 10.78 115m
Mobil Discoverer DS Egypt Timsah 1.1. 79 206m
Chevron Dolphin SS Spain Blanco 20.4.78 133m
 JOBS ON THE RIG

Unit 9
Having worked for a time as a roustabout, a
man might be ready for the job of roughneck.

Jobs on the Rig

Section A
READING COMPREHENSION
Read the following passage.
Drilling is one of those jobs where a man has to
work his way up. Even if a man has a university or
a polytechnic education, most oil companies will
want him to get rig experience by working on the
floor with the rotary crew for a certain period . A
boll weevil, even if he is well-educated , can be a
highly dangerous person around the rotary table .
He may be a danger to himself (by breaking a leg
in the mousehole, for example) , and he may be a
hazard to the other members of the crew. What
might happen, for instance, if he opened the
wrong valve or misunderstood an urgent instruc-
lion?
On some rigs, the first step up the ladder is the
job of roustabout. A roustabout does semi-skilled
labour such as scraping rust, hosing down, pain-
ting, carrying cans of dope, unloading materials
and supplies'- etc.
Among a roughneck's duties are such things as
operating the cathead, handling the slips and
tongs, standing pipe back in the derrick, assisting
in mixing the slush, and so on. Like a roustabout,
a roughneck may have to be told what to do . In
general, though, roughnecks know their job well
enough to get on with it for the minimum number
of spoken instructions. It' s noisy around the kelly
bushing, and events frequently take place too fast
for verbal orders to be given . Much of the time,
roughnecks are expected to know automatically
what must be done.
Box Cables Elevator
222
Thribble
4 Hinged doors
Pin
Hook
Fourble

Next , between the positions of roughneck and

Wire line driller, is the job of derrickman. The derrickman
works from about 60 ft. to 90 ft. above the rig
floor, near the top of the derrick, where he at-
taches or detaches the elevators when pipe or cas-
Hinged
ing is run into or pulled out of the hole. The height
J aw at which he works depends on the length of the
Teeth
Slip s (hold pipe or casing in rotary sections of pipe, casing or tubing that have to be
table when connecting or
disconnecting joints)
handled. These may be in doubles, thribbles , or
fourbles. The derrickman also cleans, oils,
Hinged Jaw
greases, inspects and repairs the pulley blocks and
cables which are used to raise and lower sections
of pipe and casing. When he isn't busy on his plat-
-------1\(i~L i ., form up in the derrick, the derrickman usually has
""",r-= ... ,
Latch

special responsibility for the slush pumps and

up or breaking out ) tanks.
 JOBS ON THE RIG

Rigs operate around the clock. The period from dope special grease for pipe threads; ie. , viscous
8 a .m. to 4 p .m. is the daylight tour, 4 p .m. to 12 oily substance used to lubricate (to make
midnight is the afternoon tour, and 12 midnight to smooth or slippery) the threads of tool joints,
8 a.m. is referred to as 'the graveyard tour' . Off- casing. etc.
shore crews usually work twelve-hour tours. slush This is another word for 'mud'.
minimum the least quantity. The opposite of
'minimum' is 'maximum ' .
Special Words and Expressions
kelly bushing the part of the drive assembly
boll weevil a rig worker or an oilfield worker which transmits motion to the kelly and
without experience. Inexperienced workers are permits the kelly to move vertically while it is
also described as 'green'. rotating or still. All vertical measurements on
mousehole a shallow cased hole close to the the rig are taken from the RKB (rotary kelly
rotary table. When making up a string, each bushing).
single is stood here so that it can be connected verbal spoken.
quickly and easily to the kelly. tubing small-gauge pipe, usually of outside
diameter (00) 2% in. to 2Ys in., also called
I 'macaroni'. Narrower-gauge tubing is called
I
I 'spaghetti' .
\ I
I
I
I , Comprehension
\ \ Single lowered
• I ': ;nto mousehole
a. Which is closer to the RKB, the rathole or
the mousehole. Why?
, b. A derrickman must have excellent balance.
Why? The platform that he uses is called the
I'
I' 'monkeyboard'. For what reason?
I'
0~\ Single
c. Why might it be hazardous to the crew to
~ brought have a green worker on the rig floor?
\~ in from rack d. Define a thribble.
1\\ e. How are the tongs suspended at working
.' \\...\._ -
1\\
height?
L2 _ ",,,;- _ _ ___ :>
f. Would you like to work as a roustabout?
Give reasons for your answer .
- - II I LIL g. What is the derrickman responsible for?
I Who is he responsible to? Who is the
~ Mousehole Rack Singles
toolpush responsible to? What is the drilling
superintendent responsible for?
hazard risk of harm; serious danger. h. If you knew that you had misunderstood an
misunderstood failed to understand. instruction, what could you do? If you didn't
urgent needing immediate attention. know that you had misunderstood an
scraping rust using a sharp tool to remove rust instruction , what might you do?
accumulations. Rust (ferric oxide, Fep,) is an i. Why must dope be viscous?
orange-brown coating formed on iron when it J. ' ... the first step up the ladder .. .' (Section
is chemically attacked by water or moist air: A) What ladder?
hosing down using a water hose at pressure to
clean up the rig or protect it from fire.
True or False?
a. Macaroni is tubing of 00 less than about
2Vs in.
b. A fourble is a section of casing, pipe or
tubing consisting of four singles screwed
together.
c. The central hole in the kelly bushing is
square.
d. If pipe threads aren't properly doped the
connections will stick.
e. If a cre~ is working an 8-hour tour and for
some reason they have to work IO lIz hours
they will later be paid 2 liz hours' overtime.'
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
!,~\II I. Listen to the conversation between
Mac and Ian.
MAC: I'm going, Ian. I've decided, and that's
that.
IAN: Ach, Mac, you're crazy. The rigs are no
good, not for a roustabout. Don't go. Change
your mind, man.
MAC: The money's good, Ian. You must admit
the money' s good.
IAN: Och aye, the money's all right, with
overtime and all that. But you don 't know
what it 's like to be a roustabout out there.
You just don't know, Mac .
MAC: Okay, Ian, you tell me what it's like to
be a roustabout, and I'll stilI tell you the
money' s bloody good.
IAN : Sure, you'll come back from a spell
offshore with 500 quid in the bank. But
what's 500 quid if you slip on a greasy deck
and land in the drink? You'll not swim in
40-foot waves in winter, I'll tell you that.
MAC: Well, if that's ail, I'll wear a bloody
lifejacket, Ian.
IAN : Lifejacket. Look , Mac, how would you
like to hose down the rig sides and equipment
for six hours at a stretch?
MAC: Six hours?
IAN: Aye. And scraping rust. You'll scrape
rust all day long . And day after day , at that.
And that' s no joke.
MAC: H ' mm. Aye. I suppose not.
IAN: And you'll paint all tour long, too. And
if there's no real work, you'll make work.
You'll paint a pipe white one day, and if
there's no work the next day you'll paint the
same bloody pipe blue.
MAC: Now , you're not serious, Ian.
IAN: Oh I'm serious, Mac. I' m serious, all
right. Wh y do you think I quit?
MAC: Why did you quit?
IAN: Am I not teIling you? Because it's
monotonous, Mac, that's why.
MAC: Routine?
IAN: Aye, routine. That's the word. Scrape
and paint and hose dow!>. Hose down and
scrape and paint.
MAC: I thought it might be a bit more
interesting than that.
IAN: Well , it isn' t. Change your mind, Mac.
MAC: I'll think about it, Ian . I'll think about
it.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. Choose the right expression: Land in the
drink means (i) Drink too much (ii) Fall into
the water (iii) Jump into the water.
b. Choose the right expression: For six hours at
a stretch means (i) For six hours every tour
(ii) For six hours out of twelve (iii) For six
hours without stopping.
c. How much is one pound sterling in your own
currency? In your own currency, how much
is 500 quid?
d. Ian doesn't work as a roustabout anymore.
He quit. Why?
e. Mac says that ' the money's bloody good' for
offshore workers. Later, he says that he'll
'wear a bloody lifejacket'. What's the
function of ' bloody' in these expressions? A
word of similar meaning is 'damn' . Do you
know any others?
f. Why might a roustabout paint a pipe blue
today if he painted it white yesterday?

g. Offshore crews generally work two weeks on
and then take two weeks off. How many
days are there in a spell offshore?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
~ 1. Passive Voice
' ... a roughneck may have to be told what to
do.' (Section A)
'A well may also have to be deviated ... .' (Unit
8, Section A)
Put the verbs in brackets into the same passive
form.
a . The hole (may have to abandon) if these
problems aren't solved soon.
b. Before kick-off, the abandoned section (will
have to plug off).
c. If the junk can't be recovered or pushed into
the side of the hole, it (will have to by-pass).
d. This job 's urgent. It (will have to do)
immediately.
e. Gas for which there is no convenient market
(may have to flare).
~ 2. Having + past participle
'Having worked for a time as a roustabout, a
man might be ready for the job of roughneck .'
(Section A)
The same idea can be expressed in this longer
way: After he has worked for a time as a
roustabout, a man might be ready for the job of
roughneck.
Now use having + past participle to express the
following in a shorter way.
a . Now that they have moved their engine
outside of the hazardous area , the wireline
crew is ready to start. (Having moved ... )
b. After they had corrected the angle, they
kicked the hole off.
c. When he had made sure that the tools were
properly assembled, the toolpush gave the
order to run in.
d. When he had listened to Ian' s story, Mac
changed his mind .
JOBS ON THE RIG
e. Because of the fact that he has actually
worked on an offshore rig, Ian knows very
well what it' s like to be a roustabout in the
North Sea.
3. Measurements
The petroleum industry in the UK changed to
the metric (SI)* system of measurement in 1975.
This change, however. has not been a complete
one . In most countries of the world , pipes, bits,
threaded connections etc. are manufactured to
American Petroleum Institute (API) standards.
For this reason and others (eg., API gravity),
workers in the oil business have to be familiar
with American systems of measurement.
'I = inch or inches
, = foot or feet
Write figures for the following.
a. Seven and three-quarter inch bit.
b. Two and seven-eighths inch 00 pipe.
c. Three thirty-foot sections of drill pipe .
d. Eight and a half inch diameter hole.
e. Twelve hundred foot length of half inch
wire.
f. Hundred and forty·five foot derrick.
g. Thirty-seven and a half inch rotary table
hole.
h. One and three-quarter inch wire rope.
I. Eighteen and five·eighths inch 00 surface
casing.
j . Ten and three-quarter inch casing.
k. Nine and five-eighths inch intermediate
casing string.
I. One sixteenth inch 00 tube.
m. Two and a half inch square drive tool.
n. Sixteen and three-quarter inch flexible joint.
o. Thirteen and three·eighths inch casing shoe.
4. Choose the right words.
a. A tongman is a (roughneck ! roustabout)
who (aaaches ! handles ! detaches) the tongs
(above ! in ! below) the rotary table.
"S I = Systeme In ternational d'Unites. There is no agreement yet
on the English spelling of the basic units, and so in this book
both for ms are used, ie., gram/gramme, meter/ metre, liter/ litre.
 JOBS ON THE RIG
b. Slips are (iron / steel) wedges fitted with
(teeth / points). The slips are dropped into
the (master / mister) bushings in the rotary
table to Goin / secure) drill pipe or casing in
the table when making up or breaking (in /
off / out).
c. Dope is a (lubricate / lubricant) . It' s a
medium thick (oil / grease / greasy / oily)
which is used on pipe and casing threads
when (making / .breaking) (in / off / up /
out) .
d. The (toolpusher / driller) is responsible (for /
to) the drilling superintendent (for / to) all
rig operations and (for / to) (making /
make) sure that all (necessary / essential)
tools, equipment, services and materials are
available as required.
e. The job of a reservoir engineer is to get
(minimum / maximum) recovery at
(minimum / maximum) cost to the company.
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
~,=! I 1. Listen to the conversation between
Martin and Paul.
MARTIN: I say, Paul.
PAUL: Yes?
MARTIN: Let' s have a look at stand 34.
PAUL : What's over there, Martin?
MARTIN: Subsea Christmas trees . Want to see?
PAUL: Why not. They'll be worth looking at.
MARTIN: Let's go over then.
PAUL: Right. Stand 34. Come on, there it is .
(They go over to stand 34)
MARTIN : Interesting, Paul?
PAUL: Yes, very .
MARTIN: Diverless, too.
PAUL: That' s an important feature.
MARTIN: I'll be happier, though, when we all
go solid block.
PAUL: Me too.
MARTIN: Well then, seen enough?
PAUL: Enough for one day .
MARTIN: How about a cup of coffee?
PAUL: Lead the way, Martin .
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. What do you think Martin and Paul are
doing? Where are they? What makes you
think so? What's stand 34?
b. The. subsea trees on stand 34 don't require
divers to instal them . Why is this an
important feature?
c. Choose the right expression : When we all go
solid block means (i) When we all have a
look at trees such as these (ii) When we all
start using trees such as these (iii) When we
all build solid block trees such as these.
d. Seen enough? means Have you seen enough?
Make complete sentences for these short
expressions: Broken it out?, Decided yet?,
Got it ready?, Finished so soon?,
Understood?
e. Who will arrive at the coffee bar first? Why?
Section E
WRITING PRACTICE
Notice how the following paragraph has been
built up from information contained in this
Unit.
The toolpush is responsible to the drilling
superintendent. He is in charge of the day-to-day
running of rig operations , and must make sure
that all necessary tools, equipment etc. are
available as required. The toolpush is a highly-
skilled person with considerable rig experience .
Now write similar paragraphs to describe the
jobs of driller, derrickman , roustabout, tongman.

Unit 10
Gathering Centres
Section A
READING COMPREHENSION
Read the following passage.
After the crude has been brought to the surface,
the next step is to process it into the form in which
it will be sent on to the refinery. Through the
flowlines, production from the various wellheads
in the field is directed to the gathering centre. Off-
shore, for reasons of space and cost, the gathering
centre is the production platform itself. At the
gathering centre, the oil is treated to bring it up to
pipeline and refinery specification. Water and
dissolved salts can seriously corrode chokes,
valves and pipe walls, and must therefore be
removed from the crude before it is transported.
Dehydration and desalination can be accom-
plished by electrical precipitation, heating, and
washing with fresh water.
Inclined oil-gas separator
Oil outlet
j
Inlet Pipe set at an
angle gives the oil a
swirling motion
GATHERING CENTRES
Reservoir crude also has to be treated to
separate associated gas. Separation of the gas may
be a single-stage or a multi-stage operation,
depending on the gas/oil ratio. In single-stage
separation, only one oil-gas separator is used.
Separators can be vertical, inclined, or horizontal.
Natural gas may also require treatment at the
gathering centre, particularly if it contains water
vapour. When a high-pressure gas is expanded to a
lower temperature, considerable cooling takes
place. If the gas contains water vapour, this cool-
ing can cause the formation of hydrates, and these
may plug chokes, valves and pipelines. The gas is
dehydrated in a large steel vessel known as a
'scrubber', in which the water is removed by the
absorbing action of glycol. Natural gas frequently
contains considerable amounts of the corrosive
and highly toxic acid gas H,S (hydrogen sulphide),
and treatment must be available for this as well as
for water vapour.
Trunk lines connect the gathering centre to the
refinery or tanker terminal. Many kilometres of
large-diameter pipeline (eg., 26" or 32" 00) may
be required. Problems inside the lines must be
prevented, or quickly corrected when they occur.
Gas outlet
Oil & dissolved
from wellhead or
previous separator
 GATHERING CENTRES
PIGS
Rubber sphere
C that gas's 'critical temperature'.
PRODUCT PIPELINE
The devices which test, log, clean and unblock oil
pipelines are known as 'pigs'. Each type of pig is
usually referred to by a special name. One type of
pig, for example, is known as a 'rabbit'. In pro-
duct pipelines, pigs can be used to separate two or
more different oil products which are being sent at
the same time through a single line.
Special Words and Expressions
refinery the buildings and equipment for making
crude oil into pure products. Crude is refined
into gasoline, diesel oil, etc .
specifications Before a crude can be piped from
the gathering centre, it must meet certain
requirements concerning water content, salt
content, etc. These are the specifications.
corrode wear away or eat away by chemical
action.
dehydration process of removing water from.
desalination process of removing salts from.
precipitation separation of a substance from
solution or suspension by falling out.
gas/oil ratio Also written GOR, this is the
proportion of dissolved gas to crude. The
ratio 10: I ~ ten parts of one to one part of
another.
inclined at an angle from the vertical or
horizontal. Do you remember the word
'inclinometer' , from Unit 8?
vapour A vapour is a gas which can ·be liquefied
(turned into a liquid) by pressure alone. If a
gas is above a certain temperature, it cannot
be liquefied by pressure alone. The
temperature above which a gas cannot be
liquefied by pressure alone is referred to as
hydrates To oilmen, hydrates are snow-like
compounds .of methane and water. Chemically
speaking, however, a hydrate is any
compound formed by the union of water with
some other substance.
may plug may block up.
vessel an object designed to contain something .
Barrels, separators, storage tanks etc. are all
vessels.
absorbing A sponge absorbs water.
glycol a thick liquid alcohol; eg., ethylene
glycol, HOCH 2CH,GH.
toxic poisonous. The international warning for
toxic substances and other dangers to life is a
skull and crossbones.
as well as and also.
 GATHERING CENTRES

Comprehension Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION
a. What is the reason for the similarity between
the words 'inclined' and 'inclinometer'?
b. Look at the drawings of pipeline pigs and
Cc?JJ 1. Listen to the conversation between
Frank and Jack.
say which one would be most suitable for
FRANK: Hi, Jack.
scraping operations. Give your reasons.
JACK: Hello, Frank.
c. What powers a pig through a pipe?
FRANK: Is that the changeover report you've
d. How can water vapour in natural gas be
got there?
responsible for plugged chokes and valves?
JACK: Yup. Here. It' s all yours.
e. How does glycol dehydrate gas?
FRANK: Thanks. How's she going?
f. Why is it necessary to desalt crude?
JACK: Piece of cake.
g. The critical temperature of a gas is -4°C
FRANK: I see you were an operator short.
(minus four degrees Centigrade). At - 6°C,
JACK: Yes. McDougall. Nothing serious.
what must be done to the gas vapour in
Headache or something. He'll be fine for next
order to liquefy it?
shift.
h. Suppose you were responsible for several
FRANK: Right. Now then. Separators?
vessels full of toxic chemicals. How could
JACK: One and two on line. Number three
you warn others to treat them carefully and
on standby. Everything's A-OK, Frank, it's
safely?
all on the report.
i. Express these ratios as fractions: 3:4, 1:7,
FRANK: What about the chopper?
7:28,5:14.
JACK: We're still W.O.W.
j. What's the simplest way of separating
FRANK: We need those scrubber spares.
associated gas?
JACK: Can't do anything until the weather
clears.
Choose from the following to complete the
FRANK: No, but I'll be glad to see those spares
paragraph below: content, corrosion, processes,
soon. Anyway, thanks, Jack. I'll take over
gathering centre, produced, formation , having,
now. You get some rest .
specifications, separation, relation, minimum,
JACK: See you later.
treated .
FRANK: See you. Hey, Chris! Can I see you a
... reached the surface, the ... fluids must be
moment?
... to separate the oil, gas, and water. The . ..
CHRIS: Coming right over.
processes at the ... are similar in many ways to
those which are used in the refinery. In ... to
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
water in crude oil, pipeline and refinery .. . are
a. Are Frank and Jack operators or
particularly concerned with the salt ... so that ...
supervisors? How can you tell? And what
can be kept to a .... It is therefore frequently
about Chris's job? How do you know?
necessary to use expensive and complicated ... to
b. Choose the right expression: How's she
remove ... water.
going? means (i) How's the job going?
(ii) How's your wife? (iii) How's the girl
going?
c. Choose the right expression: Piece of cake
refers to (i) Something to eat (ii) A sweet girl
(iii) An easy job.
d. Choose the right expression: On line means
(i) In a row (ii) Operating (iii) In the pipe.
 GATHERING CENTRES
e. Separator NO . 3 is on standby . What's it on
standby jor?
f. Did Jack have a complete crew? If not , why
not?
g. W.O.W. stands for 'waiting on weather'.
What is the weather preventing from gettiI)g
out to the platform? What will it be carrying
when it comes? Why?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
1. Preposition + which
Examples: The next step is to process the crude
into a certain form. In this form , it will be sent
on to the refinery.
• The next step is to process the crude into the
form in which it will be sent on to the refinery.
(Section A)
A certain temperature is referred to as a gas's
'critical temperature'. Above this, a gas cannot
be liquefied by pressure alone.
• The temperature above which a gas cannot
be liquefied by pressure alone is referred to as
that gas's 'critical temperature'. (See explanation
of ' vapour')
Now use the structure preposition + which to
join the following pairs of sentences.
a. The scrubber is a certain vessel. In this
vessel, gas is dehydrated by the absorbing
action of glycol.
b. Pigging is a certain operation. By this
operation, pipelines are tested, logged,
cleaned and unblocked.
c. The derrickman works at a certain height.
The height depends on the length of the pipe
sections that have to be handled .
d. DOlle is a certain medium-thick grease. With
this grease, pipe and casing threads are
lubricated.
e. A product pipeline is a certain pipeline .
Through it, refined oil products are sent.
II ,= ~ 2. Passive Voice
, ... pigs can be used to separate two or more
different oil products which are being sent ... .'
(Section A)
Example: Separator No . 2 is off line at the
moment because it (repair).
• Separator No . 2 is off line at the moment
because it is being repaired.
Put the verbs in brackets into the same passive
form.
a. The hole (build up) at three degrees per
hundred metres .
b. Two new wells (drill) at present by Chevron
on the Ninian field of the North Sea.
c. The test results (examine) and a report will
soon be available.
d . All gas to the St. Fergus processing terminal
(handle) by pipeline No . 2 while maintenance
work (carry out) on pipeline No. 1.
e. The first of two parallel 42-inch, 320-km
pipelines (instal) in Egypt for the Suez-
Mediterranean oil pipeline of the Arab
Petroleum Pipelines Company.
3. Prefixes
Compare these prefixes to those in Exercise 2,
Unit 8: de-, mono-, muiti-, un- , re-, semi-,
po/y- . mini-, non-.
Now add suitable prefixes to the following
words to complete the sentences below: stage,
subs, sulphide, salt, directional, set , solids,
corroding, manned.
a. A crude must be .. . in order to protect
chokes, valves and pipelines from corrosion.
b. Separation can be single-stage or ....
c. A ... contains two or more atoms of sulphur
in the molecule .
d. . . . are small undersea craft, essential for
offshore operations. Many are the ... type.
e. A .. . pig can enter the pipe in one position
only.
f. .stainless steel is ... in salt water.
g. When the pumps are started up again, don't
forget to ... the safety switches .
h . Crudes range from extremely light, straw-
coloured liquids to very heavy .. ..
 GATHERING CENTRES

Explain what the following mean: mini-bit, II =- ~1. Listen to the conversation between
refaced teeth, a redrill, mUlti-purpose tool, Frank and Chris.
nonrotating valve, mud degasser, rewiring, FRANK: Chris. Come in, Chris. Over.
insufficient pressure, sub-base support, CHRIS: Chris here , Frank. Over.
automatic shutdown, autolocking connector, FRANK: We've got a pig approaching. Over.
multifunction support vessel (m.s. v.), non-slip CHRIS : I know. I can hear it. Over.
safety surface, weJl bore re-entry, on site service, FRANK: Everything ready at the receiver? Over.
discontinuous flow, non-destructive testing . CHRIS: Ready, Frank.
FRANK : Who's at the control panel, Chris?
CHRIS: Andy is.
Section D FRANK: Tell him to watch those P.V.T.
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II readings, right?
CHRIS: Right.
FRANK : And make sure everybody's wearing
their muffs. Over.
Temperatu~e CHRIS: I'll make sure.
FRANK: And stay away from the hatch until
I get there. Over.
CHRIS: Okay, Frank.
FRANK: Over and out, Chris.
CHRIS: Over and out.

2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.

a. Frank and his operator are communicating
by walkie-talkie. Why do they say 'over'?
b. Where is Chris? Where is his supervisor?
c. Why does Frank want Chris to make sure
that all the crew near the receiver are wearing
their muffs?
d. Why does Frank teU Chris to stay away from
the hatch?
e. How does Chris know that a pig is
Pig Receiver Hatch approaching?
f. What are 'P.V.T.' readings? Why must they
be watched?

Muffs/ Ear defenders

 GATHERING CENTRES

Section E
WRITING PRACTICE
Descriptions from Diagrams
This paragraph has been built up from the
diagram on page 56.

Inclined Oil-Gas Separator

From the wellhead or a previous separator, the
crude enters the separator via an inlet pipe which
is set at an angle against the inside wall of the
vessel. The oil is given a swirling motion by the
angled pipe to assist the separation process. The
separated gas rises in the separator and leaves the
vessel via an outlet pipe at the top of one end. As
the gas rises, the oil falls . It then leaves the
separator via an outlet pipe at the bottom of the
other end.

Deflector Baffle Mist extractor Gas outlet

Oil & dissolved

from wellhead
previous Ho,c;zontall baffles

Now use the diagram above to describe briefly

ow a horizontal oil-gas separator operates.
 DOWNSTREAM OF PRODUCTION

recent years, SBM (single buoy mooring) systems

Unit 11 have been developed to solve this problem. In this
type of open-sea loading, the tanker (nowadays
Downstream of usually a VLCC) moors at the SBM and loads
from a pipeline about a mile long which connects
Production the SBM to the production platform. The length
of the pipeline is a safety factor necessitated by the
great length of VLCCs, their very long stopping
and turning distances, and the space required to
Section A
enable such huge ships to swing freely at the buoy
READING COMPREHENSION with the wind and the sea current.
The disadvantage of ordinary SBMs is that
Read the following passage. they have no storage capacity. The Spar buoy,
developed by Shell, is a type of SBM with the
The preferred method of sending crude from capacity to store up to 300,000 barrels of crude in
the gathering centre to the refinery is transport by six underwater storage compartments. So if, due
pipeline. Offshore, however, seabed conditions to weather conditions, tanker loading from Spar is
and water depth may make pipe-laying to an on- prevented, production from the platform does not
shore terminal undesirable or even impossible. In have to be shut off.
/ ' ., .•. ,., light"

Radar reflector

Tanker Tanker loading

..-AJnderb'Joy hoses

Mooring chain

Pipeline
Anchor Sea

'. : ::. ' .

 DOWNSTREAM OF PRODUCTION

Spar buoy Crude oils are complex mixtures of hydrocar-

bons which range from those containing only one
carbon atom in the molecule (methane, CH 4 ) up to
those containing 60 or more. Such mixtures do
i
12m
12"
loading
lines
not have a single boiling point, since some com-
ponents will vapourise at relatively low tem-
peratures (ie., the lighter hydrocarbons) while

t
32m
others will require relatively high temperatures
(the heavier hydrocarbons). On the basis of boil-
ing ranges, therefore, the many different
hydrocarbons in crude can be divided into a small
number of groups (called 'cuts' or 'fractions')
which will separate from the crude at different
temperatures. The distillation process by which
fractions are separated from a mixture is known as
93m 'fractionation' . [n most modern refineries, the
crude is processed through several CDUs, so that
the various cuts can be produced to very precise
specifications. Multi-stage distillation also ensures
Anchor line
that straight-run fractions are free of impurities.

Fractionating tower Gas to condenser

Sidestripper
Vapours rise
20m C"'"""'" from
production Fraction D ..... . . . . . . .~9~1Jj
platform

..
" .
,.;.
, Sidestripper

Downstream of production, the first stage in the ....n.{)..jIII..... Fraction C

refining of crude oil is usually the separation of
BS & Wat the tank farm. From here, the oil is Sidestripper Bubble caps
pumped via the crude train to the first column in
the refinery system. Crude oil is combustible, of Fraction B +-.iiliiiiii-l"q.~.:;~
course, and it is sometimes asked why crude isn't liquids fall

burned as fuel without the expense of refining it. START

There are two basic reasons. First, modern engines

will not run on crude oil. Secondly, most crudes Fraction A
Crude
contain the lighter hydrocarbons, and as a result feed
Sidestripper
they are so highly inflammable that they must be
handled by very experienced men. Only fuel oils
with a flashpoint above 65°C are safe enough for
ordinary use. To ensure a high flashpoint,
therefore, the more volatile parts of the crude
must be removed by refining.
Residue
 DOWNSTREAM OF PRODUCTION
Special Words and Expressions
buoy a fixed-position float.
mooring place at which a ship ties up; ie., place
at which a ship moors.
VLCCs very large crude carriers. VLCCs are
tankers between 160,000 and 319,999 dwt
(deadweight tons). ULCCs (ultra large crude
carriers) are tankers over 320,000 dwt.
necessitated by made necessary by.
downstream This word describes a stage in the
industry which follows other stages. The word
'upstream' refers to a stage which precedes
others. Drilling is upstream of refining;
refining is downstream of drilling.
BS & W bottom settlings (or base sediments)
and water.
tank farm area containing tanks.
crude train the pumps, valves, pipes and various
vessels leading from the tank farm into the
first refinery unit.
column tall vertical separation vessel. Compare
this meaning to the one you learned in Unit 6.
combustible capable of being burned. Cars are
powered by internal combustion engines.
inflammable capable of catching fire easily and
of burning very rapidly. Native English
speakers use the word 'flammable' to mean
the same thing. Therefore, both
FLAMMABLE and INFLAMMABLE
indicate the need for safe handling due to the
risk of fire.
flashpoinl the lowest temperature at which
vapours above a combustible substance will
ignite (catch fire) in air when exposed to a
flame.
volatile vapourisable at a relatively low
temperature.
distillation process of first driving gas or vapour
from a liquid by heating, then collecting the
gas or vapour by condensation (ie., reduction
to a denser form by cooling; eg., condensation
of steam to water).
CDUs crude distillation units.
straight-run fractions fractions which require no
further treatment after they have been distilled
from the crude.
impurities Notice how the word is built up:
'pure'. opposite 'impure', 'impurity',
'impurities' .
Comprehension
a. Why must the pipeline from the production
platform to the SBM be relatively long?
b. What seabed conditions might make pipe-
laying impossible?
c. Why is it a disadvantage of ordinary SBMs
that they have no storage capacity?
d. What are some of the advantages of pipelines
over SBMs?
e. Why does their lighter-hydrocarbons content
make crudes highly flammable?
f. What's the difference between 'flammable'
and 'inflammable'?
g. What is the relation of high flash point to
safety? What is the relation of low flash point
to danger?
h. How might a liquid's low flashpoint and
high volatility combine to cause a risky
situation? In such a situation, what would be
the minimum required to cause an explosion?
I. Name three impurities in wellhead crude.
j. Suppose you were given a bottle containing a
20070 solution of alcohol in water. In what
two ways could you separate the alcohol?
Which of the two methods would require
closer temperature control? Why?
k. How does the internal combustion engine get
Its name?
True or False?
Say whether these are true or false. Correct the
false ones.
a. Temperatures in the lower part of the
fractionating tower are lower than those near
the top.
DOWNSTREAM OF PRODUCTION
b. The higher the flashpoint of a fuel, the safer
it is to handle.
c. Volatility describes the capacity of a liquid to
condense at a relatively low temperature.
d. If two different hydrocarbons boil in the
same temperature range, they're part of the
same cut.
e. There are fewer different hydrocarbons in
the highest section of the column than there
are in the middle.
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
!,~ Ii 1. Listen to the walkie-talkie conversation
between Brian and Jeff.
BRIAN: Distillation control to Alpha 18.
JEFF: Alpha 18 to distillation control.
BRIAN: Jeff, how's the crude train? Over.
JEFF: Seems in good shape. I can' t spot any
leakage, Brian.
BRIAN: Great. We've got a level in CIOl. Can
you start up PI03? Distillation control to
Alpha 18. Jeff?
JEFF: Alpha 18 to distillation control. Sorry,
Brian, it's the bloody noise . What was that
again? Over.
BRIAN: I said we've got a level in CIOl. Can
you start up P 103?
JEFF: Right. Just a second .. . PI03 started up.
We're getting a flow.
BRIAN: That's great, Jeff. Start getting some
burners in now.
JEFF: Burners. Right.
BRIAN: Call in when you've started.
JEFF: I'll call in in a few minutes, Brian.
ClOt
TANK Farm
Pl03
Crude Train
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. What does the ' P' in PI03 stand for? What
about the 'C' in CIOI?
b. Choose the right expression: Seems in good
shape means (i) It seems to be fine (ii) The
shape seems right (iii) I think everything's
okay but I may be wrong.
c. For a moment, Brian loses contact with Jeff.
Why?
d. What can't Jeff spot? Is that good or bad?
Why?
e. Brian says that they've got a level in CIOl. A
level of what? Why must there be a level in
CIOI before PI03 can be started up?
f. After he has started up P103, Jeff reports
that they' re getting a flow. A flow of what?
From where to where?
g. Which comes first, getting a flow or getting
some burners in? Why?
h. When is Jeff going to call in? What will he
use to call in?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
il,= ,! 1. Comparison of Adjectives
'The higher the flashpoint of a fuel, the safer it
is to handle.' (Section A 'True or False?' b)
The idea above could also be expressed like
this: As the flash point of a fuel increases, its
safety increases.
Example: As the specific gravity of a crude
increases, its lighter-hydrocarbons content
decreases. (the greater/ the lower)
• The greater the specific gravity of a crude,
the lower its lighter-hydrocarbons content.
Notice particularly that in the example
sentence no verb is required.
Now rewrite the following using the words in
brackets.
a. As the molecular weight of a hydrocarbon
decreases, its boiling point decreases. (the
lower / the lower)
 DOWNSTREAM OF PRODUCTION
b. As the water depth increases, the difficulty
of pipe-laying increases . (the deeper / the
more difficult)
c. As height increases in the column, the
temperature decreases . (the higher / the
lower)
2. Abbreviations
PCV = pressure control valve
ESD = emergency shutdown
Most technical English abbreviations can be
written with full stops (p.s.i.), without full stops
(psi), and either with or without capital letters
(pSI/psi).
Write out what each of these abbreviations
stands for: BOP, W.O. W., V.L.C.C., sbm,
API, RKB, TO, dwt, U.L.C.C., bbl , CDU, SI,
msv, PVT, ds, ss, ju, BS & W, od, GaR, in, ft,
bpd.
3. Passive Voice
Example: People sometimes ask why crude isn't
burned as fuel without the expense of r,fining it.
• It is sometimes asked why crude isn' t burned
as fuel without the expense of refining it.
(Section A)
Look back at Exercise 2, page 29; then do the
exercise below.
a. People sometimes say that oil is black gold.
b. People no longer believe that oil will last
forever.
c. People feel that an ordinary SBM would be
unsuitable because of the lack of storage
capacity.
d . People think that North Sea oil will begin to
run out by the mid-1990s.
e. In the oil business people accept that
practical experience is often more important
than formal education.
il ~ 11 4. Reported Speech: Imperatives
In the first example, notice the change from
'said' to 'told'. In the second, notice the change
from 'your' to 'my'.
Examples: 'Get some burners in,' Brian said to
Jeff.
• Brian told Jeff to get some burners in.
'Get your hands out of your pockets,' he told
me.
• He told me to get my hands out of my
pockets.
'Don 't be late again,' Barry told the roughneck .
• Barry told the roughneck not to be late
again.
Change the following to reported speech.
a. 'Take this report to the super,' he ordered
the roustabout.
b. 'Don' t take your eyes off the panel,' he
warned me.
c. '-Stand by the ESD panel,' Brian told Jeff.
d . 'Hand that core to me,' Tom said to George .
e. 'Don't touch that valve without my
permission,' Brian said to the new operator.
Section 0
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
11 =, II 1. Listen to the conversation between
Tony and Neil
TONY: Are we agreed, then , Neil?
NEIL: I don 't think there's any question about
it, Tony.
TONY: We'll scratch Stephens S.B.M.-
NEIL: '- and go for Spar.
TONY: I'll put it to the board tomorrow.
NEIL: The sooner the better, Tony. And if
anyone asks, you tell them I'm behind you
1000/0.
TONY: I will, Neil , thanks.
NEIL: What about the basic specifications?
Have you got notes?
TONY: I know them by heart.
NEIL: Little test?
TONY: Go ahead.
NEIL : Tanker load rate?
TONY: 5000 tons an hour.
NEIL: Spar storage capacity?
TONY: 300,000 barrels.
NEIL: Spar receiving rate?
 DOWNSTREAM OF PRODUCTION

TONY: 100,000 barrels a day. preheater, the crude feed is first heated to about
NEIL: And what about, say, the tanker loading 300°C. As these rise in the column , they separate
hoses? out by condensing at different temperatures in the
TONY: Two twelve inchers. various trays . Because these processes in the CDU
NEIL: Great, Tony. Go in there tomorrow and are continuous , the liquid cuts from the various
convince them. trays are piped out via the sidestrippers as the
TONY: I won't have to, Neil. The facts and crude feed is being pumped in. So, going up in the
figures speak for themselves. column, the least volatile vapours condense back
into liquids first. From the preheater, the hot feed
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape . is pumped into a section of the fractionating tower
a. The Board are the directors of the company about a quarter or a third of the way up from the
that Tony and Neil work for. Why doesn' t bottom .
Tony think that he personally will have to
convince them about Spar?
b. Why hasn't Tony got notes on Spar's basic
specifications?
c. Choose the right expression: Go jor Spar
means (i) Choose Spar (ii) Walk towards
Spar (iii) See about Spar.
d. What is the diameter of each of the tanker
loading hoses?
e. What does Neil mean when he says that he's
'behind' Tony?
f. Explain 'the sooner the better'.
g. Which type of SBM does Stephen want? Do
Tony and Neil agree with Stephen's plan?
What do they want .to do with it? Why?

Section E
WRITING PRACTICE

Flow Descriptions from Diagrams

a. The sentences making up the paragraph

below are out of order. Write them out
correctly by referring to the diagram of the
tower on page 63 .
b. When you have finished, cover up your work
and rewrite the description by heart.

Fractionation
The most volatile of all may leave the column as
gas, without condensing out. Here, all the
hydrocarbons except the heaviest form a mixture
of vapours. By being pumped through a
Unit 12 Read the following passage.

Primary & The primary refining processes are the distilla-

tion of the feedstock into its basic fractions, and
Secondary Refining then the redistillation of most of these, in separate
toweFS., into highly-concentrated intermediates. In
a simple refinery, the split would probably consist
of these six basic cuts: petroleum gas (refinery gas
Section A and LPG), gasoline, naphtha, kerosine, gas oil,
READING COMPREHENSION
residue.
Refinery
gas The secondary processes are designed (I) to
LPG
remove any impurities from the distilled fractions,
and (2) 10 convert some of the distilled hydrocar-
bons into different molecular forms. Conversion
processes can produce hydrocarbons which do not
exist in reservoir crude.
Gasoline (I) All crudes contain organic sulphur com-
pounds (eg., H,S, mercaptans) which will be car-
ried over from the column into the resulting gases,
distillates and residue. Tl;1e higher the density of a
crude, the greater its sulphur content. This can
Naphtha vary from about 0.05'70 by weight, as in some
Pennsylvanian crudes, to about 2% wt in an
CDU average Middle East crude, and to 5% or more in
heavy Nigerian or Mexican crudes. Sour cuts are
corrosive and possess an extremely objectionable
Kerosine odour. The secondary refining process for the
treatment of toxic, corrosive and evil-smelling
sulphur-compound impurities is known as
'sweetening' .
(2) In conversion processes, the structures of
Gas Oil natural hydrocarbon molecules are changed. In
one such process, . known as 'cracki ng' , large
hydrocarbon molecules are cracked or broken to
form two or more smaller molecules. This can be
done by the action of heat and pressure alone
(thermal cracking) or by heat in the presence of a
suitable catalyst (catalytic cracking). The oldest of
all the conversion processes is thermal cracking,
which has been in use since the 1880s.
The main purpose of cracking is to increase the
yield of lighter, more valuable fractions from
Residue medium and residual cuts. When a particular
feedstock has been cracked, the various products
resulting from the process can be separated out in
a fractionating tower.
PRIMARY & SECONDARY REFINING
ofH
rrrrf,eilOl)fo
1 organisms , ie ., from plant and I or animal
1
o Hydrogen atom CRACK ING
• Carbon atom
offffffo+P-tf
The illustration above shows how a single heavy
paraffinic molecule may be cracked to form hex-
ane, which occurs naturally in some cuts, and
butylene, which is entirely synthetic. Blended with
gasoline, butylene greatly improves engine perfor-
mance.
Special Words and Expressions
primary first in a series or in importance. Note:
primary (1st), secondary (2nd) , tertiary (3rd).
feedstock petroleum-based substance used in the
production of other substances.
intermediates oil products used as feed stocks.
split the way a crude is divided into cuts.
refinery gas methane and ethane produced from
crude and re-circulated in the refinery for use
as fuel.
LPG liquefied petroleum gas (butane and
propane). LPG can be bottled· and used as
camping gas, in cigarette lighters, for
industrial fuel supplies, etc.
gasoline volatile flammable liquid hydrocarbon
mixture used as a fuel, especially for internal
combustion engines. In the UK, outside of the
petroleum industry, the same fuel is referred
to as 'petrol'.
kerosine flammable hydrocarbon oil used as a
fuel, especially in oil lamps, space heaters, etc.
In the UK, outside of the petroleum industry,
kerosine is referred to as 'paraffin'.
gas oil This is the fraction which is generally
refined into diesel oil and other heavy fuels.
to convert to change the chemical and l or
physical properties of.
organic consisting of compounds formed from
life .
mercaptans group of sulphur compounds, highly
corrosive and bad-smelling.
distillates liquid products condensed from
vapour during distillation.
sour containing sulphur compounds; eg., sour
gas, sour crude, etc. The opposite (ie., con-
taining little or no sulphur) is 'sweet'; eg.,
sweet gas, sweet fraction , etc.
objectionable odour bad / evil smell.
catalyst substance which assists or speeds up a
chemical change but is not changed chemically
itself.
yield quantity produced.
synthetic made by man. Acrylics are synthetic
materials made from petroleum-based
compounds.
blended combined to form a mixture so fine
that the components seem to disappear.
Comprehension
a. Why isn't residue from the CDU referred to
as a distillate?
b. Is fractionation a conversion process? If not,
why not?
c. API barrel = 42 U.S. gallons. One U.S. gal
= 3.785 litres. What is the approximate
weight of the sulphur content in a barrel of
average Middle East crude?
d. From exactly the same input of feedstock, a
refinery might decide to produce much more
gasoline in summer than in winter. Why?
How?
e. What's the difference between 'gasoline' and
'petrol'?
f. Which is denser, gas oil or kerosine? Why?
g. If the feedstock is changed from Nigerian
crude to Middle East crude, what will
happen to the split?
 PRIMARY & SECONDARY REFINING

h. There is no such thing as a naphtha e. CDUs produce various mixtures which

molecule .. Why not?
I. Why do cracked hydrocarbons have a lower
boiling point than the cuts they are produced
from?
j. Why can't methane be used as a feedstock in
cracking?
together contain the same hydrocarbons as
those present in the feedstock .
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I

True or False? fi.:'-',1

Say whether these are true or false. Correct the
false ones.
a. The proportions of the primary products
contained in a feedstock mixture are the
same as those produced by distillation of the
mixture .
b. The proportions of the primary products
contained in a feedstock mixture are the
same as those produced by cracking the
mixture .
c. In the chemical change which it assists or
speeds up, a catalyst can be physically
changed .
d. Cracking produces a mixture which contains
hydrocarbons not present in crude oil.
1. Refer to the diagram below while you
are listening to the conversation between Brian
and Jeff.
BRIAN: How are things going, Jeff?
JEFF: Bang on spec, Brian . Beautiful.
BRIAN: Good, good. Now look , Jeff, we'd like
to start putting residue into the thermal
cracker.
JEFF: Okay, Brian.
BRIAN: Just check out the rundo wn to the
header, will you?
JEFF: I'll do that, Brian.
BRIAN: Then stand by the straight-run IVs -
J EFF: - ready to shut them off, right -
BRIAN: - and I'll tell you when to start flow to
the cracker.

CDU

1'- _ _ _ - " To Thermal Cracker

....... _---
....... _--_ ..... ....
IV
...,
Header

-~T
T ~ IV~
~A
> Straight-Run lines

~----------~R~U~ndd.O~W~n~----------t---~C><}~==::====~~=-~~--~~----------
. Isolation Valve

"
 PRIMARY & SECONDARY REFINING

JEFF: Got it. I'm on my way now. g. low-boiling-point hydrocarbon components.

BRIAN: Distillation control to thermal cracker. h. volatile flammable liquid hydrocarbon
VOICE: Thermal cracker to distillation control. mixture .
BRIAN: Are you ready to receive residue? I. low hydrogen-to-carbon ratio.
VOICE: Ready whenever you are, Brian. j. two-car bon-atom molecules.
BRIAN: It won't be long now. Keep your eye k. fluid-transmitting capacity.
on the panel. 1. horizontal gas-oil separator.
m. high-wax-content crudes.
2. Now do this exercise 'based on the tape.
a. 'Bang on spec' means 'Exactly according to
II ~ II2. Reported Speech: Questions
specification'. Why does Jeff think that's
'Why is that valve open?' Brian asked Jeff.
'beautiful'?
• Brian asked Jeff why that valve was open.
b. How are things going?
Notice, first, the change from 'is' to 'was'.
c. What will Jeff be looking for when he checks
Secondly, notice that the converted verb has
out the rundown to the header?
moved from the question-position to the
d. If the IVs from the header into the straight-
statement-position, so the reported form does
run lines aren't shut off, what will happen to
not end in a question mark. Look for these and
the flow to the thermal cracker?
other changes in the following examples.
e. Why does Brian want the operator at the
Examples:.
thermal cracking unit to keep his eye on the
'Where is your helmet?' he asked me.
panel?
• He asked me where my helmet was.
f. When will Jeff start flow to the cracker?
'Can you manage by yourself?' Barry asked
g. Choose the right expression: Got it means
Tom.
(i) Understand (i,i) Understood (iii) I possess
• Barry asked Tom if he could manage by
it.
himself.
Convert the following to reported speech.
a. 'How long is it going to take you to do it?'
Section C he wanted to know.
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
b. 'How are things going, Jeff?' Brian asked.
c. 'Will you check out the rundown to the
1. Compound Adjectives
header?' Brian asked Jeff.
Expressions such as the one below are common
d. 'Are you ready to receive residue?' he asked
in technical English:
the panel man.
, ... evil-smelling sulphur-compound impurities
e. 'Why don't you follow my instructions?' the
.... ' (Section A)
super angrily asked Tom.
The expression can be re-phrased like this:
f. 'What time is it?' he wanted to know.
These are impurities which smell evil and
contain sulphur compounds.
Now consider how the following might change
Re-phrase the following in the same way:
in reported speech: here, this, today, tomorrow,
a. large-diameter pipeline.
yesterday, these, now.
b. high-pressure subsea BOP system.
c. stainless steel non-return valve.
d. low-pressure catalytic cracking unit. 3. Choose the right words.
e. snow-like methane-water compounds. Thermal Cracking
f. man-made petroleum-based chemical Thermal cracking is the (destruction /
intermediates. decomposition), under conditions of heat and
pressure, of large hydrocarbon (molecules I
atoms) to form smaller ones. In this way,
(heavier I lighter I denser), (less I more)
valuable hydrocarbons (must be I can be)
obtained from such (relatively I absolutely)
(high-value I low-value) (stocks I feeds) as
heavy gas oils and (residuals I residues). It
(believes I is believed I believed) that the process
(discovered I was discovered I is discovered) in
1861 in New Jersey, USA. It did not become
commercial, however, until the (expanding I
contracting) demand for (LPG I kerosine I
gasoline) in the years just before 1914. The
(quality I quantity) of (thermal- I thermally-)
cracked (car-motor I motor-car) fuels is no
longer (too high Ihigh enough I low enough) for
modern internal (combustible I combustion)
engines, so this function is now covered by other
processes. A (much-used I used-much)
(thermally-cracked I thermal-cracking) process is
the process known as 'visbreaking' , which is the
(thermal cracking I thermal-cracking) of (thin I
volatile I viscous) (crude-oil I oil-gas) residues
to (increase I reduce) their (volatility I viscosity)
by breaking (up I down lo ut) the large
(complex I complicated) (atoms I molecules) to
smaller ones.
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
11,=',11 .1. Listen to the conversation between
Michael and Mr. Godfrey.
GODFREY: Here's the main column, Michael.
MICHAEL: My word, Mr. Godfrey, it's a great
deal bigger and more complicated than I'd
imagined. It must be all of 50 metres high.
GODFREY: Seventy, to be exact. And I guess it
must look pretty complicated from here.
MICHAEL: It seems like absolutely miles and
miles of pipework . And which pipes go
where?
GODFREY: It's really quite simple to
understand if you just think of the six basic
fractions we were talking about in my office.
And their order in the column, don't forget.
MICHAEL: You mean from petroleum gas at
the top to residue at the bottom?
GODFREY: That's the idea, Michael. Basically
we're getting refinery gas and LPG up there at
the top, residue down here at the bottom, and
four main cuts in between.
MICHAEL: Gasoline and naphtha, I believe you
said-
GODFREY: - coming down the column, right -
MICHAEL: - then kerosine and gas oil -
GODFREY: - and back to residue here at the
bottom.
MICHAEL: Petroleum gas up there, then
gasoline, then naphtha, kerosine next, then
comes gas oil, and finally residue down here.
GODFREY: Those are what I'd call the six basic
fractions, yes.
MICHAEL: And most of them leave the refinery
as fuels.
GODFREY : They do. As a matter of fact, I can
put a figure on it for you. On average, 88 out
of every 100 barrels of crude end up as fuel of
one kind or another.
MICHAEL: Eighty-eight out of every hundred?
GODFREY: That's what I'd call the average,
Michael.
MICHAEL: And what about the remaining 12
barrels?
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. How high is this particular CDU? What's
that in feet?
b. Name the fractions in order from the top.
c. How do most of the cuts leave the refinery?
What figure does Godfrey put on it? What
do you think happens to the remaining
quantity?
d. Define ' pipework'.
e. Choose the right expression: My word in this
conversation means (i) I'm surprised, (ii) I
promise, (iii) I guess. What might it mean in
other conversations?
f. Before visiting the refinery, how had Michael
imagined crude distillation units?
g. Which pipes go where?
PRIMARY & SECONDARY REFINING

Section E Typical products are fuel gas , LPG, gasoline, and

WRITING PRACTICE
Flow Descriptions from Diagrams
a. The sentences making up the paragraph
below are out of order. Write them out
correctly by referring to the diagram.
b. When you have finished, cov·er up your work
and rewrite the description by heart.
Fluid-bed Catalytic Cracking
It is mixed with hot air to burn off the carbon
which was deposited on it in the cracking process .
light and medium gas oils. The feedstock is then
preheated and pumped to the reactor. As the
catalyst re-circulates from the reactor to the
regenerator and back, the cracked mixture flows
to a fractionation column. Here, spent catalyst
flows continuously to the regenerator while crack-
ing is taking place . At the same time, via the
furnace-reactor line, regenerated catalyst is mixed
with it and both are carried to the reactor. From a
unit upstream a suitable cut is selected and
pumped to the catalytic cracking unit.

To atmosphere

r--,---;r-+ Fuel Gas

LPG
Regenerator Reactor
Carbon Cracking
is burnt off takes place
catalyst

Gasoline

Light Gas Oil

Medium Gas
Regenerated Oil
Catalyst

Feed from CDUs

-+

Hot air to burn

carbon off catalyst
 FINISHING PROCESSES

Unit 13 an engine. For smooth engine performance, igni-

tion should occur throughout the chamber instan-
Finishing Processes taneously, but it sometimes occurs in two stages
and knock then results. The antiknock properties
of a fuel are measured by octane number (or 'oc-
tane rating'), from a system developed by Graham
Section A Edgar in 1926. The higher the octane rating of a
READING COMPREHENSION gasoline, the better its antiknock properties.
Sparkplug
There are basically two methods for the
KNOCK
upgrading of low-octane-number gasoline: (I)
reforming, a conversion process by which
Gasoline vapour hydrocarbons are actually re-formed into dif-
ferent molecular shapes, and (2) the use of anti-
~-----,------H-- Spark knock additives, such as tetraethyl lead (TEL) or
" --~i-- First ingnition tetramethyl lead (TML). Straight-run naphtha,
Combustion
chamber for example, has a very low octane rating of about
~----tl--- Flame front 40 . By catalytic reforming, this can be increaseo to
- - -il-- - - Secor'd -19m-t-Ion 95 or more, and the rejormate can then be blended

I
~~~~~~~~~I with a light gasoline cut to give a fuel of just the

t
'knock')
right volatility and octane number. Besides being
used to improve gasoline yields, naphtha is im-

o
portapt as a feedstock in the production of
+tI- - Piston petrochemical intermediates. Two of the most
valuable of these are the gases ethylene(C2 H.,) and
propylene (C)HJ, essential in the manufacture of
a wide range of synthetic materials. Ethylene and
propylene can also be cracked from wide-cut light
distillate feedstock (LDF).

Iso-Butane ISO- Butylene

I
ALKYLATION • Carbon atom

•
o Hydrogen atom

Onty one ignition occurs

Read the following passage.

The diagram above illustrates 'knock', which is

Iso-Octane
the noise produced by the abnormal ignition of
motor spirit vapour in the combustion chamber of
FINISHING PROCESSES
Alkylation and isomerization are specific refor-
ming processes for the production of high-grade
gasoline components. Alkylation can be thought
of as the opposite of cracking; ie. , causing two
dissimilar hydrocarbons to combine, instead of
splitting them apart. The catalysts used in alkyla-
tion are sulphuric acid or hydrogen fluoride; in
isomerization, the catalysts are platinum (Pt) or
aluminium chloride (AlCl,).
Caustic washing and hydrodesulphurization are
finishing processes designed to ' remove H,S and
mercaptan impurities. Scrubbing with caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide, NaOH) is the most widely-
used process for H,S removal, mainly because it
simultaneously removes other impurities such as
carbon dioxide (CO,) and fatty acids.
Special Words and Expressions
motor spirit gasoline.
throughout in every part of.
instantaneously in the same instant.
upgrading improving the quality of.
additives chemicals added to other substances.
TEL Pb(C,H')4
TML Pb(CH')4
reformate product of a reforming process.
Compare this word with 'distillate'.
besides in addition to.
wide-cut relatively wide boiling range.
isomerization process to form isomers. An
isomer of a compound contains the same
number of atoms of the same elements, but
differs in structural arrangement and chemical
properties.
oc
O H nowadays for the production of motor ... is ...
Butane Iso·Butane
(Isomer of butane)
hydrodesulphurization Notice how the word is
built up: sulphur -3> sulphurize (add sulphur
to) -7 desulphurize (remove sulphur from)
-7 desulphurization (removal of sulphur)
-7 hydrodesulphurization (removal of
sulphur, in the presence of hydrogen).
simultaneously at the same time.
fatty acids Fatty-acid molecules are long-chain
CH, groups, ending in -COOH.
Comprehension
a. How might a refiner use butane in the
production of iso-octane?
b. What are colour additives? Why are they
used in gasolines?
c. What is the difference between cracking and
reforming?
d. Define (i) distillates, (ii) reformates,
(iii) crackates.
e. Why might ethylene and propylene be
, cracked from LDF rather than from
naphtha?
f. What is the difference between caustic
washing and hydrodesulphurization?
g. Explain what happens when ignition doesn't
take place instantaneously throughout the
combustion chamber.
h. What's the chemical difference between
2-star and 3-star petrol?
i. Explain what is meant by (i) a catalytic
desulphurization process, and (ii ) a
deisobutanizer.
j. Describe briefly the reforming process that
takes place in a 'platformer' (plat- = Pt).
Choose from these words to complete the
paragraph below: widely-used, maximum, spirit,
ratio , catalytic, distillates, primary, gasoline,
rating, feed, straight-run, raised, boiling.
One of the most important processes
cracking. The ... is a ... cut .. . from about 70°C
to a ... of 190°C, the octane ... of which is ... in
the cracking process from 40 to 95-100. Since
the mid-1940s, this has been the most ... process
for the production of ... from heavy .... It is
also, therefore, the ... method for increasing the
.... of light to heavy products from crude oil.

Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
~,<=>; II 1. Listen to the conversation between
Dick, Jeff and Ralph.
DICK: Hey, Jeff. Can I have a quick word with
you?
JEFF: Sure. What's up. Dick?
DICK: We've got a bit of a problem on the
high vac unit-
JEFF: -so?-
DICK: - so I was wondering if you could look
after my trainee for the rest of the shift.
JEFF: Of course. What's his name again?
Ralph, isn 't it?
DICK: Yes, Ralph. And keep an eye on him,
will you? He's pretty green. Here he comes.
See you later.
JEFF: Hi , Ralph. My name's Jeff.
RALPH: Hello, Jeff.
JEFF: Look, Dick's got a bit of bother on the
the high vac unit, so, urn, you stick with me,
okay?
RALPH: Okay by me. Where are we off to?
JEFF: Hydrodesulphurization unit.
RALPH: Hydro what?
JEFF: Hydrodesulphurization unit. Tell you
what, though, Ralph - you just call it the
sweetener for now, right?
RALPH: Right. Which way is it?
JEFF: That way. Past the cat cracking plant.
RALPH: I'll be right behind you, Jeff.
JEFF: Let's go then.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. Who's responsible for Ralph's training? Why
is Ralph being trained? What's he being
trained for?
b. High vac unit = high vacuum unit. What is
the meaning of 'cat cracking plant'?
c. Why is the hydrodesulphurization unit also
referred to as the 'sweetener'? Which of the
two expressions will Ralph be using? Why?
d. Why doesn't Dick want Ralph to be with
him during work on the high vac unit?
FINISHING PROCESSES
e. Why does Dick want Jeff to keep his eye on
Ralph?
f. Which way is the sweetener? Who will arrive
at the sweetening unit first? Why?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
I ~,II 1. Reported Speech
Examples: Dick asked Jeff if he could have a
quick work with him.
• 'Can I have a quick word with you?' Dick
asked Jeff.
Dick told Jeff to keep an eye on Ralph for him.
• 'Keep an eye on Ralph for me, Jeff,' Dick
said.
Convert the following from reported speech to
direct speech.
a . Ralph asked Jeff which way the sweetener
was.
b. Ralph told Jeff that he would be right
behind him .
c. Jeff asked Dick what was up then.
d. Brian told the panel man to let him know
what the PVT readings were then .
e. Tom asked the floorman why he wasn' t
wearing his safety boots and helmet.
f. Tom asked the floorman if he knew who the
boss was.
g. Mason asked Smith if he could tell him the
difference between 'porosity' and
'permeability' .
h. Smith told Mason that he was sorry but that
he didn't know what the difference was.
i. Jack told Frank that he knew they needed
the scrubber spares but that they couldn't do
anything until the weather cleared.
j . Frank told Chris to stay away from the hatch
until he got there and to make sure the crew
were wearing muffs.
 FINISHING PROCESSES

2. Chemical Symbols 4. Passive Voice

'By catalytic cracking, this can be increased to
AlCl, aluminium chloride
95 or more, and the reformate can then be
NaOH = sodium hydroxide
blended ... .' (Section A)
Put the verbs in brackets into the same passive
The list below contains some of the other
form.
chemical symbols used up to now in this book.
a. ' Ethylene and propylene (also crack) from
Write them out in words and say what elements
wide-cut LDF.
each is composed of.
b. Alkylation (think of) aq he opposite of
cracking.
c. Low-octane-number gasoline (upgrade) by
reforming.
H,S CH, H,o Fe,o, d. Naphtha (use) as a feedstock for
CO, Pb(C,H,), Pb(CH,), HF petrochemical intermediates.
C,H 6 C,H, C,H,o C,H, e. Methane (produce) from other sources
C,H 6 H,SO, SiO, HCl _ besides oil.
CaCO, CaMg(CO,), BaSO, HOCH,Cl-l,oH

Section D
3. Sentences with should LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
'For smooth engine performance, ignition
should occur throughout the chamber 11,<=>,11
1. Refer to the illustration below while
instantaneously ... .' (Section A) you are listening to the description of the
Example: Why should ignition occur throughout cracking of naphtha.
the chamber instantaneously? .
• Ignition should occur throughout the
chamber instantaneously to give smooth engine
performance.
Answer the following in the same way.
a. Why should a trainee work with an
Heptane IC,H"I I
experienced operator?
b. Why should operators wear muffs at the pig g
receiver? : : C'Tn
c. Why should nobody smoke on the refinery
floor?
d. Why should toxic-chemicals containers carry
warnings?
e. Why should you study API measurements?

Now consider what may happen if someone

doesn '/ do what he should do.
Example: A trainee should work with an
experienced operator. If he doesn't, he may
cause a serious accident.
In the same way, write two sentences for each
of the other four Questions in the exercise above.
VOICE I: The cut between gasoline and
kerosine is naphtha.
VOICE 2: Naphtha is a straw-coloured liquid .
Like the other crude-oil fractions, it's a group
of hydrocarbons.
 FINISHING PROCESSES

VOICE 1: Each hydrocarbon molecule in the Section E

naphtha group contains between 6 and 10 WRITING PRACTICE
carbon atoms, and a number of hydrogen . - - " Purified gas

atoms. Washtower
VOICE 2: One of these naphtha-cut hydro-
carbons is called heptane. Gas rises out -
VOICE I: The chemical symbol for heptane is
C,HI6' In other words, 7 carbon atoms
combine with 16 hydrogen atoms to form one .')-,--+J
molecule of heptane. Sour gas Caustic
VOICE 2: C,H". That's heptane, a liquid recirculating
hydrocarbon in the naphtha cut. Pump
VOICE I: When naphtha is cracked, the IV
' -_ _....._ _ Fresh caustic
heptane in it is also cracked. It's cracked into -- · make~ up

gaseous fragments. Spent caustic

VOICE 2: The fragments which result from the
cracking of heptane are the gases ethylene and
propylene.
VOICE I: But ethylene and propylene gas are
only two of the fragments produced from
naphtha -
VOICE 2: - because, of course, there are other
hydrocarbons in naphtha in addition to
heptane -
VOICE I: -and when these are cracked, other
fragments result. Some are gases, others are
liquids .
VOICE 2: For the petrochemicals industry,
however, ethylene and propylene gas are the
most important fragments which result from
the cracking of heptane molecules in naphtha.
VOICE 1: Naphtha contains a group of
hydrocarbons. One of these is the
hydrocarbon known as heptane.
VOICE 2: When naphtha is cracked, the
heptane in it is also cracked -
VOICE I: - and gaseous ethylene and
propylene result.
Caustic Washing of Sour Gases
Sour gas is pumped to the bottom of the
wash tower . As the gas rises in the tower. it mixes
with a caustic solution flowing in the opposite
direction. The purified gas separates from the
caustic by rising out; and is piped away via a line
from the top of the tower. The caustic recirculates
from the bottom of the washing vessel to a pump
which charges it again to the top. An isolating
valve in the recirculation line makes it possible to
remove spent caustic. At the same time, through a
make-up line , fresh caustic can be charged to the
pump.
Purified liquid
-J--'--.---{. ) START

2. Now do this exercise based on the tape. i

recirculating
Y'SP,ent caustic
a. Describe naphtha. Fresh caustic make-up
b. Define heptane.
c. What are 'gaseous fragments'? Now use the diagram above to write a similar
d. What are C,-C, hydrocarbons? paragraph about the caustic washing of sour
e. Name three naphtha-cut hydrocarbons. liquids.
REFINERY PRODUCTS

Unit 14
kerosines and the various grades of fuel oils.
In the 1860s, when modern refinery practices

Refinery Products began, the main products from raw petroleum

Section A
READING COMPREHENSION
Read the following passage.
The fuels refined from crude' oil can be divided
into two general types: (I) fuels that are exploded,
when vapo urised with air, to provide primary
moving power, and (2) those fuels that are either
burned directly for heat and light or are converted
into secondary energy sources such as electricity .
The former type includes the aviation fuels
(Avgas, Avtag, A vtur) , industrial and domestic
gases (LPG), motor spirits, DER V, and refinery
gases). Fuels of the laller type include the ordinary
were lamp kerosine and residue for use as a lubri-
cant. Nowadays however , as we have already seen ,
about 88'70 of all crude oil ends up as fuel of one
kind or another. Considering only the finite
nature of fossil fuels, many people feel that far
too much oil is being burned needlessly. Some of
the other reasons why oil should be conserved will
be discussed in Unit 19.
ec
Q H
e CI
Vinyl Chloride
Of the remaining 12'70, just over half is refined
into petroleum-chemicals intermediates. These are
used as feedstocks in the manufacture of synthetic

[!!]

.. ..
13A i@ 250V

I II II

II II II

Primary Oil-powered Secondary

Energy Source Generators Energy Source

materials (fibres, rubbers, plastics, etc.), fer-
tilizers, insecticides, and even protein for animal
feeds. The diagram illustrates a molecule of vinyl
chloride, produced by cracking ethylene
dichloride, which is a compou[ld made by reacting
ethylene and chlorine. In the catalytic conversion
process known as 'polymerization', vinyl chloride
becomes the well-known oil-based plastic, PVC
(polyvinyl chloride).
About 5"70 of the average barrel of crude is used
in the production of a wide range of lubricating
oils and greases, waxes, solvents, and asphalt for
roads and weatherproofing. Finally, there are
commercial markets for the by-products of many
refinery processes. Examples of these are pure
sulphur, important in other areas of industry, and
the platinum in some spent catalysts.
Special Words and Expressions
former first in a preceding group of two.
aviation concerning aeroplanes and flying.
Avgas aviation gasoline, used in piston-engined
aeroplanes.
A vtag aviation turbine gasoline. In the USA,
this is referred to as 'JP 4'.
Avtur aviation turbine kerosine. In the UK, this
is also referred to as 'ATK'.
domestic for use in the home.
DERV diesel engine road vehicle (fuel).
latter last in a preceding group of two.
raw unprocessed; in the natural state.
finite having a definite end; limited.
should be conserved should be protected from
being wasted; should be saved.
fibres Cotton and wool are natural fibres.
fertilizers chemicals which are added to the soil
to help plants grow better.
insecticides poisons to kill insects.
protein basic chemical substance of all living
things. Fish, meat and soya beans are foods
which are rich in protein.
polymerization In this process, single molecules
combine to form much larger molecules. PVC
is the polymer of vinyl chloride.
REFINERY PRODUCTS
solvents compounds which dissolve other
substances.
asphalt ie., bitumen, the heaviest cut of all. In
the UK, 'asphalt' generally refers to the
mixture of crushed rock and bitumen used in
the construction of, e.g., roads.
weatherproofing protection against the weather,
eg., weatherproofing of roof tiles so that the
rain is kept out.
by-products products in addition to the main
product.
Comprehension
a. Describe the five general types of products
refined from crude oil.
b. Why should oil be conserved?
c. Explain the difference between (i) Avgas and
Avtur, (ii) PCV and PVC, (iii) asphalt and
bitumen.
d. Oil as a fuel indirectly helps the world's food
supply when it is used, for example, to
power farm tractors. Discuss the ways in
which at least three non-fuel uses of oil can
do the same.
e. Define 'fossil fuels'. Why are they described
as being 'finite'?
f. Use the following to describe briefly how
polyvinyl chloride is produced: crude -..;.
distillation -7 naphtha -7 cracking -7
ethylene -7 ethylene + chlorine -7 ethylene
dichloride -7 cracking -7 vinyl chloride -7
polymerization -7 PVC.
g. Which process is the source of commercial
sulphur in oil refineries?
h. How are alkylation and polymerization
similar? How do they differ?
i. From 1500 tonnes of crude feed at the
average large refinery, about how many
tonnes end up as fuel?
j . Has the number of refinery products
increased or decreased over the years? Why?
How do you think the product split may
change in, say, ten years from now? Give
reasons for your answer.
 REFINERY PRODUCTS
True or False?
Say whether these are true or false. Correct the
false ones.
a. The product of a polymerization process has
a higher molecular weight than the feed.
b. The first refinery products were in the lower-
boiling-point range.
c. Aviation fuels are in the lower-boiling-point
range.
d. DERV is a secondary source of energy.
e. Insecticides improve farm yields by
protecting plants from destruction during
their growing period.
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
t"",\11 1. Listen to the conversation between
'illchael and Mr. Miller, a process development
engineer at a UK oil refinery.
MILLER: You were saying something about a
list , Michael?
MICHAEL: Yes, Mr. Miller. I've li,sted here
some of the petroleum products that aren't
included under fuels and petrochemicals.
MILLER: Let's hear what you've got.
MICHAEL: Bitumen and lube oils -
MILLER: - including cutting oils and greases?
MICHAEL: Oops, I'd missed those out.
MILLER: Good idea to put them in.
~'------+.
MICHAEL: I'll do that. Cutting oils and
greases. Then, urn, the waxes.
MILLER : Paraffin and micro-crystalline, you
mean?
MICHAEL: That's right.
MILLER: And that' s all?
MICHAEL: Those are the only other products
I've ever heard about.
MILLER: Then you'll certainly be interested to
know, Michael, that we're now producing
proteins from petroleum. Right here in this
refinery. Proteins for animal feeds.
MICHAEL: Proteins? From petroleum?
MILLER: It's one of the most important new
developments in recent years.
MICHAEL: Could you tell me a little about the
process?
MILLER: Very briefly, we grow yeasts in a gas
oil feedstock. From that we get a thick yeast
cream, which is then separated and dried to a
protein-rich powder.
MICHAEL: Just how rich is it?
MILLER: Oh, about 700/0 protein content by
weight. It's nearly as rich as fish meal or soya-
bean feeds.
MICHAEL: Good grief. Animal feeds from
hydrocarbons. What next?
MILLER: Who knows? The petroleum industry
is developing fast, and in some very
interesting directions.
MICHAEL: So I see. But is it actually possible
•
PROTEINS
FOR
GAS ANIMAL FEEDS
OIL

that the chicken I ate on Tuesday had been
raised on an oil-based product?
MILLER: Possible? 'Highly probable' would be
more like it, Michael.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. Which waxes are mentioned? Which cuts can
they be produced fro m?
b. What are 'lube oils'? Which two does Miller
ask Michael about?
c. Choose the right expression: Good grief
means (i) That's good, (ii ) I' m surprised,
(iii) I'm sad.
d. Choose the right expression: 'Highly
probable' would be more like it means (i) If
you said ' highly probable' you would be
closer to the truth, (ii ) If you said ' highly
probable' you would like it more, (iii) If you
said ' highly probable' you would be more
like it.
e. Why does Miller think it is 'highly probable'
that the chicken Michael ate had been raised
on an oil-based product?
f. Describe briefly how proteins are produced
from a gas oil feedstock at Miller's refinery.
g. Just how rich is this protein powder? In a
lO-kilogram bag of it , what would the weight
of the protein be?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
II ~ II 1. Reported Speech
In the following examples, notice particularly
that both Past Simple and Present Perfect are
converted to Past Perfect. Notice also that if a
verb is already in the Past Perfect , it doesn't
change.
Examples: 'Those are the only other products
I've ever heard about ,' Michael said to Miller.
• Michael said to Miller that those were the
only other products he had ever heard about.
'Is it actually possible that the chicken I ate on
Tuesday had been raised on an oil-based
product?' Michael asked Miller.
REFINERY PRODUCTS
• Michael asked Miller if it was actually poss-
ible that the chicken he had eaten on Tuesday
had been raised on an oil-based product.
Convert the following to reported speech.
a. 'We've got a level in C lOl, Jeff. Can you
start up P103? ' Brian wanted to know.
b. 'Call in when you've started ,' Brian told
Jeff.
c. 'Has the operator phoned in to say why he
didn 't show up?' Frank asked Jack.
d. 'Bob, if you haven't finished the job by the
end of this tour, I'll ask Paul's crew to do
it,' Barry said.
e. 'I read in the changeover report that Bob's
crew hadn 't finished the job,' Paul said.
II,~,II2. Passive Voice
'Some of the other reasons why oil should be
conserved will be discussed in Unit 19.'
(Section A)
Example: Safety instructions (should obey).
• Safety instructions should be obeyed.
Put the verbs in brackets into the same passive
form.
a. Toxic-chemicals containers (should mark and
lock away).
b. Before kickoff, the angle and the compass
heading of the boltom-hole assembly (should
check).
c. Trainees (should accompany) at all times by
experienced personnel.
 REFINERY PRODUCTS
d. Fire extinguishers (should place) at locations
which are easy to reach and clearly marked
by signs and notices .
e. Muffs (should wear) by all personnel
involved' in pigging operations and other
high-noise work.
Now consider what may. happen if action which
should be taken isn't taken.
Example: Oil should be conserved. If it isn't
conserved, the world may run into serious
energy problems in a few years' time.
Write a mini-paragraph like that for each of
the five sentences you wrote in the exercise
above.
3. British and American Forms
(British) aluminium = (American) aluminum
These differences are not very great, and there
is only a small number of them, but both forms
should be learned in order to avoid confusion.
Say whether each of the following is mainly
British or mainly American, then give the
alternate form. When you have finished, discuss
any other differences you may be familiar with.
a. petrol
b. ATK
c. litre
d. gramme
e. meter
f. IP 4
g. bottoms up
h. vapor
i. paraffin (for space heaters)
J. asphalt (for weatherproofing)
k. gas (for a car) .
I. DERV.
m. bloody (eg., bloody bad job)
n. inflammable
o. boll weevil
p. hard hat
q. helicopter
r. motor spirit
s. polymerisation
t. hydrodesulfurization
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
~ ,=\II 1. Listen to the conversation between
Doug and Tim.
Generator RIG SITE Doghouse
Shack (driller's office)
DOUG: Look, Tim, let's continue this in the
dog house.
TIM: Good idea, Doug. It'll be a little quieter
there.
(They leave the rig floor for the dog house)
DOUG: Well, then. To start with, Tim, I think
I ought to say that you run a pretty clean and
tidy ship here.
TIM: Thanks, Doug. I'm glad you noticed.
DOUG: I'm a little unhappy, though, about the
fire-fighting equipment.
TIM: What seems to be wrong?
DOUG: The only fire extinguisher I've seen is
this one here in the dog house. Where are the
others?
TIM: I put one behind the door in the
storeroom and there's one behind the door in
the generator shack.
DOUG: Don't you think they should be placed
at outside locations? You get a fire in the
shack, and that extinguisher's had it.
TIM: Yes, I see your point.
DOUG: Better have them somewhere handy.
TIM: I agree with you, Doug.
DOUG: Better have them on the outside of the
buildings, right?
TIM: Right. They'll be moved by the end of
the day.
DOUG : Right. And how about putting some
signs up?
TIM: That'.ll be done, too.
DOUG: And fire drill? Do all the hands know
the drill?
TIM: Backwards and forwards, Doug.
DOUG: I'm glad to hear it. Now, how's the
hole shaping up?
TIM: Shall we have a look at the logs?
DOUG: That'll do for a start, Tim.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. The expression 'a pretty clean and tidy ship'
refers to the neatness of Tim's rig. What is
the relation between neatness and safety?
b. Why does Doug want Tim to put some signs
lip?
c. Why does Doug think that the positions of
the other fire extinguishers should be
changed?
d. What would happen to the extinguisher in
the generator shack if a fire broke out there?
e. How well do the crew memLJers know the fire
drill? What word does Doug use for 'crew
members'?
f. How are 'ought' and 'shouid' similar in
meaning? How do they differ in structure?
g. Is Doug the Drilling Superintendent or the
Safety Officer? How do you know?
Section E
WRITING PRACTICE
Synthetic Ethanol (ethyl alcohol)
Ethanol is a widely-used solvent, particularly for
substances which are not water-soluble. Natural
ethanol is produced by fermentation, ie., the
chemical process which yields CO, gas as a by-
product when carbohydrates, yeast and water are
left to react.
Using the flow diagram below, write a descrip-
tion of the production of synthetic ethanol.

1
CEthanOI

f..- __ _ 1------
1-- __ _ ----
I

----
CRUDE
FEED f..----
Naphtha Condenser 1'-----

1 1 Water

Cracker

Ethylene

Phosphoric (P) Acid Catalyst

Water
mixer 1><1
3OO'C
 SAFETY

oil-producing country in the Middle East, eight

Unit 15 members of a workover crew were killed instantly

Safety wl- , 0 the gas-compression unit they were prepar-

ing to overhaul suddently blew up. Accidents such
as this are very rare, however, and in general the
petroleum industry has an excellent safety record.
This is due entirely to careful training and to the
Section A discipline that most companies insist on.
READING COMPREHENSION

INO NAKED LIGHTS I IBELTS ONI

ie., Safety belts must be worn
ie., Elements used to produce light

IDSD I
must not be open to the .
surrounding air
ie .. Disaster Shutdown
Read the following passage.

The winning, production , transport and refin-

ing of oil can be hazardous. The first thing which IFIRE ONLVI ·
should be taken into consideration is the terrible ie., This equipment is not for any other use
flammability of petroleum and petroleum pro-
ducts. All hydrocarbons that boil at less than

ieJ~~~~~>
250°C are volatile; ie. , at normal temperatures
they will produce, or exist as, vapour. Together
with air, this vapour can easily form a mixture
which is explosive within the limits of proportion: where smoking is permitted
just one spark , in the wrong place at the wrong
t ime, and lives may be lost. For this reason, oil
companies provide detailed safety regulations con-
cerning the use of lights, smoking materials,
IKEEPOUTI
ie., Do not enter
welding equipment, etc., and employees who do
not obey these regulations run the added risk of
being dismissed.
Petroleum is frequently won under physical
IHANDSOFFI
ie., Do not touch
conditions which can endanger the workers in-
volved. The workers who are most vulnerable are Three out of every four injuries suffered in the
those who are inexperienced or untrained, but oil industry are caused by falling, eg., on wet or
even old hands may be seriously injured in a mo- greasy walkways, from masts, ladders, scaf-
ment of carelessness. Oily and muddy floors, fast- folding, etc. Many other accidents involve burns,
moving items of equipment, high-powered tools most frequently from non-oil-product sources.
and sudden overhead hazards all demand constant Temperatures higher than IOOO°C (in some con-
alertness; especially in the extreme conditions of version processes) and lower than - 160°C (in the
such places as Siberia or the North Sea. Extremes liquefaction of natural gas) are not uncommon. In
must .aiso be considered relative to the upper addition to these hazards there are toxic chemicals
working limits of machinery such as power units, and gases, caustics, strong acids, and in some
pumps and compressors. A few years ago, in an cases even radioactive materials. There should be

signs and notices to give warning of these dangers,
to instruct workers in safe procedure, and to give
information about what should be done in case of
emergency.
Special Words and Expressions
regulations rules which must be obeyed .
welding joining metallic parts by heating; eg.,
oxyacetylene welding, electric-arc welding, etc.
dismissed discharged from his job or position;
fired. In many oil companies, employees who
disobey safety regulations can be fired without
notice, ie., given one or two weeks' pay and
told to leave .
vulnerable capable of being injured easily.
old hands experienced personnel.
constant continuous; unchanging; not
decreasing .
alertness being aware of possible danger and
being ready to meet it.
extremes extreme conditions.
compressors machines designed to apply
pressure to gases in order to reduce their
volume. Gases are highly compressible; liquids
are not .
workover repairs to a production unit. A work-
over rig is a special rig for repairing wells
after a period of production.
to overhaul to replace or repair damaged or
worn-out parts of existing machinery.
blew up exploded.
discipline system of punishment (eg., dismissal)
to ensure that regulations are obeyed .
masts A 'mast' is the tower-like part of a rig .
scaffolding temporary platforms at height for
workers to stand or sit on while doing a job.
liquefaction liquid ~ liquefy-3>liquefaction.
Liquefied natural gas consists mainly of
methane and is commonly referred to as
LNG, which should not be confused with
NGL (natural gas liquids, ie., ethane and
heavier cuts).
radioactive sending out alpha, beta or gamma
rays. Uranium (U) is a radioactive element.
SAFETY
Gamma-ray and neutron-gamma ray
equipment is used to log boreholes.
Radioactive Source
Comprehension
a . Explain the relation between accidents and
the following: (i) oily floors, (ii) fast-moving
items of equipment, (iii) sudden overhead
hazards.
b. Which added risk is run by employees who
disobey safety regulations? What is the
primary risk?
c. Why is a boll weevil more vulnerable than an
old hand?
d. When floormen aren't very busy (eg., when
the rig is WOC, waiting on cement) certain
safety regulations are more likely to be
broken than at other times. How?
e. Why must workers be more alert in such
places as (i) Alaska, (ii) the North Sea?
f. Define 'limits of proportion'.
g. What is the relation between safety and
(i) discipline, (ii) signs , notices and warnings,
(iii) protective clothing?
h. What is the difference between NGL and
LNG?
i. Safety procedures are designed to protect not
only you, but the crew members you work
with as well. How?
j. Discuss this statement: 'The basis of safe
procedure is clear communication. '
Choose from these words to complete the
paragraph below: flammable, dismissal, non-
sparking , discipline, movements, disobey ,
fighting, hazards , permitted , handy, safe,
masks, intoxication, vessel, authorised,
forbidden, regulations.
 SAFETY
Safety on the Refinery Floor.
Fire. explosion and ... are the main refinery
... , and ... is therefore important in ensuring
that safety ... are obeyed. Refinery workers who
... may be subject to ... or loss of pay. In most
areas of the refinery floor . cigarettes. matches.
lighters and tobacco are ...• and before any
special work is done the supervisor may insist on
the use of ... tools. No worker is ... to enter a
... if the in-lines have not been isolated or
blocked off. Entry to operating units is limited
to ... personnel. and for this reason a record is
kept of the ... of all operators. In areas where
there is toxic or ... gas, gas ... must be worn
even when the area has been declared ... by a
chemist. Fire- ... equipment should always be ...•
and wherever possible no operator should be
allowed to work alone.
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
' ~,II 1. Listen to the conversation between
Gibson and his Safety Officer, Mr. Keller.
VOICE: Hey. Gibson.
GIBSON: What's up?
VOICE: Safety Officer wants to see you.
GIBSON: Where?
VOICE: Over by the LPG compression unit.
GIBSON: Okay. I'm going.
(He goes over to the LPG IInit)
GIBSON: Mr. Keller.
KELLER: I'll be brief, Gibson . Can you read
that sign?
GIBSON: Yes.
KELLER: Then read it for me. please.
GIBSON: 'No entry except to authorised
personnel' .
KELLER: Do you understand what it means?
GIBSON: I can read English, Mr. Keller.
KELLER: Then what were you doing in there on
the back shift yesterday? There's a report here
in the log about it.
GIBSON: Oh, that. Well, we were going to vent
gas, you see-
KELLER: - and?
GIBSON: There was some welding going on
over by the new crude tanks. I think they were
setting up some grounding equipment .
KELLER: So?
GIBSON: The superintendent told me to get
over there fast and stop the welding.
KELLER: And you took a shortcut through this
restricted area.
GIBSON: Well, you know. I was told to be
quick about it.
KELLER: The super would have waited until
you reported back. wouldn't he?
GIBSON: He would have. yes.
KELLER: Then you should have gone around
this area instead of through it. shouldn't you?
GIBSON: I suppose I should have. Mr. Keller.
KELLER: You should have, but you didn' t. In
future. Gibson, do so. will you? There are no
shortcuts where safety is concerned.
Understood?
GIBSON: Understood.
KELLER: Right. then. Back to your job.
Gibson.
2. Now do this exercise based on ·the tape.
a. Grounding equipment (also called 'earthing'
equipment) is designed to carry electric
charges safely away. Why is it necessary to
ground crude storage tanks?
b . Why was Gibson told to stop the welding?
c. How did Gibson get to the area where the
welding was going on? How should he have .
got there? Why?
d. What does Gibson say he understands?
e. Why is it necessary to restrict some refinery
areas to authorised personnel?
f. How does Keller know that Gibson went
through this area?
g. Who put Gibson's name into the log? Why?
h. What sort of discipline does Gibson receive?
i. What does Keller mean by saying that ' there
are no shortcuts where safety is concerned'?
J. Why does Keller ask Gibson to read the
sign?
 . SAFETY

Section C c. Nobody should confuse LNG with NGL.

STRUCTURE PRACTICE (not confuse)
d. Nobody should permit welding when gas is
being vented. (forbid)
~,~\II 1. Do you remember this sentence from e. Nobody should allow trainees to work alone.
the tape? (accompany)
'Then you should have gone around this area f. Nobody should leave fire doors open. (keep
instead of through it, shouldn't you?' closed)
Examples: You (wear) your gloves .
• You should have worn your gloves.
He (work) with someone experienced.
• He should have worked with someone
experienced.
Do the following in the same way.
a. You (close) that valve as soon as the order
came through.
b. Before he started to climb the scaffolding, he
(put on) his safety belt.
c. You (mark) the container 'toxic' .
First Aid
d. You (clean up) that spilled can of dope.
e. You (check) the compass heading before you
kicked off.
g. Nobody should keep first-aid equipment
Now consider what might /could/ would not locked away. (open and clearly-marked
have happened if someone had actually done cupboard)
what he should have done. h. Nobody should ignore safety notices. (not
Example: You should have worn your gloves. If ignore)
you had worn them, you wouldn' t have burned i. Nobody should leave work areas messy or
your hands so badly. dirty. (tidy and clean)
Write a mini-paragraph like that for each of j . Nobody should leave tools lying around
the other five sentences in the exercise above. where others may trip over them. (not leave)

2. Passive Voice Section D

Examples: Nobody should waste oil. (conserve) LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
• Oil should be conserved.
Nobody should give instructions that are not 1,= ,11
1 1. Listen to the conversation between
clear. (clearly) Jackson and Mr. Sharp.
• Instructions should be given clearly. SHARP: Jackson.
Use the words in brackets to rewrite the JACKSON: Yeah, Mr. Sharp?
following. SHARP: 'Yeah'? What do you mean, 'yeah'?
a . Nobody should disobey safety regulations. Get rid of that cigarette. Now.
(obey) JACKSON: Anything you say, Mr. Sharp.
b. Nobody should position fire extinguishers SHARP: Let's have you in the dog house. Com.
where they can't be reached quickly and on.
easily . (handy) VOICE I: He's for it now.
 SAFETY
VOICE 2: Well, he should.have known better ,
shouldn't he?
(Sharp and Jackson leave the rig floor)
SHARP: Jackson, This is the second time I've
caught you smoking. I warned you last time -
JACKSON: - aw, we're only W.O.C., Mr.
Sharp.
SHARP: Forget it. Last time I said there
wouldn't be a second warning, didn't I?
JACKSON: But there are gas sniffers all over the
place.
SHARP: So what? You're no boll weevil,
Jackson.
JACKSON: . I' m not all that green, no.
SHARP: Then you should know better,
shouldn ' t you? W.O.C.? Gas sniffers? What
kind of crazy excuses are those? No smoking,
Jackson , means no smoking. Full stop.
JACKSON: Look, I'm sorry, Mr. Sharp. It
won't happen again.
SHARP: I know it won't. You're fired.
JACKSON: What?
SHARP: You heard me. You're fired. I'm not
risking the lives of my whole crew just
because you can't obey the no-smoking rule.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a . Choose the right expression: He's for it now
means (i) He approves of it (ii) He's in
serious trouble (iii) He should have known
better.
IMIND YOUR HEAD!
~RADIOACTIVE SOURCE!
PIG APPROACHING !
b. Why does Sharp get angry when Jackson
says 'yeah'?
c. Why should Jackson have known better?
d. How did Jackson find the time to smoke?
e . A 'gas sniffer' is an instrument which detects .
dangerous gases and sounds an alarm. Why
does Sharp think that the presence of gas
sniffers is a crazy excuse for smoking?
f. Why does Sharp fire Jackson? Would a
toolpusher or a supervisor do the same in
your company?
Section E
WRITING PRACTICE
.Signs & Warnings
!KEEPAWAV!
A sign which says 'Keep Away' indicates that
a certain area should not be approached by
unauthorised personnel. A notice such as this
might be found , for example, near equipment
which is faulty and has become hazardous, or in
front of scaffolding where there is a danger of ob-
jects falling from a height.
Now write similar paragraphs fo r the safety
notices below.
IHANDS OFF!
!HOTWORK!
!CORROSIVE!
 WAYS OF IMPROVING RECOVERY

Unit 16
serious worldwide oil shortage by the mid-1980s.
Even if, in a more favourable situation, the

Ways of Improving
Middle East oil-producing countries doubled their
output , there would still be an oil-supply crisis by

Recovery
the mid-1990s. The graph may at first seem to
indicate that Our present oil reserves will probably
last for at least another seventy years; but the
graph is based on a recovery factor of 1000/0, and
Section A
it also includes coal. The average efficiency of
READING COMPREHENSION
recovery is in fact only about 30-50'70 of the OIP
Read the following passage. as a maximum, and for this reason both govern-
ments and private industries are hard at work on
It is now generally bel ieved that there could be a R&D programmes to improve these figures .

Q = 25,000 million Tonnes of oil

15
Q

2056

>
~ I
~

I
Q,

::.
~
10
Q
0
u.
~
•0
~
'0
C
•E
~

"!'"> 2099

/
,2130
c
~
5 /i

V
"'
:!2
Q
I

/-
/
<; / I
:;: ,,/ I

V--
// I

- -- -
I

-
........ ...................
I
f.-' I
0.25Q
o
~ 1---
~ 1- -
1------I-- ~--- ----- -----i-r--- f..' J: ----...
I
I
1975 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100 2125 2150 3000

5% population growth
2% population growth, developing notions industrialize
- - - - - 2% population growth, no charge in energy demand
- - - - - no growth in world energy demand
WAYS OF IMPROVING RECOVEoRY

Artificial/itt to operate . Later, systems of artificial lift were

developed for recovering oil from reservoirs in
which the natural-drive energy had been depleted,
Pumping jack
as well as for recovering oil which, from the begin-
Ho<se ne,ad-- ' ning, did not have sufficient energy to flow to the
surface.
Waterflooding

Offtake well Injection well

Suck"e,r~____---------
Rods-

Pump
Assembly - ------11
(O.w.C .1

Gas Injection

• • •---0 Oil & gas to separator

Gas under-;.==
pressure

The term 'primary recovery' refers to the oil
which is producible under natural-drive condi-
tions. In the early days of the industry, production
was limited entirely to the oil which could be
recovered by allowing primary drive mechanisms
Techniques were next developed to force more
oil out of the pore spaces of reservoir rock by
direct displacement with other fluids. Oil which is
recovered by these methods is referred to as
'secondary recovery'. The most widely-used
 WAYS OF IMPROVING RECOVERY
secondary recovery methods are waterflooding
and gas injection, which imitate the primary pro-
duction mechanisms of water drive and gas-cap
drive.
Due to a number of complicated factor s (eg .,
reservoir pressure, porosity, permeability, oil
viscosity, etc.), waterflooding and gas injection
cannot increase primary recovery by much more
than an average 10-20"70 of the OIP. Since the
1950s, petroleum chemists and physicists have
been working on ways to improve the displace-
ment efficiency of injection fluids. The advanced
recovery processes which use these improved
fluids are referred to by many oilmen ·as EOR
(enhanced oil recovery), although some prefer to
call them 'tertiary recovery' techniques. A few ex-
amples are the injection of carbonated water (CO,
in HP), and caustic/ alkaline and polymer/caustic
floods. Although EOR methods give better sweep
efficiency and mobility ratio , more than half of
the OIP may still be left behind in the ground.
Special Words and Expressions
crisis difficult situation of emergency requiring
immediate decisions about the future .
recovery factor percentage of oil which can be
won.
efficiency An efficient process yields the
maximum result for the minimum· effort. In
physics, efficiency is the relation between total
energy input and useful energy output.
OIP oil in place in the reservoir. The adjective
'original' is often used with this term to
indicate that the oil referred to is the volume
in the reservoir before the start of production.
hard at work working hard.
R&D research and development.
depleted lessened in quantity or in force .
waterflooding process in which water is pumped
to a formation in order to increase recovery.
injection forcing fluid into a formation in order
to improve the drive mechanism.
imitate reproduce; produce a copy of.
enhanced improved; made greater.
alkaline An alkali is a water-soluble salt
containing a high proportion of potassium (K)
or sodium carbonate (Na,CO,).
sweep forcing oil through reservoir-rock pores
towards offtake (production) wells.
mobility ralio relation between the flowrate of
the injection fluid and the flowrate of the
reservoir crude.
Comprehension
a. What information does the graph give about
the years 2099, 2130 and 3000?
b. Which is more likely, an oil shortage by the
mid-1980s or an oil-supply crisis by the
mid-1990s? How does the reading passage
give this information?
c. Could the Middle East oil-producing
countries double their output? Should they
do so? If not, why not?
d. Define (i) primary recovery, (ii) secondary
recovery, (iii) tertiary recovery, (iv) enhanced
recovery.
e. What is the difference between 'drive' and
'lift'?
f. What is the 'mono favourable situation'
referred to in the passage?
g. Is it likely that fossil fuels will last until the
year 3000? If not, why not? Relate your
answer to the graph.
h. OIP = 10' barrels. Recovery factor = 30"70.
About how many barrels will probably be
recovered?
i. In addition to the 'OIP and the recovery
factor, what other factors would a reservoir
engineer have to take' into consideration in
order to calculate the recoverable oil reserves
of a particular reservoir?
j. 'The cost of an injection programme at
present must be considerably lower than the
value of the oil produced.' Why? Could this
present economic fact ever change? If you
think it could, explain .how.
Choose from these words to complete the
paragraph below: considerable, aquifer,
WAYS OF IMPROVING RECOVERY
sufficiently, break through, trapped, original,
mobilise. producing, displaced, driven, zones .
If a trap consists of a relatively large gas cap
in addition to the oil and water ... , gas may ...
to the ... wells before the pressure has dropped
... to ... a high proportion of the ... water.
Then, if any ... volume of gas is produced, some
of the oil which is later .. . by water may be .. .
into the gas cap area where it will be ... even if
the water front later passes through it.
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
\1 ,:=;11
1. Listen to the conversation between
Gordon and Don.
~ Injection Well
o Offtake Well
N b. What does Don wish he could do? Why?
III
/ / Reservoir
I / .
/1/11
W E
s f. What is the volume of water that the
Reservoir periphery Peripheral injection pattern
GORDON: Gordon here.
DON: Gordon, this is Don. Are you busy?
GORDON: Busy? Well no , Don , not exactly
busy. What I'm trying to do is work out the
recoverable reserves, that's all.
DON: How's it going?
GORDON: Oh, just fine. Fine. Wonderful, in
fact.
DON: It doesn't sound so wonderful.
GORDON: I'll tell you what, Don . You give me
some figures for the OIP and the recovery
factor, and I'll tell you in five minutes what
the recoverable reserves are.
DON: I wish I could, mate.
GORDON: So do I. Anyway, what's on yo ur
mind?
DON: It's about the water flood and the
injection wells, Gordon.
GORDON: Problem?
DON: Not really . It's just that, in order to get
an input of 500,000 barrels a day from this
peripheral pattern, we think we'll have to
increase the number of injection wells from 21
to 25 .
GORDON: Then you have got a problem there,
Don.
DON: Well, just a tiny one.
GORDON: Where do you want to discuss it?
My office, or yours?
DON: Here, if that's okay with you.
GORDON: I' ll be along in a moment, Don.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. What' s Gordon trying to do? Is he finding it
easy? If not , why not?
c. What does Gordon wish Don could do ?
Why?
d. Choose the right expression: I'll go along
with that means (i) I want to go along, (ii) I
agree, (iii) I'll go where that goes.
e. What is a 'peripheral injection pattern'?
company plans to inject? What will have to
be done in order to meet this target?
g. Why will it be necessary to treat the water
before it is injected? Where will the water be
treated?
h. Is this reservoir onshore or offshore? What
makes you think so?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
1. Abbreviations
OIM = Offshore Installation Manager
Write out what each of these abbreviations
stands for: EOR, PVC, PCV, WOC, OWC,
WOW, ATK, AVTAG, AVTUR, AVGAS,
LNG, NGL, LPG, R&D , TEL, TML, LDF,
IV, DERV, OIP, DSD.
 WAYS OF IMPROVING RECOVERY
2. In the paragraph below, ·replace the
expression s in italics with"suitable passive form s
and make any other changes -that are necessary .
All important application of secondary
recovery techniques is in reservoirs in which
production has depleted natural forces. These
may be reservoirs which oilmen developed
before oilmen used modern techniques, and
oilmen are in jact developing a number of old
fields in just this way. Offshore, however, the
terms 'primary't 'secondary' and 'tertiary' no
longer have a clear meaning when oilmen apply
them to recovery methods. Oilmen must
maintain reservoir pressure from the start of
production, and all mechanisms of recovery and
displacement are now very ad vanced. Soon ,
perhaps, oilmen will use only the term 'enhanced
recovery' .
3. Choose the right words.
If conditions are (favourable / unfavourable)
a carefully-planned water (flooding / flood) can
result in a considerable (increase / decrease) in
(recovery / producible / recoverable) as
compared to the volume of oil which could be
produced by, (ie. / eg.), a (simple /
complicated) (solution-gas / gas-solution / gas-
soluble) (sweep / dri ve / lift). Waterflooding
alone, however, may be (efficient / efficiency /
inefficient) due to a number of (facts / factors),
the most important (from / of / to) which is oil
viscosity. When the oil viscosity is very (high /
low) and the (mobilise / mobile / mobility) ratio
is therefore (favourable / unfavourable), the
sweep (efficient / efficiency / inefficient) of a
(flooding / flood) can be very low, as in the case
of highly (waxy / greasy) oils. The result of this
is that (producible / produced / recoverable)
water (cuts / fractions) rise to (economic /
comrriercial / uneconomic) values before
(sufficient / sufficiently) additional recovery has
been obtained. One technique for (dissolving /
solving) this problem is the application of heat
to the (upper / middle / lower) part of the
(offtake / injection) well , so that the formation
temperature in the vicinity of the well is
(increased / decreased). This results in (a / an)
(reductio n / increase) in oil viscosity and (also /
as well as) greater efficiency of (enhancement /
displacement) by water. Processes such as this
are known as (temperature / th.ermal /
thermo meter) reco very processes .
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
~ 1. Listen to Gordon and Don again as
they discuss some of the disadvantages of CO,
injection.
GORDON : . .. right , we don't disagree on the
ad vantages of CO, injection , but what about
the disadvantages?
DON: Okay. Let's hear ·your views, then.
GORDON : Well , let's start off with the cost of
CO, . We've got base price, plus
transportation, plus compression to the
pressures we'll need.
DON : By far the biggest cost there is
transportation.
GORDON: And transportation costs are going
up all the time.
DON: Yes, that's a point.
GORDON: In addition, CO, alone isn't going to
give us sufficient sweep efficiency.
DON: I' m aware of that. And I've already said
that CO, slug followed by alternate water and
CO, injection -
GORDON : - will give us a reasonable mobility
ratio?
DON: You know it will, Gordon.
GORDON: I also know that CO, with water
forms carbonic acid. Corrosion, Don,
corrosion.
DON: We' ve got the alloys to keep it to a
minimum.
GORDON: And they're expensive. And we're
going to need dual injection systems.
DON: Are you suggesting that we just stay with
improved water flood?
GORDON : No. I'm suggesting that CO,
injection needs more research.
WAYS OF IMPROVING RECOVERY

2. Now do th is exercise based on the tape. the USA stood at 216 irillion cubic feet , which is
a . Carbonic acid = H ,CO J • Steel is an alloy of equivalent to 6.1 trillion cubic metres. In that par-
iron and carbon. What is the relation ticular year, this was a 9.3"7. share of the total
between the carbonic acid that Gordon world natural gas reserves.
mentions and the alloys that Don refers to?
b. Why will dual injection systems be required? Write similar paragraphs for the other countries
c. Gordon mentions four disadvantages of CO, and areas.
injection. What are they?
d. What system of CO, injection does Don
think will give a reasonable mobility ratio?
e. Why does Don prefer improved water flood?
Is he completely against CO, injection? How
do you know?
f. What position do Gordon and Don hold in
the company? What makes you think so?

Section E
WRITING PRACTICE

At the end of 1976, proved oil reserves in the

USA were 4.8 thousand million tonnes, which is
equivalent to 37.3 thousand million barrels . This
represented a 5.7"7. share of the total world oil
reserves. At the same: time, natural gas reserves in

Hydrocarbon Reserves, end 1976

OIL NATURAL GAS

'000 SHARE ' 000 lO" SHARE 10 12

MILLION OF MILLION CUBIC OF CUBIC
TONNES TOTAL BARRELS FEET TOTAL METRES
COU NTRY! AREA

USA 4.8 5.7"7. 37.3 216 9.3"7. 6.1

CANADA 1.0 1.2"7. 7.8 58.3 2.5"7. 1.6
S. AMERICA 4.7 5.1"70 33 .6 90.3 3.9"7. 2.6
W. EUROPE 3.3 3.8"7. 24.9 142.4 6.1 "7. 4.0
MIDDLE EAST 50.0 56.3"7. 367.3 535.9 23.0"7. 15.2
AFRICA 8.1 9.3"7. 60.6 209 . 1 9.0"7. 5.9
USSR 10.7 12.0"7. 78.1 918 39.5"7. 26.0
E. EUROPE 0.4 0.5"7. 3 10 0.4"7. 0 .3
CHINA 2.7 3.1 "7. 20 25 1.1 "70 0.7
 UNCONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF OIL

growth-rate of 5OJo a year, world oil consumption

Unit 17 doubles every fifteen years. At 6-8%, it doubles
every ten years. Stated another way, the problem
Unconventional is this: on historic growth-rates, the world will use
up as much oil in the next 10-15 years as it has us-
Sources of Oil ed up in the last hundred years. Realising this, the
oil-exporting organisations such as OPEC have
put up their prices and restricted production in an
attempt, among other things, to reduce consump-
Section A
tion so that reserves can be made to last longer.
READING COMPREHENSION The immediate results of this have been the
familiar oil crises of the 1970s, but it has also forc-
World Oil Discovery and Consumption Rate ed most oil-importing countries to take action on

:I
oil conservation. There is good reason to believe,
however , that ultimate world oil reserves are
healthier than many people imagine.
! The graph above and the data in the table on
page 95 do not include the oil which , it has .been
estimated, can be recovered from the world's
abundant deposits of oil shale, tar sand and coal.
The technology for the production of synthetic oil
It from these unconventional sources is already well-
:;;
f:':
.::
~

f:': known and is continually being improved. Syn-

:0
thetic oil production costs were uneconomic until
'"c
~
-E' I/' '. } _:" :, :.¥] Estin,ated
quite recently; but as the price of conventional oil
has risen, so the relative production costs of syn-
§ thetic oil have become more competitive.
:::' The Athabasca tar sands in the province of

10 ,\ ,
• : i- ~ Alberta, Canada, are the richest source of syn-
thetic oil yet discovered. These deposits underlie
[, )" , an area of 12,000 square miles at an average depth
of about 53 feet. Huge excavators are used to strip
5
,> , off the overburden and dig the tar sand out, in
rather the same way that a shallow deposit of coal
"::;,, , "',,"
,
- i': j might be mined. This is an extremely unsatisfac-
tory method, however, and the Canadians are
1920 1930 1940 195 196 1970 1980 HOO therefore developing in-situ extraction methods
which will be cheaper, more efficient, and far less
polluting.
If all synthetic-oil sources are taken into con-
Read the following passage. sideration in addition to conventional sources.
world oil reserves rise to the equivalent of about 5
Oil-discovery rates are declining, and with them trillion tons of wellhead crude. At a worldwide
so too are oil reserves. The cause of this, as the energy growth-rate of 5% a year, this would be
graph indicates, is simply that oil is being consum- enough to last more than two hundred years at
ed faster than it is being discovered. At an energy present levels of technology.
UNCONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF Oil
Special Words and Expressions
historic based on a study of history.
oil-exporting selling oil to other countries.
OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting
Countries. OPEC was formed in 1960, and by
1979 the member countries were: Abu Dhabi,
Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran,
Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, Venezuela.
restricted placed within certain limits.
crises This is the plural of 'crisis'.
oil-importing opposite of 'oil-exporting'.
ultimate absolute known maximum.
data items. of factual information. The singular
form 'datunl' is rarely used.
abundant relatively plentiful; in good supply.
oil shale type of sedimentary rock containing
hydrocarbons locked into its structure.
tar sand a naturally-occurring semi-solid mixture
of sand, bitumen and water.
unconventional differing from the usual or the
expected.
competitive capable of comparing favourably,
eg .. in price, performance. etc.
in-situ in the original place or position; in the
place where it is found.
polluting causing the environment to become
dirty or poisonous. If a river is badly
polluted, the fish in it may die.
equivalent equal in quantity, value, etc .
Comprehension
a. What is wrong with present tar-sand
extraction methods in Alberta? Are they
likely to be better anywhere else?
b. About how many tonnes are there in 10 12
tons?
c. Describe the relation between rising
conventional-oil prices and the increasing
competitiveness of synthetic oil.
d. How does the strip mining of Canadian tar
sands pollute the environment? Would
similar operations be permitted in your own
country? Why? .
e. What 'other things' (Section A) may be
achieved by raising the price of crude on the
world market?
.f. If the price of a particular product is
uncompetitive and has to be lowered, what
might have to be done about its costs? How
might this be achieved?
g. What would have to happen to cause
ultimate world oil reserves to rise?
h. Reserves can never be known for certain;
they can only be estimated. Why?
I. At present, where is Canadian synthetic
crude extracted? How is it refined?
j. What is the difference between the way iIi
which oil is contained in reservoir -rock and
the way in which it is contained in oil shale?
Choose from these words to complete the
paragraph below: uneconomic, factors, small ,
pay Qut, dusters, accumulation, accumulations,
required, nearest, minimum~ exploratory, profit,
regarded, recoverable, equivalent.
Natural hydrocarbon ... may contain anything
from a few thousand barrels of ... oil to
thousands of millions of barrels. One million
barrels, or an ... volume of gas, is generally ...
as the smallest ... which can be produced at a
.... In the United States in recent years, nine out
of ten ... wells have been ... , and only one in
forty has found as much as the ... million
barrels. The ... size of a reservoir which is worth
developing depends on a number of ... such as
the distance to the nearest pipeline, drilling and
production costs, the market value of oil, etc. A
field which could not possibly ... if it were
located in the North Sea might be highly
profitable of it were located, for example, in the
Middle East. Of course, fields which are ... at
today's costs and prices may be worth
developing in the future.
Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
I 1. Now listen to the Canadian oilmen,
II ,~
Blain and Harry, as they describe the Athabasca
operations .
BLAIN: As you can hear from the noise behind
us, this is a very big operation we're funning.
HARRY: Those machines behind us are
excavators. They're stripping off the
overburden and digging out the tar sand.
BLAIN: From here, the tar sand is transported
to our synthetic-crude plant. It's treated with
hot water to release the bitumen locked up in
the sand.
HARRY: After that, the bitumen can be
cracked into kerosine, naphtha, light gases
and gas oil.
BLAIN: . Now, at present, we're producing only
60,000 barrels a day, but we've got plans to
boost that to half a million barrels a day by
the early 1980s.
HARRY: That may sound like a lot, but it isn't
so very much when you consider that the
sands contain about 900 billion barrels of oil
in the form of bitumen.
BLAIN: Nine hundred billion barrels are really
tremendous reserves. You might like to
compare Our 900 billion barrels with Saudi
Arabia's proven reserves of only 132 billion
barrels.
HARRY: The problem that we have, though,
that Saudi Arabia doesn't, is this open-cast
mining.
BLAIN: In the first place, open-cast mining is
costly and polluting. But in addition to that, it
only lets us recover 10 or 12"70 of the bitumen
in the ground.
HARRY: ' That's why we're trying to get away
from it. We're working on in-situ extraction
methods like, urn, thermal recovery and steam
stimulation.
BLAIN: In-situ extraction would just about
double our production rate. It would boost it
to about a million barrels a day.
UNCONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF Oil
HARRY: At a 'million barrels a day, these tar-
sand reserves would last for over 300 years.
BLAIN: So you can easily understand why
we've got such a big R&D programme going.
HARRY: With a possible recovery rate of a
million barrels a day, the energy future of all
of North America could depend on the tar
sands of Alberta.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. What's another expression for 'open-cast
mining'? For what three reasons do Blain
and Harry think that open-cast mining is
unsatisfactory?
b. How do the Athabasca reserves compare
with Saudi Arabia's proven reserves?
c. Why are the Canadians running such a big
programme of research and development?
d. Which in-situ extraction methods are being
worked on? What's the difference between
them?
e. Describe briefly how the Canadians are
making gasoline from their tar-sand deposits.
f. Suppose that a recovery rate of 100"70 is
achieved. At half a million bpd, how long
will the Athabasca reserves last?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
1. Phrasal Verbs
, .. . a field which could not possibly payout .... '
(Section Bl)
Refer to Exercise 3, page 41, then choose
from the following phrasal verbs to complete the
sentences below: wear away, go on, kick off,
shape up, build up, hose down, stand back,
blow up, tie up, look after, make up of, end up.
a. SBMs allow tankers .. . and load in the open
sea.
b . Eight men were killed when the gas-
compression unit they were working on
suddenly ....
c. There was some welding ... over by the new
crude tanks, so ~n operator was sent to stop
it.
d. About 88"70 of all crude oil ... as fuel of one
kind or another.
e. A thribble .. . three singles joined together.
f. Trainees should ... by experienced personnel.
g. How;s the hole ... ?
h. When the inclinometer readings had been
checked, the hole ....
I. At the moment, the angle ... at 1 V, o/100m.
j. When the pipe is being tripped, stands ... in
a corner of the rig floor.
k. Parts of the valve assembly ... by sand
particles, so spares were immediately
ordered.
1. Roustabouts sometimes do nothing more
interesting than ... the rig sides and
equipment for hours at a stretch.
2. Passive Voice
'The cause of this, as the graph indicates, is
simply that oil is being consumed faster than it
is being discovered.' (Section A)
Rewrite the following in passive voice .
a. Petroleum research workers are developing
in-situ extraction techniques for the recovery
of synthetic crude from tar sands.
b. Oilmen are continually improving the
technology for the production of oil from
unconventional sources.
c. The present oil-reserves problem is simply
that consumers are consuming oil faster than
the oil companies are discovering and
developing new oil accumulations . .
d. As technologists are improving oil-recovery
technology, reservoir engineers are
continually upgrading recoverable reserve
estimates.
e. Oil-exporting countries are restricting oil
exports in aq. attempt to conserve stocks .
II ~ Ii 3. Reported Speech
'Those machines behind us are excavators,'
Harry explained.
• Harry explained that the machines behind
them were excavators.
 UNCONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF Oil
'They're stripping off the overburden and
digging out the tar sand: he said.
• He said they were stripping off the
overburden and digging out the tar sand.
Convert the following to reported speech.
a. 'The tar sand is transported to our synthetic-
crude plant: Blain said.
b. ' It's treated with hot water to release the
- bitumen locked up in the sand : he said.
c. 'After that,' Harry explained , 'the bitumen
can be cracked into kerosine , naphtha , light
gases and gas oil.'
d. Blain said, 'At present , we're producing only
16,000 barrels a day, but we've got plans to
boost that to half a million barrels a day by
the early 1980s.'
e. 'Although it sounds a lot : Harry added, 'It
isn' t so much when you consider that the
sands contain about 900 billion bartels of oil
in the form o f bitumen .'
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
II ,~,II 1. Listen to Keith and Liz as they discuss
the report given by Harry and Blain.
KEITH: One of the oilmen said that the energy
future of all North America could depend on
the tar sands of Alberta.
LIZ: It was said that the Alberta tar sands
could provide a million barrels of oil a day
for over 300 years.
KEITH: Now, that sounds like wonderful news,
but just exactly what do a million of barrels
of oil a day mean? How far do a million
barrels of crude oil go?
LIz: Not very far at all, the way some people
are burning it up . Did you know, for
example, that in the single month of May,
1978, automobile owners in California alone
used up over a billion gallons of gasoline?
KEITH: At that rate of use, a million barrels of
crude a day is no more than a drop in the
ocean.
LIZ: Some day in the future, the Alberta tar
sands may very well be providing a million
barrels of crude a day-
KEITH: - and these supplies may indeed last
for over three hundred years -
LIZ: - but that doesn't mean that the
automobile is going to be with us that long .
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a . [f, on average, a barrel of crude yields 35 US
gallons of gasoline, what was the equivalent
in crude that the Californians used up in
May, 1978?
b. About how many gallons of gasoline could
be produced from the daily produc tion of the
Alberta tar sands?
c. What's the first thing that Californians
should do to conserve oil?
d . Do Keith and Liz believe that cars will
continue to be used as long as the tar-sand
reserves last? If not, why not?
e. What's the meaning of the expression 'a
drop in the ocean'? Why does Keith use it?
Section E
WRITING PRACTICE
Notice how the paragraph below has been built
up from the data in the graph on page 96.
Between 1920 and 1925 , the world oil discovery
rate was about seven thousand million barrels a
year. This rose to just over ten thousand million
barrels between 1925 and 1930, but it dropped by
approximately seven thousand million barrels a
year between 1930 and 1935. [n the period bet-
ween 1920 and 1930, oil consumption was relative-
ly steady at about two thousand million barrels a
year, but it went up by an annual rate -of about
five hundred million barrels a year between 1930
and 1935 .
Now write about the 1935-75 period.
OIL & THE ENVIRONMENT

Unit 18
The perfect combustion of pure hydrocarbons
produces only carbon dioxide and water as by-
products, but fuel impurities, additives and
Oil & general engine inefficiency will usually combine to

The Environment
form pollutants . The sulphur component in fuel
oil, for example, is converted by combustion into
sulphur dioxide (SO,), which, as it rises in the at-
mosphere, combines with water particles to form
Section A sulphuric acid. Later, dilute H,SO, actually falls
as rain. Some oilmen jokingly point out that this is
READING COMPREHENSION
bad for fish, but good for farmer s who have soil
Read the following passage. which is acid-poor. A refinery which burns 4 x 10'
tons/ yr of fuel containing 2"7o/ wt sulphur will
Environmental pollution by oil takes many dif-
ferent forms. but the ones we read about in OUf emit about 8,000 tonnes of SO, per year, which is
newspapers are not the primary cause of the an average of 1,000 kg/ hr.
damage. Disasters such as the Amoco Cadiz acci-
dent, or the terrible spill near Santa Barbara,
California, are very rare, and the evidence in- Load on Top
dicates that the resulting harm to the environment
is relatively short-term. The most damaging
Empty tanks washed with seawater
source of pollution is simply the combustion of oil
products for fuel, and most of this could be avoid-
ed if governments were prepared to legislate the
necessary controls. Needless to say, the privately-
owned automobile is the main factor in the oil-
pollution problems of most 'western' countries.

Clean water
is pumped out
All washings pumped
into one tank & allowed
to settle

i: ' ": ; : : : '

.. ,' The primary cause of the pollution of the
oceans by oil is neither blowouts (such as the one
on Ekofisk Bravo) nor tanker spills, but the
deliberate discharge of tank washings on the open
sea. By. insisting on the use of the Load on Top
system , tanker operators could easily prevent this
sort of pollution, and some countries have recent-
Combustion
of Fuel Oil
ly introduced special laws and heavy fines to force
them to do so.
Mop-up gear Special Words and Expressions
disasters events which cause destruction.

- - -~
~-
evidence something that gives clear indication or
- - - -
proof of something else .
short-term not lasting a long time.
- to legislate to make laws about.
containment
boom
-
-
oil slick dilute made weaker by mixing with another
substance.
jokingly in a manner intended to be funny.
will emit will give off in chimney smoke.
deliberate on purpose; not accidental.
tank washings dirty mixture of water and oil
from tank -cleaning operations .
fines A fine is a sum of money which must be
paid as punishment for breaking a law.
dispersants chemicals which break up spilled oil
sprayboom~ / .
into tiny droplets so that it spreads out widely
and disappears.
dis persant/ mop-up gear gear (equipment) for cleaning up
oil spills mechanically . In the UK, mop-up
breaker boa rds gear and dispersants are tested at the Warren
Spring Laboratory (WSL).
- - -- - ,lIl---\ biodegradation breaking down of substances by

-y
skimmer
I I the action of single-celled organisms. Some

boom
s-
boom
bacteria eat oil.

Low-toxicity dispersants and relatively effec-
tive mop-up gear are now available for the treat-
ment of accidental spills at sea. A year after the
Amoco Cadiz had broken up off the Brittany
coast, the nearby beaches were back to normal,
basically because most of the 223,000 tons of spill-
ed crude were either cleaned up at sea or dispersed
naturally and harmlessly by evaporation, sedimen-
tation, biodegradation, etc. Natural dispersion,
which can get rid of 80-900/0 of a major spill at
sea, is discussed in Listening Comprehension II,
Unit 20.
Comprehension
a. How might refinery emissions destroy
flowers in a park?
b. Why have most governments not legislated
the necessary controls over pollution
resulting from the combustion of oil
products for fuel?
c. Why have some countries introduced fines
for the deliberate discharge of tank washings
at sea?
d. In the Load on Top system, where are the
washings discharged?
e. Why does the writer use the expression
'needless to say' when pointing out the
relation between oil-pollution and privately-
owned cars?
f. Why does the combustion of hydrocarbons
for fuel produce pollutants? How could this
be prevented?
OIL & THE ENVIRONMENT
g. Do you think that constant unnecessary noise
is a form of pollution? What other forms of
pollution would you expect from a refinery
built before, say, 1965? Why are newer
refineries generally cleaner?
h. Which is worse, VLCC spills or the practice
of discharging washings directly into the sea?
Why? Which of the two gets more space in
newspapers? Why?
i. Which components in a crude spill do you
think would be dispersed by (i) evaporation,
(ii) sedimentation, (iii) biodegradation?
j. Why do containment booms and skimmers
work best when the sea is calm?
True or False?
Say whether these are true or false . Correct the
false ones.
a . Natural dispersion is good when the weather
is bad.
b. Many operators will not use the Load on
Top system unless they are forced to .
c. One country's pollution problems are the
concern of all countries.
d . Some farmers are glad when dilute sulphuric
acid falls as rain.
e. The greater the efficiency of an engine, the
fewer the unburned hydrocarbons in the
engine's exhausts.
S ection B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
II!~! ~ 1. Listen to the conversation between Liz
and Mr. Goss, an expert in oil-pollution control
methods.
Goss: So you see, the equipment we' ve
developed for cleaning up oil spills can really
be pretty effective.
Liz: Pretty effective, but still not perfect, Mr.
Goss .
Goss: Well, no, I admit there are a few
technical difficulties we've got to get over.
Liz: Such as those you mentioned in
connection with containment booms and
skimmers, for example.
Goss: Those, and the development of better
chemical dispersants. But we're working on
them.
LIZ: But just how far are you succeeding?
Everywhere one looks, the oil on the beaches
seems to be getting worse all the time. And
there must be a great many blowouts and
tanker spills that we don't even hear about.
Goss: Now that's an interesting point.
Because, you see, much of this pollution
doesn't come from accidents such as blowouts
and tanker spills.
Liz: Doesn't it?
Goss : No, and.,jJechanical cleanup can ' t do
much about it, either.
LIZ: Then where does the pollution come
from?
Goss: From the deliberate discharge of tank
washings on the open sea.
LIZ: Then oil companies should stop it.
Goss: Certainly we should. And some of us
have. My own company stopped it years ago.
LiZ: How?
Goss: With the Load on Top system .
Liz: The Load on Top system? Is that
effective?
Goss: Yes, very effective.
Liz : Then why hasn't Load on Top put an end
to this kind of pollution?
Goss: Because some oil carriers just will not
use it.
Liz: But they should be forced to.
Goss: Well, yes, but how are you going to do
that without international co-operation?
Liz: International co-operation. That would
solve so many of our problems, wouldn't it?
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. Should operators use Load on Top? Why?
Do they use it? Why? Does Goss's company
use it? Why?
b . What is the relation between international
co-operation and pollution problems?
c. What is Goss's company working on? Why?
 OIL & THE ENVIRONMENT

d. Why isn't mechanical cleanup effective
against the open-sea discharge of tank
washings?
e. What are the 'certain technical difficulties'
that Goss refers to?
Section C
I= ,11 1. Reported Speech
' Is the Load on Top system effective?' Liz
asked.
Liz asked if the Load on Top system was
effective.
Convert the following to reported speech.
a. 'Very effective,' Mr. Gass answered.
(Mr. Goss answered that it was ... ).
b. 'Then why hasn't Load on Top put an end
to this kind of pollution?' Liz then wanted to
know .
c. 'Because some oil carriers just will not use
it,' Mr. Goss explained. (Mr. Goss explained
that it was because ... )
d. 'They should be forced to,' Liz replied.
e. 'Yes , but how are you going to do that
without international co-operation?' Mr.
Goss asked Liz.
e. The toxicity of chemical dispersants (should
carefully test).
3. Choose the right words.
The Load on Top system is a (process /
procedure) in which the washings from all
(departments / compartments) in the ship are
(hold / held / holding) in one tank instead of
(to be / being / been) pumped overside. The
washings in this tank are allowed to settle,
leaving (dirty / clean) water in the (top /
bottom) and a layer of oil at the (top / bottom).
When the (contains / contents) have settled, the
(dirty / clean) water is discharged to the sea,
leaving only (oil / water / oil and water) in the
(top / bottom). The (incoming / outgoing) crude
is then loaded. into the tanker in the usual way .
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
1,=,1]
1 1. Listen to the conversation between
Michael and the man he talks to in Los Angeles.

1
1
,= 1 2. Passive Voice
Most of this could (avoid) .
• ' .. . most of this could be avoided ... .'
(Section A)
But they should (force) to use it.
• 'But they should be jorced to use it.' (from
the tape)
Put the verbs in brackets into similar passive
forms.
a. Pollution problems (could solve) if there Polluta,nts in exhaust emmissiora
were better international co-operation.
b. Refineries (should design) to be clean and MAN: Welcome to Los Angeles, friend.
quiet. MICHAEL: Good grief. I can't breathe. What's
c. Unburned-hydrocarbons emissions (would wrong with the air around here?
reduce) if engine efficiencies were increased . MAN: That's our famous Los Angeles smog.
d. Tank washings (should discharge) only into MICHAEL : Smog? It's more like - it's more
special holding vessels at tanker terminals . like soup.
OIL & THE ENVIRONMENT

MAN: Yeah, well, it's not ordinary smog, see, b. What is the difference between ordinary
it's photochemical smog. Our atmosphere's smog (smoke + fog) and photochemical
got a lot more in it than just air and plain old smog?
smoke. c. Is the sun shining? How can the man tell?
MICHAEL: Like what? d. In the car-pool system, three or four people
MAN: Oh, unburned hydrocarbons, carbon get together and agree to drive to work each
monoxide, sulphates, lead compounds, and, day in one car, thus leaving two or three cars
urn , some other chemicals [ can't remember. at home. What is the relation between this
MICHAEL: Is it always as bad as this? system and air pollution?
MAN: Only when there's no wind, and the sun e. Why are children and old people told to stay
is shining. at home during first-stage pollution?
MICHAEL: The sun is shining? Now? f. Why is there such a big traffic-congestion
MAN: Yeah. And there's no wind. You can problem in LA?
tell, see, from the smog . If there was any g. Which pollutants does LA smog contain?
wind, it would blow away. Probably. How is 'each of them formed.
MICHAEL: Where does it - where does it
come from?
MAN: From our traffic congestion here, Section E
mostly. We've got 4Y, million cars in this part WRITING PRACTICE
of California.
SLICK
MICHAEL: And when the smog gets like this,
Breaker boards
what do you do?
MAN: We tell the children and the old people
to stay at home. Indoors, you know. They're
warned not to go out.
MICHAEL: You're joking.
MAN: No, I'm - not. And this is only first-
stage pollution. At second-stage pollution we
shut down some of our factory production,
too. ==:±==;r==b==- - - Spray boom
MICHAEL: Good grief, this is terrible. My eyes
are starting to burn.
MAN: So are mine, a little . But I live here, see,
so I don't notice it so much. Seawater
charged to
MICHAEL: What are you Los Angeles people pump
going to do about this pollution?
MAN: The car-pool system , friend. That will
solve the problem.
MICHAEL: When?
MAN: When? Good question. When - when,
urn, eve!ybody agrees to start using the car- Dispersant tank
pool system, I guess.

2. Now do this exercise based on the tape. Use the diagram above to write a paragraph
a. Why does Michael say that the smog is 'more describing how clean-up boats apply chemicals
like soup'? to disperse oil slicks.
 Oil CONSERVATION

Unit 19
buildings, and restricted outdoor public lighting
are just a few of the steps that Americans have

Oil Conservation
taken or are now seriously considering in order
to solve their short-term oil-supply problems.
Parallel to these indirect measures, a great deal of
work is being done on improving the efficiency of
automobile engines (so as to boost average mpg)
Section A
READING COMPREHENSION and on utilizing the products of combustion which
Oil & Natural Gas
are usually lost to the atmosphere. An example of
Tonnes Oil the latter is the system known as 'co-generation'
of power; ie., using the waste heat from factories,
hospitals, apartment buildings, etc. to generate
electricity at power plants built on site . Co-
generation is already providing about a third of
West Germany's electricity. Additional oil could
be conserved if electricity supplies were increased
by the expansion and improvement of existing
hydroelectric power stations.
As costs to oil-importing 'countries are pushed
up by the energy crisis, old oil becomes more pro-
fitable to the countries that export it. In some

USA w. EUROPE JAPAN AFRICA

Read the following passage.

The world's oil supplies will one day run out.

To postpone that day, several countries have
already introduced oil-conservation policies and
legislation. It would be un/air, as the graph in-
dicates, to expect every nation in the world to cut
down on oil consumption, but certainly no nation
should allow oil to be wasted.
Until recently, the unnecessary burning of oil
was worst in the USA. There, between 1976 and
1978, an average of 56"70 of all crude oil was refin-
ed for sale as motor-car gasoline, but only about
20% of that was for essential transportation. A
55 mph speed limit, weekend closing of petrol
stations, controls on the temperatures in public
buildings, compulsory insulation of new public
Oil CONSERVATION

cases this has led to overproduction, which can
cause severe reservoir-engineering problems and
even a reduction in recoverable reserves. Ex-
cessively high production rates in reservoirs
operating under water drive can result in coning
and the loss of a considerable volume of oil left
behind in the less permeable parts of the reservoir.
Special Words and Expressions
to postpone to put off; to put farther into the
future .
policies special methods of action designed to
help in decision-making .
unfair not properly considering the rights of
others.
to cut down on to reduce.
mph miles per hour.
compulsory demanded according to law.
insulation Insulation keeps buildings warmer in
winter and cooler in summer by reducing the
exchange of heat between inside and outside.
measures steps which are taken to ensure the
desired result.
so as to in order to.
mpg miles per gallon.
utilizing discovering a new use for.
old oil producible oil which was discovered a
relatively long time ago.
excessively to an unacceptable amount or
degree.
Comprehension
a. What does the graph tell us about oil-
consumption habits in the USA, Western
Europe, Japan and Africa?
b. Re-draw the graph as you would like it to be
for 1995 and give reasons for the changes
that you make.
c. Explain 'world energy crisis'.
d. Why would it be unfair to expect every
nation in the world to cut down on oil
consumption? Does your country have an
oil-conservation policy? If not, why not?
e. Do you agree that 'no nation should allow
oil to be wasted'? Give reasons for your
answer.
f. Describe the relation between oil
conservation and each of the following: (i) a
55 mph speed limit, (ii) weekend closing of
petrol stations, (iii) better average mpg, (iv) a
maximum indoor heating temperature of
65 °F, (v) turning off unneeded lights. Why
does it say in the passage that these are
'indirect' measures?
g. Is the car-pool system of any help in the
conservation of oil? Why? Would the system
make much difference if it were introduced
in your country? Why?
h. Should the insulation of all private buildings
in the USA be compulsory? If not, why not?
If you think it should be, say how poor
people might be helped to pay for it.
i. How can rising world oil prices result in the
loss of recoverable reserves?
j. How could oil be conserved if hydreelectric
power stations were bigger and more
efficient?
True or False?
Say whether these are true or false. Correct the
false ones.
a . People are generally more unwilling to
conserve oil when its price is high than when
its price is low.
b. The more electricy that can be produced by
hydroelectric power stations, the more oil
will be needed for fuel-burning power
stations.
c. Engines of increased efficiency help to
conserve oil by delivering more useful output
for the same fuel input.
d. If coal replaces electricity-generating fuel
oils, lower clean-air standards will have to be
accepted.
e. There is one simple solution to the energy
problem.

Section B
LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
[I ~ I[ 1. Listen to Hilary and Leon as they
describe oil-conservation measures in the USA.
HILARY: Here in the States, we've just got to
do something about the oil we're wasting in
these huge cars of ours.
LEON: The need for conservation is easy to
recognise, but very few Americans today are
conservationists.
HILARY: And neither are most people in the
western world, when you come right down to
it.
LEON: The trouble is, most people won't listen
when they're asked to conserve oil. So , they
just have to be told.
HILARY: Our government has recently
introduced a new law to try to do just that.
LEON: This new law of ours is designed to
boost the mpg average.
HILARY: In boosting average mpg, car makers
here are going to have to increase engine
efficiency.
LEON: And they're going to have to do it
pretty fast, too. The law says that the average
mpg for all new cars has to go up to 20 by
1980, and up to 27 .5 by 1985.
HILARY: We conservationists feel that that's a
step in the right direction, but we would like
to see the government do a whole lot more .
LEON: For one thing, we believe there should
be laws for the insulation of all buildings,
both public and private.
HILARY: And for another thing , we also feel
that there's a need to control the way that
thermostats are used.
LEON: Here, when it's cold, people aren 't in
the habit of wearing extra clothing indoors.
Instead, they just go and turn their
thermostats up .
HILARY: Habits like that have got to change.
If they don't change, we're going to run out
·of oil long before we've had time to develop
alternative energy sources.
Oil CONSERVATION
LEON: That's why we conservationists are
saying, 'Don't waste oil'.
HILARY: Don ' t waste it. Conserve it.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. Why do Hilary and Leon think that oil
conservation measures should be
compulsory?
b. Choose the right expression: When you come
right down to it means (i) When you come
down to it on the right, (ii) When you tell
the whole truth, (iii) When you are right
coming down to it.
c. What's a thermostat? How is it used? What
is the relation between thermostats and oil
conservation?
d. Discuss the ways in which American oil-
consumption habits differ from those in your
country.
e. Why does Hilary begin by referring to 'huge
cars'?
f. Are you a conservationist? Why?
g. What does Hilary think is ' a step in the right
direction'? What ' direction' is she talking
about?
h. What do Hilary and Leon want to prevent
from happening?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
1. Prefixes
Compare the following prefixes to those you
studied in Units 8 and 10: im-, non-, multi-,
dis~, under- , un-, hydro- de-, mono-, multi-, re-,
semi- , poly- , mini-, non- , over- , by-. short- , in-,
out- , bio-, en-.
Add suitable prefixes to the following words
to complete the sentences below: lie, put,
experience, train, danger, sure, degradable,
term, sulphurise, bit, submersible, directional,
burden, return , efficient, product, able,
circulate, necessary, gas, drill, cut, satisfactory_
a. . .. water particles in gas vapour can cause
the formation of troublesome hydrates.
 Oil CONSERVATION
b. A ... pig can be positioned in the pipe in
only one position.
c. The Athabasca tar sands ... an area of
12,000 square miles. Average depth of ... is
about 17 metres.
d. Efficiency measures total energy ... against
useful energy ....
e. The purpose of fire drills is ... that all
personnel know. exactly what to do in case of
emergency.
f. Some components in oil slicks are ... and will
therefore be dispersed organically .
g. Oil is frequently won under physical
conditions which can ... the workers
involved.
h. Present tar-sand extraction methods are ...
because they are costly and polluting.
I. From the regenerator I caustic ... to the
reactor via the feed line.
j . Gibson shouldn'thave taken that ... through
the restricted area.
k. The mud ... unit is designed to treat gas-cut
mud, thus helping to control its specific
gravity.
I. A boll weevil is an ... oilfield worker.
m .... valves allow flow in one direction only .
n. Conservation of oil is a ... measure because
supplies will one day simply come to an end.
o. The generation of electricity from oil is ... ,
converting only 20/0 of the fuel into a usable
energy form.
p. . .. are built to work in much deeper water
than fixed rigs or jack-ups.
q. When a fish has been cemented over, the
hole .. . past it.
r. Constant ... noise is a form of pollution.
s. Ear defenders ... men to work in high-noise
areas.
t. Carbon monoxide, a deadly poison, is a ...
of the combustion of motor-car gasoline.
u. ". are used when it is necessary to run a
drilling assembly through the inside of pipe
in the hole . They cost about $4000 each.
v. . .. is a process for the removal of sulphur
from oil products, in the presence of
hydrogen.
2. Choose the right words.
The fluidized-bed method of burning coal,
when it (will be I has been) perfected, will make
combustion (more I less) efficient and cut (up
on I down on I in on) (polluting I pollutants).
Basically, the method (involves I revolves I
dissolves) burning a (solution I mixture) of
(crushed I cracked I broken) coal and sand
(intended I depended I suspended) in a (tower I
mast I column) of air (outside I through I
inside I near) a (poly- I hydro- I super-) hot
container. The (manner I way I method I
measure) takes (its I it's I eats) name from the
(known I know I fact) (who I which I that) the
(solid I liquid I fluid) particles (involved I
rev91ved I dissolved) behave similarly to a fluid.
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
II = i 1. Listen to the conversation between
~-
Chuck and Jimmy about overproduction
problems.
CHUCK : Have you seen this report from the
South American job?
JIMMY: Yeah, I saw it this morning.
CHUCK: Well?
JIMMY: Don't get so angry about it , Chuck.
CHUCK: Why shouldn't I get angry? It took us
three wildcats to establish that reservoir -
JIMMY: -sure, Chuck, sure-
CHUCK: - one of which was a duster. And
after all of that, they send us this.
JIMMY: Take it easy.
CHUCK: Jimmy, we warned them to keep their
production rates down.
JIMMY: They probably thought the aquifer
would give them high offtake all the way
through.
CHUCK : Oh they did, did they. Well, look
where it's got them. Pressure drops, fingering,
and two out of six wells watered out.
JIMMY: I think the watered-out wells were
completed too near the OWe.
CHUCK: Maybe you do, but I don't, Jimmy.
 OIL CONSERVATION

JIMMY: So let's hear your opinion. production rates down?

CHUCK: Simple. The oil's just too viscous to c. Define a 'watered-out' well.
be moved that fast by water. d. How do Chuck and Jimmy disagree about
JIMMY: That's why you think they're getting the cause of the problem?
this coning? e. Why is Chuck going to suggest a shut-in?
CHUCK: I don' t think, I know. f. Choose the right expression: Take it easy
JIMMY: What are we going to suggest? means (i) Get excited, (ii) Don't get excited,
CHUCK: A shut-in. Every well in the place. (iii) Get it easily.
JIMMY: And then? g. Should Chuck allow himself to get angry?
CHUCK: We'll have to get working on a Explain why.
secondary recovery programme.

2. Now do this exercise based on the tape. Section E

a. A wildcat is a well drilled in search of new WRITING PRACTICE
oil. What is the relation between this fact
and Chuck's getting angry? Use the flow diagram below to write a
b. Why was the warning given about keeping description of thermal cracking.

A
Gas

• Crude
Condenser

y Ga saline

/
Flash Chambe~ 1---
""

f.---... r-....
1 --- A
./

I~ I ,.. Column
t---
>-,...
Reaction
chamber
f- - - -
Furnace

Fuel Oil '1"./ Distillate

Heavy Oil
 INTO THE FUTURE

Unit 20
the environment, some scientists warn of a
'greenhouse effect'; ie., the possibility that so

Into the Future

much CO,would be poured into the atmosphere
that heat would be prevented from escaping into
space. The scientists who believe this also warn of
three theoretical consequences: (I) warming of
the earth, (2) melting of the polar ice caps,
Section A (3) flooding of the world's seacoast cities.
READING COMPREHENSION
All but one of the alternatives to fossil fuels are
OOOOr--------------------------- at present limited in their location by geographical
D OlL factors, and for this reason a great many
technological breakthroughs will have to be made
P&,;qjSOLID FUELS
before a satisfactory solution to the energy pro-
oooo' ~-------------------------­
,----- blem can be found. Solar radiation , for example,
is of little use as an alternative to oil in those coun-
.,c 4000 tries in the extreme north and south, and a con-
m
> ventional hydroelectric power station cannot very
..
"3
OJ well be built in a desert.
ENERGY
..
"0
0
e
3000
e
0
l-
e
~ 2000
E
Deutedum
~
r Helium 3
(PXP)
~ '.. \ I / / /1!:!J
1000 FUSION
p = Proton

Deuterium/ /
--- /
---
I \" ~
N = Neutron

Read the following passage.
Oil stocks can be conserved only if the pattern
of consumption over the past quarter of a century
is changed . This will basically involve a return to
coal as the primary fossil-fuel energy source and
the development of alternative energy sources .
Although the economics of switching back to coal
improve as the price of crude increases, it should
be remembered that coal is a dangerous fuel to
mine and a dirty one to burn. In a study sponsored
by the Ford Foundation, it is estimated that a new
coal-fired plant produces between two and twenty-
five fatalities a year in the coal-mining industry in
the USA. Concerning increased coal-burning and
~ @
The only alternative energy source which is
relatively unrestricted geographically is nuclear
power, produced in fission reactors fuelled by
uranium 235 extracted from the ore known as
'pitchblende'. The main disadvantages of fission
reactors are that they produce dangerously
radioactive waste and that they depend for fuel on
a limited natural resource. Nuclear energy is also
released, however, in the process of fusion, which
may be thought of as the opposite of fission; ie.,
the combination of the nuclei of light atoms to
form a heavier atom. Fuelled by deuterium, fusion
reactors could provide energy without producing
dangerous waste, and the fuel source would last
for millions of years. Unfortunately, nuclear fu-
 INTO THE FUTURE

sion requires a temperature of 100 million °C, and Europe dropped from 82"70 to 32"70 of total
no known material can stand up under such condi- fuel consumption. Why?
tions. e. How does the 'greenhouse effect' get its
name?
Special Words and Expressions f. What sort of breakthroughs will have to be
made before controlled fusion processes
switching back returning.
become available?
sponsored paid for and supported.
g. Why is it a disadvantage of fission that it
coal-fired using coal as the fuel. Compare 'oil-
depends for fuel on a limited natural
fired' boiler, 'kerosine-fired' stove , etc.
resource?
fatalities accidents causing death.
h. What other alternatives to oil do you know
greenhouse building with glassed walls and roof
about? Discuss their advantages and
in which plants are grown.
disadvantages.
polar relating to a geographical pole .
i. Why is the fuel source for fusion so
breakthroughs A breakthrough is a sudden and
abundant?
important advance in technique.
j. Say how the daily habits of those who live in
solar relating to the sun.
industrialized countries will have to change
nuclear relating to the nucleus of an atom, ie.,
as the pattern of fuel consumption changes.
to the positively charged part in the centre,
consisting of protons and neutrons (except in
Choose from these words to complete the
hydrogen). The plural of 'nucleus' is 'nuclei'.
paragraph below: provides, conserved, generate,
fission splitting the nucleus of a heavy atom to
supply, alternative, policies, fissioning, bbl,
form two lighter atoms.
limited, fuel, equivalent, power.
ore inorganic deposit which is mined for its
The ... of atoms cannot ... automobiles or ...
metallic content; eg., iron ore, copper ore,
camping stoves, although these may become
etc.
possible in the very distant future. Nuclear
deuterium isotope of hydrogen, having twice the
power today can be used only to ... electricity.
mass of ordinary hydrogen and occurring in
As an ... to oil the usefulness of nuclear power
water. Isotopes of ordinary atoms differ in
is therefore .. . , although the amounts of oil that
their physical properties.
can be ... are considerable. In the United States,
can stand up can continue to function without
for example, nuclear power now ... the energy
being damaged or destroyed.
. .. of one million .. . of oil per day. Under
present ... , it would ... three times that amount
Comprehension by 1990.
a. How might increased coal-burning lead to
the flooding of the world's seacoast cities?
b. Suppose that the year you're living in now is Section B
1995 and the switch back to coal began in LISTENING COMPREHENSION I
1975. Draw a graph to show how the oil /
solid fuels ratio might have changed. 1,= :11 1. Listen to the conversation between
c. Explain the difference between (i) an isomer Michael and Dr. Stone; an atomic scientist.
and an isotope, (ii) cracking and fission, STONE: Fusion's the answer, not fission. I
(iii) alkylation and fusion. want to see the end of nuclear power stations
d. How do the economics of switching back to based on fission. You see, for fission you
coal improve as the price of crude increases? need uranium. But just like our oil reserves,
Between 1950 and 1970, coal burning in our reserves of uranium are limited too. But
INTO THE FUTURE
above all, we must remember that fission
produces dangerous radioactive waste. It's
waste that can't be destroyed.
MICHAEL: What can be done with it?
STONE: The only thing we can do with radio-
active waste is leave it in a safe place until it
stops being radioactive. The trouble is, that
can take a thousand years or more.
MICHAEL: And what abour nuclear fusion?
STONE: Nuclear fusion is the process that
creates the tremendous energy output of the
sun, and there are far greater and safer
reserves of energy in nuclear fusion.
MICHAEL: But what are we going to do for
fuel?
STONE: Deuterium, which is a form of
hydrogen, is just the fusion fuel we need, and
it's contained in seawater.
MICHAEL: In seawater?
STONE: If the nuclei of two deuterium atoms
can be made to combine, tremendous amounts
of energy will be released. What's more, the
fusion of deuterium nuclei won't produce
radioactive waste.
MICHAEL: But why aren't we using fusion as a
source of energy today?
STONE: I can tell you in just one word:
temperature. Nuclear fusion requires a
temperature of 100 million degrees
Centigrade. Somehow the fuel's got to be
contained at that temperature, but "no material
that we know of can stand up against such
heat. So, since materials can't keep fusion
under control, we're trying to develop
techniques that will be able to do it.
MICHAEL: When do you think you'll succeed'!
STONE: Oh, within the next 30 or 40 years, I'm
sure. And then we'll have enough fuel reserves
to last for millions and millions of years. You
see, the deuterium in one cubic meter of
seawater will give us as much energy as 60
tons of oil. What we need is time.
MICHAEL: What should we be doing
meanwhile?
STONE: We should be conserving the energy
sources we've got. Especially oil.
2. Now do this exercise based on the tape.
a. What are the problems with radioactive
waste?
b. How will the temperature problem in fusion
reactors be solved?
c. What does Dr. Stone feel is needed? Why?
How does he think we can get it? Why?
d. Choose the right expression: What's more
means (i) In addition, (ii) More is what,
(iii) What is more important.
e. What does Dr. Stone believe to be the main
disadvantage of fission reactors? Why? Do
you agree with him? Why?
Section C
STRUCTURE PRACTICE
1. Passive Voice
Put the verbs in italics into suitable passive
forms and make any other changes that are
necessary.
The world ultimately derives all energy from
the sun. People can immediately utilize some of
this energy in the form of heat in the sun's rays,
in the evaporation and precipitation of water,
and in the winds. The growth of vegetable
matter absorbs some and makes it available to
us in the form of food, or over a relatively short
period in the form of fuels from wood which
people burn directly or turn into charcoal. For
thousands of years man depended on these
forms of energy for all his needs, and progress
was slow. With the development of fossil fu.els,
men and women speeded up progress. People
could write the history of industrial development
and higher standards of living in terms of
commercial energy. In the next stage of energy
development, people will have to re-creale the
original process of energy generation through
nuclear fusion.
2. Reported Speech
Convert the following to reported speech .
a. 'If the nuclei of two deuterium atoms can be
made to combine,' Dr. Stone explained,
'tremendous amounts of energy will be
released. What's more, the fusion of
deuterium nuclei won't produce radioactive
waste.'
b. 'But why aren't we using fusion as a source
of energy today?' Michael asked.
c. 'I can tell you in just one word:
temperature,' Dr. Stone replied. 'Nuclear
fusion requires a temperature of 100 million
degrees Centigrade . Somehow the fuel's got
to be contained at that temperature, but no
material that we know of can stand up
against such heat. So, ' he went on to say,
'since materials can't keep fusion under
control, we're developing techniques that will
be 'able to do it.'
d. 'When do you think you'll succeed?' Michael
then asked.
e. 'Within the next 30 to 40 years, I'm sure;
Dr. Stone said. 'Then we'll have enough fuel
reserves to last for millions of years. The
deuterium in one cubic meter of seawater will
give us as much energy as 60 tons of oil.
What we need is time.'
3. Choose the right words.
Reservoir oil (usually / never / sometimes)
contains large volumes of (gas / liquid / solid /
fluid) which (contract / compress / expand) as
the pressure (rises / falls) when the (gas /
liquid / solid / fluid) flows to the surface. The
(gas / liquid / solid / fluid) must be separated at
the wellhead (before / after) the oil is pumped
ashore through the pipeline, and this can be a
serious production problem. If the (GOR /
OIM / ESD) is (high / low) it may be possible
to (conserve / utilize) the (gas / liquid / solid /
fluid) for running (power / energy / force) units
on the platform. If the (GOR / ATK / RKB) is
(high / low), however , there (may / should /
would) be millions of (square / cubic) feet of
(sufficient / surplus) (gas / liquid / solid / fluid)
per day. Not so long ago, this (sufficiency /
surplus) (may / should / would) probably have
been flared, but (flared / flaring / flare stack)
cannot be considered today in view of the waste
of valuable (power / energy / force). If there is
(sufficient / sufficiency / surplus / added) (gas /
liquid / solid / fluid) to make the (lying /
layi ng) of a pipeline (economically / profitably)
possible, then this (may / should / would /
could) be done.
Section D
LISTENING COMPREHENSION II
IlEii I 1. Listen to this description.
JACQUES: There are five processes in the nat-
ural removal of oil from the surface of the
sea.
MARIE: The first of these is evaporation. The
lighter components in the oil evaporate quite
quickly.
JACQUES: Secondly, we should note that some
of the lighter hydrocarbons are also soluble in
water. In this way, a certain amount of the oil
disappears in solution.
MARIE: Added to this, there is a third natural
process at work. This third process is wave
action. The action of the waves breaks the oil
into droplets, and the droplets are rapidly
dispersed .
JACQUES: Rapid dispersion of the oil droplets
assists the fourth natural process,
biodegradation. It should be noted that biode-
gradation also affects the hydrocarbons in
solution .
MARIE: The fifth natural process is
sedimentation. A certain percentage of the oil
simply sinks to the bottom of the sea.
JACQUES: And those are the five processes
which are involved in the natural removal of
oil from the surface of the sea.
 INTO THE FUTURE

2. Now explain the relation of each of the fol- Section E

lowing to the natural dispersion of oil spills at WRITING PRACTICE
sea:
a. evaporation. Write a paragraph ' to describe each of the
b. disappearance in solution. energy resources illustrated below. Describe
c. wave action. (i) how each is utilized, (ii) the importance of each
d. biodegradation. relative to the others, and (iii) how this relative
e. sedimentation. importance may change. Conclude each
paragraph with a brief explanation of the
resource's advantages and disadvantages.
Index of Special Words and Expressions
The entries in bold face have either special relevance to the oil industry (eg., barite) or unique application
within it (eg., fISh). The number after each entry refers to the Unit in which the word or expression is first
glossed or illustrated.

absolutely 5 bore 2 conversion 12 distillation II

absorb 10 borehole convert 12 distribution 4
abundant 17 boltoms up corrode 10 divert 6
accumulation 6 bOd 3 crackate 13 dolomite 3
acid 7 break out 2 cracking 12 domestic 14
acidizalion 7 breakthrough 20 crisis 16 dope 9
acrylics 12 BS& W 11 cri tical temperature 10 double 9
additive 13 bubble cap II crown block 1 downst ream II
aerial su rvey 3 build up 8 crude 4 drain 8
afternoon tour 9 buoy II crude train 11 drawworks I
alerlness 15 butane 5 crush I drill bit I
alka li 16 bul)'lene 12 cut 11 drill collar 5
alkalin e 16 by·product 14 cut down on 19 driller 1
alkylation 13 cutters 2 drilling crew
aluminum cable-tool system 3 cullings I drilling fluid
ancient 3 calcium I drill pipe I
annulus 7 capi tlary 4 data 17 drill ship 8
API 9 cap rock 3 datum 17 drive 7
API barrel 12 casing 2 daylight tour 9 droplet 5
aquifer 7 casing shoe 2 degasser 10 dry gas 5
artificial lift 16 catalyst 12 dehydration 10 OS 8
asphalt 14 catalytic cracking 12 deisobutanizer 13 dull I
assembly 6 calalytic reforming 13 deliberate 18 dummy trip 6
associated gas 5 cnthead 9 density 4 duster 3
ATK 14 caustic/ alkaline flood 16 depleted 16
Avgas 14 caustic washing 13 derrick I efficiency 16
aviat ion 14 COU 11 derrickman 9 elevator 9
Avtag 14 cho ke 7 desalination 10 emil 18
Avlur 14 choke line 6 deuterium 20 enhanced 18
Christmas tree 7 deviate 8 enhanced recovery 18
bag prevenler 6 column 6 deviated well 8 environmenta l 8
barite 6 column 9 diameter 2 EOR 16
barrel 3 combus tible II diamond bit 8 equivalent 17
base 7 combus tion 11 diesel oil 10 ESO 11
bentonite 6 com mercially 8 differ 4 essential 8
bent sub 8 competit ive 17 dike 6 ethane 5
billion 8 compressor 15 dilute 18 ethanol 14
biodegradation 18 compulsory 19 directional drilling 8 ethyl alcohol 14
bit 1 con den sat ion 11 disaster 18 ethylene 13
bit cullers 2 condo('lor pipe 8 discipline 15 ethylene dichloride 14
blend 12 con ing 19 dismiss 15 eth)'lene glycol 10
blind rams 2 connale water 4 dispersant 18 evidence 18
blowout 6 conserve 14 displace 7 excessively 19
blow up 15 constant 15 dissolved 4 expand 7
boll weevil 9 co nt ainment boom 18 dissolved·gas drive 7 extremes 15
bolt 7 contract 7 distillate 12
fal se 3 geologist 3 jack-up rig 8 mouse hole 9
fatality 20 glycol 10 joint 2 mpg 19
fatty acid 13 gO-devil 10 JP 4 14 MSV 10
feed 11 GOR II JU 8 mud I
feedstock 12 grease 9 junk 2 mud engineer
ferri c oxide 9 greenhouse 20 junk basket 2 mud ma n I
fer tilizer 14 grip 2 mud pumps I
fibre 14 gusher 6 kelly 1 mud lanks 1
fi ne 18 kelly bushing 9
finishing process 13 hard-faced 2 kelly hose I neutron-ga mma log 15
fin ite 14 hazard 9 kerosine 12 NGL 15
fireboal 7 header 12 kick off 8 no n-mag netic 8
fish 2 heptane 13 kill 6 nozzle I
fi shing job 2 hexagonal I kill line 8 nuclear 20
fishing 1001 2 hexane 12 knock 13 nuclei 20
fi ssion 20 historic 17 nucleus 20
fi ssure 5 hoist 2 lag time I
flammable 11 hole 1 lamp kerosine 14 oclane number 13
flare 6 holl ow I latch on 10 2 odour 12
flare pit 6 hook 1 latter 14 offshore rig 12
flash point II horizontal 6 LDF 13 offtake well 16
fl exible 8 hose 9 legislate 18 oil-gas separator 10
floorman I hydrate 10 limestone 3 oil shale 17
flowing well 5 hydraulic 7 liquefaction 15 oil/ water contact 16
flowline 7 hydraulic fracturing 7 liquefy 10 OIM 16
flow rate 5 hydrocarbon 4 Load on Top 18 OIP 16
fluid I hydrodesulphurizalion 13 logging 6 old oil 19
fluid bed cracking 12 hydrofraccing 7 LNG 15 OPEC 17
fluidized bed 19 hydrogen sulphide 10 LPG 12 open sea loading II
former 14 lubricate 9 ore 20
fossil 3 ignite 11 organic 12
fossil fuel 14 imitate 16 macaroni 9 outer 2
fourble 9 impure II magnesium overburden 7
fraction II impurity II magnet 8 overhaul IS
fraction ation II incli ned 10 magnify 4 OWC 16
fractionator II inclinometer 8 make a round trip
fractured 5 inflammable 11 make hole I packer 7
fractured reservoir 5 initially 5 make up 9 panel man 12
fragment 13 injeclion well 16 make-up 13 paraffinic hydrocarbons 5
fuel oil II inner 2 mass 4 p<l:rallel 8
insecticide 14 masl 15 payout 17
gam,rna-ray log 15 in-situ 17 maximum 9 pay zone 6
gas cap 4 in-situ extraction 17 measures 19 PVC II
gas-cap drive 7 instantaneously 13 mechanism 5 permeability 3
gas compression 15 insulation 19 mercaplans t 2 permeabl e 3
gas injection 16 intermediate 12 methane 4 pelrol 12
gas lift 16 interstitial water 4 mini-bit IO petroleum I
gas oil 12 iso-butane I3 minimum 9 pelroleum gas 12
gas/ oil ralio 10 iso-butylene 13 mixing column 13 pig 10
gasoline 10 iso-octane 13 mobility ralio t 6 pipe laying II
gas sniffer 15 isomerization 13 monkeyboard 9 pipe rams 2
gas well 5 isotope 20 moon pool 8 plalform 8
gathering centre 10 item 2 mooring II plat former 13
gear 18 IV 12 mop-up 18 plug 8
gel 7 motor spirit 13 plug IO
polar 20 RK89 solvent 14 lower II
policies 19 rotary I sour 12 toxic 10
pollute 17 rotary bit spaghetti 9 trap 3
polymer 14 rotary kelly bushing 9 Spar buoy II travelling block
polymer/ caustic flood 16 rotary rig I spark plug 13 tray 11
polymerization 14 rotary system I specification 10 trip the pipe I
polyvinyl chloride 14 rotary table .1 specific gravity 6 trunk line 10
pore 3 rotate 1 spear 2 tubing 7
porosity 3 rotor 8 spill 18 turbodrill 8
porous 3 roughneck split 12
postpone 19 round trip sponge 3
potassium 16 roustabout 9 sponsor 20 VLCC 11
potemial energy 7 run in / into 1 spring 2 ultimate 17
precipitation 10 rust 9 spring- loaded 2 ultimate reserves 17
pre heater II rundown 12 spud-in 8 unconventional 17
primary 12 squeeze 7 uniform 4
primary recovery 16 sandstone 3 stack 2 upgrading 13
primary refining 12 SBM 11 stand 2 upstream II
prop 7 scaffolding 15 stand back 2 uranium 15
propane 5 scrape 9 standpipe I utilize 19
proponion 14 scrubber 10 - steam stimulation 17
propping agent 7 secondary 12 stimulate 7 valve 7
propylene 13 secondary recovery 16 stimulation 7 vapour 10
protein 14 secondary refining 12 straight-run 11 verbal 9
pull out 1 sediment 3 string I vertical 6
PVC 14 sedimentary 3 sweep 16 vessel 10
PVT 10 sedimentary rock 3 sweet 12 vicinity 7
seep 3 sweetener 13 vinyl chloride 14
rabbit 10 seismic survey 3 sweetening 12 visbreaking 12
rack 9 semi-submersible 9 switch back 19 viscosity 4
radioactive 15 separation 10 switcher 3 viscous 4
rathole 2 settler 13 swivel 1 visible 7
ralio 10 shale 17 symhetic 12 VLCC 11
raw 14 shale shaker I vo latile 11
reactor 12 short-term 18 tanker 10 volume 4
reb oiler II show 3 tank farm 11 vulnerable 15
recovery 7 shut-in 19 tank washings 18
rI1:(overy factor 16 target 8 wash tower 13
redrill 10 sidestripper II tar sands 17 water drive 7
refer to 8 sidetrack 8 TD 8 watered out 19
reformate 13 silica 3 TEL 13 water flood 16
reforming 13 simu ltaneously 13 tertiary 12 wax 12
refinery 10 single 1 tertiary recovery 16 weatherproofing 14
refinery gas 12 skimmer 18 therefore 2 weighting 6
regenerator 12 sl ick 18 thermal cracking 12 welding 15
regulation 15 slips 9 thermal process 16 wet gas 5
relatively 5 slush 6 thribble 9 wide cut 13
reserves 16 smog 18 throughout 13 wildcat 19
reservoir 3 sodium 16 tight 1 wild well 6
residue II so lar 20 TML 13 window 8
restricted 17 solid block tree 7 tool box joint 2 wireline 8
rig 1 soluble 7 toolpush/ toolpusher 2 WOC IS
rigid 8 solution 4 tongman 9 workover 15
riser pipe 8 solution gas 5 tongs 9 WOW 10
risk 6 solution-gas drive 7 tour 8 WSL 18
Key to the Exercises
No keys are given to questions which are either opinion-eliciting (eg., What do you think about X?) or
designed to stimulate discussion and group-work in the classroom (eg., Would you like to see X introduced in
your own country?, and most questions involving the verbalization of numbers).
Unit 1
SECTION A
Comprehension o. He is in charge of
the drilling. b. They are both thiny
feel long . c. It cuts and crushes the
rock al the bottom of the hole.
d. Mud is a mixture of clay. water
and chemicals. e. It is made up of (a
number, of) joints or singles. J. The
space is ca lled the annulus. g. The
floor men mix it at the mud tanks.
h . Becau se they are expensive.
i. Bentonite is a clay. It consists of
calcium, magnesium and aluminum.
j. So that mud can pass through it.
-rotaryI c rushes/ flu id/ cut t i ngs!
a nnulus/shale shaker/ mud tanks
SECTION B
Ex. 2 a. Bo b.l Bo b .lGeorge.l Bob
tells George what to do. b. He uses
the word 'aye'. c. Have you got any
cigarelles?/ Have you got any prob-
lems? I Have you got any an swers? I
Have you got any tools for the job?
d. He want s to find out if the bit is
worn o ut (gone).
SECTION C
Ex. I o. We' ll have to check the
mud tanks. b. We' ll have to run
the pipe bac k in. c. I'll have to ask
the driller fo r permission to do that.
d. Yo u'll have to come to work on
time. e. He'll have to work two
shi ft s to mo rrow.
Ex. 2 o. for cooling b. for raising
and lowering c. for cutting and
crushing d. for drilling e. for
carryi ng
Ex.3 o. is made up of b. is
changed c. a re made d. is con-
trolled e. a re carried
Ex. 4 o. They raise and lower the
pipe. b. He mixes it at the mud
tanks. c. When the driller thinks it
is worn o ut. d. A fluid is anythi ng
that flows. e. Water boils at 100°C.
Ex. 5 o. Where do the floormen
work? They work on the rig floor.
b. What does the mud do? It keeps
the bit cool. c. How does the mud ,
reach the bit? It passes through the
ho llow string. d. What does
bentonite consist of? It consists of Ca,
Mg, and C I. e. Why do oilmen make
round trips only if they mu st? Because
round trips are expensive.
Ex. 6. The dri ller is examining the
biL/The fl oormen are mixing day and
chemicals.lThe drilling crew is (are)
tripping the pipe out of the hole .lThe
mud man is checking the drilling
fluid .lThe supply boat is delivering
bentonite.lThe roughneck is movi ng
back a single .
SECTION 0
Ex. 3 o. (iii) b. (iii) c. Because he
wants George to get a move on .l
Because he' s in a hurry. d. Because
Bob's in charge, not George. e. Lag
time.
SECTION E
o. Mud is heavy so that it can support
the open ·sides of the borehole.
b. Peter is going to the mud tanks so
that he can check the drilling fluid.
c. The driller is making a round trip
so that he ca n exami ne the bil.
d. Rotary bits are made of very hard
steel so that they can drill throug h
many feet of rock with out getting dull
too quickly. e. The kelly is
hexagonal so that the rotary table can
turn it withou t slipping.
Unit 2
SECTION A
Com prehension o. So tha t it can
hold the junk inside. b. Because
there are man y types of fi sh. c. He's
in charge of the rig. d. It 's in a
corn er of the rig floo r. It 's used for
holding the kelly when it isn' t needed.
e. A spear is for recovering lost
casing. A junk baske t is for latching
on to smaller pieces of junk. f. It
grips the inner sides. g. So that the
crew can attach a fis hing too l to the
end of it. h. Forty·fou r sta nds; one
hundred and thirty·two singles.
i. Diameter is measured from the
outer sides. Bore is measured from the
inner sides . j. So that the crew ca n
do the job more quickly.
- item/ lost/fished / in charge of!
rool pusher I tri ppedl toolsl j u n kl ru n
back in
SECTION B
Ex. 2 b. Because th e crew have
pulled out. c. An item of equip-
ment lost in the hole. d. They're
goi ng to fish for it. e. Would you
mind explaining ... ?
 SECTION C
Ex . 1 Q. The crew's going ( 0 (rip [he
string out. b. Peter's going to add
bentonite to the tanks. c. I'm going
to ask the driller. d. Barry's going
to use th e junk basket. e. I'm going
to find oUt now.
Ex. 2 Q. must be obeyed b. must
be worn c. must be kept d. must
not be permitled e. must be tripped
Out
Ex.3 a. The drilling has slopped.
b. They've run in again. c. We've
tried the junk bas ket and we've tried
the spear bUi that fish is still down
there. d. Keith has learned some
interesting things about fishing
operation s. e. The kelly' s in the ral-
hole because we've hoisted the pipe
o ut.
Ex . 4 Q. When did Barry arrive? He
arrived an hour ago. b. When did
the bit brea k down? It broke down
very soon after it was run in .
c. When did the supply boat leave?
It left early yesterday afternoon .
d. What time did he come on shift?
He came on shift at 9.30 a.m.
e. When did he shut down the pumps?
He shut down the pumps when the
toolpush told him to do so.
Ex. 5 a. joined b. repeating
c. than d. in l of e. between / high.
SECTION 0
Ex. 3 a. pounds per square inch
b. Onshore, because the BOP stack is
just under the rig floor. c. It will
shut in the well a nd control it.
d. Ten thousand psi. e. It depends
on the depth of the well and the
expected pressure.
Unit 3
SECTON A
Comprehension Q. Sandstone,
limestone and dolomi te. b. Between
30 and 500 million years ago. c. In
1866. d. He studies rocks, how
they are arranged and how they were
form ed. e. Because oil cannot pass
through it. J. Because cap rock must
be impermeable to oil. g. In rotary
drilling, the bit rotates; but in the
cab le·tool method, it pounds up and
down. h. A seep is on the surface,
but a trap is underground . i. Lime·
SlOne. j. They can help to calculate
the age of the rocks.
True or False? u. True. b. False.
The chemical symbol for calci um
carbonate is CaC01. c. False. Most
oil was formed between 30 and 500
million years ago. d. False. Geo·
phones pick up the reflected shock
waves. e. False. P orosity describes
the fluid·holding property of a
substance.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 Q. A sort of hammer. Because
he chipped a piece of rock off with it.
c. (iii) d. Because much more
information is needed. e. 'may'.
SECTION C
Ex. 1 a. You've got to find ou t
more. b.. ., you' ve got to trip the
string out. c.. . I' ve got to be sure.
d. He' s got to ask the driller first.
Ex. 2 Q. was discovered b. was
changed c. was increased d. was
begun e. were drilled.
Ex.3 Q. When was most of the
petroleum that oilmen drill for
formed? It was form ed between 30
and SOO million years ago. b. When
was the first well in Trinidad drilled?
It was drilled in 1866. c. Wh y
weren't the pumps inspected earlier?
They weren't inspected earl ier because
no instructions were received.
d. How was the junk in the hole
recovered? It was recovered by using a
spear. e. When were oil exploration
and development started in
Venezuela? They were started in 1910.
Ex. 4. Cap rock is non-porous and
impermeable rock which traps oil
underground .! A spear is a fishi ng tool
which is used for recovering cas ing.!
A shale shaker is an item of rig equip--
ment which removes cuttings from the
drilling fluid ./Clays are earthy
materials which a re plastic when they
a re weLl A duster is any borehole
wh ich has not struck oil.
Ex. 5 Q. A tool pus h is an oilman
who is in charge of rig operations.
b. A rough neck is a rig worker who
helps around the rig floor.
c. A seismologist is a scientist who
studies underground shock waves.
d. A derrick man is an oilman who
works high up in the derrick.
e. A switcher is an oilfield worker
who directs oi l from wells int o
pipelines.
SECTION 0
Ex. 2 a. Because some of the things
he's looking (or are very small.
b. He gets them at the shale shaker.
They come from the bottom o f the
borehole. c. Because coring is very
expensive. d. He's doing a field
survey. e. It means 'deep
underground ' .
Unit 4
SECTION A
Comprehension Q. Generally
speaking, the proportion of water to
oil in the oil zone is abolJt to to 30 per
cent. b. It's contained in soluti on .
c. It depends on the densities and
capillary properties of the reservoir
rocks. d. A hydrocarbon is a com.
po und which contains (is made up of)
only carbon and hydrogen. e. In
order to show the distribution of oil
and water in the rock pores.
/. Under condi tions of considerable
pressure. g. 'proportion'
h. Because they resist flow . i. Little
or none. ). Between the gas cap and
the water zone.
True or False? Q. False. The lightest
is methane (CH 4) . b. False. A crude
of low viscosity is easy to pour .
c. True. d. True. e. False . Water
is a compound of hyd rogen and
oxygen (H 20).
SECTION B
Ex . 2 Q. Press ure a nd temperature.
b. It d rops. c. It comes out of
solution. d. Easy. e. He's asking
for permission to continue listening to
the radio.!No, he isn't.!Yes. he is.!
Because Leila has interrupted him .
SECTION C
Ex. 1 Q . We wou ld lose returns fro m
the hole. b. I would shout 'Fire' and
sound the alarm. c. He could use a
microscope. d. I would ask for an
explanation. e. The well might blow
out of control.
Ex. 2 Q. The cores have been taken
away. b. The light has been switched
off. c. The bunsen burner has been
moved from the shelf to the
workbench. d. The rock samples
have been tagged. e. The window
has been shut. J. The safety helmet
and goggles have been removed from
the workbench . g. The tap has been
left running.
Ex. 3 Q. never b. rarel y c. us ua lly
d. always e. rarely.
Ex. 4 Q. to show/ hydrocarbons
b. upper/zone/by c. relation/
weight!volume!eg .!cubic d. which!
dissolved/or e. gas/ usua ll y/
considerable.
SECTION D
Ex. 2 Q. Because he's interested in
North Sea gas.!Two years.
b. Because crude oils and reservoirs
differ so muc h.! He wants to know
how much gas a certain volume of
crude can contain. c. About 500 to
600 psi. d. Eighty times il s own
volume. e. A number of poun ds of
force over a num ber of square inches
of area.
Unit 5
SECTION A
Comprehension Q. It depends on
bottom-hole pressure, reservoir
pressure, rock permeability, and the
viscosity of the oil. b. Because
these zones offer the path of least
resistance into the well. c. A wet gas
contains a relatively large quantity of
the other lighter hydrocarbons,
whereas a dry gas contains a relatively
small quantity. d. In a solution the
particles are dissolved in the flu id,
whereas in a suspension they hang in
it. e. It' s carried by the crac ks and
fissures in the fractured rock. J. It's
a gas (in a gaseo us state). g. As (in
the form of) entrained water particles.
h. It belongs to the paraffinic
hydrocarbons. i. It' s known as
associated gas. j. It' s the result of
pressure differences.
-mainly ! higher! paraffinic/ oill
proportions! ligh tl considerably /
high! relatively
SECTION B
Ex. 2 o. He thinks that Mr. Smith
has come about a job. b. He isn ' t
able to explain (he difference between
porosity and permeability.l Because he
doesn't know anything about
petroleum. c. He's waiting for
Mr. Mason. d . He's come about
Mr. Jones' s daughter.!Ajob. e. No,
he doesn't.l Because he has difficulty
answering Mr. J ones's qu estions.
J. Because he can't understand why
Mr . J ones is asking him questions
about petroleu m.
SECTION C
Ex. I o. If the bOllo m-hole section
were blocked up with sand, what
would the result be? b. If the BOP's
automatic system broke down , how
would you close the rams? c. Which
person wou ld be in charge if the
driller left the rig floor? d. If you
wished to find out the density of a
substance, what operation would you
per for m? e. If you did n' t understand
your instructions, how could you make
sure of them?
Ex. 2 Q . The first known blowout
preventer was desig ned in 1882.
b. These new drill collars have been
manufactured using a special heat-
treatment proce_ss. c. The roller
cone bit was imroduced in 1909.
d. The rock section in the diagram
has been greatly magnified.
e. A well-drilling process-control
system was needed in Indonesia last.
year , so a system using a small but
powerful computer was constructed.
Ex. 3 Q. lower than b. most
d ifficu lt c. younger than d. lighter
than e. deepest.
Ex. 4 Q. solution/ particles/ whereas!
suspension b. wet!rises!as
c. Solution!usually! is known as
d . describes! quantity! which! eg.lbpd
e. Absolutely!of/methane.
SECTION D
Ex. 2 o. He's come about a job.
b. No, he didn't.lBecause he doesn't
know London well.!Very late indeed.
c. Because the correct tech nical
expression is 'carried in suspensio n'.
d. It' s entrained.llt has to be
separated. e. It depends on the other
people who come to see Mr. Jones.
Unit 6
SECTION A
Co mprehension Q. It must be grou nd
(crushed to a powder). b. For (the
purpose of) safety. c. Higher.lSo
that it can hold the cutti ngs in
suspension if the mud circulation
stops. d. Because the specific grav ity
of the mud is higher than the specific
gravity of the cuttings.lTo prevent
them from sinking and blocking up the
bottom of the hole. e. The danger of
a blowout. J. The drilling fluid .!
The BOP system. g. About six
thousand four hundred and forty.
h. A kick is a sudden push upwards
against the mud column. In a blowout,
mud and oil shoot up and out of the
well. i. In a dummy trip, the string
is hoisted only part of the way up a nd
then it's run back to bottom. In a
round trip, it' s hoisted completely out
of the hole before it' s run back.
j. To prevent it fro'm exploding.
- rela t ed/con t rolled/ increasing/
d r i Iling/ colum 0/ weigh ti ng/ground/
particle/added
Ex. 2 a. Because of the pressure.
b. The BOP stack .!The well. c. One
hundred and forty million cub ic feet
a day .! About twenty million cubic feet
a day. d. They're getting (the well)
ready to go on stream .! About two
weeks.!When they brought the well
under control. e. They fail ed to cap
the well.!Six weeks.
SECTION C
Ex. 1 a. If George had asked for
permission to smoke, b. If the
crew had made uP. the tools soo ner,
c.... , if they had followed
the drilling superintendent's
instructions. d. . if they had not
diverted it anq set it ablaze. e.... if
they had set up the BOP system
properly.
- a. He didn't. b. Yes.!No.
c. No.!No. d. Yes .!No. e. No.!
Yes .
Ex . 2 a. The reservoir pressure was
too low for the oil to flow naturally.
b. The fish was stuck in the hole too
tightly (for us) to get it out. c. He
speaks too quickly for me 10 under-
stand a word. d. The mud is too
light to hold 'the cuttings in
suspension. e. The nare 'pit is too
close to the rig to be safe.
Ex. 3 a. The table isn't turning
fast enough. b. The work was easy
enough. c. The hole' s not loose
enough. d. The mud' s not heavy
enough to hold the cuttings.
Ex . 4 a. When the pressure, volume
and temperature readings had been
taken, the pumps were switched on.
b. When the well had been prepared
for production , it was brought on
stream. c. After the connection had
been made up, the string was run in
again. d. When the borehole had
been surveyed, drilling was cont inued
normally. e. After aerial and seismic
surveys of the whole area had been
carried out, a suitable-wellsite was
chosen.
Ex. 5 a. out/ jet/vertical b. relation
/ density / certain/density/another
c. Weighting/gro und/ added d. by/
itself/823 e. have been getting/was
brought.
SECTION D
Ex.2 a. Peter.!Barry.!Bob. b. He
wants Bob to make a dummy trip
through them. c. By bringing
cuttings and other material up to the
surface and removing them at the
shale shaker. d. (ii) e. (i).
Unit 7
SECTION A
Comprehension a. Via flow lines
from the trees. b. A solid-block tree
is a Christmas tree which has all of its
valves let into one block of steel.
c. By wetting a piece of litmus paper
in il. d. Eg., sugar, salt, acid.
e. The aquifer.!The expansion of the
aquifer water sweeps the oil out of the
rock pores and upwards into the well.
f Some valves bolted together
separately, and others let into one
block of steel. g. As it begins to
come out of solution and to expand.
h. Hydraulic fracturing breaks open
cracks and fi ssures, whereas
acidization opens up and enlarges
fissures. i. To stimulate certain kinds
of sa ndstone reservoirs and to clean up
blocked pore spaces. j. They will
close again .
True or False a. The chemical
symbol for hydrochloric acid is He!.
b. True. c. False. It' s a choke.
d. False. It' s genera lly used that way.
e. True.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 a. Diagrams of traps.!
Information about drive and
recovery .! ln-company instructor,
university lecturer, reservoir engineer,
etc. b. (ii) c. Subsea and surface
types.!Subsea trees are used in
offshore operations; sur face trees are
used on land. d. Dissolved-gas drive.
e. Because it 's difficult to see.
SECTION C
Ex. 1 a. Ground barite.
b. Blocked pore spaces .
c. Dissolved gas. d. Lost items
of equipment. . e. Fractured
reservoirs ...
Ex. 2 a. prOduct ion/st imulation
b. pressurization c. expan sion
d. combination e. Acidization
J. distribution g. magn ification
h. resistance i. description
j. ac~umulation /for mation.
Ex. 3 a. to clean up b. was worn
out c. ran back in d. latch on to
e. to find out f go over.
Ex. 4 a. By pumping acid lO it.
b. By latching on to it with a fishing
tool. c. By propping up cracks and
fissures. d. By logging with suitable
instruments. e. By separating it from
the crude. f. By weighting it with
ground barite. g. By diverting it and
setting it ablaze h. By multiplying
length by width. i. By running a core
bit and barrel. j. By turning the
rotary table, the kell y and the string.
Ex. 5 a. differ considerably b. are
extremely high c. are absolutely dry
d. must be closed quickly enough to
prevent e. is fairly slow
Ex. 6 a. In the case of/expands/
sweeps b. their/ into/solid block
trees. e. body/ its/ position/ its/ parts
d. gel/ under/ high enough/ down
e. has come/st ream/ may not bel
therefore/ have to be.
SECTION 0
Ex. 2 Q. In a lecture hall. b. 'That
depends entirely on the nature of the
formation.' c. Hydrofraccing.
d. It is the pressure which is caused
by the rocks which lie on top .! Frac-
tu ring pressure must be greater than
overburden pressure. e. Entirely_
f AI next week' s lecture. g. In a
later lecture.
Unit 8
SECTION A
Comprehension Q. SO that they can
bend without breaking as the rigs
move in the water. b. About 18 0 •
c. The required bottom of the hole
may be, eg., under a town, just off a
popu lar beach, or under a busy river.
d. ten to the sixth ; one million/ ten to
the seventh ; ten million / ten to the
eighth; one hundred million/ ten to
the nimh ; one billi on/ ten to the tenth;
ten billion/ ten to the twelfth; one
trillion. e. Because ordinary drill
collars can affect instrument readings.
/. It would be too expensive to do it
tha t way. g. Because il 's necessary
to know the direction in which the
hole is heading. h. A sleeve joint
moves vertically, whereas a ball joint
moves horizontally . i. Because the
bit is rotated by the turbodrill, not by
the string. j. To make sure they're
all referring to the same number.
- various/ vertically/ required/ busy/
condi Ii ons/ tee hn iq ue/ relatively/
target/ horizon Ially/ depth/ develop/
offsh are/ desi ra b Ie/ Ioca Iion
SECTION B
Ex. 2 a. No, we would nOL I
Because conductor pipes are used wilh
fi xed rigs, whereas risers are used with
noating rigs. b. No, we would not.!
Because the wellhead and BOP stac k
are at the bottom of the riser, down
on the sea bed. c. The difference is
in the way that the well a nd the rig are
connected. d. (ii) e. They're
preparing a broadcast on offshore
drilling.! About the ways in wh ich
wells and rigs are connected.
SECTION C
Ex. 1 is spudded in/ are started up/
is rotated/ is lowered/ is sta rted/ is
made/ are Slopped/ is pulled out/ is
connected.
Ex. 2 a. impossible/u nderground/
non-magnetic b. unscrewed c. non-
porous/im permeable d. multi·well
e. hydroelectric f. d isplaces.
~It can mean either 'water' or 'fluid'.
/A fossil which can be seen only
under a microscope.!Rock which
contains microscopic pores.! A joint
which can move in different
directions.!A tree for use on the sea
bed.! A valve which allows now in
only one direction.
Ex.3 a. essential/deep b. In a
case/as/ first c. 'billion' / American/
ie. d. drilled/ certain/ depth/ then/
deviated / vertical/ target e. required/
can.
SECTION 0
Ex . 2 a. Roughnecks 'o r roustabouts.
b. 'Tour' . c. A horse '! A lot o f
chicken. d. He wants to have a hot
shower . e. On wireline. J. (i)
h. The fir st time, because he wants to
get some sleep; the second time,
because Alec says 'sweet dreams' to
him, and Jim thinks it is 'a silly thing
to say.
Unit 9
SECTION A
Comprehension a. Th e mousehole .!
So that singles can be connected
quickly and easily . b. Because he
must work high up in the derrick on
a small platform.! Because a worker
balances on it rather like a monkey in
a tree. c. He might make a mistake
which 'could endanger the crew.
d. A thribble is three singles of pipe,
casing or tubing joined together.
e. On a wire line connected to the
suspension unit. g. He's respon sible
fo r attaching or detaching the
elevators, for cleani ng, oi ling,
greasing, inspecting and repairing the
pu lley blocks, etc.! He' s responsible to
th e toolpusher.! He's responsible to the
drilling superintendent.lHe's respon-
sibl e for all drilling operations. h. 1
cou ld ask the person to repeat the
instruction .!1 might make a danger-
ous mistake. i. So tha t it doesn ' t
flow out of the threads. j. The
ladder of jobs leading from the lowest
to the highest.
T rue or False a. False. Spaghetti is
tubing of 00 less tha n 2M in.
b. True. c. True. d. True.
e. True.
SECTION B
Ex . 2 a. (ii) b. (iii) d. Because he
didn't like the job. e. To express the
idea of 'very ' in strong language . .
f. Because there might not be any
other (real) work for him 10 do.
g. 14
SECTION C
Ex. 1 a. may have to be abandoned
b. will have to be plugged off
c. will have to be by·passed d. will
have to be done e. may have to be
flared
Ex. 2 a. Having moved their engine
b. Having corrected the angle,
. .. c. Having made sure that the
tools. .. d. Having listened to lan' s
story, . e. Hav ing actually worked
on an offshore rig, .
Ex.3 a. 7 3,4" bit b. 2 %" 00 pipe
c. 3 x 30' section of dr ill pipe
d. 8Y2" diameter hole e. 1200 '
length of Y2" wire J. 145 ' derrick
g. 37 Y2 rotary table hole h. 1%"
N
wire rope i. 18 ~ · 00 surface casing
j. 10%" casing k. 9 %" intermediate
casing string I. 1/ 16'" OD tube
m. 2 Lh." square drive tool n. 16 JA n
flexible joint o. I3 ~" casing shoe
Ex.4 o. roughneck/ handles/ above
b. steellteeth/ master/secure/ out
c. lubricate/ grease/ making/ up
d. toolpusher/ to/ for / for/ making/
necessary e. maximum / minimum
SECTION 0
Ex. 2 o. They're at an exhibition of
equipment for the oil indu stry .lStand
34 is the position where the subsea
trees can be seen. b. It makes the
trees safer and less expensive to install .
c. (ii) d. Have you broken it o ut
yet?lHave you decided yet?lHave you
got it ready?lHave you fini shed so
soon? /Have you understood?
e. Paul will./ Because Martin' s
leading.
Unit 10
SECTION A
Comprehension o. They are both
related to the word ' incline' (to the
fo rmation of angles). b. The go-
dev il. / Because it is equipped with
scrapers and brushes. c. A fluid
under pressure. d. Cooling can
cause the formation of hydrates from
the water vapour, and these can cause
the plugging o f chokes and valves .
e. It absorbs the water in it.
f. Because dissolved salts can cause
serious corrosion. g. It must be
pressurized. h. By marking them,
eg. , with a skull and cross-bones .
;. 3/ 4, 117, 1/ 4,5 / 14. j . By
lowering the pressure.
- having/ produced/ treated/
separation / gathering centre/
relat ion/ specifi catio nsf con tent/
corrosion/ minim um/ processes/
fo rmation
SECTION B
Ex. 2 a. Th ey're supervisors.! From
their' discussion o f the changeover
report, operators and equipment. / He's
an operator. / Frank gives him an
order. b. (i) c. (iii) d. (ii) e. For
going on line if either one or two goes
off. f. No, he didn't .! Because one
of his operators (McDou gall) was ill.
g. The chopper (helicopter).!Scrubber
spares.l Because they are needed.
SECTION C
Ex. 1 a. The scrubber is a vessel in
which gas is dehydrated by the
absorbing action of glycol.
b. Pigging is an operation by which
pipelines are tested, logged , cleared
and unblocked. c. The height at
which the derrick man works depends
on the length of the pipe sections that
have to be handled. d. Dope is a
medium-thick grease with which pipe
and casing threads are lubricated.
e. A product pi peline is a pipeline
through which refined oil products are
sent.
Ex. 2 a. is being built up b. are
being drilled c. are being examined
d. is being handled/ is being carried
out e. are being installed
Ex. 3 a. desalted b. multi-stage
c. polysulphide d. mini-subs/
unmanned e. monodirecti onal
f. non-corroding g. re-set h. semi-
solids ' ~
- a very small bit/ teeth with new
faces/drilling again through the
same section/a tool for many
purposes/a valve which does not
rotate/ a unit (machine) which
removes gas from drilling fluid /
putting new wire in the place of old /
not enough pressure/a support
below the base/shutdown without
manual help/a connector which
locks without manual help/
a support vessel which has man y
funct ions/a sa fe ty surface which
prevents workers fr om slipping on
it/entering the well bore again /
service on the actual site of work /
fl ow which is not cont in uous/
test ing which does not destroy the
object being tested
SECTION 0
Ex. 2 a. To let the other person
kn ow that it' s his turn to speak.
b. At the pig receiver .IOn his way to
the pig receiver. c. So that their ears
will be protected when the pig arrives.
d. Because it's dangerous (or, He
wants to supervise the job when the
pig arrives .). e. He can hear it in the
pipe. f. Pressure, volume and
temperature readings.!For safety
reasons.
Unit 11
SECTION A
Comprehension o. Because o f the
great length of VLCCs, and their very
long stopping and turning distances.
b. Very rocky or uneven seabed,
subsea valleys, etc. c. Because
production may have to be shut off if
loading from the SBM is prevented.
d. They are independent of the
weather, more reliable and safer.
e. Because they form explosive
vapours. f. In general English usage,
there is no difference. g. The higher
the fla shpoint, the greater the safet y.!
The lower the flash point, the greater
the danger. h. They might combine
to form a highly explosive vapour.!
A spark. i. Water, sulphur, salts.
j. By freezing, and by fra ctional
distillation. / Distillation. / To make sure
that no water was carried over with
the alcohol vapour. k. From the
fa ct that combustion takes place in an
enclosed space (inside a cylinder).
True or False? a. False.
Temperatures in the lower part are
higher than those near the top.
b. True. c. False. It describes the
capacity of a liquid to vapourize at a
relatively low temperature. d. True .
e. True.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 a. It stands for 'pump' .!
It stands for 'column '. b. (i)
c. Because of the noise. d. (Any)
leakage. / Good .lBecause it 's safe.
e. A level of crude.lBecause it's
dangerous to pump hot crude to an
empty column. }: A flow of crude .!
From PI03 to ClOl. g. Getting a
flow .!Secause it' s dangerous to heat
up the furna ce if the crude isn't
flowing through it. h. When he' s
started getting the burners in .! His
walkie-talkie.
SECTION C
Ex. 1 a. The lower the molecular
weight of a hydrocarbon, the lower its
boiling point. b. Th e deeper the
water, the more difficult the pipe-
layi ng. c. The higher in the column ,
the lower the temperature.
Ex.2 blowQul preventer/ waiting o n
weather/very large crude carrier/s ingle
buoy moo ring/ American Pet roleum
Inst itute/ rotary kelly bushing/ total
depth/ deadweight tons/ultra large
crude carrier/ barrel(s)/crude
distillation unit/Systeme International
d'Unites (decimal system) /multi-
fun ction support vessel/pressure,
volume, temperature/drill ship/semi-
submersible/ jack·up/ bottom settlings
and water (or, base sedi ments & water)
/outside diameter/gas-oi l ratio/inch/
foot or feet / barrels per day.
Ex. 3 a. It is sometimes said that oil
is black gold . b. II is no longer
believed that oil will last forever.
c. It is felt that an ordina ry SSM
d. It is thought that. .. e. In the
oil busi ness it is accepted that
Ex. 4 a. He ordered the roustabout
to take that (this) report to the super.
b. He warned me not to take my eyes
off the panel. c. Brian told Jeff to
stand by the ESD panel. d. Tom told
George to hand that core to him.
e. Brian told the new operat or not
to touch that valve wi thout (his)
permission.
SECTION D
Ex. 2 a. Because the facts (about
Spar) will convince them. b. Because
he knows them by heart. c. (i)
d. Twelve inches. e. He' ll support
Tony. }: The sooner that Tony puts
his idea to the board, the better it will
be for the compan y. g. The type
without a SlOrage capacity.lNo, they
don't .lThey want to abandon it (to
scratch it).IBecause they believe that
Spar is better (a better solution).
Unit 12
SECTION A
Comprehension a. Because it isn' t
condensed from a vapour . b. No .1
Because it doesn't change the
molecu lar forms of the hydrocarbons.
c. 2070 o f the weight of the oil in the
barrel. d. Because he mightn 't need
to produce so much fuel oil (less fu el
oil is needed in summer).lBy cracking.
e. The forme r word is American, the
latter is British; but both refer to the
same fuel. }: Gas o il is.l Because it
is made up of larger hydrocarbon
molecules. g. It will increase in the
range of the lighter cuts. h. Because
naphtha is a mixture of many different
hydrocarbon molecules. i. Because
their molecules are lighter.
j. Because a CH 4 molecule can't be
cracked into two lighter molecules.
True or False? a. True. b. False.
They mu sl be greater, because
crack ing red uces some primary
produclS by produci ng secondary
products from them. c. True.
d. True . e. Tru e.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 a. Because it means that
everything is perfect. b. Very well
(exactly according to specification).
c. Leakage. d. It will drop, or StOp
altogether. e. So that he can act if
anything goes wrong (shows up on the
panel). f When Bria n gives him the
order to do so. g. (ii).
SECTION C
Ex. 1 a. pipeline which has a large
diameter b. blowout preventer
system which is designed to funct ion
on the sea fl oor under conditions of
high pressure c. valve which is made
of stainless steel and allows flow in
one direction only d. cracking unit
which works under low pressure and
uses a catalyst e. compounds which
are composed of methane and water,
and look like snow }: chemical
intermediates which are made by man
from petroleum g. hydrocarbon
components which have a low boiling
point h. hydrocarbon mixture which
is in liquid form and is both volatile
and flammable i. ratio in which the
proponion o f hydrogen to carbon is
low j. molecules which comain two
carbon atoms k. capacity which it
has to transmit flu ids J. ho rizontal
separator which removes gas from oil
m. crudes which contain a high
proportion of wax.
Ex. 2 a. He wanted to know how
long it was going to take him to do it.
b. Brian asked Jeff how things were
going. c. Brian asked Jeff if he
would check out the rundown to the
header. d. He asked the panel man
if (whether) he was ready to receive
residue. e. The super angri ly asked
Tom why he didn't follow his (the
super' s) instructions. J. He wanted
to know what time it was.
~x. 3 decomposition/ molecules/
lighler/ more/can be/ relatively/low-
value/stocks/residues/is believed/ was
discovered/ expanding/ gasoline/
quali t Y/ t hermally-/ mot or-car / h igh
enough/combustion/ much-used/
thermal-cracking/ thermal cracking/
viscous/ crude-oil/ red uce/ viscosit y/
down /complex/ molecu les
SECTION D
Ex. 2 a. 70 meters.! About 211.
b. Refinery gas and LPG, gasoline,
naphtha, kerosine, gas oil, residue.
c. As (in the form of) fu els.l88 out
of every 100 barrels (880/0) . d. Pipe-
work refers to all of the pipes whi ch
are involved in any operation.
e. (i)/ I promise. f. As (As being)
much smaller and simpler (less
complicated). g. AI least six series of
pipes lead the cuts away fr om the
CDU to other units.
Unit 13
SECTION A
Comprehension a. By reforming it
into iso-butane which, wit h iso-
butylene, might be used to form iso-
octane by alk ylation. b .. Substances
which add colour .lTo iden tify them.
c. In cracking, molecules are broken
apart to form smaller molecules; but
in reforming, molecules are combined
to form larger ones. d. (i) Distillates
are produ cts of distillation processes.
(ii) Reformates are products of
reforming processes. (iii) Crackates are
products of crac king processes.
e. Because there might be a surplus of
LDF or not enough naphtha.
/. Caustic washing uses NaOH,
whereas hydrodesulphurization uses
hydrogen. g. The flame fro nt of the
first ignition sparks off a second
ignition in Ihe combustion chamber
and this causes knock. h. 2~star
petrol has a lower octane rating than
3·star petrol. i. 0) process in which
a catalyst is used to desulphurise a
substance/(ii) unit for the removal of
iso- butane j. This is the catalyt ic
reforming process which uses platinum
(Pt) as the catalyst.
-spiritl catal yt ic/ feedl st raigh t ~ run/
boiling/maximum/rating/raised/
widely -used/ gasoli ne/ d is t ilIa tes/
primary/ ratio.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 a. Dick is.l Because he's green
(inexperienced) .lFor the job of
operator. b. catalyt ic crack ing plant
c. Because it's used fo r treating sour
flui ds (for making sour fluid s sweet).
/Sweetener. /Because the word
'h ydrodesulph urisation' is too difficult
fo r Ralph to say. d. Because they've
got a problem on the high vac unit
and Ralph can't help. e. Because
Ralph is inexperienced and must be
watched ca refully. J. Past the cat
cracking plant./ Jeff./Because Jeff's
lead ing (Ralph's following).
SECTION C
Ex. I a. ' Which way is the
sweetener?' b. 'I'll be right behind
you.' c. 'W hat's up now?' d. 'Let
me know what the PVT readings are
now.' e. 'Why aren' t you wearing
your safety boots and helmet?'
/. 'Do you know who the boss is?'
g. 'Can yo u tell me the difference
between porosity and permeability?'
h. ' I' m sorry but I don' t know what
the difference is.' i. ' I know we need
the scrubber spares but we can't do
anything until the weather clears.'
j. 'Stay away from the halch until I
get there and make sure the crew
are wearing muffs.'
Ex. 2 H 2S = hydrogen sulphid e,
composed of hydrogen and su lphur /
CO2 = carbo n dioxide, composed of
carbon an d oxygen/C 2H 6 = ethane,
composed of carbon and hydrogenl
C3H6 = propylene, composed of carbon
and hydrogen/ CaC0 3 = calcium
carbonate, composed of calcium, .
carbon and oxygen/CH 4 = methane,
composed of carbon and hydrogen/
P b(C 2H5)4 = TEL . co mposed of lead,
carbon and hydrogen/C 3Hs = propane,
composed of carbon and hydrogen/
H 2 S04 = sulphuric acid, composed of
hydrogen, sulphur and oxygenl
CaMg(C0 3h = calcium magnesium
carbonate, composed of calcium,
magnesium , carbon and oxygen/
H 20 = water. composed of hyd rogen
and oxygen/ Pb(C H 3)4 = TML,
composed of lead, carbon and
hydrogen/C 4 H 10 =: butane, composed
of carbon and hydrogen/S i0 2= silica,
composed of silicon and oxygen/
BaS0 4 barite, composed of barium,
o;
sulphu r and oxygen/ Fe203 = fe rric
oxide (rus!), com posed of iron and
oxygen/HF = hydroflu oric acid,
composed of hydrogen and f1uorine/
C2H 4 = eth ylene, composed o f carbon
and hyd rogen/ HCI = hydroch loric
acid, composed of hydrogen and
chlorine/ HOCH 2CH 2 0H = eth ylene
glycol, composed of hydrogen, oxygen
and carbon.
Ex. 3. o. A trainee should work with
an experienced operator to prevent
dangerous acciden ts and to help him
to learn the job properly.
b. Operators should wear muffs at
the pig receiver to protect their ears
against dangerously loud noises.
c. Nobody sho uld smoke on the
refinery fl oor to avoid the risk of
fir e or explosion. d. Tox i c~chemical s
containers should carry warnings to
make sure that they are handled with
care. e. You shou ld study API
measurements to enable you to
understand the dimensions of
American -made equ ipment.
- b. If tney don't, their ears may be
injured. c. If an body does, he may
cause a serious accident. d. If they
don't, someone may inj ure himself
when he handles them. e. I f you
don't, you may not be able to
understand the dimensions of
America':l~made equipment.
Ex. 4 o. can also be cracked b. ca n
be though t of c. can be upgraded
d. can be used e. can be produced.
SECTION D
Ex. 2 o. Naphtha is the hydrocarbon
group betwee n gasoli ne and kerosine,
each molecule of wh ich contai ns
between 6 and to carbon atoms.
b. Heptan e is a naphtha~cut hydro-
carbon, the chemical symbol for which
is C 7 H 16 . c. 'Gaseous fragments'
are the molecules which result from
the cracking of heptane. d. C r C 5
hydrocarbon s are hydrocarbons which
contai n between 2 an d 5 carbon atoms
per molecu le . e. Eg ., heptane,
propane, butane.

Unit 14
SECTION A
Comprehension a. Fuels that are
exploded.lFuels thai are burned or
converted into secondary ~nergy
sou fees. / Pelf oleu m-chem icals
intermediates.lLubricating oils and
greases and waxes.!By-products of
refinery processes such as sulphur
and platinum. b. Because fossil
fuels are finite. c, (i) Avgas is
aviation gasoline; Avtur is aviation
turbine kerosine. (ii) pev stands for
'pressure control valve', whereas pvC
stands for 'polyvinyl chloride' .
(iii) Asphalt generally refers to a
mixture of crushed rock and bitumen.
d. Oil-based fertilizers, insecticides,
protein for animal feeds. e. Fossil
fuels are organic fuels which, being
made up of the remains of ancient
organisms, cannot be replaced in the
near future. f. Crude is distilled to
separate "the naphtha cut, which is then
cracked to produce ethylene. By
reacting the ethylene with chlorine,
ethylene dichloride is formed, and this
is cracked to yield vinyl chloride. By
polymerization, the vinyl chloride is
converted into polyvinyl chloride
(PVC). g. Desulphurization.
h. They are similar in that they are
both processes for the conversion of
relatively small molecules into larger
ones.!They differ in that polymer-
ization converts simi lar molecules,
whereas alkylation converts dissimilar
ones. i. Approximately 1,320 tonnes.
j. It has increased.!Because old
methods of refining have been
improved and new ones have been
invented.
True or False? a. True b. False.
They were in the higher range.
c. True. d. False. It's a primary
source. e. True.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 a. Paraffin and micro-
crystalline waxes.!The heavier ones.
b. Lubricating oils.!Cutting oils and
greases. c. (ii) d. (i) e. Because
oil-based chicken feeds are common.
f. Yeasts are grown in a gas-oil
feedstock, producing a thick yeast
cream which is then separated and
dried to a protein-rich powder.
g. About 70070 protein content by
weight .! About 7 kilos.
SECTION C
Ex. 1 a. Brian told Jeff that they'd
got a level in CIOI, and he wanted to
know if Jeff could start up PI03.
b. Brian told Jeff to call in when he'd
started. c. Frank asked Jack if the
operator had phoned in to say why he
hadn't shown up. d. Barry told Bob
that if he hadn't finished the job by
the end of this (that) tour, he'd ask
Paul's crew to do it. e. Paul said
that h~' d read in the changeover report
that Bob's crew hadn't finished the
job.
Ex. 2 a. should be marked and
locked away b. should be checked
c. should be accompanied d. shou ld
be placed e. should be worn
-0. .. If they aren't marked and
locked away, someone may get hurt.
b . ... If they aren't checked, the
hole may go off in the wrong
direction. c. If they aren't
accompanied, they may cause
serious accidents. d. . If they
aren't placed properly, they may not
be found when they're needed.
e. ... If they aren't worn, someone
may suffer serious injury to his ears.
Ex. 3 a. Sr/gasoline b. Sr/ Avtur
c. Br/liter d. Br/gram e. Amer/
metre f. Amer/ Avtag g. Br/ lag
time h. Amer/vapour i. Sr/
kerosine j. Amer/bitumen
k. Amer/pelrol i. Sr/diesel m. Br/
damn n. Amer/flammable
o. Amer/green, inexperienced worker
p. Amer/safety helmet q. Br/
chopper r. Br/gas, gasoline s. Brl
polymerization t. Amer/hydro-
desulphurisation.
SECTION D
Ex. 2 o. The neater the rig, the less
chance of slipping, tripping, etc.
b. So that everyone will know where
things are. c. Because they'l! be
handier (easier to reach) if they're
placed at outside locations. d. It
would be destroyed (impossible to get
at). e. Very well indeed. (Backwards
and forwards,)/'hands' f. They're
similar in that they both refer to
necessity, dUlY, obligation, etc.!They
differ in that 'ought' takes 'to'.
g. He's the Drilling Super.lBecause he
wants to know how the hole is shaping
up and asks to see the drilling logs.
Unit 15
SECTION A
Comprehension a. (i) Oily floors can
cause accidents due to slipping.!
Oi) Fast-moving items of equipment
can cause accidents by slriking care-
less workers.!(iii) Sudden overhead
hazards can cause accidents by striking
(falling) without warning. b. risk of
being dismissed/risk of serious injury
or death c. Because he's
inexperienced. d. By leaving certain
workers free to smoke, go off-station,
etc. e. (i) Because of hazards due to
extreme cold. (ii) Because of hazards
connected with severe offshore
conditions. f. 'Limits of proportion'
are the limits within which the ratio of
air [0 combustible vapour can support
ignition. g. (i) Discipline is a help
to safety by making things unpleasant
for those who break safety regulations.
(ii) Signs, notices and warnings are a
help to safety by giving clear
information abom vital equipmem,
procedures, dangers, etc (iii) Protective
clothing is a help to safety by
minimizing injury from contact with
hazardous 'obJects and substances.
h. NGL=natural gas liquids; LNG=
liquefied natural gas. i. One worker
can cause an accident which may
injure many others.
- in toxica t ion/hazards/disci pJi ne/
regulations! disobey I dismi ssal/
 forbidden / non-spar king/ permi t ted /
vessel/authorised/movements/
flam mab Ie/mask s/safe/ fight ing/
handy.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 Q. Because the tanks give off
flammabl e vapour, and a spark could
cause an explosion. b. Because they
were going to vent gas which cou ld
have been ignited by flaQ1e or sparks
from the welding. c. By taking a
shortcut th rough the restricted area.!
By going around the restricted area .!
Because he had no reason (permission,
etc.) for being in the restricted area.
d . ... that there are no short cuts
where safety is concerned. e. Because
they are too dangerous for everyone
to be all~wed access. f. He read a
report about it in the log. g. His
shift supervisor./Because Gibson had
broken a regulation. h. He is forced
to read the sign and he is warned
about his behaviour. j, He means
that every sa fety step must be
fo llowed; that there is no quick and
easy way to safe procedure. j. For
reasons of discipline.
SECTION C
Ex. 1 o. should have closed
b. should have put on c. should
have marked d. shou ld have cleaned
up . e. should have checked.
- 0. . . . If you had closed it , the gas
wouldn't have leaked out. b.
If he had put it on, he wouldn 't
have fall en. c.... If you had
marked it, he wou ldn't have thought
it was sa fe. d . . . . If you had
cleaned it up, he wouldn't have
slipped in it. e. .. If you had
checked it, the hole wouldn't have
gone wrong.
Ex. 2 o. Safety regu lations should
be obeyed. b. Fi re ext inguishers
should be positioned where they are
handy. c. LNG should not be
con fu sed with NGL. d. Weldi ng
should be forbidden when gas is being
vented. e. Trainees should be
accompanied. f Fire doors should
be kept closed. g. First-aid equip-
ment should be kept in an open and
clearly-marked cupboard. h. Safety
notices should not be ignored.
i. Work areas sho uld be left tidy and
clean. j. Tools sho uld not be left
lying around where others may trip
over them.
SECTION D
Ex. 2 o. (ii) b. Because it is not a
polite way of sayi ng 'yes' . c. Because
he's experienced. d. T he rig was
waiting on cement and he had no work
to do. e. Because the presence of gas
sniffers does not mean that the
no-smoking rule can be ignored.
f Because this is the second time he
has been caught smoking.
Unit 16
SECTION A
Comprehension o. For 2099 (it gives
the information that): reserves will
run out in that year if the developing
nations industrialize and there is a 2070
growth in world population.!For 2130:
reserves will run out in that year if
world energy demand does not change
and there is a 2070 growth in world
population.!For 3000: reserves will run
out in that year if there is no growth
in eit her energy demand or world
population. b. An oil-supply crisis
by the mid- l 990s.! By using 'could be'
for the shortage and 'would be' for
the cris is. c. Yes, they could. d. (i)
oil wh ich is producib le under natural-
drive conditions/ (ii) oil wh ich is
recovered by direct displacement with
other fluids/(iii) oi l recovered by
direct displacement with other fluids
whose displacement efficiency has been
im proved/ (iv) recovery processes
which use the fluid s whose displace-
ment efficiency has been improved.
e. 'Drive' is used for natural
processes; ' lift' is used for artificial
ones. f. The situation in which the
Middle East oil-producing co untries
might agree to double their output.
g. No, it isn'I. / Because on the graph
the year 3000 is related to a lero
population growth, and it is highly
unlikely that world population will not
increase. h. About 300,000,000 bbl.
i. Type of formation, porosity,
permeability, etc. j. Because the oil
must pay for itself and yield a profit
to the producing company.
- zones/ break through/ producing!
su fficient Iy/ mobilise/ aqu ifer /
considerable/ di splaced/ dri ven/
trapped.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 Q . He' s trying to work out
the recoverable reserves.!No, he isn't .!
Because he has no figu res for the OIP
or the recovery factor. b . . . _ tell
Gordon what the OIP and the
recovery factor are.!Because Gordon
is having difficulty. c. Tell him what
the OIP and the recovery factor are.!
Because he is having difficu lty.
d. (ii) e. peripheral = around the
edges f. 500,000 bbl a day/They'll
have to increase the number of
injection wells. g. To remove salts.!
On the platform. h. Offshore./The
diagram clearly indicates a platform.
SECTION C
Ex.l EOR = en hanced oil recovery/
pve = polyvinyl chloride/PCV =
pressure control valve/Woe = waiting
on cement/ OWe = oil/water contact/
WOW = waiting on weather/ ATK =
aviation turbine kerosine/ A VT AG =
aviation tu rbine gasol ine/ A VTUR =
aviation turbine kerosine(ATK)/
LNG = liquefied natural gas/NGL =
natural gas liquids/ LPG = liquefied
petroleum gas/R & D == research and
development/ TEL = tetraethyl lead/
TML = tetra methyl lead/ LDF = light
distillate feed stock/ IV = isolation
valve/DERV = diesel engine road
ve hicle (fuel)/OIP = oil in placei
DSD = disaster shutdown .
Ex. 2 ... in which natural forces
have been depleted ... which were
developed before modern techniques
were used ... a number of old fields
are in fact being developed ... when
a pplied (they are applied) to recovery
methods .. . Reservoir pressure must
be maintained. . only the term
'enhanced recovery' will be used.
Ex. 3 favourable/flood / increase/
recovery / ego / sim ple/ solu ti on-gas/
drivel inef ficient/ f actors/of / high/
mob iii ty / un fa vou rab Ie/efficiency /
fl ood/waxy/ produced/cuts/
uneconom ic/ su fficient/ solving/ lower/
injection/ increased/ a/ reduction/ also/
displacement/ thermal.
SECTION D
Ex. 2 Q. Some alloys resist corrosion
by carbonic acid. b. One for CO2;
the other for water. C. cost;
insufficient sweep efficiency;
corros ion; need for dual injection
systems. d. alternate system of CO2
slug followed by water e. Because
he believes that it doesn't have the
disadvantages of CO2 injection.!No,
he isn't./Because he isn ' t suggesting
that they just stay with improved
water flood. f. They're reservoir
engineers.!Because their discussion is
based on reservoir-engineering
problems.
Unit 17
SECTION A
Comprehension Q . They're
expensive, inefficient and polluti ng.!
No, they aren't. C. The price of
synthetic oil is relatively high; but
as the price of conventional oil rises,
synthetic oil becomes relatively cheaper
and therefore more competitive.
d. By stripping off large areas of
overburden and from the wastes
produced. e. Possibly, politica l
reasons. f. They might have to be
reduced. / By improved producti on
efficiency, reduced manpower, etc.
g. More oil would have to be
discovered or proved to exist.
h. Because they're locked up out of
sight fa r underground. i. In
extraction plants.! ln the same way as
natural crude. j. In reservoir rock
the oil is contained in the pore spaces
of the rock, whereas in oil shale the
oil is locked up in the structure of the
rock.
-accumulations/recoverable/
equivalent/regarded/ accumulation/
pro fit/ exploratory / dusters/ requ ired /
minimum/ factors/pay out/
uneconomic.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 a. Strip mining.!It's costly;
it's polluting; and it allows a recovery
rate of only 10 or 12%. b. They're
almost seven times greater. C. To try
to increase their production rate.
d. Thermal recovery and steam
stimulation .!The former uses some
form of combustion; the latter uses
steam. e. The tar sand is heated to
release the bitumen it contains, and
the bitumen is then cracked to
produce, among other things, naphtha,
which is then further refined into
gasoline.
SECTION C
Ex. I a. tie up b. blew up
c. going on d. ends up e. is made
up of f. be looked after g. shaping
up h. was kicked off i. is being
built up j. are stood back k. were
worn away t. hosing down.
Ex. 2 Q. In-situ extraction techniques
for the recovery of sy nthetic crude
from tar sands are being developed.
b. The technology for the production
of oil from unconventional sources is
continually being improved. C. The
present oil-reserves problem is simply
that oil is being consumed faster than
new oil accumu lations are being
discovered and developed. d. As oil-
recovery technology is being improved,
recoverable reserve estimates are
continually being upgraded. e. Oil
exports are being restricted in an
attempt to conserve stocks.
Ex. 3 Q. Blain said that the tar sand
was transported to their synthetic-
crude plant b. He said that it was
treated with hot water to release the
bitumen locked up in the sand.
C. Harry explained that after that the
bitumen could be cracked into
kerosine. naphtha, light gases and gas
oil. d. Blain said that at that time
they were producing only 60,000
barrels a day , but that they had got
plans to boost that to half a million
barrels a day by the early 1980s.
e. Harry added that although it
sounded a lot, it wasn't so very much
when we considered that the sands
contained about 900 billion barrels of
oil in the form of bitumen. '
SECTION D
Ex. 2 C. They should drive their cars
less. d. No, they don't. / Because
there are more important uses for oil.
e. A very small quantity .!To illustrate
that a million barrels a day is not very
much, relatively speaking.
Unit 18
SECTION A
Comprehension Q. By producing
pollutants which later fall from the
atmosphere. b. Because they have
not considered it seriously eno ugh.
c. To attempt to prevent this sort of
pollution. d. They are not
discharged. They are allowed to settle
in one of the tanker' s compartments.
e. Because he believes that the relation
will be obvious to the reader.
f. Because it is incomplete combus-
tion.!By improving the efficiency of
combustion. h . The latter is.!
Because it goes on all the time and the
volume of discharged crude is
grealerJThe former. / It is more
exciting to read about and it sells
more newspapers. i. (i) the lighter
componems (ii) the heavier
componems (iii) the components which
can be eaten by bacteria. j. Because
the oil can spill over the top of a
containment boom when the sea is
rough, and skimmers do not work
efficiently in waves.
True or False? o. True. b. T rue ..
c. True. d. True. e. True.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 a. Yes, they should .lBecause
it prevents pollution .!No, most of
them don't.lBecause it's easier to
discharge directly to the open sea.!
Yes, Goss's company does.! Because
its against the law not to use it.
b. Without international co-operation
there cannot be world-wide pollution
control. c. They're working on better
chemical dispersants.!To improve the
effectiveness of their deanup
operations. d. Because it takes place
out of sight far from land. e.
those associated with cleanup
operations in rough weather.
SECTION C
Ex. 1 o. Me. Goss answered that it
was very effective. b. Liz then
wanted to know why Load on Top
hadn't put an end to that kind of
pollution. c. Mr. Goss explained
that it was be<:ause some oil carriers
just would not use it. d. Liz replied
that they should be forced to. e. Me.
Goss agreed but asked Liz how she
was going to do that without
international co-operation.
Ex. 2 a. could be solved b. should
be designed c. would be reduced
d. should be discharged e. should
carefully be tested.
Ex. 3 procedure/ compartments/
held/ being/ dirty /bottom/ top/
contents/clean/oillbouom/incoming.
SECTION 0
Ex. 2 a. Because it's very thick.
b. Ordinary smog is produced by
exhausts and factory chimneys; photo-
chemical smog is produced by the
action of sunlight on ordinary smog.
c. Yes, it is.!By the way it's producing
so much smog. d. The car-pool
system reduces the number of cars on
the road and therefore reduces the
pollution which the total number
of cars can cause. e. Because the
smog can be hazardous for the very
young and the very old. f. Because
there are so many cars. g. Unburned
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,
sulphates, lead compounds.lEach is
produced by the incomplete
combustion of motor-car fuels.
Unit 19
SECTION A
Comprehension a. The graph shows
that in 1975 every man, woman and
child in the USA consumed the
equivalent of over 6 Y2 tonnes of oil
and natural gas ./Western Europe: the
equivalent of 2 tonnes.! Japan: over
2 V2 tannes .! Africa: less than about
a fifth of a tonne. f. (i) The lower
the speed limit, the lower the fuel
consu mption .!(ii) This would make
less petrol available, so less would
be consumed.l{iii) The better the
engine efficiency. the less fuel is
needed for the same power output.!
(iv) Overheating wastes fuel; sensible
heating conserves it./(v) Unneeded
lights consume fuel unnecessarily.lThe
passage says that all of these except
bener average mpg are 'indirect'
measures because they are aimed only
at people's fuel-consumption habits.
Direct measu res are aimed at the
efficiency of combustion a nd at the
waste-products of combustion.
g. Yes, it is.l Because it conserves fuel
by reducing the number of cars on the
road. i. As prices rise, old oil
becomes more profitable, and there
is sometimes a rush to produce and
sell it. This rush can lead to over-
production, which causes a loss of
recoverable reserves by leaving oil
behind in the less permeable parts of
the reservoir. J The more electricity
produced in hydroelectric stations, the
mOTe fuel could be conserved in oil-
burning electricity stations.
True or False? a. False. They're
generally more willing. b. False.
The more electricity ... , the less
oil . . c. True. d. True.
e. False. There is no si mple solution
to the energy problem.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 o. Because most people will
not take them voluntarily. b. (ii)
c. It 's a switch which operates
automatically according to pre-sel
temperatures .! It's used for the
automatic control of heat-producing
equipment.lThe lower the settings on
thermostats which control heating
equipment, (he greater the fuel
savings. e. Becau se big cars (cars
which are bigger than they need to be)
are responsible for most of the waste
of energy in the USA. g. The law
about boosting average mpg.! A step in
the direction of energy conservation.
h. They want to prevent oil from
running out before we've had time to
develop alternative energy sources.
SECTION C
Ex. 1 a. entrained b. mono-
directional c. underlie/ overburden
d. input/ou tput e. to ensure
f biodegradable g. endanger
h. unsatisfactory i. recirculates
j. shortcut k. degassing I. inexper-
ienced m. Non-return n. short-term
o. inefficient p. Semi-submersibles
q. is redrilled r. unnecessary
s. enable t. by-product u. Mini-
bits v. hydrodesulphurisation.
Ex. 2 has been/more/down on/
po 11 u tan ts/ in volves/ mixt u rei crush ed/
suspended/ col umn/ i ns ide/ super-/
method/ its/ fact i that/solid/ involved.
SECTION 0
Ex. 2 o. His company spent a lot
of money drilling wildcats in order
to establish the reservoir , and now
more money will have ro be spent to
solve the problems caused by over-
production. b. In order to prevent
overproQuclion problems. c. A
'watered-out' well is a well which has
gone from producing oil LO producing
water. d. Chuck believes that oil
viscosity is the problem. whereas
Jimmy thinks the watered-o Ul wells
were completed too near the OWe.
e. To prevent the problem from
becoming worse. J. (ii).
Unit 20
SECTION A
Comprehension a. It might pour so
much CO2 into the atmosphere that
the earth would warm up (the CO 2
would prevent heat from escaping into
space), thus melting the polar ice
caps, which would in [Urn cause sea-
levels to rise, flooding the world's
seacoast cit ies. c. (i) An isomer is a
molecule; an isotope is an atom. (ii)
Cracking is a process by which
molecules are split; fission is a process
by which alOms are split. (iii)
Alkylation is a process by which
molecules are combined; fu sion is a
process by which the nuclei of atoms
are combined. d. The cost of
switching back to coal becomes
relatively cheaper as crude becomes
more expensive.lBecause industry
switched from coal to oil as a source
of fuel. e. From the fac t that the
CO 2 in the atmosphere acts rather
like the glass in a greenhouse in
preventing heat from escaping..
f. Break throughs relative to the
development of techniques capable of
containing the extremely high
temperatures involved in fusion.
g. Because uranium will run out just
as oil will. i. Because the source
is seawater, which covers much (71 0/0 )
of the earth' s surface.
- fissioni ngl po wer I fuell generatel
al terna ti veil im ited! conservedl
prov idesl equ iva Ie ntl bb II pol iciesl
supply.
SECTION B
Ex. 2 o. It is dangerous, can't be
destroyed, requires very careful
disposal, etc. b. By the development
of techniques c. Time.lBecause it
will take years to develop the necessary
techniques for fu sion.l By conserving
oiLlOil is needed ( 0 provide energy
for developing fu sion techniques.
d. (i) e. The fact that they produce
dangerous wastes.lThey are wastes
that can not be destroyed.
SECTION C
Ex. 1 All energy in the world is
ultimately derived from the sun. Some
of this energy can immediately be
utilized . . Some is absorbed by the
growth of vegetable matter and is
made available ... from wood which
is burned di rectly or turned imo char-
coal ... fossil fuels. progress was
speeded up. The history of industrial
development and higher standards of
living could be written in terms ...
development, the original process of
energy generation through nuclear
fusion will have to be re-created.
Ex. 2 o. Dr. Stone explained that if
the nucle i of two deuterium atoms
could be made to combine,
tremendous amounts of energy would
be released, and what was more, the
fusion of deuterium nuclei wouldn't
produce radioactive waste.
b. Michael asked why we weren't
using fusio n as a source of energy at
that time . c. Dr. Stone replied by
saying that he could tell Michael in
just one word: temperature. He sa id
that nuclear fusion required a
temperature of 100 million degrees
Centigrade. and that somehow the
fuel had got to be contained al that
temperatu re, but no material that they
knew of could stand up against such
heat. He went on to say that since
materials couldn't keep fusion under
com rol, they were developin g
techniques thai would be able to do it.
d. Michael then asked wh en Or. Stone
thought they would succeed . e. Dr.
Stone said that he was sure it would
be within the next 30 to 40 yea rs, and
then we would have enough fuel
reserves to last for millions of years.
Explaining that the deu terium in one
cubic meter of seawater would give us
as much energy as 60 tons of oi l,
Or. Stone said that what we needed
was time.
Ex. 3 sometimes/ gas/ expand/ fal ls/
liquid/ gas/ be fore/ GOR/ low/ urilize/
gas/power/GOR/ high/ may/cubicl
su rpl usl gasl su rpl usl wou Idl flari ng!
energy I su ffi cien rl gas/layi ng/
econom icall yI sho uId.
SECTION 0
Ex. 2 o. The more volatile
components disappear into the
atmosphere by evaporation.
b. Water-soluble components
di sappear in solution. c. Wave action
aids natural dispersion by breaking
the slick up into droplets and
separating them widely.
d. Biodegradation reduces oil spills
as certain components are broken
down by organisms. e. A certain
percemage of the oil simply sinks to
the bottom of the sea by
sedimentation.