Vice-Chancellor

CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar

FOREWORD

It is a matter of pleasure that the “Field crops -II (Rabi crops) manual” is being
published by the Department of Agronomy, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana
Agricultural University, Hisar for the benefit of agriculture students. The manual
contains complete crop husbandry of rabi field crops from field preparation to the crop
harvesting. It seems to be very useful not only to the students to prepare for examinations
but also to the farmers and associated persons engaged in raising rabi field crops. The
authors Drs. R.K. Pannu, A. K. Dhaka, Bhagat Singh and Satish Kumar have needed
teaching and research exposure on field crops. The manual so developed may also serve
as a text book as this has been written as per revised curriculum, which will help the
undergraduate students for their better understanding of the crop cultivation. The
language of manual is simple and easily understandable with cultivation practices
elaborated in detail. The production constraints of each crop with practical solution have
been explained very well. This publication will certainly help the students to prepare for
competition of different examinations.
I congratulate the authors for their tireless efforts in bringing out the manual only
to help in development of quality human resource. This manual can also be used as ready
reckoner by all stakeholders of field crops.

(K.S. Khokhar)
 PREFACE

Crop cultivation as subsistence farming has been followed since ancient times.
Raising field crops is a dynamic process of taking decision from time to time as the
cultivation practices changes with change in agro climatic conditions, soil types and
locations. Crop production embraces the knowledge to perform the various operations at the
farm in a skillful manner. This also teaches judicious and efficient use of farm resources and
inputs are required for sustainable production. In view of the ever-growing human and cattle
population and horizontal expansion of crop cultivation is impossible, therefore very limited
scope for extension of cultivated area, it is necessary to produce more food, feed, fodder, fuel
and fiber from the existing land area with the available resources. Depletion and degradation
of natural resources by intensive agriculture in post green revolution era coupled with
increasing cost of inputs required for crop production are posing serious threat to
sustainability of crop production. Therefore, it requires developing skilled man power
through human resource at global level. The apex body of agriculture at national level
(ICAR) has developed a common course curriculum for the graduates in agriculture for
parity. None of the available books covers the whole syllabus and taking this in to
consideration a manual has been written by the authors. The course contents have been
implemented from 2011-12 in Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar. The new course of field crops (Rabi) is more comprehensive as it deals with the
complete package of practices of major rabi season cereals, pulses, oil seeds, forage crops,
sugar crops, commercial crops and medicinal and aromatic plants. A comprehensive
document on different aspects of crop production i.e soil, climatic requirement, crop
production and crop protection technologies along with the processing and value addition
will provide comprehensive knowledge to the students.
We hope the manual will be helpful in fulfilling the objective of holistic knowledge
of crops for increasing the income of farmers and sustainability to the production system. We
wish this manual will be useful to the students, teachers and farmers alike pursuing the sacred
mission of increasing food availability to the hungry millions.
We are thankful to the Worthy Vice-Chancellor for writing forward for this manual
and authorities of CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar for granting permission to
publish this manual. The encouragement and guidance by Dr. (Mrs.) Sucheta Khokhar, Dean,
College of Agriculture and technical help rendered by Dr. A.S. Dhindwal, Professor and
Head, Department of Agronomy is thankfully acknowledged. We are extremely thankful to
the authors of various books, manuals and documents for getting useful material for inclusion
in this publication. We are also grateful to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research for
providing financial assistance for publication of this manual.
Suggestions for improvement of the subject matter are always welcome.

Hisar R. K. Pannu
March, 2012 A.K. Dhaka
Bhagat Singh
Satish Kumar
 CONTENTS

Sr. no. Title Page no.

Cereals
1 Wheat 1-14
2 Barley 15-20
Pulses
3 Chick Pea 21-27
4 Lentil 28-33
5 Field Pea 34-38
6 French Bean 39-41
Oil seeds
7 Rapeseed and Mustard 42-50
8 Sunflower 51-59
Sugar crop
9 Sugarcane 60-73
Commercial crop
10 Tobacco 74- 86
Forage crops
11 Berseem 87- 91
12 Lucerne 92- 94
13 Oat 95- 97

4
 Syllabus (Theory)

AGRON 203 FIELD CROPS- II (RABI CROPS)

Origin, geographical distribution, economic importance, soil and climatic

requirements, varieties, cultural practices, manuring, water management,
important limiting factors and constraints in production and cultivation of rabi
crops.
Cereals: Wheat and Barley
Pulses : Chickpea, Lentil, Peas and French bean
Oil seeds : Rapeseed and mustard and Sunflower
Sugar crop : Sugarcane
Commercial crop : Tobacco
Forage crops : Berseem, Lucerne and Oat

5
6
 WHEAT

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is locally known as Gehun/Kanak belongs to family

Poaceae. It is the World’s number one cereal crop with an area of about 214 million hectare,
which is about 14% of the global arable land area. The area under wheat is almost static
around 220 million hectare since last three decades but its production has been increased by
four fold due to improved varieties, increase in irrigation and fertilizers use with modern
production technologies. Wheat is the second most important food crop of the country, which
contributes nearly one-third of the total food grains production.
It is consumed mostly in the form of unleavened pan-backed bread, called chapati.
Wheat is consumed in various other preparations such as dalia, halwa, puri, upma, flakes,
cakes, biscuits etc. It contains more proteins (10-12%) than other cereals. Wheat has a
relatively high content of niacin and thiamine. Wheat proteins are of special significance
beside nutrition; they provide characteristic substance gluten, which is very essential for
bakers, because gluten provides the structural frame work for the spongy, cellular texture of
bread and other baked products. Wheat straw is used for feeding the cattle.
Origin
According to De Candolle wheat was originated in the valley of Euphrates and Tigris
and spread from there to China, Egypt and other parts of worlds. But, Vavilov believed that
durum wheat was originated in Abyssinia, while soft wheat was probably originated in the
region of western Pakistan, south western Afghanistan and the southern parts of mountainous
Babshara.

Area, Production and Productivity

The major Wheat producing countries in the world are China, India, United States,
Russia and France. In India the major wheat growing states are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan with a highest productivity in Punjab (45.1 q/ha), Haryan (44 q/ha)
and UP (31.2 q/ha) with all India average of 29.1 q/ha. The average productivity of wheat in
Haryana during 2009-10 was 42.13 kg/ha. The area under wheat has steadily gone up since
the start of the Wheat Revolution in 1967 and its production and productivity has increased
tremendously. The overall increase in area, production and productivity of wheat in our
country during 1965-2010 had been 207%, 655% and 317%, respectively. Another major
change that has occurred in wheat cultivation since independence is that the proportion of
area under irrigated wheat has increased greatly. It has gone up from 34% in 1967 to 51 % in
1970 and more than 89.6% in 2006-07. Thus the crop has now become largely irrigated as
compared to being primarily rainfed earlier.

Classification of wheat
According to Bayles and Clark (1954) the 12 cultivated species of Triticum are
Triticum aestivum/vulgare (Common bread Wheat), T.durum (Durum/macroni Wheat), T.
7
dicoccum (Emmer Wheat), T.sphaerococcum (Shot Wheat), T. macha (Macha Wheat), T.
vavilovi (Vavilovii Wheat), T. spelta (Spelt Wheat), T. compactum (Club Wheat), T.
polonicum (Polish Wheat), T. turgidum (Poulard Wheat), T. persicum/carthlicum (Persian
Wheat) and T. monococcum (Einkorn Wheat). Out of total 18 species of Triticum genus,
Perival (1921) classified 12 cultivated species into three distinct groups; deploids (Einkorn
Wheat) , tetraploids ( Emmer, Durum, Persian, Poulard and Polish wheat) and hexaploids (
Common, Club, Spelt, Shot, Macha and Vavilovii wheat), with 7, 14 and 21 chromosomes,
respectively in their cells. T. sphaerococcum has now practically gone out of cultivation
because of its low productivity and high susceptibility to diseases. Only spring-type wheat
varieties are grown in the country, though these are raised in winter.
Common bread wheat (T. aestivum) is the most important species, occupying more than
90% of the total wheat area in the country. It is grown all over India from the sea-level up to
an elevation of 3,500 m in the Himalayas. Mexican dwarf wheat developed by incorporating
dwarfing gene Norin 10 was introduced in India by Dr. N.E. Borlaug (Noble Leurate).
Macaroni wheat (T. durum) is the second most important species, occupying nearly 10% of
the wheat area. Earlier its cultivation was primarily confined to the central and southern
India, with very small area in Punjab and West Bengal. Its cultivation was most common
under rain fed conditions only, on account of high susceptibility to rusts. But with the
development of high-yielding semi-dwarf types, a large area has come up in Punjab under
irrigated conditions. The durum wheat is good for making suit, semya, sphagetti.
Emmer wheat (T. dicoccum ), is grown on a very restricted scale in Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, where it is known as popatiya, khapli, ravva,
godhumalu, samba etc. A large pocket of several thousand hectares of this species exists in
Belgaum district of Karnataka along the river Krishna.
It has a very high degree of heat tolerance and can be sown as late as December and January
without much fear of heat damage during grain filling, even in the southern zone. It is
preferred for several south Indian dishes, which use granular form of wheat.

Growth stages
Pre-establishment stage:
a. Pre-emergence (up to 5 DAS): Sprouting of seeds by giving rise to seminal roots and
coleoptiles.
b. Emergence (6 DAS): Appearance of coleoptiles from germinating seeds above the soil
surface.
Vegetative stage:
a. Seedling (up to 30 DAS): The young plants establish larger root systems in this stage.
This stage may be further differentiated as one leaf, two leaves, three leaves and four leaf
stages.
b. Crown root initiation (22 DAS): This coincides with three or four leaf stage in the plant.
At this stage the roots emerge from the crown disc.

8
c. Tillering (35 - 45 DAS): Plants develop crown and branch out into tillers from their base
at soil surface.
d. Jointing (65 DAS): This is the stage at which the plants start elongating when the nodes
start developing above the crown node.
Reproductive stage:
a. Booting (75 DAS) in this stage the uppermost leaf swells out into flag holding the spike
into it.
b. Heading (85 DAS) The spikes start emerging out from the flag leaf sheath at this stage.
c. Flowering/Anthesis (95 DAS) Anthesis of florets and fertilization of ovaries take place at
this stage.
Post- Anthesis stage
Grain filling (105-135 DAS): The ovaries, after fertilization, start elongation into seeds
or ovules passing through Milk stage (105 DAS), Soft dough stage (120 DAS) and Hard
dough stage (135 DAS).
Maturity stage: Colour of glumes changes and kernels become fairly hard at this stage.
There are two stages of maturity i.e. Physiological (140 DAS) and harvestable maturity
(145 DAS)

Climatic requirement
In India wheat is a winter season (rabi) crop. The sowing is done in autumn and
harvesting in summer. The high temperature at both ends of the crop season determine the
duration available for cultivation, which ranges from 100 days in south to more than 145 days
in north-western plains and 180 days in the hills. The best wheats are produced in areas
favored with cool, moist weather during the major portion of the growing period followed by
dry, warm weather to enable the grain to ripen properly. The optimum temperature range for
ideal germination of wheat seed is 20 to 250C though the seeds can germinate in the
temperature range of 3.5-350C.
During the heading and flowering stages, excessively high or low temperature and
drought are harmful to wheat crop. The temperature conditions at the time of grain filling and
development are very crucial for yield. Temperature above 25oC during this period tends to
depress grain weight. Early seeding severely restricts tillering capability, crop duration and
yield potential of most varieties. Very hot temperature during grain-ripening period can result
in grain shriveling.

Soil requirement
Well-drained loams and clayey loams are considered the best for growing wheat.
However, good crop of wheat can be raised in sandy loams and the black soils also. Durum
wheat is considered more suitable for cultivation in heavy and black soils, whereas aestivum
wheat is grown in all types of soils.

9
Crop rotations
In Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh where rice is now extensively grown in
kharif and is followed by wheat. Similarly, wheat is now extensively cultivated after rice in
eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The sugarcane-wheat and cotton-wheat rotations are also
common in several parts, in northern India under irrigated condition Pearl millet--wheat,
Sorghum-wheat and jute-wheat are other rotations followed in some parts of the country.
Development of short-duration varieties of pigeonpea has made the growing of wheat feasible
after harvest of this crop. In north-western India and in the foot-hill tarai areas of Uttar
Pradesh, irrigated wheat is also grown as a companion crop between rows of sugarcane and
potato. In the black soils of central and peninsular India, dryland wheat is rotated with
sorghum, pearl milet or cotton in kharif in the preceding year. The growing of quick-maturing
crops, viz. greengram, onion, coriander and even groundnut or early sown maize as catch
crops before wheat are fairly common. All over India, the growing of rainfed wheat mixed
with Chickpea, lentil, mustard, linseed, barley and safflower is quite common. Even under
irrigated conditions a row of mustard for every 8 to 12 rows of wheat is a common practice.

Field preparation
Wheat crop requires a well pulverized but compact seedbed for good and uniform
germination. With 3 to 4 ploughings, repeated harrowing, cultivation and planking before
sowing to produce firm seedbed are considered desirable for raising a good crop of wheat.
Very timely cultivation to conserve moisture in the soil is essential under rainfed condition.
In the black cotton soils, blade harrow (bhakar) is used instead of the plough. For field
prepration 1 to 3 ploughings with an iron plough may sometimes precede the use of bhakar.
Pre-sowing irrigation (palewa or rauni) of field, followed by cultivation and planking to
prepare a fine well pulverized seed bed. Recently zero-tillage and minimal tillage sowing
practices using a specially designed zero-till seeding-cum-fertilizer drill have been
recommended to save the time required to prepare proper seedbed under the rice-wheat
rotation, particularly when medium long and long duration varieties of rice (or basmati types)
are grown and the fields get vacated very late in November and December. Such practices
can be followed even for timely sown wheat to reduce expenditure on field preparation.
However, these are successful when weeds are not a serious problem or when these are
controlled with the use of herbicides.
Resource conservation technologies (RCT)
1. Laser land leveling: This is precursor resource conservation technology that is a must for
the proper implementation of other RCT’s for greater productivity and profitability. This
technology increases productivity, increases area under crop, saves water and other inputs,
enhances factor productivity and reduces costs of production.
2. Surface seeding: This RCT is specifically suited to single crop diara lands of eastern parts
of India where soil remains wet after rice harvesting. The technology requires no tillage,

10
broadcast dry or soaked seed under saturated condition, scope in areas where soil remains wet
after rice harvesting and doubles the cropping intensity.
3. Zero tillage: The main features of the technology are; zero tillage drill is simple and
affordable, direct drilling in untilled condition, advances sowing time realizing higher yields,
saves more than 90% fuel energy and time, similar yield at lower cost in comparison to
timely sown wheat with conventional tillage and better management of herbicide resistant
biotypes of Phalaris minor
4. Bed Planting: The Furrow irrigated raised bed system (FIRBS) accommodate 2-3 rows of
wheat on raised bed with 75-90 cm spacing between beds. The furrows in between the beds
are used for irrigation purpose. The method helps in saving of water upto 40% without loss of yield.

Sowing time
Normally wheat is sown when the average daily temperatures fall to around 22-23°C,
which happens only in November in most wheat-growing areas. Sowing wheat while the
temperatures are high (around 25°C) results in poor germination reduced tillering and early
onset of flowering, thereby exposing the floral parts to cold damage. All these factors depress
the crop yields. Only few varieties, viz. C 306 and WH 533 are suitable for sowing in the end
of October to Ist week of November, which makes these suitable for rainfed conditions where
seeding is done early.
Under irrigated conditions, the first fortnight of November is considered the optimum
time for sowing the medium and long-duration varieties, which are capable of producing the
highest possible yield.

Seed rate
For varieties with the medium sized grains (38 to 44 g for 1,000 seeds) a seed rate of
100 kg/ha is recommended. For bold seeded varieties (around 45 g or more/1,000 seeds) a
seed rate of 125 kg/ha is optimum. For late-sown and mild salinity condition, 25% higher
seed rate (125-150 kg/ha) is recommended.

Method of sowing
In many places the seed is sown by hand in furrows behind the plough, drawn by
bullocks by the kera method. In Paddy - wheat rotation areas the sowing of wheat should be
done with the help of zero till seed- cum -fertilizer drill. The seed of semi-dwarf varieties
should be placed at seeding depth of 4 to 5cm depth, since they have a short coleoptile, but
that of the tall types can be placed up to a depth of 6 to 7 cm. For irrigated timely sown
wheat, a spacing of 20 cm between the rows is considered optimum. For irrigated late-sown
conditions, the row spacing is reduced to 18 cm. Under rainfed conditions seed is required to
be placed deeper, and after sowing, the furrows are left open. Rainfed wheat is sown at
relatively wide spacing of about 25 to 30 cm between the rows. Some farmers sow the crop
by broadcasting seeds in the well-prepared fields followed by harrowing. This is an

11
undesirable practice since seed cannot be spread uniformly, and get placed at variable depths
resulting in erratic crop stand. However, in case this method has to be adopted under certain
constraints then seed rate should be increased by 25% and moisture availability ensured in
top-soil level.

Varieties
Early Sowing, Medium Fertility and Restricted Irrigated Conditions
C 306: This is a most drought tolerant variety of wheat. This is suitable for early sowing (i.e.
last week of October to 1st week of November). This is a tall variety (135 cm) and has high
tillering capacity. It has white and hairy ears on maturity. It has high early growth vigour and
medium late in maturity (150 days). Due to its tall stature and weak stem, it is susceptible to
lodging. It has excellent chapati making quality and its grains are hard, amber and medium in
size. This variety yields about 25q/ha without irrigation.
WH 1025: It is recommended for early sowing, low fertility and low irrigated areas. Medium
in height (105 cm), lodging resistant. Grains are medium in size, amber coloured and hard. Its
chapatti making quality is very good. It is resistant to rust. Average yield is 27.5 q/ha.
WH 1080: It is recommended for rainfed and restricted irrigation areas. The plant has
average height of 86 cm. The stem is hard and lodging resistant. The grains are of medium
size, hard with amber colour. It can tolerate the drought conditions very well. It gives average
yield of 30.8 q/ha with crop duration of 151 days.
Timely Sowing, Medium Fertility and Restricted Irrigated Conditions
WH 147: It is a dwarf variety with fast growing habit, good tillering capacity, and compact
plant type with broad and erect leaves. The flag leaf is prominent. Its earhead is thick at the
top. This variety is about one week early in heading and maturity. Hence, it can escape high
temperature at the time of maturity of crop. The average yield is 50 q/ha. It has resistance to
brown rust but susceptible to yellow rust and powdery mildew. Therefore, its cultivation
should be avoided in humid climate areas. The last irrigation should be light and done when
winds are not blowing to avoid lodging.
WH 416: It has 105 cm height, quick growing habit and green foliage with broad and erect
leaves. Its spikes are smooth and fusiform and have white glumes on maturity. The grains are
amber and fairly bold with about 40g per 1000 grains. It has been found most suitable for
timely sowing, high fertility and irrigated conditions. The average yield of this variety is 55
q/ha.
Timely Sowing, High Fertility and Irrigated Conditions
WH 711: It is a dwarf variety with an average plant height of 81 cm its plant is compact with
profuse tillering capacity having stout stem which resists lodging. Leaves are erect, small and
medium sized of dark green foliage. Spikes are tapering bearing medium awns and semi-
dense which turn creamy white on maturity. It matures in 145 days. Grains are amber,
medium and of oral shape and its average yield is 59 q/ha.

12
WH 542: It is a semi-dwarf variety (90 cm) with high tillering and compact plant type having
dense and white spikes with short awns. It is highly resistant to lodging. It has resistance to
all the three rusts, flag smut and loose smut, Karnal bunt and powdery mildew. Its foliage
colour is light green. The awn and ear colour at maturity becomes white. The grains are
amber colour, semi-hard and medium in size. This variety has very good chapati making
qualities. It matures in 140 days and its average yield is 58 q/ha.
WH 283: It is a dwarf variety with an average height of about 104 cm. The tillering is fairly
good and the foliage is dark green and drooping. Its grains are bold; shining and amber. The
bread and chapati making quality is very good. It is highly resistant to leaf rust and has good
field resistance to Karnal bunt. The average yield of this variety is 50 q/ha.
PBW 502: It is dwarf variety (95 cm) with profuse tillering habit. The ears are dense and
tapering in shape. Its grains are bold, amber, lustrous and hard. It is resistant to yellow and
brown rust. It is less susceptible to Karnal bunt but susceptible to loose smut. Its average
yield is 50 q/ha. It matures in 150 days.
PBW 550: It is dwarf (85 cm), high tillering, grains are medium in size (41 g/1000 seeds)
and hard. It is resistant to yellow and brown rust. It is resistant to Karnal bunt also. Its
average yield is 58 q/ha. It matures in 140 days.
DBW 17: It is recommended for timely and irrigated conditions. It is dwarf (85 cm), high
tillering, grains are medium in size (39 g/1000 seeds) and hard. It is resistant to yellow and
brown rust. It is resistant to Karnal bunt also. Its average yield is 58 q/ha. It matures in 143
days.
UP 2338: It is a dwarf variety with an average height of about 100 cm. Its grains are bold and
amber. Moderately resistant to brown rust. Average yield is 57.5 q/ha.
PBW 343: It is a, semi-dwarf variety with an average height of 95 cm with high tillering and
compact plant type having resistance to lodging. It has recently turend susceptible to the
rusts. The grains are amber, hard and medium bold. It matures in 142 days and its average
yield is 57.5 q/ha.
Late sown and high fertility conditions
WH 1021: Dwarf (95 cm), high tillering and ears are brown in colour at maturity. Grains are
medium in size, shiny and have 12.2% protein content. It is resistant to brown and yellow
rust. It is tolerant to high temperature. Average yield is 47.5 q/ha.
PBW 373: Dwarf (96 cm), high tillering, strong stem and resistant to lodging. Grains are
medium and hard. It is resistant to brown and yellow rust. Average yield is 46 q/ha.
Raj 3765: It is recommended for late and very late sowing. Plant height is 95 cm. It has
profuse tillering and strong stem. Its spike is dense, pointed and white in colour. Its leaves are
light green in colour. Grains are hard, bold and amber in colour. It is heat and rust tolerant. Its
average yield is 46 q/ ha.
Sonalika (S 308): Semi-dwarf, low tillering and ears are light red in colour at maturity.
Grains are bold and soft. Incidence of Karnal bunt is less but sensitive to yellow rust.
Average yield is 42 q/ha.

13
Timely Sowing under Salinity and Alkalinity Conditions
WH-157: It is a dwarf variety with an average height of 105 cm with compact habit of
growth in the early stage. Its foliage and stem remain dark green throughout its growth period
till maturity. However, the older leaves show a tendency of tip drying. The grains of this
variety are bold, hard and amber. Its tillering capacity is low. Its ears are fully bearded and
mid-dense. Its ear heads have whitish glumes, slight hairiness and long awns. It matures in
142 days. It has high resistance to yellow rust and resistance to brown rust. Its average yield
under salt affected lands is 35 q/ha.
KRL 210: Recommended for timely sown, irrigated saline and alkaline soil conditions.
Semi-dwarf and early maturing (125 Days) variety with high yield potential, giving about
33.75 q/ha grain yield. Grains are medium, semi-hard and amber in colour. Highly resistant to
loose smut disease and tolerant to Karnal bunt and foliar blight. Fairly good for chapatti
making quality.
KRL 213: Timely sown, irrigated- saline and alkaline conditions. Semi-dwarf and maturing
in 145 days giving about 33.57 q/ha grain yield. Grains are medium, semi-hard and amber in
colour. It has high level of resistance against rust diseases. Good for chapatti making quality.
Durum wheat varieties
WH 896: It is recommended for timely sown, high fertility and irrigated conditions. The
leaves of this variety are erect growing. It is dwarf in nature and have strong stem. Ear head is
white in colour and compact. Grains are bold and attractive. It is good for suji making. It is
resistant to rust, Karnal bunt and loose smut. Its average yield is 52.5 q/ha.
WH 912: It is recommended for timely sown, high fertility and irrigated conditions. The stem
is strong and resistant to lodging. It is dwarf in nature. Ear head is brown in colour and
compact. Grains are bold and attractive. It is good for pasta making. It is resistant to rust,
Karnal bunt and loose smut. Its average yield is 55 q/ha.
PDW 233: It is recommended for timely sown, high fertility and irrigated conditions. The
leaves of this variety are light green in colour. It is dwarf in nature. Ear head is white in
colour and compact. Grains are bold and shining. It is good for pasta making. It is resistant to
rust, Karnal bunt and loose smut. Its average yield is 52q/ha.

Fertilizer requirement
It is better to apply fertilizer on soil test basis. Under irrigated conditions for dwarf
varieties of wheat, 150 kgN+60 kg P2O5+60 Kg K2O + 25 Kg ZnSO4/ha is recommended.
While for tall/desi variety 60 kg N+30 kg P2O5+30 Kg K2O/ha is recommended under
irrigated conditions. Half nitrogen and full dose of phosphorus, potash and zinc should be
drilled at the time of sowing. Remaining half nitrogen should be applied after first irrigation.
If the zinc is not applied at the time of sowing then spray twice 0.5% zinc sulphate + 2.5%
urea at 45 and 60 days after sowing.

14
 Under rainfed conditions 30 kg N+15 Kg P2O5/ha is recommended. All the fertilizers
must be drilled at the time of sowing. Treat 100 kg seed with 10 pkts of azotobacter + 10
Pkts. of P.S.B before sowing will improve the wheat nutrition as INM. If wheat is sown after
legumes or fallow then 25% dose of nitrogen can be reduced. In case of light soils, nitrogen
can be splitted at three times instead of two times. In light soils, if the deficiency of nitrogen
is observed then spray 3% urea at tillering stage.

Irrigation management
Generally 5-6 irrigations are applied to wheat crop in the absence of winter rainfall.
The first irrigation should be applied at CRI stage (22DAS). In case of late sowing 1st
irrigation should be delayed to 4 weeks after sowing. Irrigation at CRI should not be avoided
in wheat crop. Depending upon the irrigation avalability the following schedule should be
followed.
Available number of irrigations Irrigation application (DAS)
2 (at CRI and heading) 22, 85
3 (at CRI, Jointing and milking) 22, 65, 105
4 (at CRI, Tillering, heading and milking) 22, 45, 85, 105
5 (at CRI, Tillering, heading, milking and dough) 22, 45, 65, 105, 120
6 (at CRI, Tillering, jointing heading, milking and dough) 22, 45, 65, 85, 105, 120
In high water table areas, after pre-sowing irrigation only two irrigations at 25 and 85
DAS are sufficient.

Weed management
Weeds reduce the grain yield of wheat by10 to 80% depending upon intensity and
type of weed flora under different cropping systems. The major weeds of wheat are:
(A) Grassy weeds: Phalaris minor, Avena ludoviciana, Poa annua, Polypogon monspliensis
and Lolium temulentum.
(B) Broadleaf weeds: Chenopodium album, Rumex dentatus, Melilotus indica, Medicago
denticulata, Anagallis arvensis, Vicia sativa , Lathyrus aphaca, Malva parviflora,
Chenopodium murale, Convolvulus arvensis, Coronopus didymus, Fumaria parviflora,
Cirsium arvense and others.
Integration of cultural, mechanical and chemical methods give good control of weeds
in wheat. Crop rotation with pulses, oilseeds and fodder crop and hoeing after 35-40 DAS
gives good control of weeds.

15
Chemical control of weeds in wheat
Time of
Sr. Dose
Weeds Herbicide application
No. (g/ha)
(DAS)
1 Broadleaf weeds 2,4-D Na salt (80% WP) or 625 30-35
2,4-D Ester (34.6% EC) 750 30-35
2 Hardy broadleaf 2,4-D Na (80% WP) or 1250 30-35
weeds (R. dentatus, C. 2,4-D E (34.6% EC) 1500 30-35
arvensis, C. arvense
and L. aphaca)
3 Broadleaf weeds and Metsulfuron-methyl 20 30-35
Asphodelus tenuifolius, (Algrip, 20% WP)
Carfentrazone-ethyl 50 30-35
(Aim 40 % DF)
4 Grassy weeds Isoproturon 50% WP (Delron, 2000 30-35
Tolkan, Taurus, Greminan,
Hilproturon.
Isoproturon (75% WP) Nocilon- 1250 30-35
75, Arelon 75% WP) or with
Triton, Selvit)
5 Grassy weeds Triallate (Avadex, 10 % EC) 3000 PPI – Use
Particularly Or 25% extra
Avena Ludoviciana seed rate
Triallate fb Isoproturon 2500 fb PPI & 30-35
1250
6 Pluchea lanceolata Glyphosate (Round up, Glycel 2.0% Spray after
41 % SL) or Solution wheat
harvest at
peak growth
of Weed
Glyphosate + surfactant or 1.0% + ---do-
0.1%
2,4-D E (34.6% EC) 3000 ---do-

7 Complex weed flora Isoproturon (75% WP) + 2,4-D 900 + 650 30-35
(grassy + broad leaf Na (80% WP) or
weeds) Isoproturon + metsulfuron 900 + 15 30-35

Total (SSN + MTS) 40 30-35

16
 Precaution should be taken that Isoproturon has been found to cause phytotoxicity in
wheat CV. WH-157 and DWL 5023. 2,4-D should not be used under mixed cropping where
gram, raya or any other broadleaf crop has been grown with wheat. It should also not be
used in wheat varieties viz. WH 283, HD 2009, Raj 3077, WH 416 and Sonak.
Medicago denticulata and Melilotus indica spp. and Rumex dentatus are not controlled by
2,4-D, but can effectively be controlled by Algrip. Fumaria parviflora is not effectively
controlled by Algrip, but can be controlled by 2,4-D only. Aim is very effective against
Malva parviflora, Convolvulus arvensis and Rumex dentatus. Delayed application may lower
its efficacy against Chenopodium album, Melilotus indica, Medicago denticulata and
Anagallis arvensis.

Chemical control of weeds in Isoproturon resistance affected areas

Herbicide Common Dose Weeds controlled
name (g/ha)
Sulfosulfuron 75% Leader, SF-10 32.5 + 1250 ml Avena ludoviciana, P. minor
WP and Safal -75 Surfactant and 30-40 % control of
(0.25%) broadleaf weeds
Clodinafop-propargyl (Topik, Point, 400 Avena ludoviciana and P.
15% WP Moolah, Minor
Rakshak Plus)
Pinoxaden Axial 1000 Avena ludoviciana and P.
Minor
Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl Puma Power 1000 + S (Puma Avena ludoviciana and
activator 0.1%) Phalaris minor
Sulfosulfuron+ Total 40 + S (0.25%) Grassy as well as broad leaf
metsulfuron (R.M.) weeds such as Rumex dentatus,
Malva parviflora, C. album,
Medicago Denticulate and
Coronopus didymus
Mesosulfuron+ Atlantis 400 + 0.1 Grassy as well as broad leaf
Idosulfuron ( R.M.) activator weeds .
Clodinafop-propargyl Vesta 400 + 1250 ml Grassy as well as broad leaf
+ Metsulfuron- surfactant weeds such as Rumex dentatus,
methyl ( R.M.) Malva parviflora, C. album,
Medicago Denticulate and
Coronopus didymus
Note- Apply any one of the above mentioned herbicides by mixing in 500 litre of water per
hectare area after 30- 35 days of sowing.

17
 For complex weed flora (grassy and broadleaf weeds) where clodinafop or
fenoxaprop are used; sequential application of 2,4-D, one week after the application of grassy
herbicides provides good control of most of the weed flora. Tank mixing of grassy weed
herbicides with 2,4-D is antagonistic and should be avoided. Tank mix of clodinafop or
fenoxaprop with Aim (carfentrazone) is compatible, but not that of fenoxaprop plus Algrip
(metsulfuron). Sequential application of Algrip, one week after fenoxaprop spray should be
followed.
Precautions: Sulfosulfuron or its ready mix formulation (Total) should be avoided in areas
where sorghum or maize is grown after wheat harvest; however, no residual effect of these
herbicides was observed on cotton.

Diseases management
Black rust or stem rust (Puccinia graminis tritici): Disease starts as dark reddish brown
elongated pustules without yellowingon leaves, leaf sheaths, stems and ear heads. The
fringed epidermis covering the pustule later ruptures, revealing powdery mass of brick red
coloured uredospores on the stem. Later in the season rusty coloured pustules turn black and
telia are formed which produce teleutospores.
Brown rust or leaf rust (Puccinia recondita ): The pustules are circular, brown to orange
brown generally irregularly scattered or scattered around the central pustules on ventral side
of the leaves but also occur on leaf sheath, peduncles, internodes and ear heads. Later on
rusty colour pustules turn black when teleutospores are formed.
Yellow rust or stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis):The disease occurs under comparatively
cooler conditions. The symptom starts in the form of narrow, yellow to orange yellow stripes
which become clearer in adult plants. Later on these stripes turn black when teleutospores
are formed. The infection also occurs on leaves, leaf sheath, stem, glumes, awns and also
some times on kernels. Foliar sprays with Zineb (Dithane Z-78) or Mencozeb (Dithane M-45)
@ 2kg/ha in 600 litre of water at the time of disease appearance effectively control the disease.
Loose smut [Ustilago segatum var. tritici (Syn.= U. tritici)]: Symptoms can be seen at the
time of ear emergence. Normally, infected ear heads emerges earlier than the healthy ones.
In the infected plants, the ears are transformed into a black powdery mass consisting of smut
spores, initially covered by a delicate papery membrane which ruptures and exposes the
spores. Subsequently these spores are dislodged by the wind leaving behind the naked rachis.
For control, Solar heat treatment- Soak the seeds in water for four hours in the morning and
spread the seed in the noon for drying during the months of May – June, and seed treatment
with Vitavax or Carbendazim (Bavistin) @ 2g or Tebuconazol (Raxil-2DS) @ 1g per kg seed
is quite effective.

18
Flag smut (Urocystis agropyri): The disease affect the leaves primarily, leaf sheath, culm
and stem. The affected leaves become twisted which later drop down like flag and finally
wither away. These sori are formed in the mesophyll tissue under the epidermis of the leaf.
The epidermis ruptures exposing black powder mass of the spores. The culms remain sterile
and plants generally do not produce grain but sometimes shriveled grains may be produced.
Control: Burning of diseased plant debris, shallow sowing and one to two year crop rotation
reduces the disease. Seed treatment with Vitavax or Carbendazim (Bavistin) @ 2g or
Tebuconazol (Raxil-2DS) @ 1g per kg seed is quite effective.
Karnal bunt (Neovossia indica = Syn. Tilletia indica): Symptoms are evident only on the
grains. Only few grains in an ear head are affected. In a stool, all the ears are not infected
and in an ear all the grains are not bunted. The infected spike lets may flare up the glumes to
expose the bunted grains. The infected seeds emit foul odour due to production of volatile
chemical trimethylamine. For control: Use of disease free seed and crop rotation should be
followed.Seed treatment with Bavistin (2 g/kg seed) reduces the seed borne inoculum.Foliar
spray of carbendazim (Bavistin) or Dithane M 45 (0.2%), Hexaconazol or
propiconazole(0.1%) at anthesis stage gives effective control.
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis tritici):The pathogen attacks all the aerial parts of the
plant. The symptoms appear on the upper surface of the leaves as white to grayish brown
colonies of fluffy superficial powdery mass. As the disease advances, premature drying of the
leaves takes place. Under favourable conditions the pathogen covers leaf sheath, stem and
glumes. Control: Burning of crop debris and deep summer ploughing helps in eliminating the
inoculum. Crop rotation helps in minimizing the disease incidence. Foliar spray of Sulfex @
2-2.5 kg/ha in 400-500 litre of water at first appearance of the disease and repeat after 10-15 days
Ear Cockle (Mamni) and Yellow ear rot (Tundu) (Anguina tritici and Rathyi bacter):
Diseased plants have spreading tendency and swollen base, leaves become crinckled and
twisted. Earheads contain dark brown, hard and roundish galls (Mamni) instead of grains.For
Control: Before sowing of seed, put wheat seed in water and agitate vigorously for few
minutes. Ear cockle galls will float to the surface. These may be skimmed off with an
ordinary sieve and brunt.
Molya (Heterodera avenae): Plants become stunted with yellowing of leaves, reduced
tillering and absence of ears on some tillers or small ears with poorly filled grains. The root
system of infected plants gets reduced in size and becomes bunchy with profuse development
of thin rootlets. Cysts (shining white bodies of female nematodes) are seen attached to the
roots at the later stage of the crop. For control: Expose the soil to the hot sun by summer
cultivation. follow rotation with non- cereals in badly infested soils. Use resistant variety Raj
M R- 1. Apply Temik 10G @ 10 kg or Furadan 3G @ 32 Kg/ha at sowing time.

19
Insect management
Termites (Microtermos obesus): Termites damage the crop soon after sowing and near
maturity. The damaged plants dry up completely and are easily pooled out. The plants
damaged at later stages give rise to white ears. The damage is generally more in low irrigated
light soils areas. For control : Treat the 100 kg seed with 150 ml Chlorpyriphos 20 EC or 250
ml Formothion 25 EC or 500 ml Ethion 50 EC, make the total solution of 5 litre by adding
water and then after spreading the seed on polythine sheet or floor mix solution with seed. To
control termite in standing field condition mix the 5 litre of Chlorpyriphos 20 EC in 5 litre of
water and 5 kg sand or ash, then spread in field evenly followed by a light irrigation.
Aphid (Lipophis erysimi) and Jassid (Amrasca biguttula): These pests damage the crop in
the month of Feb - March in our conditions by sucking the cell sap from leaves, earhead and
flag leaf. For cntrol: If you find 10 pests in one group on flag leaves of crop then go for spray
of 625 ml Fanitrothion 50 EC or 1000 ml Malathion 50 EC mix with 625 litre of water per
hectare area.

20
 BARLEY

Barley (Hordium vulgare L.) commonly known as Jau belong to family Poaceae. It is
very hardy crop and can be cultivated in adverse agro-environment like drought, salinity,
alkalinity etc. in plains and hilly areas under rainfed and irrigated conditions. The
carbohydrates present in barley help in the regulation of the glucose level due to high fiber
content which is five times more than that of the other whole grains. Barley grain are rich in
Vitamin B, Vitamin E and folic acid. Its’ feed helps in reducing the body weight, as it makes
a food appetite suppressant, making one feel filled and satisfied. Barley is a good source of
protein and 60% produce in India is used as a feed for the livestock. Barley contains about
15% water, 6.7% of gum, 3.2 % of sugar, 60% of starch and 2.2% of fat. A wide variety of
barley products are known to be suitable for human consumption. These include porridge,
muesli, cookies, barley flakes, breads, pasta, etc. The energy rich drinks like Bournvita,
Boost, Horlicks, Maltova etc. are prepared from malt extracts of barley. The parched grains
of barley are consumed in many parts of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana. Barley is
malted in alcoholic beverages like beer, wine, etc. The by-products of malted barley are also
used in the form of animal feed. Barley straw is used to make the bed for the livestock,
making paper, fiberboard, etc.

Origin
According to Vavolov (1951) there are two main centers of diversity i.e. One group of
investigators considered North- East Africa and Mountainous regions of Abyssinia as the
principal centre of origin because many diverse forms are available there. This region is
particularly rich in two rowed, hulled, awned types which are classified as occidental type.
Another group of investigators considers that possible centre of origin is south eastern Asia,
particularly China, Japan, Tibet and Nepal which is characterized by hull-less six rowed
varieties with short awn or no awn which grouped as oriental type barley. All the cultivated
forms of barley are thought to have originated from a wild species Hordium spontaneum a
species very similar to the present two-rowed barley.

Area, Production and Productivity

The leading barley producing countries are USSR, China, France, Canada, USA and
Spain. The area under barley cultivation in India has been gradually going down as farmers
are shifting to more remunerative crops like wheat and gram or cash crops like rapeseed and
mustard or safflower. Barley is grown mainly in the northern plains of the country but its
cultivation extends up to an altitude of about 4,575 metres in the Himalayas. In India, barley
occupied 0.62 m ha area and produced nearly 1.35 m tons grain, with a per hectare
productivity of 21.7q/ha during 2009-10. Its greatest concentration is in the states of Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, M.P., Punjab, Haryana and Bihar in plains and Himachal Pardesh,
Uttrakhand and Jammu & Kashmir in hills. In Haryana barley is grown on an area of 42

21
thousand hectare with a production of 137 thousand tones and average productivity of 3262
kg/ha (2009-10). The major barley growing districts are Hisar, Sirsa, Bhiwani, Mohindergarh,
Rewari and western part of Jind, Rohtak and Gurgaon.

Classification
Barley can be classified in different groups which are given below:
a) Classification based on arrangement of spikelets on rachis
Aberg and Wiebe (1946) classified all the cultivated barley varieties into three distinct
species based on the number of rows of grain and their arrangement:
(i) Hordium vulgare L.– six-row barley
(ii) Hordium distichon L.– two-row barley
(iii) Hordium irreglare L.– two-row barley
Six-rowed hulled and some hull-less barley are generally cultivated in the country. In
very high altitudes in Leh and Kargil with cool arid climate, 6-rowed hull-less type is grown
in summer for food. With the demand from malting industry, the introduction and release of
some 2-rowed improved barley has also created considerable interest towards their
cultivation. The 2-rowed varieties are preferred for malting because of their bold, plump
grains, uniform germination, higher malt extract and other desirable traits.
b) Classification based on Awns
Depending on the presence or absence of awns in grains it has been grouped into:
(i) Awned type (ii) Awnless type: Awnless types are also called hooded because of the hood
shaped structure that develops in place of awn.
On the basis of nature of awn presence they are sub-grouped into:
(a) Smooth awned (ii) Rough awned.
c) Classification Based on Adherence of Chaff to grains
Barley are grouped into 2 types as i) Hulled (syn. husked) type: (ii) hull-less (syn.
naked) type.
In case of hulled barley the husk, i.e. floral glumes also called chaff remains attached
to grains resulting in poor flour making. In the hull-less type the husk readily falls after
threshing and naked grains free of chaff can be collected.

Growth stages
Barley has well defined stages of growth and development similar to wheat as follows:
1) Germination and seedling stage: After germination below the soil surface the coleoptile
emerges on the soil surface. This stage is marked by the exhaustion of endosperm and
initiation of crown roots. This stage lasts upto 20-25 days after sowing.
2) Tillering: The seedling after initial establishment of crown root system starts tillering. In
general, two row barley produces more tillers than six row barley. This stage of growth
continues upto 30-35 days after sowing.
3) Jointing and booting: At this stage plant develops its vegetative parts like stem, nodes
start multiplying and internode distance become longer. This stage lasts upto 55-65 daya
after sowing.
22
4) Heading: The flag leaf give rise to emergence of ear head and anthesis begins in the
central florets ultimately resulted into milk stage. This stage lasts upto 75-85 days after
sowing.
5) Ripening: At this stage grain filling and grain development starts resulted into hard dough
stage. This phase lasts upto 90-100 days after sowing.
6) Maturity and drying: This stage is the final stage in the crop life, plant turn yellowish,
loose stiffness and become droopy and becomes ready for harvest.

Climatic requirement
Barley requires cool weather during early growth and warm and dry weather at
maturity. It grows reasonably well in temperate as in sub-tropical regions of the world. The
optimum temperature at the sowing should be around 22- 24oC. The crop requires around 12-
15oC during growing period and around 30oC at maturity. Being drought resistant, barley suits
to areas with scanty rainfall. The crop can withstand cool humid and warm dry climates, but
hot humid climate disfavour its growth, mainly due to prevalence of diseases. It can not
tolerate frost at any stage of growth and incidence of frost at flowering is highly detrimental
for yield. Intermitted drought during the growth period results in premature ripening with high
nitrogen content and shriveled grains unfit for malting. Uniform moisture supply and bright
sunshine at the ripening are important for the production of clean bright kernels required by
the malting industry.

Soil requirement
Sandy to moderately heavy loam soils of Indo-Gangetic plains having neutral to mild
saline reaction and medium fertility are the most suitable for barley cultivation. However, it
thrives well on well-drained fertile deep loam soils. Severe lodging occurs when grown on
extremely fertile soils. Its cultivation also extends, although to a limited extent, to medium
black soils of Maharashtra and Karnataka. It is more tolerant to alkali and saline conditions
than other rabi cereals and is grown extensively under such conditions in Rajasthan, Punjab,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Crop rotation
It is generally rotated with crops, such as pearlmillet, maize, paddy, sorghum, cotton,
groundnut, smaller millets, greengram and balckgram in different parts of the country.
Double-cropping with barley is practiced under assured soil moisture or irrigation facilities.
Barley is grown pure or mixed with other rabi crops, such as gram, peas and lentil.
Sometimes, rape and mustard, taramira and linseed are also intercropped with barley. The
following are common crop rotations where barley is included: Paddy – barley, Maize –
barley, Sorghum – barley, Cotton – barley, Pearlmillet - barley, Groundnut - barley,
Blackgram – barley, Greengram – barley, Cowpea – barley, Guar – barley.

23
Field preparation
Barley requires a well-pulverized but compact seedbed for good and uniform
germination. Two to three ploughings, repeated harrowing, cultivation and planking before
sowing are required to prepare seedbed. Cultivation is essential after effective rainfall to
conserve moisture in the soil under rainfed condition.

Sowing time
Sowing time plays a pivotal role in barley production. Under rainfed condition the
optimum time for barley sowing is second fortnight of October, whereas, under irrigated
situation is better to plant the crop between 15-30th November for harvesting a good crop.
High malt content varieties such as BH 393 sowing must be completed between 15-30th
November otherwise it will affect malt content in grain.. Under late planting the quantity and
quality of malt is reduced.

Seed rate
Under irrigated conditions 85-90 kg/ha seed is required for sowing. However, under
late sown condition increase the seed rate by 25%. In rainfed situation, 75 kg/ha seed is
sufficient to avoid competition for moisture.

Method of sowing
Sowing method depends upon the moisture content in the top soil. If the moisture is
sufficient in the top soil than seed can be sown by kera method, otherwise, it must be planted
by pora method. Row to row spacing must be maintained at 22 cm under normal planting,
however, under late sown condition it should be reduced to 18-20 cm for obtaining optimum
plant population.

Varieties
Huskless barley varieties: Karan 3, Karan 16, Karan 18, Karan 19, Karan 750, Karan 757, DL
487 and K 1155.
Hulled barley varieties: Karan 15, Karan 280, NH 87, K 392, DL 472.
Malting and brewing purpose: Alfa 93, BCU 73, DWR 28, DWRUB 52, RD 2668 and
DWRB 73.
Feed purpose: RD 2552, PL 751, BH 902, BH 393 and RD 2592 (Irrigated), K 560, K 603,
RD 2624, RD 2660 (Rainfed), DL 88, RD 2552, NDB 1173, NDB 1020 and NDB 209(Saline
soils).
Nematode resistant variety: Raj Kiran.

24
 The important barley varities recommended in Haryana state areas follows:

Variety Av. Grain Duration Reaction to major disease/ Other features

Yield (q/ha) (days) insects/ pests

BG 25 34 136 Resistant to yellow rust, Six row, waxy and suitable

susceptible to blight and for irrigated conditions
moderately resistant to
aphids
BG 105 37 137 Susceptible to yellow rust, For irrigated late conditions
blight and aphids
BH 75 38 136 Moderately resistant to For irrigated timely sown
yellow rust, susceptible to conditions
blight and aphids
BH 393 46 121 Resistant to yellow and Six row, early maturity,
brown rust and molya very good malting traits
disease
BH 331 43 127 Resistant to major diseases Suitable for brackish water
and salt affected soils
BH 338 39 107 Tolerant to yellow rust Suitable for late sowing
BH 902 50 130 Resistance against yellow, Six row barley variety for
brown and black rusts. It is feed barley group.
also moderately resistant to
leaf blight.

Fertilizer management
Barley needs 60 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 15 kg K2O/ha under irrigated condition. Apply
full dose of P2O5, K2O and half nitrogen at the time of planting and remaining half dose of
nitrogen should be applied at first irrigation. However, under rainfed situations barley needs
30 kg N and 15 kg P2O5 /ha and all the fertilizers should be applied at the time of sowing.
Aviod excessive nitrogen application as it leads to lodging which will reduce the grain
quality. Application of FYM helps in conservation of moisture.

Irrigation management
Due to low water requirement, barley can be grown as a rainfed crop. To harvest good
yields, barley requires two irrigations at the active tillering stage (40 - 45 DAS) and the other
at the anthises stage (80 - 85 DAS). One extra irrigation is required only on sandy soils. If the
supply of water is inadequate, its efficiency can be increased by a proper timing of its
application at the critical stages of growth of the crop. If only one irrigation is available, its
application near the tillering stage has proved very profitable. On highly alkali-saline soils,
frequent light irrigation gives better results than a fewer heavy irrigation.

25
Weed management
Weeds generally pose greater problem in irrigated areas, though barley is known to be
a good competitor of weeds due to its fast growing habit and high initial vigour. Both
broadleaf (Chenopodium album) and narrow leaf weeds (Phalaris minor and Avena
ludoviciana) are common in barley. The weed population also depends upon the extent of
tillage practices followed prior sowing of barley crop. To prevent losses from weeds, one
hand weeding after first irrigation is quite useful. Application of 2, 4-D sodium salt @ 1 kg/ha
in 500 litres of water after 1st irrigation (40 DAS) can take care of broadleaf weeds. Broad
leaved weeds can also be controlled with the application of Algrip 20 WP (Metsulfuron
Methyl) @ 20 g + 500 ml surfactant or Affinity 40DF (Carfentrazone ethyl) @ 50g per
hectare in 500 litre of water at 40-45 DAS. Whereas, application of Axial 5 EC (Penoxadene)
@1 litre per hactare in 500 litre of water at 40-45 days after sowing can control narrow leaf
weeds. For control of mixed weed flora apply Axial 5 EC (Penoxadene) @1 litre mixed with
Algrip 20 WP (Metsulfuron Methyl) @ 20 g + 500 ml surfactant or Affinity 40DF
(Carfentrazone ethyl) @ 50g per hectare in 500 litre of water at 40-45 DAS.

Diseases management
Rusts (Puccinia spp.): Black, brown and yellow rusts occur in barley. Rust resistant varieties
of barley are: -
Black rust:- Azad, BCU 73, BH 505, BH 508 and HBL113.
Brown rust: - Alfa 93, BCU 73, HBL 113, BH 514, RD 2503, RD 2508 and PL 419.
Yellow rust:- BH 902,C 164, BH 75, Alfa 93, R 2503, RD 2508, PL 419, BH 393.
Seed treatment with Vitavax or Carbendazim (Bavistin) @ 2g or Tebuconazol (Raxil-
2 DS) @ 1g per kg seed is quite effective.
Covered Smut (Ustilago hordei) is observed at the time of heading. All the ears of diseased
plant become infected and all the grains in the ear turn into smut sori. Each smut sorus
remains covered by a white, shining, silvery membrane. The membrane may ruptures by
mechanical pressure during threshing and release smut spores black powders. For control this
diseses infected plants should be rouged out and burnt. Shallow sowing should be followed.
Seed treatment with carbendazim (Bavistin) or carboxin (Vitavax) @ 0.2g/Kg seed is quite
effective. Resistant varieties K 12, K 18, K 24 and BG 105 should be cultivated.
Stripe Disease (Dreschlera graminea) usually occurs at late tillering stage. Narrow yellow
stripes initially appear on lower leaves and later appear on the upper leaves also. As the
disease progresses, yellow stripes increase in length parallel to the veins and soon turn reddish
to dark brown. Heavily infected leaves mature early which later on dry and give shredded
look. The spots also appear on glumes and spike- lets. Seed treatment with Bavistin (2g/kg
seed) is quite effective in managing the external seed infection. Foliar spray of Dithane M 45
@ 0.2% at the initiation of disease. Resistant varieties K 12, K 24, K 125, Vijaya, C 164, BG
105 and BH 87 should be cultivated

Insect management
There is no major insect in case of barley, however, termite attack is observed in this crop
and for its control treat the seed with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC or Formathion 25 EC @ 6 ml /kg of
seed and prepare the solution in 25-30 litres of water for one hectare area, mix the insecticide well
in water and spray the solution on the seed and air dry it overnight before sowing.

26
27
 CHICKPEA

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important cool season food legume. It is also
known as Bengal gram. Globally it is the third most important pulse crop after dry beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris) and dry peas (Pisum sativum L.). Chickpea seeds contain on average 18-
22% protein, 52-70% total carbohydrates, 4-10% fat, 6% crude fiber and 3% ash. Seeds are
rich in mineral content as phosphorus (340 mg/100 g), calcium (190 mg/100 g), magnesium
(140 mg/100g), iron (7 mg/100 g) and zinc (3 mg/100 g). Its leaves contain consist of mallic
and citric acid, which is very useful for stomach ailments. Chickpea is best blood purifier. It
assists in lowering of cholesterol in the bloodstream. Chickpea is mostly consumed in the
form of processed whole seed (boiled, roasted, fried, steamed and sprouted) or dal or as dal
flour (Besan). It is an excellent animal feed. Its straw also has good forage value. In India,
chickpea flour is used for preparation of number of sweets and recipies.

Origin
Chickpea is one of the pulse crop domesticated in the old world. Chickpea is known to
have originated in western Asia (probably eastern Turkey). The cultivated chickpea is not
found in the wild and C. reticulatum is its progenitor, while C. echinospermum is a close
relative. It has a wide geographical distribution covering Indian sub-continent, the
Mediteranean region, western and eastern Asia, northern and eastern Africa, southern Europe
and Australia.

Area, Production and Productivity

Globally India, Turkey, Pakistan, Iran, Australia, Mexico, Ethiopia, Myanmar, Spain
and Bangladesh are the major chickpea producing countries which contributes 96% of the
total production. India ranks first in area and production of chickpea at world level. Chickpea
in India occupies 7.89 million ha area, producing 7.06 million tones and a productivity of 895
kg/ha. Presently, the major chickpea producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Gujarat which together account for more than 80% of
the total production. In Haryana this crop is generally grown in south western districts. The
area, production and productivity of Haryana during 2009-10 was 84,000 ha, 62,000 tons and
735 kg/ha, respectively.
Madhya Pradesh with 2.8 M ha producing 2.6 M t with productivity of 981 kg/ ha,
ranks first in area, and production. The national average productivity is 895 kg/ha (2008-09),
which is much lower than the highest average productivity (1800 kg/ha) in Egypt.

Classification
Two major cultivar types designated as Desi/Brown gram (microsperma) and Kabuli/
White chickpea (macrosperma) have emerged under domestication. In addition `gulabi', pea
shaped forms of local importance are also recognized. Desi chickpeas are small and angular

28
with rough brown to yellow testas, while kabuli types are relatively large, plump, and with
smooth cream colored testas. Kabuli types are considered relatively more advanced because
of their larger seed size and reduced pigmentation achieved through conscious selection.
Study at ICRISAT revealed that desi and kabuli types differ in their dietary fiber components
of seed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Kabuli types contain higher amount of dietary
fiber, particularly cellulose and hemicellulose.

The differences in desi and kabuli-chickpea are as follows

Desi chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
The seed colour ranges from yellow to The seed colour is usually white
dark brown
Seed size is usually small.
Yield potential is high
Plants are small with good branching
ability
Canopy colour is dark green
Leaflets are smaller in size
The chromosome number 2n = 14, 16
Kabuli chickpea (Cicer kabulium)
Seeds are bold and attractive.
Yield potential is low
Plants are generally taller and stand more or less
erect.
Canopy colour is light green
Leaflets are larger than desi gram
The chromosome number 2n = 16

Climatic requirement
Chickpea is essentially a subtropical crop, it grows well in a wide range of climates. The
crop is very sensitive to excess moisture, high humidity and cloudy weather, which limit flower
production, seed set and yield. Severe cold and frost are injurious to it. Chickpea is usually grown
after rainy season on stored soil moisture during winter in tropics or spring in temperate and
Mediterranean regions. In India, it is grown as rabi crop in areas of 400- 700 mm rainfall. The
average air temperature varies from 25° to 30°C with warmer nights with 20°-25°C temperature.
Chickpea is a long day plant requiring 12—16 hrs bright sunshine per day.
In India, two distinct agroclimatic regions are recognised. In cold winters (rabi) of
north India, the crop duration is 160-170 days. In Peninsular India, where winters are warm,
the crop duration is short (90—110 days). Hence, the productivity of chickpea is higher under
north Indian conditions. Pod set and seed development is limited by temperatures less than
5°C and higher than 30°C. The optimum temperature regime for chickpea is 24°- 30°C.

Soil requirement
Chickpea thrives well on a wide range of soils including sandy, sandy loam and black
cotton soils. It is highly sensitive to saline and sodic soils. A pH range of 6-9 is favourable.
Chickpea is highly sensitive to aeration. Therefore, on heavy soil having high moisture
retention capacity, care should be taken during seedbed preparation to ensure adequate
aeration. Well drained sandy/silty clay loam to deep loam soils of medium fertility which may
retain up to 200 mm of moisture in a profile to a depth of 1 meter are considered ideal for
chickpea cultivation. The alluvial soils of the Indogangetic belt support bumper crop of Chickpea.

29
Crop rotation
Chickpea is cultivated during rabi seasion. Chickpea in rotation with cereal crops
helps in controlling soil born diseases. The most common rotations are Kharif fallow-
chickpea, paddy-chickpea, Maize-chickpea, Bajra-chickpea and Jowar- chickpea. Chickpea is
also grown mixed with wheat, barley, linseed, sunflower and rapeseed and mustard.

Field preparation
Chickpea needs clody and rough land for good aeration in root zones and does not
need a fine seedbed. When grown on residual moisture under rainfed conditions, care should
be taken to conserve rain water. At the onset of monsoon deep ploughing and one light
harrowing followed by planking at the end of monsoon helps to conserve the moisture.

Sowing time
The ideal time of sowing in rainfed areas is the middle of October whereas under
irrigated condition, middle of November is the optimum time. If the temperature is more than
30oC than chickpea should not be sown as it will lead to high vegetative growth and increase
the incidence of wilt. In order to utilize residual moisture of kharif season, sowing in Central
and Southern Zones is generally 10-15 days earlier than that in north India. For getting good
yield the optimum sowing time is second fortnight of October. While the optimum time of
sowing of Kabuli chickpea is the end of October to the first week of November.

Seed rate
Chickpea has wide variation in seed size from 12 to 40 g per 100 seeds. The small
seeded varieties require less seed in comparison to large seeded varieties. For timely planting
of desi type, 40-45 kg seed per ha is adequate, however for bold seeded varieties like HC-3
and Gaurav a seed rate of 75-80 kg seed per ha is optimal. In case of kabuli types the optimal
seed rate is 80 - 100 kg per ha. Under late planting conditions, the seed rate should be
increased by 20-30% (50-55 kg/ha) so as to compensate the per plant yield loss. In case of
intercropping, the seed rate should be adjusted as per the area available to the crop.

Seed treatment
For nodulation and nitrogen fixation, the seed must be treated with specific Rhizobium
culture before sowing. The inoculation should be done 10-12 hours before sowing. To
inoculate 10 kg seed, 100 g Gur be added in one liter of water followed by heating up to
prepare homogenous mixture. After cooling the mixture at room temperature, one packet of
Rhizobium culture is added in it and mixed up thoroughly. Rubbing this mixture of the culture
solution on seeds provides a uniform thin coating all over. After drying in shade for about 6-8
hours, seeds can be used for sowing.

30
Method of sowing
Delayed sowing require higher seed rate for optimal plant stand than the normal
planted crop due to restricted growth. Adequacy of moisture and nutrients leads to enhance
vegetative growth and therefore, a low plant stand is desirable under such condition.The
optimal row spacing for timely sown crop is 30cm under sufficient moisture condition,
whereas for rainfed condition it should be wider i.e. 45 cm. However for late (December)
planting in irrigated areas, it should be 25 cm.
Sowing depth decides the period of emergence. The period of emergence can be
shortened with appropriate sowing depth according to soil types and moisture. In loamy sand
soil of northern India seeding at 10 cm depth is better than shallow seeding (5 cm depth) if the
chickpea be sown on conserved soil moisture condition.

Varieties
Recommended varieties of different zones
Zone Varieties
NWPZ Uday, GPF-2, GNG-663 Alok, Samrat (for Raj., HR, Pb.), PDG-3 (Pb.), HC-3,
HC-5, HK-1, HK-2, GNG-1292 (Raj.), Pusa-547, Phule G 9425-9, Aadhar
NEPZ SadaBahar, Uday, KWR 108, Pant G 186, Gujrat Gram 4
CZ ICCV 10, Vijay, JAK 92-18, Gujrat Gram 1, KAK-2, Jawahar Gram-16, Pusa
Shubra, BGD 128, JKG 1
SZ ICCV 10, JG 11, Phule G 95311
EZ Uday

High yielding cultivars for specific situations are:

o Drought tolerant: RS 10, G 24, T 3, T 87, RSG 888
o Late sown situation: JG 74, Strain 76, G 235, Pant G 114.
o Wilt resistant: HC 1, GPF 2, JG 315, KWR 108, DCP 92-3, Vijay, Vishal, JG 74.
o Ascochyta blight tolerant: Gaurav, GNG 146, Pusa 261, GNG 469, PBG I.
o Early maturing thermosensitive: KPG 59, BG 372, Pant G 186.
o Extra bold and bold seeded: Kabuli KAK 2, BO 1053, HK 2.
Varieties Jyothi (100-110 days), Kranthi (100-110 days), Swetha (80-85 days),
Annegiri (100-110) and ICCV 10 (110-120 days) are popular cultivars during post rainy
season on black cotton soils of Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh.
The popular varieties in Haryana are:
H 208: It is most suitable for drier, rainfed, and wilt-prone areas as it is tolerant to wilt. It also
does well in irrigated areas. The pods are comparatively small and two-seeded. The grains are
small (115 g/1000 grains) and brownish yellow. The average yield is 20 q/ha.
C-235: It is tolerant to blight and is suitable for cultivation in blight-prone areas, particularly
humid regions of the State. The grains are medium bold (135 g/1000 grains) and brownish
yellow. The average yield is 19 q/ha. This variety gave very good yields in rainfed areas also.

31
HC 1: Seeds of this variety are light yellow, pointed and medium in size. It is specially suitable
for late sowing in rainfed as well as irrigated areas as it takes only 145 days for maturity. Due to
its early maturing nature it escapes the loss by pod borer. It is also small seeded variety. Its
average seed yield is 20-25 q/ha.
HC 3: This variety is resistant to root rot, wilt and other important diseases of chickpea. It
matures in 155 days. Grains are bold (265 g/1000 seeds) and average yield is 20-22 q/ha.
Suitable for sowing in 1st week of November in irrigated areas.
HC 5: The plants of this variety are erect compact and tall with high yields. This variety is
tolerant to root rot and wilt. The maturity duration is 145 days. Grains of this variety are
medium bold (165 g/1000 seeds) and brownish in colour. This variety is suitable for irrigated
areas and very much suitable to inter cropping in autumn planted sugarcane where chickpea is
planted on raised bed. Average yield of this variety is 20-25 q/ha.
HK 1: Plants of this variety have medium height, profused branching and podding; lightish
green leaved and matures in 142 days. Grains are medium in size and white in colour. This
variety is developed for irrigated areas. It is resistant to chickpea blight and wilt diseases.
Average yield is 20-23 q/ha.
HK 2: This is white seeded variety of kabuli chickpea, it is tolerant to wilt. Its leaves are
broad and dark green in colour. The seed size is bold (280g/1000 seed). This variety matures
in 142 days and average yield is 17.5- 20 q/ha.

Fertilizer management
Chickpea responds 15-20 kg N per ha on coarse textured soils unless the soil is rich in
organic matter. Foliar application of 2 % urea at the time of flowering and 10 days thereafter
is useful, specially in rainfed areas.The crop responds to 40 - 60 kg P2O5 per ha. Application
of 20 kg K2O per ha is recommended under deficient soil conditions. The recommended
fertilizer should be drilled at sowing. In addition to this, it is also advised to apply zinc
sulphate @ 25 kg/ha in irrigated conditions.

Irrigation management
Pre-flowering (45-60 DAS) and pod filling stages appear to be the most sensitive to
soil moisture stress. Depending upon the initial moisture content, winter rains and sowing
time, the schedule may vary. Kabuli chickpea needs a little more irrigation. Chickpea should
not be irrigated at flowering stage otherwise flower drop may take place.

Weed management
The dominant weed flora associated with chickpea crop are Chenopodium album,
Melilotus indica, Lathyrus aphaca, Medicago denticulata, Trigonella polycerata, Polygonum
pblebilium, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Euphorbia dracunculoides and Anagallis arvensis. The
initial four to eight weeks are most critical for weed competition and the first mechanical
weeding has been advised 25-30 DAS, and the second 45-50 DAS. However, in case of

32
severe infestation, a third weeding may be needed around 70-75 DAS. Chemical weed control
with pre-sowing Fluchloralin application @ 1.0 kg per ha followed by one hoeing 45 DAS has
been effective. Pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i. per ha as pre-emergence followed by one hand
weeding at 45 DAS provide effective control of annual broad leaved and grassy weeds in
chickpea crop.

Nipping
It is the process of plucking the apical buds of the crop at about 30-40 days after
sowing to control excessive vegetative growth. Nipping stops the apical growth and promotes
the lateral branching, thus the plants become more vigorous and produce more flowers and
pods and yield per plant is increased.

Diseases management
Ascochyta Blight (Ascochyta rabiei): This disease appears on leaf blade, petioles, flowers,
pods, branches and stem in the form of brown spots. Fruiting bodies of the pathogen
(pycnidia) are produced on the spots in the form of concentric rings which is the characteristic
symptoms of the disease. The lesions are circular on leaves and pod whereas elongated on
stem and branches. Pod infection leads to seed infection through testa as well as cotyledons.
Disease spreads rapidly in the field and field gives the burnt appearance.The disease is both
externally and internally seed borne. The secondary spread of the disease takes place by
winds, storms and rain splashes. Destruction of disease debris, deep summer ploughing and
crop rotation reduces diseases. For control of blight seed treatment with Bavistin or Captan @
2.5 g/kg seed and spray of Dithane M-45 @ 0.2% at the initiation of the disease.
Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. Sp. Ciceri ): The disease appears on 3-6 weeks old seedlings in
susceptible varieties. In early stages, seedlings may collapse due to disease, where as older
seedlings show drooping of the leaves and dull green color in the initial stages. Petioles,
rachis and leaves turn yellow and become straw colored. Discoloration of xylem vessels can
be seen when roots are split open. For the control of wilt deep ploughing during the summer
months and destruction of diseased debris. Crop rotation with non leguminous crop and do not
sow the crop before 10th of October. Seed treatment with Bavistin @ 2.5 g/kg seed. Seed
treatment with Trichoderma viride (Bioderma) @4g + Vitavax @1g by making a paste in 5
ml of water per kg seed is also effective.
Root Rot or Collar Rot (Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium solani Sclerotium rolfsii): The
symptoms are sudden and complete wilting of the plants. The disease appears at any crop
stage. The initial symptom appear as dark brown spots around the stem at the soil level by R.
solani, whereas in case of F. solani, spots are yellowish in color. Later on leaves of infected
plants turn yellow and ultimately plant wilts. Infested soil and diseased debris spread from
infested fields, help in spread of the disease. Seed treatment with Bavistin @ 2.5 g/kg seed is
advised for its control.

33
Insect management
Termites (Microtermos obesus): Termites damage the crop from sowing to maturity. The
damaged plants dry up completely and are easily pooled out. The damage is generally more in
low irrigated light soil areas. For control treat the 100 kg seed with 850 ml Monocrotophos
36SL or 1500 ml Clorpyriphos 20 EC make the total solution of 2 litre by adding water and
then after spreading the seed on polythene sheet or floor, mix solution with seed.
Cut worms (Agrotis sp.): The caterpillar of this pest are polyphagus in nature and causes the
damage by cutting the stem or branches of growing shoot. For control spray 200 ml
Fenvalrate 20 EC or 125 ml Cypermethrin 25 EC or 225 ml Decametharin 2.8 EC by mixing
in 500 litre of water per acre hectare.
Pod borers (Helicoverpa armigera): The borers of this pest are greenish or yellowish in
appearance, which generally feed on the leaves, buds and pods. These completely destroy the
crop by eating the grains developing in size of the pods. For control spray 1 liter Quinalphos
25 EC or 1 kg Carbaryl 50 WP or 500 ml Monocrotophos 36 SL or 200 ml Fenvalerate 20 EC
or 300 ml Cypermetharin 10EC or 375 ml Decametharin in 250 litre of water per acre hectare
as and when average one catterpiller per metre row length of plants at 50 % pod formation
stage is noticed. Repeat second spray after 15 days.

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 LENTIL

Lentil (Lens esculenta Moench syn) also known as Masur is a leguminous crop. It is
recognized as one of the most nutritious pulse crops, ranking next to chickpea amongst rabi
pulses. It is one of the oldest pulse crops. It is also used as a cover crop to check the soil
erosion in problem areas. The plants are ploughed back into the soil as green manure also. It
derives the name Lens from the lens shaped seeds. In Indian subcontinent, it is commonly
consumed as dal, which are deep orange red or orange yellow in colour. The whole grain is
also used in some of the dishes. It is also rich in protein (26%), calcium (560 ppm), iron (7.54
mg) and niacin. It has the lowest content of lectins and trypsin inhibitors among legumes.
Since it is a leguminous crop, it improves the fertility of soil biological nitrogen fixation.
Lentil seeds also provide a source of starch for textiles and printing. Lentil floor is used for
thickening of soups. It is mixed with wheat flour in bread and cake production. It is also
ground into flour to make variety of preparations. It is also used in preparation of several
snacks and sweets. The dry leaves and stems, empty pods and broken bits all are used as
cattle feed. Lentil residues form important livestock feed.

Origin
Lentil or masur is one of the oldest crops that originated in near East and
Mediterranean region. It was known to ancients in Egypt and Greece. It had spread to Europe,
India and China, and now it is introduced and cultivated in most sub-tropical and warm
temperate regions.

Area, Production and Productivity

Globally lentil shares only 5% of the total area under pulses. This pulse crop is
predominantly grown in Asia followed by north and eastern Africa, north central America
and southern Europe. Lentils are relatively tolerant to drought and are grown throughout the
world. World production of lentils for 2009 was 3.917 million metric tonnes, primarily
coming from Canada, India, Turkey and United States. About a quarter of the worldwide
production of lentils is from India. It is grown throughout northern and central India. In India
during 2008-09, Uttar pardesh, Madhya Pardesh, Bihar and West Bengal contributed more
than 90% of the total area and production of lentil at national level. But highest productivity
was recorded in U.P. (889 kg/ha). Our national productivity was 693 kg/ha against 2,111
kg/ha in Australia. In Haryana it is mainly grown in the paddy areas of north and middle
Haryana along with some western parts of state. The total area under this crop in Haryana is
12 thousands hectares.

35
Classification
There are two cultivated species of genus Lens i.e. Lens esculenta Moench and Lens
culinaris Medik. The cultivated species L. esculenta are classified into 2 sub groups
according to size of the seed.
Sub-species microsperma (Small seeded): They have small seed of 2-6 mm diameter
and are produced in India, Africa and Asia. Pods are complex and small.
Sub-species macrosperma (Bold seeded): They have large seeds of 6-9 mm diameter
and are grown in Mediterranean region and North America. Mostly pods are flat and
large.

Climatic requirement
It requires cold temperature during its vegetative growth and warm temperature at the
time of maturity. It is very hardy and can tolerate frost and severe winter to a great extent.
Unlike chickpea, it remains unaffected by rains at any stage of its growth, including
flowering and fruiting.The optimum temperature for its growth and development ranges from
18 to 30°C.

Soil requirement
Lentil is grown on a wide range of soils ranging from light loamy sand to heavy clay
soil in northern parts and in moderately deep, light black soils in Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra. Well drained, loam soils with neutral reaction are best for lentil cultivation.
Acidic soils are not fit for growing lentil.

Crop rotation
Lentil is generally grown as rainfed crop during rabi after rice, maize, pearl millet,
sorghum and cotton. It is also grown as an intercrop in autumn-planted sugarcane. Two lines
of lentil may be sown 30 cm apart in the center of 2 sugarcane rows. In north-eastern plains,
it is also grown as utera crop after rice. Intercropping of linseed+ lentil (2:1), lentil+ mustard
(4-6:1) in Bundel khand region of Uttar Pradesh is also promising. Lentil is relatively more
shade tolerant than chickpea. Hence, it performs better in mixed and intercropping systems.

Field preparation
Soil should be made friable and weed free so that seed could be placed at a uniform
depth. In case of light soils, less tillage is required to prepare an ideal seed-bed. In heavy
soils, after harvest of kharif crop, one deep ploughing followed by 2-3 cross harrowings
should be given. After harrowing, the field should be leveled by giving a gentle slope for easy
irrigation. There should be proper moisture in the soil at the time of sowing for proper
germination of seeds. In utera/ paira cropping system of rice-lentil in eastern Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, seeds are sown in standing rice crop and therefore no tillage
is done.

36
Sowing time
The seed is sown in second fortnight of October under rainfed conditions. However, it
can be sown in the month of November in irrigated areas. Under late-sown conditions, the
seed can be sown up to first week of December. However, a reduction in 20% grain yield will
take place as compared to normal sowing.

Seed rate
The seed rate is 30- 40 kg/ha for small-seeded varieties and 45—50 kg/ha for bold-
seeded varieties and late sowing. Treat the seed with Benomyl or Aagrosan GN @ 2 g/kg of
seed before sowing. The lentil seed should be treated with rhizobium culture before sowing.
After wetting the seed with jaggery solution, mix it thoroughly with rhizobium inoculant, dry
in shade and sow the seed thereafter immediately.

Method of sowing
Show the crop with plough or seed drill in lines with row spacing of 22.5 cm. Under
late sown condition the crop can be planted at 18 cm spacing.

Varieties
The small-seeded varieties resistant to rust are Pant L 406, Pant L 639, Pant L 4 and
LL l47 and bold-seeded varieties resistant to rust and tolerant to wilt are Lens 4076, LH 844,
DPL 15 and DPL 62. Bold seeded variety JL 3 released for Central Zone is tolerant to wilt.
The other high yielding bold seeded recommended varities are
Haryana Masar 1: It is recommended for cultivation in whole Haryana. It is a small seeded
variety and released for cultivation in 2005. The plants of this variety are medium growing
and leaves have dark green colour. It matures in about 140 days and average yield is 16.0-
17.5 q/ha.
Sapna : It is bold seeded variety recommended for irrigated areas. It matures in about 140
days and average yield is 15 q/ha. Seeds are with small blackish tints.
Garima : It is recommended for irrigated areas and various type of soils for timely sowing
in Haryana.The leaves are broader and dark green in colour. Its seed size is bolder than Sapna
along with blackish spots. It gives an average yield of 15 q/ha just in 135 days of duration.

High yielding bold seeded varieties of lentil recommended for different states
Varities Duration (Days) Yield (q/ha) Recommended areas
Pant L234 130-150 15-20 Uttar Pardesh
NFL 92 120-130 15-20 Uttar Pradesh
Pusa 1 100-110 15-20 Bihar, U P,M P,Haryana and Orissa
JLS 1 120-130 10-15 Central plateau region
Bombay 18 130-140 10-12 Maharashtra, Punjab&Haryana
DPL 15 (Priya) 130-140 14-16 North-western plains zone

37
DPL 62 (Sheri) 130-140 15-20 North-western plains zone
IPL 81(Noori) 110-120 10-15 Central zone
K 75 (Malika) 120-125 14-16 North-eastern plains & central zone
Pusa 4076(Shivalik) 130-135 25-28 North-western plains & central zone
Pusa 4 130-140 20-25 Uttar Pradesh, Bihar& West Bengal
Pusa 830 120-125 20-25 U.P. and Uttarakhand

High yielding small seeded varieties of lentil recommended for different states
Variety Duaration (Days) Yield(q/ha) Recommended areas
BR 25 125-130 15-20 Bihar and Madhya Pradesh
L 4147 130-135 17.8 North-western
T 36 130-140 16-18 Uttar Pradesh
Pusa 6 130-135 20-25 Delhi, UP, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar &WB
Pant L 406 125-130 20-25 UP, Bihar, Punjab, North-eastern hills
L 830 120-125 8-12 North-western plains zone
PL 81-17 130-140 14-18 North-western plains zone
LH 84-8 130-140 14-16 North-western plains zone
VL 4 150-160 10-12 Hilly areas of northern eastern India
Asha 125-130 14-16 West Bengal
B-17 120-125 15-20 West Bengal
S 177 125-130 15-20 West Bengal
Ranjan 116-120 16-18 West Bengal
Pant L 639 130-140 18-20 North west & east plains Zone
Garima 130-140 12-15 Haryana
PL77-12 125-130 12-15 Bihar
BR 26 125-130 20-25 North Bihar
LL 147 135-140 12-16 Punjab
L-9-12 125-130 15-20 Punjab
VL-1 165 10-12 Hilly areas of UttarPradesh
VL-3 160-165 10-12 Uttar Pardesh
T8 120-125 18-20 Uttar Pardesh

Fertilizer requirement
The recommended dose of fertilizers is 20 kg N and 40 kg P2O5/ha. Conveniently,
100 kg/ha diammonium phosphate may be added. Full dose of fertilizers should be applied at
sowing time. In some areas Zinc deficiency is generally observed after 4 weeks of sowing.
The leaves become chlorotic at the tips. In such fields ZnSO4 should be applied @ 25 kg/ha
at the time of sowing and if the symptoms appear after sowing than spray 1 kg ZnSO4 +5 kg
urea solution in 250 lt of water.

38
Irrigation management
Providing one or two irrigations particularly when winter rains are not properly
distributed, higher yields can be obtained. First irrigation should be given at 45 days after
sowing and second, if needed, at pod filling stage.

Weed management
In the crop of lentil period from 30 to 60 days after sowing is most critical for
competition with weeds. The major weeds found in lentil fields are Chenopodium album
(Bathua), Lathyrus spp. (chatrimatri), Vicia sativa (ankari), Melilotus alba (senji) and Cirsium arvense
(kateli), Convolvulus arvensis L. and Pluchea lanceolata. Maintenance of weed free period of 45-
60 days from sowing is important. Two weedings 30 and 60 days after sowing are adequate.
Weedicides like fluchloralin (pre-plant incorporation) and pendimethalin (pre-emergence) @
0.75-1.0 kg/ha can be used for effective weed control.

Diseases Management
Ascochyta blight: Grey to tan spots or lesions on leaflets, stems, flowers and pods, with dark
margins and often with tiny black fruiting bodies (pycnidia) in the centers. The centers of the
spots turn light-colored and develop small black spots in them. Lesions first appear on lower
leaflets close to soil surface and spread up the plant canopy. Lesions on stems can girdle the
plant resulting in wilting. To control treat the seed with Bavistine @ 2.5 g/kg seed.
Anthracnose: It can be first noticed as white to gray or cream-colored spots develop on the
leaflets and stem. They usually appear on the base of the stem and move up the plant canopy.
Leaves and entire plants may die back and stems of mature and dead plants often blacken.
Leaflets litter soil surface. Lesions on stems can girdle the plant resulting in wilting.
Root rots: It become evident at any stage from emergence to maturity. Individual plants
become stunted, turn yellow, and die. Essentially the root system has been destroyed. Crop
rotation may help. However, the wide host range of these diseases makes this a less than
effective option.
Wilt: This is a serious disease of lentil in which the growth of the plant is checked, the leaves
start yellowing, plants start drying and finally die. The roots of affected plants remain under
developed and look light brown in colour. Keep the field clean and follow a three year crop
rotation. This will help in reducing the disease incidence. Use healthy seed and plant lentil
variety tolerant or moderately resistant to wilt like shivalik (L-4076), Pant L-4, Sapana; DPL-
62, Pant L-406 etc.
Rust: This disease is caused by a fungus, Uromyces fabae. This disease appears in the filed
from January onwards and is known to cause exten- sive damage to the crop, particularly if
the variety is susceptible. It is char- acterised by the appearance of pink to brown pustules on
leaves and stems. Later, black pustules are also visible on stems and leaves. In case of severe
attack, the affected plants may dry. After harvest, the affected plant trash should be burnt.
Grow resistant varieties like Pant L-406, Pant L-639, Pant L-4, DPL-15, DPL-62,

39
NarendraLentil-1 etc and spray the crop with 0.2% Mancozeb 75 WP. Two sprays may be
given at 15 days interval.
Powdery Mildew: This disease is caused by a fungus, Erysiphe polyqoni. The symptoms of
this disease are seen about three months after sowing in the form of small whitish patches on
the lower surface of the leaves. These whitish patches spread further and cover leaves, stem
and pods as whitish pow-dery mass. Collect and burn the affected debris. Spray the crop at
the appearance of the disease with any wettable sulphur like Sulfex-or Elosal (0.3%). A
second spray may be given after 15 days of the first spraying.
Downy Mildew: It is caused by a fungus, Peronospora tentis. The disease affects the plant in
the later stages of growth. Initially, it is observed in the form of light greenish to yellow spots
on the upper surface of the leaves. On the lower surface, opposite to these spots a brownish
cottony growth of the fungus can be observed. Later, the whole affected leaf is covered by
this cottony growth of the fungus and may become chlorotic. Treat the seed with Thiram or
Carbendazim (Bavistin) at the rate of 2.5 g/kg of seed before sowing.

Insect Management
Aphids: Aphids feed by sucking the plant sap from the phloem. They can infest leaves, stems
and pods and mostly colonize the young leaves and growing points, which become
characteristically deformed. Yield can be drastically reduced, and if infestations are early and
severe, plants can be killed. Aphids also transmit several virus diseases. For control aphid in
case of severe infestations before or at flowering, foliar spray of Rogor or Roxion
(dimethoate) @ 1 ml per liter water will provide adequate control. If reinfestation occurs
before pod maturity, a second spray may be given.
Pod borer: [Helicoverpa armigera (Hb.) and Heliothis spp.] All larvae have characteristic
and distinct light and dark bands along the sides.The adult moths are active at night and lay
eggs on the undersides of leaflets. The small larvae feed by scraping the surface of leaflets;
older larvae feed on foliage and flowers, and bore into the green pods to eat the seeds. For
control, Deltamethrin (Decis 38 g a.i./ha) and Monocrotophos (0.04%) at the time of
flowering/early pod-setting can provide adequate control.

40
 FIELD PEA

Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is an important leguminous crop which is also known as Matar
in India; the crop is generally cultivated for its green pods. It is highly nutritive and is rich in
protein. There are two types of cultivated peas, the garden pea and the field pea. Garden peas
are harvested in an immature condition to be cooked as green peas to provide a delicious dish,
or to be canned or frozen for subsequent uses. Field peas are grown as a seed crop. The
mature seed may be used as whole or split into 'dal' and prepared in various ways for human
consumption. Pea straw is a nutritious fodder. Dried peas are often made into a soup or simply
eaten on their own. Peas are roasted and salted, and eaten as snacks. Bioplastics can be made
using pea starch. It is highly nutritive and contains high proportion of digestible protein
(22.5%), carbohydrates (62.1%), Fats (1.8%), minerals (Ca, Fe) and vitamins (Riboflavin,
Thiamin and Niacin).

Origin
The field pea is native to the Mediterranean region of southern Europe to western
Asia. It is probably indigenous to the region comprising Italy, southwestern Asia and
eastwards of the Himalayas, including northern India.

Area and Distribution

Field pea is one of the important pulse crops of the world. The important field pea
growing countries are China, India, USA, Egypt, Russian Federation and Ethiopia. China
ranks first in the world in respect of production as well as acreage followed by India. In India
Uttar Pradesh is the major field pea growing state. Uttar Pradesh alone produces about 60 per
cent of total pea produced in India. Besides, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar are the
major field pea producing states.

Classification
Two types of peas are generally cultivated all over the globe.
(1) Garden Pea (Pisum sativum var. hortense): It is also called table pea. In this type young,
green seeds are used mostly in vegetables and also for canning purposes. Seeds are bold and
wrinkled. These are generally, white flowered. Leaf axils are generally green. Seeds are
yellowish, whitish or bluish-green.
(2) Field Pea (Pisum sativum var. arvense): In this type the ripe, mature seeds are used as the
pulse (dal). They are also grown as forage or green manure crop. Field peas are hardy plants
and grown on a large scale without irrigation. These plants are also able to withstand frost.
Seeds are rounded and little angular. They have generally coloured flowers. Leaf axils are
often pigmented. Seeds are greyish-green, greyish-brown or grayish yellow.

41
Climatic requirement
Pea is a cool season crop and performs best at 100C to 180C. Peas can be produced
successfully in temperate, semi-arid zones. They do not thrive in the summer heat of warmer
temperate and lowland tropical climates but do grow well in cooler high altitude tropical
areas. The flower and young pods are badly affected by frost. The optimum mean monthly
temperature for pea is 12.80C to 180C. High humidity is harmful to pea crop as it favours
incidence of disease.

Soil requirement
A well drained soil is essential for successful production of field pea. Field pea is
highly sensitive to water logging conditions; hence a well drained loam soil is considered best
for pea cultivation. They tolerate a moderate soil pH range (6.0 to 7.5). The optimum pH is 6.5.

Crop rotation
Field pea is sown as rabi crop. The most common rotations are: Maize-field pea, Rice-
field pea, Cotton-field pea, Sorghum-field pea and Pearl millet-field pea. It is generally grown
mixed with chickpea, barley, wheat, oats, rape and mustard crops. It is also grown as an
intercrop in autumn sugarcane. Two rows of field pea may be sown 30 cm apart in the centre
of two sugarcane rows shown at 90 cm spacing.

Field preparation
Field is prepared as in the case of other rabi crops. After harvest of kharif crops, the
field should be ploughed with disc or moulboard plough. Where tractor is available one deep
ploughing followed by two to three harrowings and plankings should be given to prepare a
well pulverised seed-bed. Where bullocks are the source of power, deep ploughing followed
by two to three harrowings or three to four cross ploughing with local plough should be done.
Avoid very fine seedbed. Field should be well levelled. Field should be prepared after pre-
sowing irrigation to ensure adequate moisture at the time of sowing.

Sowing time
The pea is generally sown in India in rabi season from the beginning of October to
mid of November in the plains and from middle of March to end of May in the hills. In case
of early sowing, special care should be taken against stem borer. It should be sown when daily
maximum temperature is below 30°C and the daily minimum temperature comes down to 20°C.

Seed rate and Method of sowing

Seed rate and spacing vary according to the periods of maturity of different varieties.
The early maturing varieties are given closer spacing and higher seed rate and the late
varieties are given wider spacing and lower seed rate. In case of early maturing dwarf
varieties crop should be sown in rows 20 cm apart and about 100-125 kg seed per hectare

42
should be sown. In late maturing and taller varieties a row spacing of 30 cm is optimum. The seed
rate should be reduced to 75-80 kg per hectare. It may be sown by dibbling or behind the plough.

Seed treatment
The seeds are soaked in water overnight before sowing for better germination. Before
sowing, seed should be treated with Thiram or carbendazim (Bavistin) at the rate of 2.5 g/kg
of seed. For good nodulation seed should be treated with proper strain of bacterial culture
before sowing. Seeds treated with Rhizobium culture give higher yield.

Varieties
Aparna: This variety matures in 125-130 days. Plants are of medium height with less number
of leaves. Seeds are white, round, smooth and bold (210 g/1000 seeds). This variety is
resistant to powdery mildew disease. Yield potential is 25-30 quintals per hectare.
Jayanti: This variety matures in 125-130 days. Plants are dwarf with less number of leaves.
Seeds are bold, white with light green tinge. It is resistant to powdery mildew and wilt. Yield
potential is 28-30 quintal per hectare.
Uttara: This variety matures in 125-130 days. Plants are dwarf with very tiny leaves. Seeds
are round, medium sized and creamy colour. This variety is resistant to powdery mildew and
rust. Yield potential is about 30 quintals per hectare.
Pant Pea-5: This variety matures in 135-140 days. Plants are tall. Seeds are white, round,
attractive, smooth and bold (210 g/1000 seeds). This variety is resistant to powdery mildew
disease. Yield potential is 20-25 quintals per hectare.
Rachna: This variety matures in 130-135 days. Plants are tall and erect. Seeds are white,
round and bold. It is resistant to powdery mildew disease. Yield potential is 20-25 quintals per
hectare.
Kinnauri: This variety matures in 130-140 days. It is a spreading type variety. Seeds are
round, attractive and white in colour. It is susceptible to powdery mildew disease. Yield
potential is 15-25 q /ha.
Sikha: This variety matures In 130-140 days. It IS a dwarf variety of field pea. Yield potential
is 25-30 q/ha. It is moderately resistant to powdery mildew.
Swati: This is a short duration variety maturing in 120-125 days. Seeds are round and white in
colour. It is resistant to powdery mildew and rust. Yield potential is 25-30 q/ha.
Malvia Pea-2: It matures in 125-130 days. Plants are of medium height with very tiny leaves.
Seeds are bold and white. This variety is resistant to powdery mildew. Yield potential is 20-25 q/ha.
Malvia Pea-15: This variety matures in 120-125 days. Plants are of medium height with less
number of leaves. Seeds are bold, round and white. It is resistant to powdery mildew disease.
Yield potential is 28-32 q/ha.
JP-885: This variety matures in 130-135 days. Colour of the leaves is light green. It is
suitable to grow in heavy soils. It is resistant to powdery mildew. Seeds are round, bold and
white. Yield potential is 20-25 q/ha.

43
VL Pea-1: This variety matures in 160-165 days. It is suitable to grow in hills under
unirrigated conditions. Yield potential is 18-20 quintals per hectare. It is recommended for
cultivation in hills of Uttaranchal.
KFP-103: This variety matures in 130-140 days. It is a tall growing variety. Seeds are bold,
round and white in colour. It is resistant to powdery mildew. Yield potential is 20-25 quintal
per hectare.
Alankar (OMR-7): This variety matures in 115-120 days. It is a tall variety. Seeds are bold,
round and white in colour. This variety is resistant to powdery mildew. Yield potential is 24
quintals per hectare.
Sapana: This variety matures in 130-135 days. It is a dwarf variety. It is tolerant to powdery
mildew. Yield potential is 20-25 quintals per hectare.
LFP-48: It is a short duration, short statured with light green bold seeds. It is suitable to grow
in Punjab. Its yield potential is 20 quintals per hectare.
Varieties suitable for Haryana are Alankar, DMR-11, Uttara, Jayanti, Aparna and Haryal.

Fertlizer management
Incorporate 20 tonnes of organic manures per hectare in the soil at the time of land
preparation. This should be supplemented with 20-30 kg nitrogen as a starter dose per hectare
as a basal dressing at the time of sowing. Drill 40-60 kg P205, 30-40 kg K20 and 25 kg ZnSO4
per hectare at 4-5 cm deep from seed.

Irrigation management
First irrigation should be given at 45 days and second, if needed, at pod filling stage.
Light and uniform irrigation should be given.

Weed management
The pea field should be free from weeds for the period up to 40-50 days after sowing.
The major weeds found in pea crop are Chenopodium album (bathua), Fumaria parviflora
(gajri), Lathyrus spp. (chatri-matri), Melilotus alba (senji), Vicia sativa (ankari). The field
should be kept free from weeds by giving two weedings and hoeings after three and six weeks
of germination. Fluchloralin (Basalin) at the rate of 0.75 kg a.i. per hectare in 800-1000 litres
of water as pre-planting spray may be used as an effective herbicide. It should be well
incorporated in the soil before sowing.

Diseases management
Wilt and Root Rot: These diseases are caused by Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizoctonia
solani fungi. The symptoms may be seen in seedling stage. Roots rot and plants show
yellowing of the lower-most leaves, followed by wilting. The diseases control by treat the
seed with 2.5 g of Ceresan or Carbendazim (Bavistin) per kg of seed before sowing. Avoid
early sowing in badly infested areas.

44
Powdery Mildew: This disease is caused by a fungus, Erysiphe polygoni. White powdery,
patchy growth on both the surfaces of the leaf and also on the tendrils, pods, and stem. In
advanced stage, entire plant surface may be covered with white powder which consists of
mycellium and spores of the fungus. To control disease avoid late plantings. The disease can
be controlled by two to three sprays of wettable sulphur like Sulfex @ 3 kg/ha or 1kg Bavistin
or 2 kg Kerathen/ha in 1000 litres of water. Give the first spray after appearance of the disease
in the crop and spray should be repeated at 15 days intervial.
Rust: The disease is caused by a fungus, Uromyces fabae. The stem of the plant becomes
malformed and the affected plant dies out. All the green parts of plant are affected. The
earliest symptoms are the yellow spots having aecia in round or elongated clusters. Then the
uredopustules develop which are powdery and light brown in appearance. For control the affected
plants trash should be burnt after harvest. Spray the crop with Mancozeb 75 WP at the rate of 2 kg
per hectare in1000 lit res of water. Two to three sprays at 15 days interval are sufficient.

Insect management
Pea Stem Fly: The adult fly lays eggs in the plant tissues and the maggots damage the
internal tissues of the stem and ultimately the entire plant dies. Damage is more severe in
early plantings. For control, mix 36 kg carbofuran (Furadon) 3% granules or 10 kg Phorate
(Thimet) 10% granules in the soil before sowing the crop and do not go for early sowing of
crop.
Leaf Minor: Larvae feed by making tunnels in the leaves. They cause serious damage during
December-March. For control spray 250 ml of Phosphamidon 85 SL (Dimecron) or 1 litre of
oxydemeton methyl (Metasystox) 25 EC or Dimathote (Rogor) 30 EC in 1000 litres of water
per hectare when the attack begins, and repeat at 15 days intervals.
Pea Aphids: They suck the sap of the cells, owing to which the leaves turn pale and yellow.
In case of severe infestation the plant growth is checked. For control spray 1.25 litres of
dimethoate or oxydemeton methyl (Metasystox) 25 EC in 1000 litres of water per hectare.
Repeat the spray after 10-12 days.
Pod Borer: They bore into the pods and feed on the grains inside. Generally a late sown crop
is damaged more by this pest. For control spray crop with 500 ml Monocrotophos 36 SL or
200 ml Fenvalerate 20 EC or 125 ml Cypermetharin 25 EC or 1 kg Carbaryl 50 WP in 1000
litres of water per hectare. Picking of green pods should be done 15 days after spraying.
Thrips: This insect causes the yield loss due to sucking of cell sap from plant parts. For
control of this pest spray 150 ml cypermethrin 25 EC in 1000 litres of water per hectare.

45
 FRENCH BEAN

French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) also known as rajmash, rajma, haricot bean,
kidney bean, common bean, snap bean and navy bean is a legume plant. It is valued for its
protein rich (23%) seeds. Seeds are also rich in calcium, phosphorus and iron. The fresh pods
and green leaves are used as vegetable. The anti metabolites of dry beans need removal by
cooking and soaking in water.

Origin
Vavilov (1951) reported Mexico and Central America as the primary and Peruvian-
Ecquadrion-Bolvian region of South America as the secondary center of French bean.

Area and Distribution

Globally, French bean is cultivated on about 28 m ha with a production of 19 million
tonnes. Brazil is the leading producer of french beans. Columbia, USA, Canada, Ethiopia,
China and Turkey are other leading countries producing french bean. In India, it is grown on
an area of about 1 lakh ha mainly in the states of Maharashtra (60,000 ha), Jammu and
Kashmir (10,000 ha), Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh Hills, Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu) and
Palni (Kerala) hills, Chickmagalur (Karnataka) and Darjeeling hills (West Bengal).

Classification
The genus Phaseolus has over 50 species and French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is
one of them accounting for 90% of cultivated species worldwide. In India, both bushy and
trailing types french bean are found.

Climatic requirement
Major french bean producing areas are located in tropical and temperate regions with
a temperature around 21oC. The optimum temperature for better growth is 16-24oC. Growth
of plant ceases if temperature falls below 10oC. Temperatures above 35oC cause dropping of
buds and flowers resulting in poor yield. It is highly susceptible to frost. The crop is generally
raised in areas receiving 50-150 cm annual rainfall. Water logging at any stage adversely
affects its yield. Rains cause flower drop and spread of leaf spot diseases.

Soil requirement
French bean grows on a variety of soils ranging from light sand to heavy clay, but
well drained loams are the best. Soil pH around 5.2-5.8 is optimum. The crop is sensitive to
salinity. An electrical conductivity of 1 dsm-1 is threshold limit for frenchbean. Soil having
high amount of organic matter promote more vegetative growth.

46
Crop rotation
In north India it is grown in spring season after potato or mustard. In the hills, it is
intercropped between maize and soybean. In rabi, intercropping of potato + french bean (3:2
ratio) is being practiced in central and eastern Uttar Pradesh and northern Bihar. French bean +
linseed (2:1) are also found to be an efficient cropping system.

Field Preparation
Crop requires fine seedbed and adequate soil moisture for good germination. A deep
ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowings and planking is adequate to obtain required tilth.

Sowing time
French bean is grown in kharif and rabi seasons in different parts of the country. The
optimum time of sowing in rabi season varies from state to state. For Haryana 10-20th
September is the optimum sowing time for higher yield. In early sowing the plant die due to
high temperature and in delayed sowing after 20th September, there is yield reduction due to
low temperature and frost at the time pod formation and grain filling stage. It is first and
second fortnight of November for central Uttar Pradesh and north Bihar. However, mid
October is optimum for Vidarbha region (Maharashtra). For early varieties, October end is
the optimum, while late varieties can be sown up to mid November. In kharif, mid May - mid
June is ideal. The spring crop can be sown from February - early March.

Seed rate and spacing

Seed rate varies with seed size. Bold seeded varieties with a test weight of 350-450 g
need 120-140 kg seed/ha, while in small seeded varieties, it varies from 80-100 kg/ha. The
seed rate in intercropping may vary with row proportions.
French bean is generally sown in rows 30 cm apart. The Plant to plant spacing is 10-
12 cm. For obtaining good yield, its plant population should be 2.5-3.0 lakh plants/ha. The
optimum depth of sowing is 8-10 cm.

Varieties
The prominent varieties which are recommended in Haryana state are as follows:
Him-1: The variety is erect and short statured, recommended for irrigated areas of Haryana.
The variety takes 80-85 days for maturity. The grains are medium in size. The variety gives
average production of 10-12 q/ha.
Jawala: The variety is dwarf and erect in growth, recommended for irrigated areas of
Haryana. The variety takes 85-90 days for maturity. The grains are bold in size. The variety
gives average production of 7.5-10 q/ha.
VL 63: The variety is dwarf and erect in growth, recommended for irrigated areas of
Haryana. The variety takes 85-90 days for maturity. The variety gives average production of
12.5-15 q/ha.

47
Fertilizer requirement
French bean lacks biological N fixation because of poor or no nodulation. Hence, it
needs liberal N fertilization 100-120 kg/ha. The crop requires 45 - 60 kg P2O5/ha and
response to potassium and other micronutrients are rarely observed. Apply full dose of
phosphorus and half dose of nitrogen at the time of sowing and remaining half dose of
nitrogen at the time of flowering.

Irrigation management
French bean has shallow root system and hence moisture stress at any stage is
detrimental to its performance. As a rainy season crop, it does not require irrigation, when
rainfall distribution is even throughout crop cycle. However, rabi crop requires irrigation.
Irrigation at 25 days after sowing (DAS) is critical. In north-east plains zone, 3 irrigations at
25, 75 and 100 DAS and in central zone 4 irrigations at 25, 50, 75 and 100 DAS are
necessary for optimum crop performance.

Weed mamagement
French bean suffers severe competition from weeds in initial stages. First 30-40 days
after planting is the critical period for crop weed competition. One hoeing at 20-25 DAS and
second at 40 -45 DAS are found beneficial. Pre-emergence application of pendimethalin @
1.0 kg/ha or pre-plant incorporation 1.0 kg/ha of fluchloralin have been found effective in
controlling weeds.

Diseases and pests management

Bihar hairy caterpillar, blister beetle, bean bug and aphids are important insect pests
of the crop. Rot (collar, stem and pod) and bean golden mosaic virus are important diseases
limiting french bean productivity.

48
 RAPESEED AND MUSTARD

Crop under Brassica genus encompass many diverse types of plants, which are grown
as vegetables, fodder or sources of oils and condiments. The oleiferous Brassica species,
commonly known as rapeseed-mustard, are one of the economically important agricultural
commodities. Rapeseed-mustard comprising eight different species under Brassicaceae
family viz. Indian mustard, Indian rape, turnip rape, canola, Ethopian mustard and rocket
salad are being cultivated in 53 countries spreading all over the globe .
The leaves of young plants are relished as a green leafy vegetables as well as fodder
crop. Seeds are used as condiments in the preparation of pickles and for flavoring curries and
vegetables. Mustard a nutritious food contains 28-36% protein along with 38-45% oil
contant. Oil is used for edible purposes, including salad, cooking and margarine. Oil is also
used for greasing of bread before cooking. Mustard oil contains high amount of essential fatty
acids like Linolenic acid. Oil cake is mostly used as livestock feed in India, especially in
Uttar Pradesh and Punjab, but an equally large amount is used as a fertilizer in Japan, India
and Europe because of its high nitrogen content. Mustard cake contains Glucosinolate and
major deleterious effects of glucosinolate ingestion in animals are reduced palatability,
decreased growth and production. Rapeseed-mustard oil is being used in number of
Ayurvedic medicines. Tocopherols present in mustard help to protect the oil from rancidity,
thus contributing to a long shelf life. The essential oil in mustard inhibits growth of certain
yeasts, molds and bacterial enabling mustard to function as a natural preservative. Mustard
oil is one of the richest source of essential fats–Omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid (ALNA).

Origin
According to Prain (1898), Bailey (1922) and others the Raya (Brassica juncea)
originated in China and from there it was introduced to India. From India it spread to
Afghanistan via Punjab. According to Vavilov (1926) the place of origin of rape seed
(Brassica campestris) is eastern Afghanistan and adjoining parts of India and Pakistan,
Brassica campestris var. yellow sarson to be the oldest of the various rape seed and mustard
in India.

Area, Production and Productivity

The area, production and productivity of rapeseed-mustard in the world was 30.74 m
ha, 59.93 mt and 1950 kg/ha, respectively, during 2009-10. Globally, India account for 21.7%
and 10.7% of the total acrage and production, respectively. In Haryana Rapeseed and
Mustard was grown in about 513 thousands hactare area during 2009-10. Out of which 90%
area was covered by Raya alone. Average productivity of Rapeseed and Mustard in India and
Haryana was 1142 and 1655 kg/ha, respectively during 2009-10.

49
Classification of Rapeseed and Mustard

Sr. Species Common name Local Name

No.
1 Brassica campestris var. yellow sarson Turnip rape Yellow sarson
Brassica campestris var. brown sarson Turnip rape Brown sarson
2 Brassica campestris var. yellow toria Indian rape Yellow toria
Brassica campestris var. black toria Indian rape Black toria or lahi
3 Brassica juncea Indian mustard Rai or Raya or Laha
Brassica juncea var. rugosa Rugosa Pahari rai
Brassica nigra Black mustard Banarsi rai
Brassica napus Canola Gobhi sarson
Brassica carinata Ethopian mustard Karan rai
Eruca sativa Rocket plant Taramira

Difference between rape and mustard

Rape
The plant is shorter, the height ranges
between 45-150 cm.
The leaves borne sessile and are glabrous and
hairy. The lower part of grasps the stalk
partially or completely.
The Fruits (siliquae) are thicker than those of
mustard (rai) and are laterally compressed
with the beak one-third to half their length.
Seeds are either yellow or brown with a
smooth seed coat.
Mustard
The plants are tall, the height ranges between
90- 200 cm.
The leaves are not dilated at the base and
clasping as in the case of rape but are the
blade (lamina) stalked, broad and pinnatified.
The fruits (siliquae) are slender and only2-6.5
cm long, strongly ascending or erect with
short and stout beaks.
Seeds are brown or dark brown.

Climatic requirement
Cool temperature, clear dry weather with plentiful of bright sun shine accompanied
with adequate soil moisture increase the oil yield. Toria is more liable to suffer from frost and
cold and is, therefore, usually sown earlier and harvested before the onset of frost. They
require an annual precipitation of 350-450 mm. Rapeseed mustard requires higher
temperature at vegetative phase (30-32 0C max. and 20-22 0C min.), cool temperature and
clear sky during reproductive phase for seed filling and oil development. Foggy and cloudy
weather during flowering adversely affects the activity of honey bees and hence the crop
yield.

50
Soil requirement
Rape seed and mustard are capable of growing under a wide range of soil conditions
varying from sandy loam to clay loam soils but they thrive best on light loam soils. They
neither tolerate water logging conditions nor do well on heavy soils. Plants can tolerate
moderate salinity reasonably well but a soil having neutral pH is ideal for their proper growth
and development. Taramira can be taken successfully in very light soils and rainfed areas.
Crop rotation
Rape seed and mustard are grown in rotation with other crops like.maize, cotton,
pearlmillet, pulses, etc. Rape seed and mustard should never be grown in fields which were
sown with the same crops in previous two years. Such a minimum period of rotation is
require to break insect and disease cycle. Toria being a catch crop, maturing in 90-100 days
can easily be adjusted in the following crop rotations.
(1) Maize-toria-wheat (2) Maize-toria-sugarcane (3) Pearl millet-toria-barley (4) Maize-toria-
cotton (5) Maize-toria-sugarcane-ratoon
Brown sarson and mustard (raya) are usually cultivated as pure crops in rainfed areas.
During rainy season no other crop should be sown, rather moisture should be conserved as
much as possible by ploughing. ln regions where irrigation facilities are available, following
crop rotations may be followed:
(1) Green gram-brown or yellow sarson or raya (2) Black gram-sarson or raya (3) Guar
(green manure)-sarson or raya (4) Maize-sarson or raya (5) Early Rice-sarson or raya
Rape seed and mustard are generally grown mixed with Rabi crops like wheat, barley
and chick pea. The practice of taking mustard (raya) as an intercrop with autumn planted
sugarcane in which no additional land is required also offers scope to augment mustard
production without ad- versely affecting the yield of companion crop of sugarcane
Intercropping
Intercropping of rapeseed-mustard is done with several crops. Under rainfed
conditions mustard and taramira can be intercropped with gram and barley. Paired row
planting of gram with one row of mustard in between two pairs was more profitable than
barley. However, under irrigated conditions of Haryana experimental studies revealed that
sole cropping of mustard (raya) is more profitable than any other intercropping combination.

Field preparation
The Rapeseed-mustard is small seeded crop therefore, the field should be well
prepared for uniform germination. Rapeseed-mustard seedlings are very susceptible to
crusted soil. It requires fine seed bed. Field should be ploughed by mould board plough or
tractor drawn harrow before pre-sowing irrigation followed by two ploughing with cultivator
are required to prepare good seed bed. Planking should be done after each ploughing. There
should be no clod or weeds at sowing time.

51
Sowing time
The crop of toria is to be sown in the last week of August to mid September whereas,
for mustard it has been found that 25th of September to the first fortnight of October is the
most appropriate time of sowing mustard crop in conserved moisture. Under irrigated
conditions the sowing of raya is completed by 20th October. The maximum temperature
should be around 320C. It is advised to delay the sowing if the temperature is high specially
under rainfed conditions.

Seed rate
Under irrigated condition 3-4 kg seed is sufficient for sowing of one hectare area
whereas, the seed rate can be increased to 5 kg per hectare under rainfed condition depending
upon the availability of soil moisture.

Method of sowing
Rapeseed-mustard crop should be sown in line, 30 cm apart with plant to plant
distance of 10-15 cm and at a depth of 4-5 cm under irrigated conditions whereas; a row
spacing of 45 cm is beneficial and practical in rainfed conditions. In order to maintain the
proper plant population thinning is to be done after 20-25 days of sowing.

Varieties
Toria
TH 68: Its plants are medium in height with dark green leaves. This variety is suitable for
Toria-wheat rotation. Its seeds are medium in size and brown in colour which contains 45%
oil content. It matures in 89 days and gives an average seed yield of 12-14 q per hectare.
Sangam: It is high yielding (15 q/ha) late maturing (110-115 days). Plants are tall, profusely
branched, smooth leaves with long siliquae. The seeds are small brown in colour which
contains 45% oil content.
TL 15: Plants of this variety are medium in height. It has more primary and secondary branches
with sufficient number of siliqua. Seeds are bold and brown in colour with 44% oil content. It
matures in 85 – 90 days. It can be fitted well in wheat rotation. Its average yield is 5 -6 q/ha.
In addition to these, important varieties of toria are Type-9, Bhawani, PT-30, PT-303,
TLC 1, PT 507, M27, TS 29, Agarni, BR 23, Panchali, RAUTS 17 and PVT 37.
Indian mustard /Raya varieties
RH 9304 (Vasundhra): Distinguish morphological characteristics are irregular deep
serrations with small hairs on lower surface and creamish mid rib, apex lobe acute. This
variety matures in 138-142 days. This variety is medium in height with predominance of
primary branches. The seeds are bold, blackish brown in colour which contains 40 % oil
content. It holds promise in early and normal sowing conditions. This variety is resistant to
shattering and lodging with responsive to fertilizer. It is Thermo-tolerant as well. It gives an
average seed yield of 22-25 q/ha.
RH 9801 (Swarn Jyoti): It is suitable for late sown (sowing around 15th November) with
normal fertility and irrigated conditions. This variety possesses medium seed size, 40.0 % oil

52
content. Distinguish morphological characteristics are sharp leaf serration, with acute leaf
apex, stem green smooth waxy. This variety matures in 130-135 days and gives an average
seed yield of 17-18 q /ha.
RB 9901 (Geeta): This variety has been released for rainfed conditions. The important
characters of this variety are tall in height, profuse branching, and tetra locule siliquae with
long main raceme. It yields about 18-20 q per hectare and matures in 145 days. Its seeds are
medium bold and dark brown in colour and have 40% oil content.
RH 30: This variety is recommended for irrigated and rainfed areas of Haryana. It is also
suitable for mixed cropping and late sown conditions due to its non-shattering habit and early
maturity. It is characterized by medium height, cone shape leaves with deep but less
serrations. Seeds are very bold and contain 40% oils. It matures in 135 days and yield about
20-22 q/ha.
RH 8812 (Laxmi): This variety is suitable for irrigated condition and high fertility soils
under timely sown conditions. Special characters of this variety are medium bold and
blackish brown seeds, small thick leaves, upright branching and thick pods. On an average, it
yields about 20-24 q/ha and matures in 142 days. Its seeds contain 40% oil.
RH 819: This variety has been released for rainfed areas. The important characters of this
variety are tall in height, profuse branching and bright green leaves. It yields about 18-20
q/ha and matures in 145 days. Its seeds are medium bold and brown in colour and contain
40% oil.
RH 8113 (Sourabh): This variety is tall having profuse branching with broad leaves. Small
seeds possess about 40 % oil, mature in 150 days and give an average seed yield of 22-25
q/ha. It is medium tolerant to alternaria blight, white rust and downey mildew.
RH 781: It is a frost tolerant variety. This variety is medium in height. It matures in 142 days
and gives an average seed yield of 20-22 q/ha. It seeds are medium bold, brown in colour and
have 40% oil content.
T-59 (Varuna): This variety have wide adaptability and can be grown in all conditions. It
takes about 140-142 days for maturity. The seeds of this variety are bold with 40% oil
content. It gives an average yield of 20-22 q/ha.
RB 50: It is generally recommended for rainfed areas. Plant height is around 2 m. It is
medium in duration (146 days) and bold seeded variety. Oil content is 39%. Average yield is
18 q/ha.
In addition to these, other important varieties of raya which are cultivated in India are Sita
(B-85), Bhagirathi (RW-3510), Shekhar, Kranti, Krishna, Narendra Rai, Vaibhav, Vardan,
Rohini, Gujrat Mustard 1, Durgamani, Prakash, RLM 619, Pusa Bahar, Pusa Jaikisan, Rajat,
TM 2 and PRB-91.
Taramira
T 27: The plants are hairy with weak stem, profusely branched, and serrated leaves with
rough surface. It matures in 150 days and gives an average yield of 5-6 q/ha. The seeds are
yellowish green in colour and contain 32 % oil.

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Yellow Sarson
YSH 0401: This variety was released for timely sowing in all mustard growing irrigated
areas of India. It is a short duration variety of just 115-120 days. The average yield is 17-19
q/ha with oil content of 45 %.
In addition to these, important varieties of yellow sarson which are grown in different
zones of India are YST 151, Type 42, K-88, YS 24, Vinoy, PS 66, PYS 842 and NDYS 842.
Brown Sarson
BSH-1: It’s crop duration is 136 days. The average yield is 12.5 q/ha with oil content of 45%.
Pusa Kalyani: This variety matures in 125-135 days. Seeds are medium and brown in colour
with average oil content of 45 %. It’s yield potential is 16-20 q/ha.

Fertilizer requirement
The recommended dose of fertilizer for rainfed condition is 40 kg N and 20 kg P2O5
/ha. In irrigated areas apply 60 kg N, 20 kg P2O5 and 25 kg ZnSO4 for toria and mustard, 80
kg N, 40 kg P2O5 and 25 kg ZnSO4 for raya and only 30 kg N for taramira.
Drill all the fertilizers at the time of sowing under unirrigated conditions. Apply half dose
of nitrogen and full dose of P, K and Zinc Sulphate by drilling at sowing time under assured
irrigated conditions and remaining half dose of nitrogen be top dressed at the time of first
irrigation. Rapeseed-mustard is generally grown on coarse textured soils which are highly
responsive to P, S, Zn and Boron. It is advisable to apply phosphorus through single super
phosphate because it contains 12% sulphur which is required for increasing the oil content. If
phosphorous is applied as DAP than apply 250 kg Gypsum/ha at the time of field preparation or
before irrigation. Seed treatment with Azotobacter has been found beneficial to the crop.

Irrigation management
The irrigation requirement of rapeseed-mustard varies depending upon the crop
conditions, moisture storage in the soil profile and prevailing weather conditions. Two
irrigation i e. one at flowering and another at siliquae development stage is recommended. If
irrigation water is limiting and is available for one irrigation only, then the crop should be
irrigated at the time of flowering. Excessive water at later stages of crop growth reduces the
yield by inducing secondary flowering and lodging in the crop.

Frost management
Occasionally frost prevails from last week of December to January end in north and
north western parts of the country resulting into considerable yield loss or sometimes total
crop failure. To minimize the loss grow RH 781 a frost tolerant variety. Irrigate and smoke
the fields when the temperature is low, 30-45 days after anthesis is most sensitive. Spray of
Dimethyl sulphoxide (0.5 ml), Foltaf Difolatan (0.2 per cent) and Mencozeb (0.3 per cent)
prevents the effects of freezing of seed. First spray is recommended 20 days after anthesis
followed by two more sprays at fortnightly intervals.

54
Weed management
The most common weeds of rape seed and mustard crop are Chinopodium album
(bathua), Lathyrus spp. (chatrimatri), Melilotus indica (senji) and Fumaria parviflora (gajri).
One dry hoeing with wheel hoe or hand hoe at about four weeks of sowing i.e. prior to first
irrigation and if possible second hoeing after first irrigation may be done. Orobanche (Broom
rape) a parasitic weed is a major problem in north India. For its control, spray 25 and 50g
glyphosate at 30 ans 50 DAS, respectively.

Disease management
White rust (Albugo candida): In the initial stage of infection small isolated (creamy white)
pustules develop on the lower surface of the lower leaves when the crop is about 40-50 days
old. The pustules increase in size and number covering the leaves and defoliation takes place
which leads to weakening of the plants. The dangerous stage is floral infection in which the
floral parts are malformed and become thick leathery green. The branches become zig-zag in
structure and white growth of the fungus can be seen on these affected branches. Affected
branches bears no siliquae thus causing yield losses. Cool, moist weather, temp. 6-12OC and
RH above 90 per cent is very favourable for the development and spread of this disease. Late
sown (November) crop suffers more from this disease.
Alternaria blight (Alternaria brassica): Small light brown round spots develop on the lower
leaves first and then on upper leaves after 40 days of sowing. Later on these spots develop
into big circular dark coloured with concentric rings clearly visible in these spots. Black
lesions also develop on the stem and pods leading to reduced seed size, quality and quantity
of the seed. In severe cases defoliation also occurs. When the temperature ranges from 18-
25°C with high humidity (80 per cent) dense crop canopy and rains during February increases
the disease at faster rate.
Downey mildew (Peronospora parasitica): At flowering stage, the whole inflorescence is
malformed and becomes thick green, twisted and covered with white cottony growth. There
is always mixed infection of white rust and downy mildew on floral parts. Disease
development is favoured by a temperature 10-20°C and wet weather (RH 90% or above).
White stem rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum): The disease starts on stem near the soil level as
elongated water soaked lesions which later on covered with white mycelial growth of the
pathogen. The diseased plant dries up before maturity without grain formation. The disease
generally appears at flowering or pod formation stage. If we split open the affected stem,
black sclerotial bodies are found in the pith of the stem. In low lying areas it can cause up to
35 per cent losses to the crop, cool and moist weather favours the disease development.
Phyllody (MLO): Mainly this is a disease of toria and may cause 10-20 per cent losses in
early (August) sown crop. Infected plants are stunted and produce more branches giving
bushy appearance to the plants. Leafy structure develops in place of flowers. Such plants bear
no pods. This is a mycoplasma disease and is transmitted by Jassid (Orosius albicinctus)
from plant to plant.

55
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe cruciferarum): Dirty white, circular floury patches develop on
leaves stems and pods. As the disease advances, the whole plant (Stem, leaves and pods)
looks as if dusted with white powder. The disease usually appears late in the season when the
temperature rises (15-28°C and RH less than 60%) with no rainfall.
Integrated disease management
For the management of rapeseed-mustard diseases integrated approach should be
followed with deep summer ploughing to expose the fungal propagules as source of infection.
Adopt short duration varieties like RH 30, Laxmi and Varuna which escapes the incidence of
major diseases. Always use healthy quality seed. Sowing of the mustard crop in time (10-
25thOctober) is very important single factor which helps the crop to escape from major
diseases. Phyllody incidence in toria can be avoided by sowing the crop around mid
September. Rouging of the affected plants in case of toria phyllody and sclerotinia stem rot
and burn them. Crop rotation is very important tool in disease management by growing the
non host crops for minimizing sclerotinia stem rot Wheat/Barley-maize should be rotated
with mustard. For the control of white rust, alternaria and downy mildew spray Mancozeb 1.5
kg/ha at initial appearance of white rust or Alternaria and repeat the spray 1-3 times after 15
days. Spray with Bavistin 0.1 per cent twice during flowering at 45-50 and 65-70 days after
sowing for management of Sclerotinia stem rot.

Insect management
Mustard aphid (Lipaphis erysimi): This is the most important pest of rapeseed and mustard.
This pest is more active at flowering stage of the crop. Cloudy and moist weather favours the
rapid multiplication of this pest. They are small light greenish coloured insects suck the sap
from all parts of the plant. Nymphs are small and wingless. Both nymphs and adults suck the
sap from different parts of the plant which devitalize the whole plant. Insects' secreats honey
dew which results in black fungus growth called sooty mould. Insects' multiply rapidly at low
temperature and 60 to 80 percent relative humidity. For control, remove aphid infested twigs
from the borders of the field which helps in preventing the inward spread of this pest. If there
are 10% plants with 9-19 aphids or an average of 13 aphids per plant, spray the crop with 625
to 1000 ml oxydemeton methyl (Metasystox 25 EC) or dimethoate (Rogor) 30 EC after
diluting it in 625 to 1000 lt water. If needed repeat the spray after 15 days. Care should be
taken that the crop grown for 'saag' should be sprayed only with malathion 50 EC @ 625-
1000 ml after diluting it in 625 to 1000 litres water. The spray should always be done in the
afternoon when activity of the honeybee is less.
Painted bug (Bagrada hilaris): This pest is more prevalent in lighter soils of drier region.
This pest is black in colour with yellow and brown markings over the body. Young ones are
red in colour and small in size than adults. Adult bugs are pretty looking sub-ovate black or
grey and have many orange and brownish spot on the body. Both nymphs and adults suck sap
from the plants at seedling stage and from seed at maturity stage of the crop. It is more
serious at seedling stage of crop. Severe attack of this pest results in whitening of leaves

56
leading to complete drying up of plant which necessitate resowing. For control, maintain
cleanliness in the field by following regular inter-culture operations which helps in killing the
eggs and nymphs of the insects. If there is one nymph or adult/ meter row length spray the
crop with 500 ml malathion 50 EC after diluting it in 500 lt of water/ha.
Hairy caterpillar (Diacrisia Obliqua): This pest is highly polyphagous and cause damage to
the leaves in October - November sown crop. The caterpillar feed gregariously initially. The
larvae are covered with hair. The attacked plants leaves are completely denuded in severe
infestation. For control the leaves along with the larvae should be plucked and destroyed. In
case of severe infestation, large caterpillars can be controlled by spraying 1250 ml quinalphos
25 EC or 625 ml monocrotophos 35 SL or 500 ml dichlorvos 76 WS after mixing in 625 liter
of water/ha.
Mustard sawfly (Athialia lugens proxima): A black coloured larva feed at seedling stage of
the crop. The larvae have three parallel strip lengthwise on dorsal side of the body. The
damaged plants can be identified by the presence of mid rib only. Severe attack of this pest
may necessitate re sowing of the crop. The pest can be managed by dusting with 2% Methyl
Parathion dust at the rate of 20-25 kg/ha or spraying the crop with 0.05% Malathion 50 EC.
Pluck the infested leaves alongwith the gregariously feeding larvae and destroy them.
Leaf miner (Chromatomyia horticola): This is also a polyphagous pest which damage all the
brassica crops. The maggots of this pest damage leaves by making galleries in them which in
turn hinders photosynthesis. The adults of this pest are tiny greyish flies with one pair of
wings. The attacked crop can easily be identified by galleried leaves from a distance with sick look.
For control this pest can easily be managed by spraying monocrotophos 35 SL @ 625 ml in
625 liter per hectare.

57
58
 SUNFLOWER

Sunflower (Helianthus ennuus L.) also known as Surajmukhi belongs to Compositae

family has been grown for its ornamental value since quite sometime. Sun-flower as an
oilseed crop is a new introduction in India. Since it has got 45-50 per cent good quality oil,
and high amount of quality protein in cake. Sunflower holds great promise because of its
short duration, photo-insensitivity, wide adaptability and drought tolerance. The oil of
sunflower is light yellow in colour and possesses good odour which can be used for a variety
of cooking purposes like any other edible oil. The oil is also used for manufacturing
hydrogenated oil. Sunflower oil is a rich source (64%) of linoleic acid (unsaturated fatty acid)
which helps in washing out cholesterol deposition in the coronary arteries of the heart and
thus is good for heart patients. Oil is also used in the manufacture of soaps and cosmetics.
The oil cake contains 40-44 per cent high quality protein. It is ideally suited for poultry and
livestock rations. It can also be used for manufacturing baby foods. The sunflower kernels
can be eaten raw or roasted. Sunflower oil is mainly triglycerides (fats), typically derived
from the fatty acids linoleic acid (which is doubly unsaturated) and oleic acid. Sunflower oil
also contains lecithin, tocopherols, carotenoids and waxes. Sunflower oil is light in taste and
appearance and has a high vitamin E content. It is a combination of monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fats with low saturated fat levels. Sunflower meal is higher in fiber, has a
lower energy value and is lower in lysine but higher in methionine than soybean meal.
Protein percentage of sunflower meal ranges from 28% for non-dehulled seeds to 42% for
completely dehulled seeds.
It has been used in certain paints, varnishes and plastics because of good semidrying
properties without color modification. Sunflower oil is used in the manufacture of soaps and
detergents. The use of sunflower oil (and other vegetable oils) as a pesticide carrier, and in
the production of agrichemicals, surfactants, adhesives, plastics, fabric softeners, lubricants
and coatings has been explored. Sunflower can also be used as a silage crop. Moisture content
of sunflower at maturity is usually high (80 to 90%) and would require wilting before ensiling.
Crude protein level of sunflower silage is similar to grass hay and higher than corn silage.

Origin
Sunflower is a native of southern United States and Mexico, from where it was
introduced into Spain by early explorers and merchants before the middle of sixteenth
century. Sunflower was brought to England from Spain in the Colonial period. In the
nineteenth century, the cultivation of sunflower as oilseed crop began in the Soviet Union and
the majority of the present day varieties grown all over the world trace back their orign to the
USSR. Sunflower as an oilseed crop was introduced into India in 1969.

59
Area and production
According to FAO statistics, sunflower was grown in 21.39 million hectares globally
leading to a production of 24.54 million tonnes during 2009-10. Russia was the largest
producer of sunflower with 23.1 percent of production followed by Ukraine (17.0 percent)
and Argentina (14.3 percent). India ranks fourth accounting for about 6 percent of the world
production. It occupies fourth place among oilseed crops in terms of acreage and production.
In India it is cultivated on 1.48 million hectares with a production of 1.0 million tonnes in the
year 2009-10. Karnataka accounts for a major 42.83% share in the country's sunflower
production, followed by Andhra Pradesh (28.15%) and Maharashtra (13.39%). The area,
production and Productivity of sunflower in Haryana during 2009-10 was 20,000 ha, 34,000
tons and 1680 kg/ha, respectively.

Classification
There are about 264 species in Helianthus genus. All the varieties grown in USSR and
India are grouped into three main groups.
(1) Large white seeded type: having high oil content.
(2) Small black seeded type: best for eating seeds.
(3) Intermediate type with striped seeds: good for both eating and oil purposes.
Some of the workers have divided all the varieties into two distinct groups according
to habit of growth:
Group I: having tall, unbranched single headed types with well developed achenes.
Group II: having comparatively shorter, branched growth and with many heads.

Climatic requirement
Sunflower though basically a temperate region crop, but varieties adapted to a wide
range of agro-climatic zones have been developed. It is raised from 400S to 550N latitudes.
The crop can be raised up to an altitude of 2,500 m. Sunflower successfully tolerates
temperature range of 8-340C, indicating its adaptation to the regions with warm days and cold
nights. However, it grows well within the temperature range of 20-250C. The crop performs
best with a rainfall of 500-700 mm during the growing period. The crop requires a cool
climate during germination and seedling growth. Seedlings tolerate frosts moderately well
until they reach the four to six leaf stage of development. It requires warm weather from the
seedling stage up to flowering stage and warm and sunny days during flowering to maturity.
High humidity accompanied with cloudy weather and rainfall at the time of flowering results
in poor seed set. The amount of linoleic acid decreases with high temperature at maturity.

Soil requirement
Sunflower can be grown in diverse type of soils from sands to clays with a pH range
of 6.5 to 8.5. It thrives best on deep loam soils with good drainage and irrigation facilities.
Good soil drainage is required for sunflower production.

60
Crop rotation
Sunflower is grown in rotation with several crops. Some of the important crop
rotations are Maize-sunflower, Rice-sunflower, Maize-potato-sunflower, Pigeonpea (ageti)-
sunflower, Sunflower- safflower, Maize-toria-sunflower, Maize-toria-sugarcane-ratoon-
sunflower, etc.
Sunflower is grown mostly as a rainfed crop in India. The important intercropping
systems are given as follows:
Intercropping Row ratio Regions
Sunflower+groundnut 6:2 Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, A P, Karnataka
Sunflower+castor 1:1/1:2 Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat
Sunflower+soybean 1:2 Maharashtra and Vidarbha region ofMaharashtra
Sunflower+blackgram 1:3 Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh
Sunflower+pigeonpea 2:1/2:2 Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Sunflower+fingermillet 2:4 Karnataka

Varieties
DRSH-1: A hybrid with 42-44% oil, matures in 92-98 days with seed yield of 13-16 q/ha. It
is recommended for all India for rabi and zaid seasons.
HSFH 848: A hybrid in 2005 with 40-42% oil, maturing 90-100 days to maturity with seed
yield of 22-25 q/ha and is recommended for timely as well as late sown condition in Haryana.
RSFH 1: A hybrid released for Karnataka with 40-43% oil, maturing in 95-100 days with
seed yield of 13-16 q/ha .
TAS-82: A mutant of Surya, with 40-42% oil and 8-12 q/ha yield in 90-95 days duration.
CO-5: A selection with 40-42% oil, matures in 90-95 days with 8-12 q/ha seed yield.
Haryana Surajmukhi-1: It matures uniformly in 90 days during summer season under
irrigated conditions. Its yield potential is 25-30 q/ha.
Badshah: This variety matures in 80-85 days uniformly. It is suitable to grow in various parts
of Northern India. Seeds are solid, black in colour and contain 40 per cent oil. It is resistant to
alternaria blight. Its yield potential is 18-22 q/ha.
Divyamukhi: This variety matures in 90-100 days. Heads are of large size with medium
black seeds. Seeds contain 41-42 per cent oil. It is suit-able for growing in various part of
Northern India. Its yield potential is 25-28 q/ha.
RSH-1: This variety matures in 80-85 days. It is resistant to downy mildew and lodging. It is
specially, good for Maharashtra. Its yield potential is 25-30 q/ha under irrigated conditions.
Surya: This variety matures in 90-95 days. Seeds are medium black with white stripes and
contain 30-35 per cent oil. This variety is recommended for cultivation in Maharashtra. Its
yield potential is 10-12 q/ha.
CO-1: It is a short duration variety, which matures in 60-65 days. Seeds are medium black
and contain 38-40 per cent oil. Its yield potential is 7-8 q/ha.

61
CO-2: This variety matures in 85-90 days. It is tolerant to rust disease. Seeds contain 38-42
per cent oil. It is suitable for growing in Maharashtra. Its yield potential is 8-10 q/ha.
SS-56: It is a hot duration variety, which matures in 60-70 days. It is suitable for growing In
Maharashtra. Seeds contain 40-42 per cent oil. It yield potential is 7-8 q/ha.
KBSH-1: This variety matures in 90-95 days. It was released for Karnataka and is suitable for
growing in alternaria blight. Seeds contain 42-45 per cent oil. Its yield potential is 12-15 q/ha.
APSH-11: This variety matures in 90-95 days. It is resistant to alternaria blight. Seeds
contain 40-42 per cent oil. Its yield potential is 12-15 q/ha.
MSFH-8: This variety matures in 95-100 days. It is resistant to rust and alternaria blight. It is
suitable for growing in various sunflower growing areas of India. Its yield potential is 10-15
q/ha. Seeds contain 38-42 per cent oil.
MSFH-17: This variety matures in 100-105 days. It is suitable for growing in various
sunflower areas of India. It is resistant to rust and downy mildew. Seeds contain 38-42 per
cent oil. Its yield potential is 12-15 q/ha.
MSFH-30: It is a newly released variety maturing in 90-95 days. It is resistant to rust. Heads
are full of grains and attractive. It is. suitable for growing in all sunflower-growing states.
Seeds contain 42-44 per cent oil. Its yield potential is 25-28 q/ha.
Mega-363: This variety matures in 95-100 days. Seeds contain 40-45per cent oil. Its yield
potential is 25-30 q/ha.
Laxmi: It is a short duration variety suitable for growing during summer season. Plants are
160-165 cm in height. Seeds contain 45 per cent oil. Its yield potential is 25-30 q/ha.
Vinimik: It is a Russian variety, which is known as EC-68413. The plants are tall, attaining
the height of 160-180 cm with the varying size of heads (16-20 cm). The crop matures in 80-
90 days during Kharif, 125-135 days during Rabi and 105-110 days during spring season. Its
average yield is 15-25 q/ha. Its seeds contain 43 per cent oil.
Armaverts: It is an also Russian variety known as EC-69874. The plants are dwarf attaining
a height of 120-140 cm. It takes 70-80 days during Kharif, 105-120 during Rabi and 100-
110days in spring season. Seeds are black in colour. Its average yield is 10-15 q/ha.
Peredovik: It is also an introduction from Russian Fed., which is known as EC-68414. The
plants are tall attaining a height of 160-180 cm. with the head size of 18-22 cm. It matures in
80-90 days during Kharif, 125-135days during Rabi and 105-115 days during spring season.
The plants have a single branch. The seeds are medium in size and black in colour. Its
average yield is 15-25 q/ha. Its seeds contain 44 per cent oil.
Armavirskij: It is an also Russian variety known as EC-68415. It is the tallest variety among
all the Russian varieties. The plants attain 170-200cm height and head of 16-20 cm diameter.
This variety takes 80-90 days during Kharif, 125-135 days during Rabi and 110-115 days
during spring season. The plants have a single branch. Seeds are medium in size and black in
colour and contain 38-40 per cent oil. Its average yield is 15-25 q/ha.
Sunrise Selection: It is a Canadian variety. The plants are dwarf, attaining height of 140-160
centimetres and head size various from 14-18 centimetres. The crop matures in 80-85 days

62
during Kharif, 115-125 days during Rabi season. The plants have a single branch. Seeds are
medium and black containing 44 per cent oil. Its average yield is 15-25 q/ha.
In addition to these, the hybrids recommended for Haryana are:
Timely sown: KBSH 1, MSFH 8, PAC 36, KBSH 44 and PCSH 234.
Late sown: MSFH 17, PAC 1091, Sunzin 85 and Prosun 09.

Field preparation
Sunflower requires well pulverised and weed free land with adequate moisture supply.
The first ploughing should be done by the mould-board plough and subsequently two to three
ploughings could be done by local plough followed by planking. There should be sufficient
moisture at the time of sowing for proper germination. Under irrigated conditions where
sunflower is to be taken during Rabi, sowing should be done after pre sowing irrigation.
Sunflower seeds have thick hulls and imbibe water at a slow rate.

Time of sowing
Sunflower; unlike most other crops is not affected with the season and day length.
With the exception of freezing temperatures, the sowing of sunflower can be done in any
month of the year. In north India, sunflower is sown during kharif and spring/zaid crop.
However, higher yields are obtained during early summer and rabi than kharif season,
because of low biotic stress and favourable soil moisture conditions. The sowing date should
be adjusted in such a way that flowering period does not coincide with heavy rains because
the rains may adversely affect pollination and seed-set. In rabi, the suitable sowing time is
between second fortnight of September and first fortnight of October. For Summer crop 15th
January to 15th February is the best sowing time in Haryana conditions. The Rabi crop sown
late in December or January does not make proper germination and growth and heads of
smaller size are produced. Similarly Zaid crop sown late in April suffers from heavy rains at
harvest time.

Spacing, Seed rate and Depth of sowing

A crop sown by placing seeds in furrows needs 8-10 kg/ha seeds to ensure good crop
stand. While dibbling method of sowing requires 5-6 kg/ha seed. Seed rate for hybrids is 4-5
kg/ha. Sunflower hybrid and varieties should be sown at 60 cm and 45 cm row to row
spacing, respectively along with a plant to plant spacing of 30 cm. The seed should be sown
at 3-5 cm depth for better stand. Sowing can be done with seed drill in the furrows. After 10-
15 days of germination, thin the plants to provide a space of 30 cm between plants in rows.

Seed treatment
Under dryland conditions, pre-soaking of seeds in water for 12 hours and subsequent
drying in shade has been recommended. The seed before sowing should be treated with
captan or ceresan @ 3 g/kg seed. Bold and certified seed should be used for sowing. In
downy mildew prone areas, seed treatment with apron 35 SD @ 6 g/kg seed is necessary.

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Seed dormancy
Sunflower seeds have a dormancy period of 10-50 days. The germination inhibitors
are present in seed kernel and seed coat are active up to 10 and 45 days after harvesting
respectively, thus the dehusked seeds can be germinated from 10th day after harvest up to 75%.
Method of breaking dormancy
Exogenous application of ethrel, benzyl adenine and GA 3 promotes germination of
dormant achenes (intact seeds). Pre-soaking of dormant seeds with ethrel solution (25 ppm)
equivalent to 40% by volume of seeds was found to be optimum, and is the most effective
chemical. Seeds can be soaked for 6 hours and then dried in shade or can be sown directly. If
the quantity of seeds is small, they should be soaked for 24 hours in ethrel solution and then
sow in prepared field. This treatment gives germination to the extent of 85% or more.
Viability of seeds
Normally sunflower seeds remain viable for 10-12 months. However, in areas of hot
humid weather seeds lose viability quickly. At 50 to 85% relative humidity, seeds lose
viability within 40-60 days. Pre-soaking seed with water or protein (10 M concentration)
before storing increased the viability period even under high humidity conditions. Short term seed
hardening treatment given to 6 months old seeds resulted in extending viability up to 10 months.

Fertiliser management
Sunflower is an exhaustive crop and responds well to nitrogen, phosphorus and
potash. In Haryana conditions 60 kg nitrogen and 40 kg P2O5 per hectare is sufficient for non
hybrids while 100 kg nitrogen and 50 kg P2O5 per hectare will be needed for hybrids with
application as half nitrogen and full phosphorus at sowing time and half nitrogen at first
irrigation. All P and K fertilizers are applied as basal, 5 cm away in band on both sides of
seed line. In acidic soils, liming is essential to overcome calcium deficiency. In soils,
deficient in S and B, and in intensive cropping system, crop should be applied with 20-30 kg
S and 2 kg borax/ha.

Irrigation management
Sunflower is a crop of medium water requirement. Total 4-6 number of irrigations is
required for better production of sunflower in Haryana condition. Give first irrigation at 30-
35 days after sowing and remaining after an interval of 12-15 days and last irrigation should
be applied at 75-80 days stage. Its extensively branched taproot, penetrating up to 185 cm,
aids the plant during water stress. A critical time for water stress is the period 20 days before
and 20 days after flowering. Sunflower crop is highly sensitive to water stress between
flowering and grain filling stages and at least one of the irrigation must be applied during this
period. Irrigation at grain filling stage should be given light and on a calm and windless
evening to avoid lodging.

64
Weed management
The crop suffers severe weed competition during initial 45 days of growth. The crop
should be kept weed free during this period to obtain higher yields. The major weed flora
includes Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa (Grasses), Achyranthus aspera,
Phyllanthus niruri, Celosia argentina, Portulaca oleracea, Parthenium hysterophorus etc.
Two weedings with hoeing three and six weeks after sowing after sowing are quite
effective. When the plant attains a knee high stage earthing should be done along the rows.
This provides safeguard against lodging which is likely to occur at heading stage, if winds of
high velocity blow. Pre-emergence application of alachlor or pendimethalin @ 1.5 kg/ha is
also effective. Pre-emergence use of 1.5-2.0 kg/ha of nitrofen or 0.75-1.0 kg/ha prometryne
also successfully control the weeds. Fluchloralin (Basalin) at the rate of 1 kg a.i. per hectare
dissolved in 800-1000 litres of water could also be used as pre-planting. The crop and its residues
have allelopathic effect on weeds due to secretion of chlorogenic acids and scopolin etc.

Diseases management
Alternaria Blight (Alternaria helianthi): The disease is characterised by the development of
dark brown to black, circular to oval spots varying from 0.2 to 5 cm in diameter. The spots
are surrounded by necrotic chlorotic zone with grey white necrotic centre marked with
concentric rings. Spots first appear on lower leaves, later spread to middle and upper leaves.
At later stages, spots may be formed on petioles, stem and ray florets. 0.2 per cent Dithane
M-45 (mancozeb) sprayed four times at an interval of 15 days proved very effective in
controlling the disease. First spray should be given as the disease starts appearing on the
lower leaves.
Charcoal Rot (Macrophomina phaseolina): The most common symptom of the disease,
under field conditions is the sudden wilting of plants, usually after pollination. Infected plants
become weak, mature early and when dry, show a presence of black ashy discolouration of
the stem. Black micro sclerotia are formed in huge number on the affected portion.
Sometimes the disease causes seedling blight, damping off, root rot or basal stem rot. For
control seed borne inoculum can, however, be minimized by treatment of seeds with thiram
(3 to 4 g per kg seed). Use certified seed only. All infected plants should be removed and
burnt. Follow 3-4 years crop rotation with wheat and barley like crops.spray should be given
as the disease starts appearing on the lower leaves.
Sclerotium Wilt or Rot (Sclerotium rolfsii): Sickly appearance of plants can be rotted from a
distance. Later the entire plant withers and dies. White cottony mycelium and mustard-seed-
type sclerotial bodies are conspicuous on the affected stem near soil level. The disease can be
controlled by collection and destruction of plant debris. Treat the seed with Bavistin/ thiram
@ 3g/kg seed. Collect and burn the affected plants. Follow up crop rotation preferably with
cereals.Keep the field free from weeds.
Flower Head Rot: At the grain formation stage light brown coloured spots are formed on the
lower side of the head, which later on spred to whole flower head. In severity of disease the

65
flower head completely rotten and resulted in no grain formation. Treat the seed with
Bavistin/ thiram @ 3g/kg seed to control the disease.

Insect management
Head borer (Helicoverpa armigera): The eggs of this insects are laid singly on tender parts
of the plant and flower bud. They hatch in 4-6days. Newly hatched larvae feed on leaves,
buds and flowers for a short period of time and after making a hole in the disc may enter in it
to feed the developing seed. Grown up larvae bore inside the disc by making apperant
tunnels. Third and fourth instar larvae are more noxious than younger ones. For control deep
ploughing of the field is helpful to kill the hibernating larvae. Install sex pheromone trap in
the field @ 20 traps/ha. Release of egg parasitoid, Trichogramma sp @ 50,000 adults/ha at
weekly interval keep the head borer at bay. Spray nuclear polyhedrosis virus @ 350 LE/ha.
Need based spray of monochrotophos 40 EC @ 1.0 litre/ha or 1.5 litre/ha Quinalphos 25 EC
in 500 lt water/ha controls the insect pest effectively.
Bihar Hairy caterpillar (Spilosoma oblique): They are called hairy caterpillar because they
have profused hairy growth on their body in larval stage. The female lays eggs in cluster on
the lower surface of leaves. After hatching, the tiny larvae feed gregariously on the
chlorophyll content of the leaf upto second instar. Light trap should be installed in the field
and attracted moths should be destroyed. Application of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) 1.0 Kg/ha
has been found effective in controlling hairy caterpillars. Spot application of chlorpyriphos
20EC 1.0 ml/litre of water are highly effective for the control of gregarious phase larvae.
Digging trench around the field and dusting them with carbaryl 10% or methylparathion 2%
dust prevents the migration of caterpillars from one field to another. Need based application
of quinalpos 25 EC @ 1.2 lt/ha or 0.5 lt monocrotophos 36 SL in 500 lt water per hectare
should be done in the evening.
Cut worm (Agrotis ipsilon): Greasy brown colour larvae feed on the young roots and basal
portion of the plant below the ground and kill the plant by cutting at the base. For control
deep ploughing of the field should be done after harvesting of the crop in order to expose the
pupal stage of pest. Treat the seed with chlorphyriphos 20 EC @ 12 ml/kg seed. Treat the soil
with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2.5 Litre/hactare or Carbaryl 10% or fenvalrate 0.4 % dust @
25-30 Kg/hactare. Dust the crop with malathion 5% or carbaryl 10% dust @ 15-20 kg/ha.
Spray the crop with 200 ml fenvalrate 20 EC or 125 ml cypermetheren 25 EC in 300-400 lt
water per hectare.
Aphid (Aphis craccivora): Nymphs are light yellowish green or greenish black or brownish.
Adults are mostly wingless but few winged forms also seen. Nymphs and adults colonise on
the under surface of the young leaves, shoots and suck the sap resulting in crinkling and
curling of leaves. Leaves appear shiny and sticky due to honeydew excreted by the insects.
Later sooty mold grow on honey dew and leaves have a black coating. Cool and humid
conditions are favourable for multiplication while heavy rains wash away the aphid colonies.
Economic threshold limit is 15-20% affected plants. For control seed treatment with

66
Imidacloprid (5g/kg seed) keeps the crop free of sucking pests over a month. Dimethoate or
methyl Demeton or Phosphamidon can be used for control. Paint on stem with a mixture of
Monocrotophos: water (1:4) or Imidacloprad: water (1:20) at 20, 40 and 60 days age of crop.
Tobacco Caterpillar (Spodoptera litura):Moth lays eggs on the under side of leaves in
masses (100-300) and covered with brown hair. Soon after hatching, early instar larvae feed
gregariously by scraping the chlorophyll of Lamina leading to skeletonization. Economic
threshold: 5-10% incidence level in retained and shed fruiting bodies. For control spray
Carbaryl 50% WP @ 500 gm/ha or Monocrotophos 40 WSC @ 500ml/ha.

Heliotropism
A common misconception is that sunflowers track the sun. In fact, mature flower
heads typically face east and do not move. The leaves and buds of young sunflowers do
exhibit heliotropism (sun turning). Their orientation changes from east to west during the
course of a day. The movements become a circadian response and when plants are rotated
180 degrees, the old response pattern is still followed for a few days, with leaf orientation
changing from west to east instead. The leaf and flowerhead bud phototropism occurs while
the leaf petioles and stems are still actively growing, but once mature, the movements stop.
These movements involve the petioles bending or twisting during the day then unbending or
untwisting at night.

67
68
 SUGARCANE

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) also known as Ganna/ Ekh belongs to Poaceae
family. It is the most important sugar crop, contributing more than 62% of the world sugar
production. It is a C4 plant, able to convert up to 2 percent of incident solar energy into
biomass. It is one of the most efficient photo synthesizers in the plant kingdom. India has the
largest area under sugarcane in the world and also ranks first in sugar production.
Sugarcane is one of the main crop for earning foreign exchange. White sugar, Brown
sugar (Khandsari) and Jaggary (Gur). Sugar industry is the largest agro based processing
industry next only to textile in India. Molasses and bagassy are important byproduct of sugar
industry. Molasses are used for production of alcohol by distilleries. Molasses are also used
as an additive to livestock feed. Alcohols serve as a base material in pharmaceutical and
several other industries. Green tops of cane are a good source of fodder for cattle. Press mud
is used as manure in alkaline and saline soils. Ethanol is also a byproduct of sugar industry
which is blended in petrol (5%) in India.

Origin
Barber (1931) was of the opinion that the thin Indian canes probably originated in the
moist parts of north eastern India, from some plant closely related to Saccharum spontaneum
(Kans). Tropical cane might have originated in some of the larger islands of Oceana, most
probably in New Guinea. Brandes (1956) also concluded that it originated in New Guinea,
where various forms of thick, tall, tropical cane have been grown from ancient times.

Area, Production and Productivity

Brazil is the biggest grower of sugarcane, which goes for sugar and ethanol for
gasoline-ethanol blends (gasohol) for transportation fuel. Top sugarcane producers are Brazil,
India, China, Thailand, Mexico and Pakistan. In India, sugarcane is sold as jaggery, and also
refined into sugar, primarily for consumption in tea and sweets, and for the production of
alcoholic beverages. Today, sugarcane is grown in over 110 countries. In 2009, an estimated
1,683 million metric tons were produced worldwide which amounts to 22.4% of the total
world agricultural production by weight. About 50% of production occurs in Brazil and India.
In India sugarcane is cultivated in 4.42 mha with production of 285 mt with a productivity of
645 q/ha. The major sugarcane growing states in india are: UP, Maharashtra, TN, Karnataka,
Gujarat and AP. Haryana ranks 8th in production and 9th in area in India with a productivity of
570 q/ha. The highest productivity is in Tamil Nadu (1062 q/ha). The sugar recovery is
highest in Maharastra (11.1%) followed by Gujrat and Karnataka with all India average of
9.90%, which is much less than the Hawaii (12.28).

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Classification
Sugarcane belongs to the genus Saccharum in the family Poaceae. Cultivated
sugarcane is classified into three species.
Saccharum officinarum: These are noble canes known as ‘Ponda’ in north India and grown
for chewing purposes. These are thick and juicy canes goodfor chewing purpose also. This
species includes the tropical canes indigenous to the New Guinea. These canes contain high
sugar content, low fibre and produce high tonnage. These are generally resistant to smut but
are susceptible to red rot and mosaic diseases. The cultivation of this species is limited to
tropical areas. But in recent years these canes have been succeeded by hybridisation among
Officinarum, spontaneum and other species in subtropical regions.
Saccharum sinense: This specie of cultivated sugarcane is indigenous to north-eastern India.
This specie is characterised by long and thin stalks, broad leaves, low to medium sucrose
content and early maturity. This species includes 'Pansahi'. 'Nargori' and 'Mungo' groups of
sugarcane. Internodes of these canes are long and more or less zigzag and nodes are
prominent.
Saccharum barberi: This species is also indigenous to north-eastern India. It is characterised
by short and thin stalks, narrow leaves, low to medium sucrose content, and early maturity.
This species includes 'Saretha' and 'Sunnabile' groups of sugarcane.
Both the above mentioned species, indigenous to north-eastern India were in cultivation for
many centuries but now-a-days canes of these species have been replaced by complex hybrid
clones. In addition to the above three cultivated species there are two wild species S.
spontaneum and S. robustum.

Growth Stages
Germination and establishment stage: The germination phase is from planting to the
completion of germination of buds. Under field conditions germination starts from 7 to 10
days and usually lasts for about 30-35 days. In sugarcane, germination denotes activation and
subsequent sprouting of the vegetative bud. Optimum temperature for sprouting is around 28-
30oC. Base temperature for germination is about 12oC. Warm, moist soil ensures rapid
germination. Under field conditions, about 60 per cent germination can be considered safe for
raising a satisfactory crop.
Tillering stage: Tillering starts from around 40 days after planting and may last up to 120
days. Tillering is a physiological process of repeated under ground branching from compact
nodal joints of the primary shoot. Tillering provides the crop with appropriate number of
stalks required for a good yield. Maximum tiller population reaches around 90-120 days after
planting. By about 150-180 days, atleast 50 per cent of the shoots die and a stable population
is established. Though 6-8 tillers are produced from a bud, ultimately only 1.5 to 2 tillers per
bud remains to form canes. Ratoon crop gives much higher and early tillering than a plant
crop.

70
Grand growth phase: Grand growth phase starts from 120 days after planting and lasts up to
270 days in a 12-month crop. During the early period of this phase tiller stabilization takes
place. Out of the total tillers produced only 40-50% survives by 150 days to form millable
cane. Most important phase of the crop wherein the actual cane formation and elongation and
thus yield build up takes place. A temperature around 30oC with humidity of around 80% is
most conducive for good growth.
Ripening and maturation phase: Ripening and maturation phase in a twelve-month crop
lasts for about three months starting from 270-360 days. Sugar synthesis and rapid
accumulation of sugar takes place during this phase and vegetative growth is reduced. As
ripening advances, simple sugars (fructose and glucose) are converted into cane sugar
(sucrose). Cane ripening proceeds from bottom to the top and hence bottom portion contains
more sugars than the top portions. Ample sunshine, clear skies cool nights and warm days
and dry weather are highly conducive for ripening.

Crop rotation
Two year rotatons are: Maize-potato-sugarcane, Maize-sugarcane-wheat, Rice-sugarcane-
wheat and Cotton-sugarcane-ratoon.
Three years rotations are: Rice - sugarcane - ratoon - wheat, Cotton- sugarcane – ratoon -
wheat, Sugarcane - ratoon-kharif paddy-winter rice and Rice-groundnut-sorghum-ragi-
sugarcane.
Intercrops: Potato, chickpea, onion, garlic etc.

Climatic requirement
Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate. It requires humidity
of 70% for more vegetative growth. Heat, humidity and sunlight intensity play important role
in sugarcane germination, tillering, vegetative growth and maturity. Sugarcane grows well in
humid and hot weather. An average mean temperature of 26 to 32oC is best suited for growth
of sugarcane. Temperatures above 38° reduce the rate of photosynthesis and increase
respiration. For ripening, relatively low temperatures in the range of 12° to 14° are desirable.
Severe cold weather inhibits bud sprouting in ratoon crop and arrests cane growth. It needs a
period of water stress for sucrose accumulation in the stems.
Sugarcane in India is grown from 8oN to 30oN latitude covering a wide range of
climatic conditions and soils. Two distinct regions of cane cultivation are recognized: the
tropical and subtropical. The tropical region is south of Vindhyas and climatically best suited
for sugarcane cultivation while the subtropical region, North of Vindhyas experiences
extremes of temperature. Here the summer temperatures are very high and winter
temperatures are very low. The cane growing season is thus restricted at both ends. The
shorter the growing season the lesser the yields and lower the sugar recovery.

71
Soil requirement
Sugarcane does not require any specific type of soil as it can be successfully raised on
diverse soil types ranging from sandy soils to clay loams and heavy clays. Sugarcane grows
extremely well in medium to heavy, well drained, soils of pH 7.5 to 8.5 and high organic
matter content. Water logged soils and soils with poor drainage are not suitable. Growth of
sugarcane will be poor in light sandy soils.

Field preparation
The successful raising of plant and subsequent ratoon crop depends, to a considerable
extent, on the seed-bed provided to the plant crop. The soil should therefore be well prepared
in improving tilth which contributes to good germination, stand and final yield of the crop. It
is essential that preparatory tillage is done at deeper layers for better spread of roots. After the
harvest of previous crop, the field is deep ploughed with a soil turning plough. All large clods
are broken and leveling is done to facilitate irrigation and drainage.

Sowing time
The crop must be planted according to the season as follows:
Spring season (Basant kalene): Mid February to end of March.
Late planting (After wheat): Upto 15th May (CoH 110, CoH 119, CoS 767, COH 35).
Autumn season: End of September to first week of October.

Selection of seed
Though yield of sugarcane depends upon variety, quality of good seed is an equally
important criterion. Sugarcane is propagated by cuttings or section of the stalks called setts.
The setts should be:
i. Fresh and juicy.
ii. Age should be of 9-10 months.
iii. Should be free from pests and diseases.
iv. Eye buds should be fully developed.
v. Select sett from planted cane for seed and never from a ratoon cane.
Use 2/3rd top portion of cane, being comparatively immature, has buds of good
viability, and is the best portion for use as seed.

Seed treatment
Dip the cane setts in 0.25% solution of Mencozeb (Dithane M 45) for 4-5 minutes.
250 liters of solution is sufficient for treating setts for one hectare area. Rubber gloves should
be put on while treating the setts. The person employed for should not have any cuts or
scratches on his hand.

72
Spacing
The crop is planted at a spacing of 60 to 75 cm between rows. But in intercropping
with potato the row spacing should be kept at 90 cm. In case of winter season the crop can be
intercropped with wheat and sowing of wheat should be done with the help of bed planter
with three rows of wheat by applying 80 kg seed/ ha. Irrigate the furrows upto half level and
this will help in better and early germination of the sugarcane.

Seed rate
Before planting, the leaves of the cane-stalks are stripped off by hand to avoid
damage to buds. These stalks are then cut into 1 or 2 or 3 budded setts each depending upon
the method of planting. 87000 two boded setts or 58000 three buded setts which weigh about
7 to 10 t are required for planting sugarcane in one hectare area.

Method of sowing
Flat planting: In this method shallow furrows are opened with a local plough or cultivator at
row spacing from 60 to 75 cm depending upon the situation. There should be sufficient
moisture in the field at the time of planting. The setts are planted in them . After this furrows
are covered with 5-7 cm of soil and field is leveled by heavy planking. In most parts of
northern India and some tracts of Maharasthra, cane is planted by this method.
Spaced transplanting (STP) method with single eye sett: Recently in STP method single
eye setts are used for planting. Either direct setts or seeding raised in polybag nurseries are
transplanted into the field after 50-55 days. For this STP or single eyed sett method 18-20
q/ha seed is required. This method saves seed cost by 60-70%. In this method distance
between two setts is kept at 30 cm.
Furrow planting: In this method furrows are made with sugarcane ridger about 10-15 cm
deep in northern India and about 20 cm in south India. Setts are planted end to end in furrows
and covered with 5-6 cm soil, leaving upper portion of furrows unfilled. Immediately after
covering the setts water is let into furrows. This method is practiced in parts of UP and in
Peninsular India, particularly in heavy soils.
Trench planting: In some coastal areas as well as in other areas where the crop grows very
tall and strong winds during rainy season cause lodging of cane, trench method is adopted to
save the crop from lodging. Trenches at a distance of 75-90 cm are dug with the help of
ridger or manual labour. Trenches should be about 20-25 cm deep. After this already
prepared mixture of fertilizer should be spread uniformly in the trenches and mixed
thoroughly in the soil. The setts are planted end to end in the trenches. The tractor –drawn
sugarcane planter is a very suitable device for planting cane in trenches.
Ring or Pit system: This system was evolved by Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research,
Lucknow. In the system, circular pits of 90 cm diameter are dug out to a depth of 45 cm with
a gap of 60 cm on one side and 90 cm on another side is found suitable. At this spacing
irrigation channels are opened in the 90 cm gaps. At this spacing about 4000 pits can be

73
formed per hectare. The pits are re-filled with loose soil and farmyard manure or pressmud
mixture to a depth of 15 cm. While planting, 20 setts are planted per pit and covered with soil
to a thickness of 5 cm. As the crop grows, the soil is filled into the pits while manuring. This
system has given very high yields in the subtropics. In the tropical India, about 25% higher
yields were obtained. The system also gives better rations and has been found useful under
saline soils and saline water irrigated conditions. The system may be useful under drip system
of irrigation.
In this system as the cane setts are packed closely lik spokes in rim. Mostly mother
shoots develop which apparently were better than the tillers in the conventional planting. Due
to suppressed tillering in the ring system from the very beginning, vigorous growth of mother
shoots occurred. Due to this the thickness and height of individual canes increased resulting
in higher single cane weight.
Ridge and furrow method: The method is generally adopted in areas with moderate rainfall
but have drainage problems. The furrows are made in ‘v’ shape about 90 cm. Apart and
about 20-25 cm deep. The setts are placed in horizontal position, usually in end-to-end
system but if the seed stalk is not good and inter-nodes are longer eye-to-eye system of
planting setts may be done. To minimize the border effects of gaps, doubling of setts is done
at the ends of the furrows. As the canes start growing, the furrows are partly filled with soil
and inter-row cultivation is carried out. This repeated inter-row cultivation results in leveling
of the land by end of May or Mid of June which is called as first earthing. Further repetition
of inter-row cultivation transforms the furrow into ridges by putting soil around the plants
and inter-row space become furrow automatically, through which irrigation or drainage is
provided. This transformation of furrows into ridges is called as second earthing.
Wider row/Paired row plantation: To increase cane productivity and reduce the cost of
production it is recommended that the sugarcane varieties having high tillering characters can
be planted with a row spacing of 150 cm in case of heavy soils and 120 cm for lighter soils.
The paired row plantation with 30-150-30 cm is also suited for sugarcane. These methods of
planting ensure to take up intercrops in sugarcane together with higher inputs use efficiencies.
Bud transplanting: Sugarcane buds with half of its stalk can be planted in small polythene
sleeves, which are filled with leaf mould and soil and after they have sprouted out they can be
transplanted in the final field along with the polythene bag opened at bottom. The seedling
mortality has been found to about 5%. This is modified method of bud chip method where in
bud chips of cane are taken out and placed in the required media for growing and then these
seedling are used for planting cane.

Varieties
In our country, sugarcane is being cultivated over a wide range of contrasting agro-
climatic conditions and accordingly the varietal requirements also vary from location to
location. To achieve this objective, All India Coordinated Research Project on sugarcane was
initiated by Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi during 1970-71. As a result

74
of sugarcane breeding programmes in different states a number of varieties yielding higher
cane tonnage and sugar per unit area as compared to the commercially cultivated varieties
have been developed. A list of such high yielding, high sugar varieties are given in Table:

State Early-ripening varieties Mid-late ripening varieties

Andhra CoC 671, Co 6907, Co 7704, Co Co 7219, Co 7805, Co 7706, Co 8021,
Pradesh 8013, Co 8014, CoA 88088, CoA CoT 8201, CoV 92101, CoV 92102
89032, CoA 89085, CoA 9088,
CoA 89098
Bihar BO 90, BO 99, BO 102, BO 120 Co 1148, CoS 767, BO 91, BO 104 BO
108, BO 109, BO 110, BO 116, BO 128
Haryana CoH 56, CoJ 64, CoH 99, Co 7717 CoH 35, CoS 767, Co 1148, Co 1158

Karnataka Co 419, KHS-3296, Co 6415, Co Co 449, Co 740, B 37172, Co 62175

7219, Co 7704
Maharashtra Co 419, Co 7219 Co 678, Co 740, Co 62175, CoM 7125,
Co 7527
Punjab CoJ 64, CoJ 83, CoJ 86, CoP 211 CoJ 79, CoJ 84, CoJ 83, CoS 767, Co
1148, CoS 8436
Tamil Nadu CoC 671, CoC 771, CoC 8001, CoC 772, CoC 773, CoC 774CoC 775,
CoC 85061 CoC 777, CoC 778, CoC 779, CoC 62174,
CoC 6304
Uttar Pradesh CoJ 64, CoS 687, CoS 8436, CoS CoS8432,CoP 84212, CoS 88216,CoS
88230, CoS 90265, CoS 92254, 92423, CoS 93278, CoS 94257, CoS
CoS 95255, CoS 96258, CoS 94270, CoS 95222, CoS 97264, UP 9529,
96268, CoS 98231, CoS 98247 UP 9530, CoS 94636

Varieties recommended for Haryana State are as follows

Early maturing varieties
CoJ 64: It is early maturing variety. Its sugar content is 18-20%. Germination of this variety
is very good and it is good for ratoon crop but it is susceptible to moisture stress condition.
For getting higher yield water must be ensured and it should be kept free from insect and
pests. It is susceptible to top and stem borer. Its average yield is 500q/ha.
CoH 56: It is early maturing variety. Its sugar content is 18%. The cane is medium bold with
wider and light green leaves. It is resistant to lodging and has good tillering capacity. It is
susceptible to top and stem borer.
CoH 92: It is early maturing variety. Its sugar content is 18-20%.Its germination is good but
tillering is poor.The canes are bold, solid and tall growing. For getting good yields it is
necessary to control root borer. Its average yield is 625q/ha. It is recommended for cultivation
in whole Haryana.

75
Medium maturing varieties
Co 7717: It is an medium early maturing variety which ripens by the end of November.
Sucrose content about 17%. A good tillering variety with excellent stand, good ratooner, erect
growing and non-lodging, responds well to heavy manuring, resistant to drought, cane yield
and sugar content fairly high. It gives about 800 q of stripped cane per hectare. It is
moderately resistant to smut, resistant to top borer, shoot borer and root borer but moderately
susceptible to red rot. Suitable for cultivation in whole Haryana.
CoH 99: It is a medium-early maturing variety which ripens in the 2nd fortnight of
November. Sucrose content about 17.5%. It is resistant to drought and waterlogging. It gives
about 700 q of stripped cane per hectare. It is resistant to diseases and insects. Suitable for
cultivation in whole Haryana.
CoS 8436: It is medium maturing variety. Its canes are short, bold, solid, broad leaves and
small internodes. Sucrose content is 16-18%. It is not recommended for late planting (after
wheat harvesting). Its average yield is 700 q/ha.
CoH 119: It is a medium-early maturing variety. Its canes are bold and solid. It is
recommended for sowing in spring season. Its ratoon is good and non-lodging variety. It is
resistant to red rot and recommended for cultivation in whole Haryana. It gives an average
yield of 800 q/ha.
Late maturing varieties
Co 1148: It matures in the end of January. It is slow growing, high tillering, solid canes and
high yielding variety. It is good for rationing. It can tolerate frost condition. It is sensitive to
top borer, stem borer and red rot. Its average yield is 800 q/ha. Sucrose content is 17-19%.
CoS 767: It matures in the month of December. It is high tillering, non lodging and high
yielding variety. It is good for rationing. It can tolerate frost, drought and waterlogging
condition. It is resistant to diseases and insects. Its average yield is 750 q/ha. Sucrose content
is 16-18%.
CoS 110: It is late maturing. It is fast growing, tall, solid canes and high yielding variety. It is
good for rationing. It can tolerate frost condition. This variety is recommended for cultivation
in low fertility and limited water conditions. It is fast growing hence recommended for
cultivation in summer and spring seasons. It is resistant to red rot. Its average yield is 800 q/ha.

Fertilizer management
Crop Nutrient (kg/ha) Time and method of application
N P2O5 K2O
Plant crop 150 50 50 Drill all P, K2O and 1/3 N at sowing, 1/3 with second
(Basant / spring) irrigation and 1/3 with fourth irrigation.
Ratoon crop 225 50 50 Broadcast 1/3 N and full P2O5 and K2O in Feb. with
first interculture, 1/3 N each in April and June
Autumn 150 50 50 For intercrop, apply the recommended dose of
planting fertilizer. For sugarcane crop, apply full dose of K2O,
P2O5 and 50 kg N/ha at planting time, 50 kg N/ha after
harvesting of intercrop and the final dose in the month
second fortnight of June or with the start of monsoon.

76
 If sugarcane is planted after harvest of wheat than apply full dose of P2O5 and 75 kg
N/ha at planting time and 75 kg N/ha in the end of June or with the start of monsoon. If
sugarcane is sown in the sandy loam than it is necessary to apply 25 kg ZnSO4/ha at the time
of planting.

Irrigation management
First irrigation should be done after 5-6 weeks after sowing. Irrigate the crop at 10
days interval before monsoon and 25 days interval after monsoon. CoJ 64 requires limited
irrigation. Co 1148 and CoS 767 can tolerate water stress condition upto some extent.

Weed management
Most common weeds of sugarcane in India are: Sorghum halepense, Cyperus
rotundus, Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria sanguinallis, Eleusine indica, Saccharum
spontaneum, Trianthema monogyna, Euphorbia hirta, Eclipta alba, Commelina
benghalensis, Digera arvensis, Phyllanthus nirui, etc. The most critical period for the weed
competition in sugarcane is up to 4 months after sowing beyond which the crop smoothers
the weed flora by itself. Blind hoeing followed by planking 7-10 days after sowing takes care
of emerging weeds. Two hoeing 30 and 60 DAS followed by interculture with country
plough between the rows at 90 DAS helps to eliminate crop weed competition in sugarcane.
Trash mulching in ratoon crop checks the emergence of weeds in addition to moisture
conservation. Pre-emergence (2-3 DAS) application of Simazine @ 4 kg/ha or Atrazine @
2.5 kg/ha or Sencor @ 1.5-2.0 kg/ha by mixing in 625-700 L water can provide effective
control of several grass and broad leaf weeds. For the control of Cyperus and Ipomoea spp.,
spray 1.0-1.25 kg/ha of 2,4-D ester or amine, Almix @ 20 g/ha or 2,4-D Sodium salt @ 2.5
kg/ha in 500-625 L water at 30 and 60 DAS.

Earthing up
Hilling the clumps in stages is required to provide habitat to the shoot roots and
sufficient height of the soil thus achieved suppress the formation of late shoots. The earthing
up results in formation of furrows which helps in drainage of excess water during rains.
Earthing up is done at maximum tillering stage. Light earthing in the month of May and
heavy earthing in the end of June, prior to the break of monsoon, should be done.
Propping up
This should be carried out in the month of August and September, so as to prevent
lodging of crop.

Disease management
Red Rot (Colletotrichum falcatum): The initial symptoms appear as drying of the lower
leaves at the tips and margin. In few days whole crown dries and cane shows red to purplish
discoloration. Longitudinal splitting of the diseased cane shows the characteristic reddening

77
of internal tissues interrupted by white transverse patches. The affected tissues emit a
characteristic alcoholic smell.
Whip Smut (Ustilago scitaminea): This disease is recognized by the production of black
whip like structure at the apex of the affected stalk which is initially covered by a white
silvery membrane. As the whip matures, silvery membrane ruptures exposing millions of
black spores. Smutted shoots do not produce millable canes.
Wilt (Cephalosporium sacchari, Fusarium moniliforme): This disease is characterized by
yellowing/withering of crown leaves late in the season followed by rapid drying of canes.
The cane becomes light and hollow and on splitting shows reddening as a conical patch at
each node. The affected canes emit a characteristic sour smell different from alcoholic smell
as in case of red rot.
Ratoon Stunting (Leifsonia xyli sub sp. xyli): Ratoon stunting disease does not show any
specific external symptoms. The stalks become thin and internodes are shortened. Later on
the foliage turns yellow and plant gives a stunted look. In mature canes discoloration of
individual vascular bundles is prominent at the nodes. In young canes, the symptoms appear
as pinkish discoloration of the tissues below the apical meristem.
Grassy Shoot Disease (Phytoplasma): The appearance of premature and profuse tillers with
narrow leaves are the symptoms of disease. Later on, side shoots develop from the bottom of
the stalk and proceed towards the top. After some time softening of leaf texture takes place
which gives grass like appearance to the clump. There is overall stunting of clump. The
affected stubbles may not sprout.
Sugarcane Mosaic (Sugarcane Mosaic Virus): The prominent symptom is the mottling of
basal portion of younger leaves. Alternate chlorotic and green areas on the leaves contribute
to mosaic appearance which can best be observed on leaves held against light source.The
virus is transmitted through the diseased sugarcane setts. Secondary spread of the disease
takes place with the help of aphids which transmit the virus in a non-persistent manner.
Integrated Disease management
1. Use of resistant varieties
Red Rot: CoS 767, CoH 119, CoH 110
Smut: CoH 99, CoH 92, CoH 56
Wilt: CoS 8436, CoH 99, Co 7717
GSD: CoH 99, CoS 8436
2. Cultural practices
a) Select healthy seed as primary inoculum of major diseases of sugarcane is
transmitted through diseased setts.
b) Crop debris, trash and stubbles should be burnt after harvesting of crop.
c) Rouging of smut and red rot affected stools during the early period of plant
growth. It is helpful in checking the secondary spread of the disease.
d) Avoid ratooning of crops having high incidence of smut, red rot and grassy shoot disease.

78
 e) Follow at least three years crop rotation for eliminating the soil borne inoculums
of red rot and wilt diseases, respectively.
f) Early harvesting and effective drainage are useful in minimizing the losses due to
red rot.
3. Chemical treatment
a) Sett treatment with 0.25% Emisan for 6 minutes for controlling smut infection in setts.
b) Application of suitable insecticide during post monsoon season for the control of
root orer which will in turn reduce the wilt incidence under field conditions.
4. Heat therapy
Moist hot air treatment (MHAT) at 54 o C for 2 hours at RH > 95% is most effective
against GSD, RSD and external sett borne infection of smut and red rot pathogens.

Insect management
Termite: Immediately after planting the insect feed on the buds or after sprouting feed on the
young tillers thereby causing drying of the tillers and reduce the plant population.
Immediately after planting the setts ,spray 6.25 liter chloropyriphos 20 EC or 20 kg Canodane
6 G in 600 – 1000 liter water/ha.
Pyrilla: Nymphs and adults both suck the cell-sap from the underside of the leaves. The
damaged leaves turn yellow and shrivel later on. During heavy infestation drying of whole
plant may occur. They excrete honey dew on which black mould develops and the leaves give
sickly black appearance.
Black bug: Both the nymphs and adults suck cell-sap from the central whorl. The damaged
leaves turn yellow and the small holes of feeding can be seen.
Sugarcane whitefly: Both the nymphs and adults suck cell-sap from the leaves. Yellow
streaks appear on the damaged leaves and the crop gives palish green appearance. A black
mould develops on honeydew extracted by the whiteflies. Spray 2 liter of malathion or 1.5
litre of rogor in 1000 liter of water.
Sugarcane top borer: Young leave bore into the mid rib of a leaf, mining their way to the
base. They enter the spindle, feed on the growing point and portion of the cane causing the
bunchy top. Apply 20 kg/ha of Phorat 10 G (Thimat)
Sugarcane shoot borer: The leaves reach the plant base, bore into the shoot and feed there.
The attached plants produce dead hearts which emits alcoholic smell when pulled out.
Stalk borer: The larvae feed on the leaf sheath or on mid rib for sometimes and then bore
into stalk by making circular holes in the rind. Dead hearts are also produced in young plants.
The larvae bore into one internode after another and move from one plant to another infesting
upto 90% canes in the field. Lodged or waterlogged fields are more severely infested.
Root borer: The young larvae bore into the stem below soil surface and cut right across the
stem reaching the adjoining tillers. The central leaves of damaged plants dry up and form
dead hearts before the cane forming stage. Apply 20 kg/ha of Quinalphos 5 G before
irrigation.

79
Gurdaspur borer: Four to five hours after hatching the young larvae enter the top portion of
the cane through a single hole just above a node. They feed gregariously by making spiral
galleries which run upwards. After 7-10 days, when the cane had dried up, the larvae come
out and the larvae enter the adjoining cane. Thus, the dried cane tops can be spotted in the field.
Sugarcane mealy bug: Both nymphs and adults are found in the canes having tight fitted
sheaths. They drain away large quantity of sap from the canes. A sooty mould develops on
the secretions giving blackish appearance to the canes. Mottling diseases is also transmitted
by these bugs.
Tarai borer: During rainy season larva enters in the cane and feed in the form of tunnels and
the feeding portion becomes red in colour. Irrigation and high nitrogen application increase
the susceptibility. Release Tricoderma predator @50000/ha at 10 days interval from mid July
to October. Tricoderma is available from Sonepat Sugar Mill.

Ratoon management
Although sugarcane productivity has shown the increasing trend, a wide gap exists
between potential and existing productivity levels. Ratooning constitutes around 50% of the
total area under cane and ratoon productivity invariably falls below that of the plant cane,
even though ratoon crops are expected to have higher productivity and early maturity than the
plant crop. Several countries like Mauritius, Hawaii, USA, South America, etc., rise multiple
rations, thereby saving on the cost of the seed material, labor involved in planting and
attaining much higher profitability per unit area compared to India, where we generally do
not grow beyond one or two ratoons.
Following points should be followed for higher ratoon productivity:

Selection of sugarcane varieties which can give fair or better ratoon yield

The crop should be timely harvested close to the ground.

The left over of plants viz. dry leaves or cane trashes should be partially removed and
make stubble shaving at ground level. If the preceding crop is infected with severe
pest, diseases and weeds then burn the field soon after harvesting. Burning evolves
heat, which converts sucrose of stubbles into glucose for a quick sprouting of tillers
during winter.

After stubble removal and burning of trashes the field should be given irrigation and
then inter cultivation by plough for providing better aeration to roots, for making soil
loose and root pruning. This helps in a quick root production and sprouting of ratoons.
This is termed as off-barring.

The gaps in the ratoon crop should be attended.
o With pre-germinated settling raised through polybag system
o Taking the clumps from thickly populated area and filling the gaps
o Removing the clumps from one side of the plots and the place vacated in the
process may be replanted fresh.

80

When all the above-mentioned operations are over the field should be given irrigation
according to the crop needs.

Trash mulching helps to check the weeds, reduce water requirement and as organic
manure for soil.

The crop should be provided an efficient drainage for draining out excess water from
the field.

The weed control, earthing up, hoeing and plant protection measures should be
followed as they are done in the planted crop.

Relative merits and demerits of ratooning

Merits

Cost of seed, seed bed preparation and planting is saved.

Ratoon crop utilizes the residual fertility of the previous crop.

Ratoon crop matures earlier and helps in running sugar mills earlier. Thus the field
is vacated earlier for the next crop.

The quality of the produce is superior to planted cane.

Total cost of cultivation is less as compared to the planted one.

The yield remains equal or higher than the planted crop if proper management is done.
Demerits

Ratoon crop is invariably attacked severely by insects, pests and diseases. Thus the
yield is lower than planted crop.

The soil becomes poor in fertility when ratooning is done for more than two years.

Quality Parameters
Important sugarcane quality parameters for assessing cane maturity are the juice Brix,
pol or sucrose percentage and purity.
Juice Brix: Juice Brix refers to the total solids content present in the juice expressed in
percentage. Brix includes sugars as well as non-sugars. Brix can be measured in the field
itself in the standing cane crop using a Hand Refractometer. This is usually referred as a
Hand Refractometer Brix or HR Brix.
Juice Sucrose or Pol Per Cent: The juice sucrose per cent is the actual cane sugar present in
the juice. It is determined by using a polarimeter, hence sucrose per cent is also referred to as
pol per cent. For all practical purposes pol % and sucrose % are synonyms. Now a days an
instrument called sucrolyser is also available for determining sucrose % in juice.
Purity Coefficient: It refers to the percentage of sucrose present in the total solids content in
the juice. A higher purity indicates the presence of higher sucrose content out of the total
solids present in juice. The purity percentage along with sucrose percent aids in determining
maturity time.

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Purity Percentage = (Sucrose %/HR Brix)100
A cane crop is considered fit for harvesting if it has attained a minimum of
16% sucrose and 85% purity.
Commercial Cane Sugar: The commercial cane sugar (CCS) refers to the total recoverable
sugar percent in the cane. This could be calculated by the following formula:

CCS (tons/ha) = [Yield (tons/ha) x Sugar Recovery (%)] /100

Sugar Recovery (%) = [S - 0.4 (B - S)] x 0.73
Where, S= Sucrose % in juice and B= Corrected Brix (%)

82
83
 TOBACCO

Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) also known as Tambaku belongs to Solanaceae is one

of the most economically significant agricultural crops in the world. It is a drought tolerant,
hardy and short duration crop which can be grown on soils where other crops cannot be
cultivated. The genus is named in honor of Jean Nicot, who in 1561 was the first to present
tobacco to the French royal court. Tobacco is the only commercial non food crop that enters
the world trade as a leaf. It is priced for aroma, taste and flavor. It is important commercial
crop in view of revenue generation, export earning and employment potential. It is aptly
called as the golden leaf of India. Most of the effects of nicotine on the central nervous
system are due to the direct action on brain receptors. At very low doses, similar to those seen
during cigarette smoking, the cardiovascular effects appear to be mediated by the central
nervous system. The net result is an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. At higher
doses, nicotine may act directly on the peripheral nervous system. At extremely high doses,
nicotine produces hypotension and slowing of the heart rate. Tobacco has a long history of
use by medical herbalists as a relaxant. Wet tobacco leaves are applied externally in the
treatment of rheumatic swelling, skin diseases and stings, as the active ingredients can be
absorbed through the skin. They are also a certain cure for painful piles. A homeopathic
remedy made from the dried leaves is used in the treatment of nausea and travel sickness.
Some other activities reported for Nicotiana tabacum are: Analgesic activity, anesthetic
activity, angiogenesis inhibition, antibacterial activity, anti convulsant activities, anti
estrogenic effect, antifungal activity, antiglaucomic activity, antioxidant activity, antistress
effect, antiviral activity, carcinogenic activity.
All parts of the plant contain nicotine, which can be extracted and used as an
insecticide. The dried leaves can also be used; they remain effective for 6 months after
drying. The juice of the leaves can be rubbed on the body as an insect repellent. The leaves
can be dried and chewed as an intoxicant. The dried leaves are also used as snuff or are
smoked. This is the main species that is used to make cigarettes, cigars, and other smokable
tobacco preparations.

Origin
The Primary center of origin of Nicotiana tabacum is South America and that of
Nicotiana rustica is Peru. Tobacco is said to have been introduced in India by the Portuguese
in the early seventeenth century AD.

Area, Production and Productivity

India occupies third place in area and production after China and Brazil, accounting
for 10% of world's area and 9% of tobacco production. India is one of the leading exporters
of tobacco, occupying fifth place in overall exports of tobacco after Brazil, USA, China and
Malawi. The country accounts for about 6 % by volume and 0.7% by value of the world

84
tobacco import/export trade. In the case of FCV tobacco, its share is about 4.6% and burley
tobacco exports account for 2.6%. The bulk of tobacco exports (70-85%) continue to be FCV
only. The major importers of Indian FCV tobacco are UK, Germany, Belgium and the
erstwhile USSR, accounting for more than 60% of our exports. In India, it is cultivated in an
area of 0.40 million ha (0.27% of the net cultivated area) producing about 700 million kg of
tobacco. The production of Flue-cured Virginia (FCV) tobacco is about 270 million kg from
an area of 0.20 million ha. India produces almost all types of tobacco. FCV and burley
tobacco are the main exportable types earning Rs 1,713 crores as foreign exchange and about
Rs 9,100 crores as excise revenue to the country, besides providing employment to 36 million
people including six million farmers. The major tobacco growing states in India are Andhra
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and Bihar. Andhra Pradesh alone account for 50%
production followed by 22% by Uttar Pradesh and 11% by Gujrat. The highest productivity
5863 kg/ha is in UP with all India average of 1592 kg/ha during 2008-09.

Classification
The genus Nicotiana is represented by about 60 recognised species but Nicotiana
tabacum and Nicotiana rustica are cultivated extensively. India grows both the species, but
the largest area is under N. tabacum. Since N. rustica requires cooler climate, its cultivation is
confined mainly to the northern and north-eastern areas of the country, i.e., U.P., West
Bengal, Bihar and Assam.

Sr. no. Nicotiana tabacum Nicotiana rustica

1. Known as desi types have tall plants with
broad leaves and have usually pink
flowers.
2. Specific varieties in N. tabacum have
been developed for cigarette, cigar and
cheroot, bidi, hookah and snuff tobaccos.
3. The average weight of the seed is 0.08 to
0.09 mg and there are 11,000 - 12,000
seeds per gram.
4. Sessile, ovate or oblong-lanceolate
shaped leaves are most common.
5. Plant is semi-xerophytic to mesophytic.
6. The nicotine content of the leaves ranges
from 0.5 to 5.5 per cent.
7. Leaf base can either be sessile or
petiolate.
8. The texture of leaves is finer.
9. The leaf shape ranges from broad ovate
to linear or lanceolate.
10. The flowers are usually pinkish.
Known as `vilayati' and `calcuttia' are
characterised by short plants with round
puckered leaf and yellow flowers.
The varieties developed in N. rustica are
used for only chewing, hookah and snuff
tobaccos.
The seed is larger and about three times
heavier.
The leaves are usually petiolate and of
regular ovate with a dark green surface.
Plant is a mesophyte.
The nicotine content of the leaves varies
from 3.5 to 8.0 per cent.
Leaves are always petiolate, with 4 to 9
centimeter long leaf stalk.
The texture of leaves is leathery and tough.
The shape of leaf can be orbicular or ovate.
The flowers are greenish white or yellow.

85
Type of Tobacco
With its rich agro-climatic diversity, India has the unique position of growing all
types of tobacco which are broadly classified as:
1. FCV Tobacco Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
2. Bidi Tobacco Gujarat and Nipani area of Karnataka
3. Cigar and Cheroot Tamil Nadu and West Bengal
4. Hookah Tobacco Assam, West Bengal, Bihar and UP
5. Chewing and Snuff Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam and UP
6. Natu, Burley, Lanka Andhra Pradesh
7. Pikka Tobacco Orissa
Climatic requirement
Tobacco is tropical in origin, but it is grown successfully under tropical, sub-tropical
and temperate climates. Normally it requires about 100 to 120 days, frost-free climate. In
India, tobacco is grown under a very wide range of conditions from the coast-line to an
altitude of 3,000 feet. In the South, the crop is raised in winter from October to March when
the temperatures are moderate, but in Punjab it is grown as an early summer crop. In the
eastern and western parts of the country it is grown between September and January.
Conditions required for successful production of high quality leaf are liberal and well-
distributed rainfall during active vegetative growth stage, long day lengths, a mean
temperature of 26oC during growing season and a high relative humidity of 70-80%.

Soil requirement
Well drained and properly aerated soils are best for tobacco cultivation. The desirable
soil pH is 5.0 to 6.0. But, in many parts cultivation is successful where the pH is 8 or more. In
India, cigar, hookah, chewing and bidi tobaccos are grown on sandy loam to clay loams. A
notable exception to the general rule regarding soil requirements is found in the case of
cigarette tobacco. This tobacco is grown in India as a dry crop on heavy black soils which
normally have poor drainage. In spite of unfavourable soil conditions it has been possible to
raise cigarette tobacco. Very high clay contents in these soils are able to hold enough
moisture to sustain a fair crop and the humidity during the curing period is quite high and this
makes the handling of crop easy.

Crop rotation
Growing tobacco in the same field repeatedly increase the reoccurrence of Orobanche
infestation in the tobacco crop. Therefore to control this perennial weed it is advisable to
follow a suitable crop rotation which differs from area to area. Important crop rotations are:
Tobacco-Chilli, Onion-Tobacco, Tobacco-Jowar/Bajra/Ragi, Tobacco-Red gram, Cotton-
Tobacco, Rice-Tobacco, Sorghum-Tobacco, Black gram-Tobacco, Green gram-Tobacco,
Jute-Tobacco, Pearl millet-Tobacco, Sunhemp (Green Manuring)-Potato-Tobacco, Maize-
Tobacco-Maize, Maize-Tobacco(Winter)-Potato/wheat-Tobacco (Summer), Maize-potato-
Tobacco.
86
Field preparation
A clean and well pulverized seed bed of good tilth is needed for transplanting of
tobacco seedlings. Field should be well prepared first by deep ploughing with mould-board
plough followed by 3 to 4 cross harrowing. Each harrowing should be followed by planking.
Care should be taken to see that weeds, stubbles, etc. are well removed from field.

Sowing time of seed in nursery

Sowing time State Type of Tobacco
July-October Andhra Pardesh Cigarette, Cheroot, Bidi, Chewing and Sigar
April-May Karnataka Cigarette, Cheroot, Bidi, Chewing and Sigar
May-June Gujrat Bidi
April-May Tamilnadu Snuff, Cheroot, Chewing, Wrapper
June-July UP Chewing
September UP Chewing
December UP Hookah
Aug-September Bihar Hookah & Chewing

Seed rate
A seed-rate of 3 kg/ha for Nicotiana tabacum and 6 kg/ha for Nicotiana rustica is
optimum.

Nursery management
The emerging seedlings are tiny and delicate and therefore, the seeds are unsuitable
for sowing directly in the field. Hence they are sown in small areas called nurseries or seed
beds and tended carefully till the seedlings attain six leaves size before transplanting in the
main field.
Nursery on raised beds with intervening channels helps in quick drainage of rain
water. The beds are 1.0 m to 1.22 m wide to facilitate hand-weeding and watering with rose
cans. The beds can be of any convenient length along the slope but generally not more than
10 m. The channels are to be half metre wide and 10 cm deep. Mixing of sand at 100 to 200
tonnes/ha in the preparation of the beds, helps in improving the drainage in heavy soils.
Application of FYM @ 25 tonnes/ha by mixing well in the top layers at least 20 days before
sowing was found to be beneficial in obtaining more number of transplantable seedlings.
Basal application of 50 kg of ammonium sulphate, 50 kg of potassium sulphate and 300 kg of
superphosphate and 100 kg of dolomite per hectare bed is recommended.
After germination of seed top dressing of ammonium sulphate twice at 4 days interval
@ 25 kg/ha and thereafter thrice at 4 days interval @ 50 kg/ha and twice potassium sulphate
@ 25 kg/ha is recommended. After each pulling top dressing with ammonium sulphate @
100 kg/ha is to be given to boost the growth of the remaining seedlings. Mulches over seed

87
beds have been found very beneficial as they conserve moisture during germination and later
protect the tender seedlings from strong sunlight and beating rains.
Normally, the seedlings are ready for planting at the end of 7th week and in the first
picking 30 to 40% of the total seedlings will be available.

Transplanting of seedlings
When the seedlings attain their required age, i.e., 7 to 9 weeks in case of tabacum and
5 to 6 weeks in case of rustica, they become fit for transplanting. The nursery beds should be
given light irrigation about 7 to 8 hours before uprooting the seedlings to reduce roots
damage during uprooting. If possible, the transplanting should be done in the evening and the
field should be given a light irrigation for quick establishment of seedlings. The field should
be watered after every 3-4 days so that the seedlings do not desiccate in the sun. The gaps
created because of death of seedlings or because of their non-establishment should be filled
8-10 days after transplanting by planting freshly uprooted seedlings.

Time of transplanting and spacing of tobacco seedlings for different types

Types Time of Transplanting Spacing in cm
Row to row Plant to plant
Flue-cured Virginia and Natu of
black soil (Andhra Pradesh) Mid. October 80 80
Flue-cured Virginia of light
soils (A.P.) Mid. October 100 60
Cigars and cheroot in Tamil Nadu October (1st week) 75 50
Chewing in Tamil Nadu October (1st week) 75 75
Bidi in Gujarat October (1st Week) 75 75
Bidi in Kamataka Mid. October 105 45
Chewing in Bihar Sept. 3rd week 90 60
N. rustica in W. Bengal Sept. 3rd week 60 45
N. tabacum in W. Bengal October (1st week) 90 90
N. rustica Oct-Nov. for winter crop 45 45
N. tabacum Feb.-March for summer crop 50 45

Method of transplanting
General method: After seedlings are uprooted from the nursery beds they become ready for
transplanting. While planting, a shallow hole of 2.5 cm depth is made with finger at each
planting position which is marked by a marker with desired spacing both ways after soil
surface is completely levelled. One seedling is placed at each place and the soil is pressed all-
round the seedling to provide a firm foot-hold for the plant. Gaps are filled within 10 days of
planting.

88
Furrow method: This is resorted to when the weather remains dry during the normal season
for transplanting. In this method the markings in the prepared field are made in only one
direction at first and shallow furrows called “Salia” are opened at desired spacing with
country plough. A wooden plough is then lightly moved over the furrows and the cross
markings are made with the marker. Before planting, water is let in the furrow and a seedling
is set out at every crossing along the side of the furrows.
Flat ridge or Ghora method: In parts of Baroda district where tobacco is transplanted in
heavier soils, this method is adopted. In this method furrows are made with three tined seed-
drill or a wooden plough followed by planking. Cross marking is then carried out with a
marker. The furrows are then irrigated and the seedlings are transplanted on alternate ridges
on each crossing.

Varieties

Improved Tobacco Varieties Recommended for Different Areas and their Salient Features
Type of Variety Area of adoption and salient features Cured leaf
Tabacco Yield(q/ha)
Flue-Cured Virginia Black soils of Andhra Pradesh. It is resistant to 20
tobacco-1158 tobacco mosaic virus.
Gauthami Black soils and southern light soils of Andhra Pradesh. 20
Bhavya In Karnataka light soils. It is resistant to black shank 20
and tolerant to root knot nematode.
Jayasri (MR) Black soils and southern light soils of Andhra Pradesh. 15
It is resistant to tobacco mosaic virus.
Hema Black soils of Andhra Pradesh. 15.5
Swarna Karnataka light soils. It is resistant to powdery 14.5
mildew.
Godavari Black and southern light soils of Andhra Pradesh 15
special tobacco mosaic virus.
CTRI Special Black soils of Andhra Pradesh 13.5
Dhanadayi Black soils of Andhra Pradesh 15
Kanakprabha Black soils of Andhra Pradesh 15
Bidi GTH-1 Gujarat, tolerant to root knot nematode. High yielding. 36
Tobacco GT-7 Rainfed areas of Gujarat. It is drought tolerant. 25
GT-5 Gujarat. It is tolerant to root knot and contains high 33
nicotine.
GT-4 Gujarat. It is drought tolerant. 26
Anand-119 Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. 26
Anand-23 Gujarat. It is tolerant to leafburn disease. 25
Anand-3 Gujarat. 25
Anand-2 Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. 25.5

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Natu Natu Special Suitable for Cigaratte natu areas of Andhra Pradesh. 16
Tobacco Vishwanath Suitable for Cigaratte natu areas of Andhra Pradesh. 24
Prabhat Suitable for natu areas of Andhra Pradesh. It is 15
resistant to tobacco mosaic virus.
Cherut DR-1 Suitable for east Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh. 26
Tobacco It has strong pungent and aromatic quality.
Bhavani special Bhavani areas of Coimbator district of Tamil Nadu. 28
Lanka Special East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh. 27
Cigar S-5 Cigar-Wraper tobacco areas of West Bengal 14.5
Wrapper
Tobacco
Cigarfiller Krishna Cigar filler areas of Tamil Nadu. 22.5
Tobacco Banket A-1 East Godavari, Visakapatnam district of Andhra 18
Pradesh. It is resistant to tobacco mosaic virus.
Rustica GCT-2 Rustica areas of middle Gujarat. 35
Tobacco GC-1 Gujarat. 26
(Hookah Sonar Motihari Motihari areas of West Bengal. 17
and snuff) DD-437 West Bengal. 18
NP-70 Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. 16
DD-416 Muzaffarpur and Durbhanga district of Bihar. 15
Chewing Vaishali Bihar. 27
Tobacco Special
Meenakshi Sun cured area of Tamil Nadu. 40
GT-6 Gujarat. 27
Maragadham Tamil Nadu. 30
Bhagya laxmi Tamil Nadu. 35
Thangam Tamil Nadu. 32
Sona Bihar. 31

Fertilizer management
In tobacco crop it is a well known fact that economic returns are largely dependent on
the right combination of a yield and quality rather than on the yield alone. Heavy manuring
with nitrogen increases the yield, but has an adverse effect on the quality. It is observed that
in chewing, bidi and hookah tobaccos better quality is generally associated with higher yields
that may be obtained with heavy manuring of nitrogen with other nutrients. But in flue-cured
tobaccos for cigar, cigarette etc., better quality leaves are obtained from partially starved
plants. Phosphorous requirement of tobacco is comparatively low. Potash is an important
element, particularly for smoking tobacco. A liberal supply imparts a good burning capacity
or combustibility to smoking tobaccos. Besides, potash also improves the physical qualities
of the leaf e.g. elasticity, and low prominence of veins.

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 Types of Tobacco Manures ( Tons/ha) Fertilizers( kg/ha)
N: P: K
Flue cured (Black soils) 7.5 FYM 20-30 : 50 : 30-50
Flue cured (Light soils) 6-12 FYM 40 : 60 : 60 + 15 MgO, N and K
in two splits
Burly (Light soils) 10 FYM 60 : 40: 40, N in 3 splits and K in
two splits
Burly (Black soils) 15 FYM 40: 15-50 : 10-25
Natu (Rainfed) 40 kg N/ha as ground nut cake 40: 0:0
Cheroot Sheep pennings or 5-10 FYM 50: 50: 100, N in to 2 splits at 45
and 60 Days
Cigar Filler 25 FYM 75: 50: 100, N in to 2 splits at 45
and 60 DAS
Cigar Wrapper 15 FYM 125 : 112 :224
Chewing 45 FYM 112-168:0:0
Hookah and Chewing 20 FYM 112:112:0

Irrigation management
It has been observed that tobacco can not tolerate water logging at any stage of
growth but at the same time the plants may not withstand drought also. Therefore, a
compromising situation would be to give light and frequent irrigations to the crop. However,
the interval and number of irrigations depends upon soil type, weather, and type of tobacco to
be grown. The field should be irrigated when the soil moisture falls about 20 per cent field
capacity because higher soil moisture reduces the leaf quality. Usually hard water (saline)
from wells is found to give better results but it must not have more than 50 ppm of chloride,
otherwise the leaves get burnt while growing and they have poor burning quality.
The flue-cured Virginia tobacco grown on black cotton soils is very rarely irrigated
whereas the one grown on light soils is given 5 to 7 irrigations. The cigar, cheroot and
chewing tobacco in Tamil Nadu and chewing tobacco in Bihar are normally irrigated and
about 15 to 18 irrgations are given. The Bidi tobacco in Karnataka, Maharashtra and the
hookah and chewing tobaccos of West Bengal are grown rainfed but under drought one or
two irrigations are desirable for production of better crop. The hookah and chewing tobaccos
grown in U.P. are irrigated and generally 12 to 15 irrigations are given.

Weed management
Broomrape (Orobanche): Orobanche cernua is a complete root parasite affecting the
yield and quality of tobacco. The shoots emerge in clusters and their basal portion is attached
to tobacco roots through which it draws nourishment and depletes the host resulting in yield
loss of 24 to 52%. Affected plants become stunted, leaves turn pale and wilt. Initially leaf tips
droop and as the attack intensifies, all the leaves wilt. High soil moisture due to irrigation or

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rain after planting, low soil temperature during winter months encourage heavy incidence of
Orobanche. Deep ploughing twice or thrice in summer buries Orobanche seed to deeper
depth and there by helps in reducing the emergence of Orobanche. In Orobanche sick fields,
growing tobacco for one or two seasons is to be skipped off. Avoiding growing of brinjal,
tomato and bhindi crops in the sick fields. Periodical removal of Orobanche shoots before
flowering and setting of seeds reduces the menace. The Orobanche shoots should be
destroyed by burning. Growing trap crops such as jowar, blackgram and green gram in kharif
facilitates Orobanche germination but will not allow it to grow. This reduces the Orobanche
seed load in the soil. Cutting the Orobanche shoots within 3-4 days after emergence out of
the soil, before flowering of Orobanche either upto the soil level or 2-3 cm below the soil
level effectively controls Orobanche. For other weeds two interculture operations at 20 and
45 DAT gives good weed control in tobacco.

Toping: Topping consists in removal of the terminal bud with or without some of the small
top leaves just before or after the emergence of flower head in case of tobacco.
Desuckering: Removing of suckers or lateral branches by hand before they become large
enough to retard the development of leaves in tobacco.

Disease management
Damping off (Pythium Aphanidermatum): This is a fungal disease caused by the soil borne
pathogen. It is the most common and serious disease in tobacco nurseries causing death of
seedlings. Conspicuous symptom of this disease is the sudden collapse of young seedlings in
patches leading to uneven stand. High humidity, high soil moisture, cloudiness, temperature
below 24oC, continuous wet weather, location of nursery in low lying areas are the favourable
factors for high incidence of damping off disease. Deep ploughing in summer destroys the
fungus. Bordeaux mixture @ 0.4% (40 gm of copper sulphate + 40 gm of lime in 10 litres of
water) Blitox @ 0.2% (20 gm in 10 litres of water) is to be applied with rose can 2 weeks
after sowing.
Black shank and leaf blight (Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae): This is a soil borne
disease. It frequently occurs during mid nursery period causing leaf blight and blackening of
roots and stems leading to death of seedlings. Water soaked brown to black lesions appear on
the leaf. These patches enlarge and coalesce leading to wet rot of leaf tissue and midribs.
Cloudy weather, prolonged dampness and temperature below 22oC are the favourable factors
for sudden outbreak of this disease. Spraying Fytolan or Foltaf or Blitox @ 0.2%
concentration when the seedlings are 50-60 days old controls leaf blight.
Collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii): Just like damping off, sudden death of seedlings in patches is
noticed in seed beds. Blackening of the collar region, wilting and rotting of leaves are the
symptoms. Spraying 0.4% Bordeaux mixture or 0.2% Ziram or 0.2% Blitox, 3 weeks after
seed germination. This is to be sprayed twice or thrice at weekly intervals depending upon
weather conditions.

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Anthracnose (Colletotrichum tabacum): Small, light green to white water soaked lesions
develop on young leaves. These lesions enlarge in wet weather to form oily, circular spots of
3 mm diameter. The spots dry up, become papery, thin, grey white surrounded by brown
border. Affected leaves become wrinkled and distorted. Elongated, black or brown lesions on
the midrib and petiole are seen in severe cases. Optimum temperature for the occurrence of
this disease is 18oC. High relative humidity, reduced light and overcast weather are
favourable for the outbreak of this disease.
Frog-eye spot (Cercospora nicotianae): Generally this disease is seen 4-5 weeks after
germination. Brown, round spots resembling frog eye form appear on the lower leaves of the
seedlings. In severe cases coalesce to become bigger spots leading to drying up of leaves.
Frequent waterings and wet weather leading to high humidity and temperature around 27oC
are favourable for the development of the disease. Spraying with Carbendazim 50%
(Bavistin, Dhanustin, Jekestin 50 W.P. etc.) 3 gm in 10 litres of water at 30 days and 40 days
after germination controls this disease.
Tobacco Mosaic Virus (Mormor tabaci): This is a contagious disease caused by virus. The
infested leaves show characteristic mottling with light and dark green patches and seedlings
are stunted. Diseased seedlings should be removed and destroyed.

Insect management
Before sowing seed beds, Chloropyrifos 1.5% dust is mixed @ 40 gm per 10 sq. m.
bed in the top soil to prevent damage to seeds and tiny seedlings from soil pests like ants, mole
crickets etc.
Caterpillars and cutworms: Spodoptera litura F. commonly known as tobacco caterpillar is
the most important pest. The young caterpillars are light green with black head or black spots
and mine on the leaf tissues. The well grown caterpillars are grey or dark brown with `V'
shaped white mark on the front portion of the black head. They feed voraciously along the
veins of leaves and also cut the stems of small and tender seedlings. Hence they are also
known as cut worms. There will be about 80 to 100% loss due to this pest. Deep ploughing of
nursery area during April-May will facilitate the exposure of pupae to high temperature and
thus destroy them. Castor is sown around tobacco nursery 15 days before sowing of tobacco
so that the castor puts up sufficient foliage by the time Spodoptera infestation builds up. The
castor seedlings attract female moths of Spodoptera for egg laying. Chlorpyrifos 20% E.C. @
0.25% or Acephate 75% S.P. @ 0.1% should be applied to control these insects.
Stem borer: The stem borer is the larva of a tiny brown moth called Scrobipalpa
(Gnorimoschema) heliopa Low. The tiny caterpillars bore inside the stem and midribs and
feed on internal tissues. As a result swelling appears where the borer stays. It causes stunting
and unusual branching of the seedlings. Stem borer affected seedlings should be removed and
destroyed. In tobacco nurseries when stem borer is a serious problem, spraying of
chlorpyrifos 20% E.C. at 0.05% at 30 and 40 days after germination is taken up. Final spray
of one of these insecticides should be given before pulling seedlings. In planted crop above

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insecticide is sprayed twice or thrice at 10 days interval starting from 15 days after planting.
After completion of harvestings the stem borer affected plants are uprooted and burnt to
prevent carry over of the pest to the next season.
Grasshoppers: These are green or brown jumping insects. There are 3 species commonly
noticed in tobacco nurseries viz., Acrida exultata Walker, Cyrtacanthacris tartarica Linn.
and Atractomorpha crenulata F. They feed on leaves making circular holes. Cultural
practices like keeping the nursery area clean, free of weeds and grass helps to keep away the
`grass hoppers'. Spraying the surrounding vegetation with chlorpyrifos 20 E.C. at 0.05% or
dusting the area with chlorpyrifos 1.5% dust @ 40 kg/ha.
Whitefly: White flies are small fly like insects seen on the underside of leaves. They will fly
immediately when the plant is disturbed. The adult fly sucks the sap from leaves and
transmits the leaf curl virus disease from infected to healthy seedlings. Alternate weed hosts
around nursery area are removed and destroyed. Yellow-sticky traps (20 cm x 15 cm size
galvanized iron sheet painted with yellow colour coated with castor oil) are installed @ 12
per hectare. If the population of whitefly is 100 per each sticky trap, the following spray
schedule of insecticides is given at weekly interval commencing from 4 weeks after
germination: 1st spray - Imidacloprid 200 S.L. @ 0.025 %, 2nd spray - Chlorpyrifos 20% E.C. @
0.25%, 3rd spray - Thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 0.02% and 4th spray - Acephate 75% S.P. @ 0.1%.
Tobacco aphid: Aphids are louse like insects which are green or pinkish to brown in colour.
In case of heavy infestation hundreds of them can be seen on the underside of leaves. By
constantly sucking the sap from leaves they make the plant pale and retard the growth. They
secrete sugary juice known as `honey dew' on the leaves due to which sooty mould develops
rendering the leaves unfit for curing. In addition they also transmit virus diseases like rosette
or bushy top. During early winter, for control of aphids when 2% of the plants are infected,
any one of the following insecticides is sprayed once. Acephate 75 S.P. @ 0.1% or
Imidacloprid 200 SL @ 0.025% or Thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 0.02%.

Harvesting
The right stage for harvesting the crop is when the leaves are mature, i.e., when the
normal green colour changes to yellowish-green or slightly yellowish and become thick,
spotted and sticky to touch. If such leaves are bent under thumb a cracking sound is
produced. There are two methods of harvesting tobacco:
1. Priming: In tobacco, generally lower leaves mature first followed by upper ones.
Therefore, when it is essential for quality that all the leaves at harvest should be of correct
maturity, harvesting is done by removing a few leaves as and when they mature. This method
of harvesting is called priming. In this method, harvesting starts from bottom and each time
two or three leaves are harvested at weekly intervals. The entire harvest is completed in about
five to six primings. This method of harvest is followed in case of cigarette and wrapper
tobaccos. Soon after harvesting, the leaves are stung on bamboo sticks at the rate of 100
leaves per stick and loaded in the barn for curing.

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2. Stalk-cut method: Hooka, bidi, cigar, cheroot and chewing tobacco are harvested by this
method. In this method, the entire plant is cut close to the ground with sickle and left
overnight in the field for wilting. The bidi tobacco is ready for harvest when the majority of
the top leaves develop red rusty spots known as spangles. The cigar and cheroot tobaccos are
generally harvested when leaves turn yellowish-green, pucker (draw into small folds) and
become brittle which break on folding. The chewing tobacco is harvested when leaves
develop pronounced puckering. Hooka tobacco is harvested when there is indication of
yellowish-brown spots of puckering on leaves.

Curing
In the case of tobacco, unlike in other crop plants, the farmer cannot get any return by
merely producing the crop of the right type in the field. This has to be followed by successful
curing. Curing is the process by which the harvested tobacco leaf is made ready for the
market. Curing is essentially a drying process whereby most of the moisture in the harvested
leaf is removed. However, this process of drying is conducted in such a way as to produce
certain well-defined and desirable qualities in different types of tobacco. A bad leaf produced
on field cannot be improved by curing; but a good leaf can be spoiled by bad and defective
curing. The process of curing has an intimate bearing on the quality of the final produce.
During the prosess of curing, some important biochemical changes take place. The curing
operations followed in India are dependent on several factors, such as tradition, convenience,
market value of the crop, etc. Different curing methods are
Air: Air-cured tobacco is hung in well-ventilated barns and allowed to dry over a period of
four to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the tobacco smoke a light,
sweet flavor and high nicotine content. Cigar and burley tobaccos are air cured. There are two
stages of air curing. a.Yellowing of leaves, b. Development of brown colour.
As such this method has very little value for curing a high grade tobacco as the leaves
give up their moisture slowly and turn finally to a brown colour. There are three main
methods for air-curing viz, i) Ground-curing, ii) Rack-curing, iii) Pit-curing and iv) Fire-
curing. Fire is used as the source of energy in this method and the important leaf which is
cured is Jaffna tobacco (a chewing type) in Ceylon and in Tamil Nadu.
In this method the harvested leaves are wilted for few hours in the field, tied into
bundles of 3 to 4 leaves and hung on racks in a smoke-hut.
They are then smoked for 12 hours by burning coconut husk, leaf, stalks, etc. and
stocked for 3 days and again smoked.
During the smoking treatment the creosotic substances produced from the smoke are
absorbed by the tobacco that imparts a particular taste and antiseptic properties in the leaves.
The leaves are fermented into bulks for 3 to 4 weeks after smoke treatment and then treated
with salt water from the lagoons or with jaggery for a special or peculiar taste of this type.
Fire: Fire-cured tobacco is hung in large barns where fires of hardwoods are kept on
continuous or intermittent low smoulder and takes between three days and ten weeks,

95
depending on the process and the tobacco. Fire curing produces a tobacco low in sugar and
high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are fire cured.
Flue: Flue-cured tobacco was originally strung onto tobacco sticks, which were hung from
tier-poles in curing barns (Aus: kilns, also traditionally called oasts). These barns have flues
which run from externally fed fire boxes, heat-curing the tobacco without exposing it to
smoke, slowly raising the temperature over the course of the curing. The process will
generally take about a week. This method produces cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and
has medium to high levels of nicotine. The Smith Tobacco Barn is an example of traditional,
flue-cured tobacco barn. Flue-curing is an improved method of curing. The curing consists of
drying green leaves under artificial atmospheric conditions by adopting a process which does
not allow the green leaf to come in direct contact with smoke or flames of the fuel and which
permits the regulation of temperature and humidity. The main feature of flue curing is the
drying of leaf under controlled conditions, where the starch gets converted into sugars and the
green tobacco becomes bright, aromatic and fine textured.

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97
 BERSEEM

Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) is rabi season leguminous fodder crop and also
called king of the fodders. It is one of the most suitable fodder crops with irrigation facilities.
It remains soft, nutritive, palatable and succulent at all stages of growth. Berseem is
cultivated in an area of around 2 million hectares in India. The significance of this forage
species lies in the development of milk industry. It appeared to behave as a most potent milk
multiplier in the lactating cattle as compared to other forage crops alone or in combination.
Of the two Egyptian biotypes of Berseem ‘Mescavi and Fahli’ introduced in India during
1903, the former proved to be highly adaptable and productive as fodder crop for wide scale
cultivation. Most of the present day cultivars are derivative of Mescavi. The merit of these
cultivars lies in their multicut nature (4-8 cuts), long duration of fodder availability
(November to April) and very high green fodder yield (85 t/ha), better quality, high
digestibility and palatability. The phenomenal success of Berseem in India is also due to its
high nitrogen fixing ability resulting in substantial improvement in soil fertility. T.
alexandrinum, possesses moderate tolerance for salinity and can be used for the reclamation
of saline soils.
Berseem is a highly liked fodder by the animals. The fodder is rich in crude protein
20-24%, calcium 3%, phosphorus 0.4%, and digestible dry matter 65-70 percent. It can be
mixed with wheat bran to increase its palatability and contents. Paddy-Berseem crop rotation
is used in reclaiming saline soils. The last cut of the berseem is generally not taken as fodder,
but is ploughed into the soil, which acts as green manure to the soil and adds approximately
224 kg of nitrogen to the soil. Berseem can be converted into good hay during March and
April and is used after 2- 3 months when no other fodder is available for animals. Powdered
berseem hay is mixed with concentrates and is used as feed to poultry birds. Berseem clover's
greatest potential is probably as green-chopped forage or pasture.

Origin
Berseem is believed to be indigenous to Egypt. It is being cultivated in Egypt, Israel,
Syria, Persia, Cyprus, Italy, South Africa, South America, Australia, Pakistan and many other
European countries. It was introduced into India from Egypt probably in 1904. It has now
been established as one of the best rabi fodder crops in irrigated areas of Punjab, Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh and other parts of western and northern India.

Climatic requirement
Berseem requires a dry and cool climate for its normal growth. It needs mild
temperature for germination and establishment. The crop growth is very fast at 18-21 oC. Its
growth is checked during intensely cold or frosty period. Frost period during winter makes
the crop dormant and no regernation is recorded. Similarly when temperature goes around 32-
35oC regrowth after cut may not be possible. It can not be grown in damp and heavy rainfall
areas.

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Soil requirement
Berseem can grow on all types of soils except very light sandy soil. The soil should be
well drained, rich in phosphorus, calcium and potash. It does not grow well on acid soils but
grow successfully on alkaline soils having good water retaining capacity. The land should be
well leveled. It does not tolerate water logging. It grows successfully in soil with pH 7 to 8.

Crop rotation
Sometime berseem crop is grown with Chinese cabbage, oats, paddy or maize. The
intercrops grow faster than berseem and add to the first cutting in quantity of fodder
produced, subsequently berseem gives sufficient fodder to meet the requirements. Addition of
other fodder crops can also improve the quality, nutritive value and palatability of the fodder.
Berseem grows in rotation with many cereal and forage crops. The most common rotations
are (1) Maize - Berseem - Cowpea, (2) Paddy – Berseem - Cowpea, (3)Cotton - Berseem, (4)
Bajra – Berseem - Cowpea + Maize, (5) Sorghum - Berseem.

Field preparation
Plough the land 3 to 4 times with desi plough followed by one soil inversion
ploughing. One or two plankings should be done to break all the soil clods and prepare fine
compact seed bed. Remove the grass, stubbles particularly doob grass root, as they cause
difficulty later on and level the land uniformly. Small sized beds (1/10 or 1/20 of an acre) are
finally prepared with bunds before sowing for easy irrigation.

Sowing time
Sowing is to be done in the end of September to end of October by broadcasting. Care
should be taken for proper sowing time as late sowing often hampers the fodder yield because
the onset of severe and harsh winter interferes with the crop growth in early stages.

Seed rate
Seed rate of 20 -25 kg/ha is recommended. Mix 1 kg of Japani sarson / Chinese
cabbage or 25 kg of oat seed for harvesting higher quantity of fodder at first cut.

Seed treatment
Berseem seeds are sometimes mixed with weed seed i.e. Kasani seed (Cichorium
intybus). These have to be removed before sowing by putting the seeds in a bucket containing
common salt 5% solution. This makes the light kasani seeds to float on the surface and can be
removed by skimming. Farmers who grow this crop first time in their fields, which have
never been cultivated by the barseem crop before. Such fields do not contain bacteria
Rhizobium trifolli which live in nodules of berseem crop roots. To inoculate field with the
bacteria any of the two methods described here can be adopted.

99
1. Soak the seed in water for 12 hours (overnight) and spread the seed on the floor to drain
the excessive water. Meanwhile prepare the berseem-culture. This is done by mixing the
culture to 10% sterilized juggery solution, at room temperature. Mixed the wet seed with
berseem-culture-solution thoroughly and let it dry under shade for atleast one hour before
sowing.
2. In case the berseem-culture is not available in the market the farmer can spread 50 kg of
soil from the field in which barseem has been successfully cultivated during previous year, in
his own field before sowing.

Method of sowing
Berseem seed can be sown in anyone of the two methods described below:
1. Seed is broadcasted uniformly over the field with good moisture content and is mixed with
soil by pulling tinned bar-harrow over the field. Irrigation is applied only after proper
germination has been observed.
2. Field is watered and seed is broadcasted in the standing puddled water. The soil particles
suspended in water cover the seeds on settling. This method generally gives good
germination and requires delayed irrigation. The broadcasting of FYM or ash after seeding
also gives good germination.

Varieties
Varieties released Area of adaptation GFY (t/ha)
Mescavi Northern and Central India 80-90
Wardan All India 90-150
BL-1 Punjab and H.P. 100-120
BL-10 Punjab, Haryana and H.P. 110-115
BL-22 Temperate zone of India 90-100
JB-2 Northern and Central India 90-100
Bundel Berseem –2 (JHB 146) North West and Central zone 58-85
UPB-110 Southern zone 50-65
BL-2 Northern India 65-90
Bundel Berseem –3 (JHTB 96-4) North eastern Zone 60-70
UPB-103 Northern, Central and part of South India 100-115

Haryana
1. Mescavi: Tillering is fast and provides 5-6 cuttings. The leaves of this variety are medium
in size and no cuts on the margins. Green fodder yield is 750 – 850 q/ha. The seeds of this
variety are medium in size and having yellowish appearance and are shinning. It gives an
additional seed yield of 4.5 – 5.5 q/ha.

100
2. Hisar Berseem 1: It is a new variety and recommended for cultivation in Haryana state. It
is fast growing, have more number of leaves, better quality and remains 8-10 days more
green than Mescavi. Green fodder yield is 700 – 750 q/ha. It is resistant to stem and root rot.
3. Hisar Berseem 2: It is recommended for cultivation in Haryana state. It is fast growing,
have more number of leaves, better quality and remains 8-10 days more green than Hisar
Berseem 1. Green fodder yield is 700 – 750 q/ha. It is resistant to stem and root rot.

Fertilizer management
The crop must be fertilized with 20 kg N + 70 kg P2O5 /ha before sowing of crop. If
the crop is new to the field seed treatment be done with Rhizobium culture. If oat seed is
mixed with berseem, then an additional dose of nitrogen @ 40 kg/ha should also be added.

Irrigation management
The first irrigation is very crucial and it must be applied after 3-5 days of sowing in
light soils whereas in heavy soils it can be delayed to 8-10 days. Later on irrigate the crop at
15-20 days interval depending upon the climatic conditions. During cold season it requires
less irrigation, while in hot seasons it requires more irrigation. Irrigation after each cutting is
also beneficial for regeneration.

Weed Management
The crop is infested by a number of weeds like Asphodelus, Chenopodium,
Convolvulus and Chichorium. The berseem crop is thickly populated crop so weeding is a
very difficult process. The weeds also serve as fodder and do not make it necessary to pull
them \out, but some weeds like Cichorium has low content of protein, silica and crude fibre.
as per requirement. The crop usually matures in third week of April.

Diseases management
Diseases Causal organism Symptom Control
Stem rot Sclerectonia Collar region becomes Avoid excessive irrigation. Spray
trifoliorum necrotic with depressed 0.1% solution of Bavistine twice
lesions. Stems are during January and February at
girdled at the collar 15-20 days interval.Select disease
region resistant variety HB 1.
Root rot Rhizoctonia solani, Sudden complete wilting Crop sanitation Resistant
Fusarium of plant within a day. varieties Seed treatment with
semitactatum The affected plant can Thiram, Bavistine and
easily be pulled out Carbofuran @ 2.5g/kg

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Insect management
Pests Symptom Control
Black ants They remove the germinating seeds Apply Methyl Parathian 2% dust
White grass It damages the crop in the month of Spray malathion @1 lt/ha in 750 lts of
hopper April. During this time more than water.
90% insect comes from the other If the crop is sown for seed purpose than
crops and damages the crop. apply 2% Methyl Parathian dust @ 25
kg/ha.

Cutting management
The crop can be harvested in 55-60 days after sowing and subsequent cuts can be taken
after every 30 – 40 days. In all 4-6 cuts are taken with a production of about 750-825 q/ha.

Seed production
For seed production the last cut is to taken in the first week of March in low moist
areas whereas in moist areas in the last week of March. If weeds are present than remove
these to avoid contamination specially the kasni weeds. Irrigate the field after 1st cut and
given irrigation at 15 days interval. Seeds will mature in the month of May and 4.5 – 5.5 q /ha
seed can be harvested. Irrigation should be given to the crop as per requirement depending on
soil and climatic conditions. The cutting schedule can also be adjusted in such a way so as to
harvest green fodder everyday.

Toxicity
A substance known as ‘astrogenons' is present in berseem, the excess of which makes
the animal sick and causes bloat disease. The bad effect of this substance is reduced if the
fodder is sprayed with linseed or mustard oil. Mixing of dry fodder which contains more fiber
like wheat straw also reduces the problem of bloating.

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 LUCERNE

Lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), known as ‘rijka’ in northern India, is a perennial

leguminous crop which provide green fodder continuously for 3-4 years from the same
sowing. It is generally raised in areas where water supply is inadequate for berseem. Being a
deep rooted crop, it extracts water from the deeper zone of the soil. It can be raised both as
rainfed or irrigated crop. Generally grown in areas where water supply is inadequate for
berseem. Lucerne is relished by all kinds of livestock, because it yields nutritious and
palatable green fodder. It is very much liked by the draft animals like horses, which possesses
about 20% crude protein with 72% digestibilty and 25% fibre. It’s green fodder contains
1.5% calcium, 0.2% phosphorous and a considerable amount of vitamin A, B and D. It can
also be easily converted into silage and hay. Lucerne supplies green fodder for a longer
period (November-June) in comparison to berseem (December-April). Excessive feeding
causes “bloat” in cattle.

Origin
Lucerne is one of the oldest cultivated fodder crops in the world. It was known to
Greeks and Romans in about 470 BC. It is generally believed that lucerne originated in south-
west Asia. It was first cultivated in Persia (Iran), the name alfalfa being an Arabic word.
From Iran it was taken to Greece in about 500 BC and from there it spread to Italy. The
Spainards introduced it to America. Lucerne was introduced in India from north-west
sometime in 1900.

Area and production

Lucerne is grown world-wide on 35 mha out of which 8.8 m ha is in USA alone.
Besides USA, India, Australia, New Zealand, France, Italy and Russia are other important
countries producing Lucerne. In India, lucerne is cultivated in about 1 m ha mostly in
irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

Climatic requirement
Lucerne is a widely adopted crop. It is cultivated in temperate to tropical regions of
world. It thrives best under warm, dry and sunny conditions. High temperature with high
humidity is not good for crop. Its plants can withstand fairly low temperature.

Soil requirement
Lucerne can be raised on a wide range of soils. However, well drained fertile soils
with neutral pH are ideal. It is very susceptible to acidic soil, therefore, it cannot be grown in
soil with pH below 6.5 unless lime is applied

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Crop rotation
It is usually raised after harvest of kharif crops, such as sorghum, paddy, soybean,
maize, cowpea, clusterbean etc. It can be raised in rotation with almost every grain or forage
crop. The most common crop rotations adopted in north India are: Maize – lucerne,
Pearlmillet – lucerne, Paddy-lucerne, Soyabean-lucerne, Sorghum-lucerne, Cowpea+ maize
(fodder)-lucerne, Sorghum (grain)-lucerne-maize (fodder). It can be intercropped with Napier
grass also.

Field preparation
Lucerne requires a fine seed bed. There should not be left over residue of the previous
crop. The field must be ploughed 2-3 times with harrow before pre sowing irrigation. A
leveled field is required.

Sowing time
Best sowing time is last week of October to the first week of November.

Seed rate
A seed rate of 10-12 kg/ha is required.

Method of sowing
Seeding should be done in rows 30 cm apart at a depth of 4-5 cm in well moist soil.
Because of their hard seed coat, seed should be soaked overnight in water before seeding.
Like berseem, it must be inoculated with rhizobium culture (Rhizobium meliloti), if the
seeding is going to done for the first time in any field.

Varieties
Type-9: It is a quick growing variety attaining plant height of one meter at early flowering
stage. It has green foliage, slender stalks and purple coloured flowers. It gives on an average
400-600 q green fodder/ha. It contains on an average 22% crude protein on dry weight basis.
Once planted can provide green fodder for 4-5 years.
The other varieties are: Anand 2, Anand 3, NDRI selection No.1, IGFRI-S-54, IGFRI-
S-244 etc. recommended for different areas.

Fertilizer requirement
Basal dressing of 25 kg N and 100 kg P2O5/ha is required at sowing. The fertilizer
must be drilled at a depth of 10 cm. Later on 125 kg P2O5/ha must be applied in the month of
November in the succeeding years.

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Irrigation management
First irrigation should be applied about a month after sowing. The subsequent
irrigations may be given at an interval of 10-15 days during summer, 15-20 days during
autumn and 20-25 days interval during winter season. During rainy season water should not
be allowed to stagnate.

Weed management
Lucerne takes a long time to establish itself and gives ample scope for weed
infestation up to the first cutting. It is very difficult to control weeds in broadcast crop. If crop
is sown in lines, weeding and hoeing become easier. First weeding should be done 20-25
days after sowing. Pendimethalin 1-2 kg /ha (pre-emergence) or diquat @ 6-10 kg/ha 5-10
days after sowing effectively controls Cuscuta. ‘T 9’ cultivar is found highly susceptible to
this weed. Pre-sowing application of diuron @ 2.0 kg/ha or fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha controls
the weeds in lucerne crop.

Diseases management
Downey mildew: It appears generally in the month of January. Leaves become light green
with light brown growth of fungus on the lower side. Stem becomes short and rolling of
leaves may take place. Continue cutting and it will be removed in the next cutting with the
increase in temperature.
Rust: The disease appears on small brown spots that are toothed at the outer margins with a
black/brown colour at the centre. Rust pustules cause severe yield reduction. It is more
prevalent in the 2nd fortnight of March with the increase in temperature to 30oC temperature.
Small, round or oval shaped raised lesions which rupture with the touch give rise to brown
powder. In severe conditions falling of leaves takes place. For control, spray Dithane M 45 @
0.25% and repeat after 20 days if required.
Leaf spot (Pseudopexia medicagenis): It is an air borne common disease of lucerne severe in
north and central India. Diseased plant turns yellow and leaves drop off. Early cut can cure
the crop to some extent. Dithane M-45 @ 0.2% or 0.1% Chlorothalonil is effective for its
control.

Seed production
Good quality seed can be obtained from 1-2 year old crop. If the crop is sown for
taking seed than last cut must be taken in the Ist week of March. For seed, crop must be
planted at 45-60 cm row spacing. The harvesting of seed crop is generally done in the end of
May or early June. On an average 200-250 kg/ha seed can be harvested. The crop must be
irrigated at the time of flowering.

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 OAT

Oat (Avena sativa L.) which is also known as jai, is a most important cereal fodder
crop of winter season. The green plant is good forage and makes good hay and silage. The
straw is useful roughage. Grains are used as concentrate for poultry, cattle, sheep and other
animals.The grain is an important livestock feed and the unhulled, crushed fruit is the usual
form in which it is fed to ruminants and horses. Oat forage, hay, straw and grain are
renowned horse fodder. Green fodder contains about 10-12% protein and 30-35% dry matter.
It is fed to animals mixed with berseem or lucerne green fodder.
Oats grain is used widely for human consumption. The oat grain contains 66%
Carbohydrate, 11% dietary fiber, 7% fat and 17% protein. While oats are still widely used for
breakfast cereals. Oats have numerous uses in food; most commonly, they are rolled or
crushed into oatmeal, or ground into fine oat flour. Oatmeal is chiefly eaten as porridge, but
may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes, oatmeal cookies, and oat
bread. Oat straw is used as beeding material for cattles, due to its soft, relatively dust-free,
and absorbent nature. Oat grass has been used traditionally for medicinal purposes, including
to balance the menstrual cycle, treat dysmenorrhea and for osteoporosis and urinary tract
infections. The cholesterol-lowering properties has led to wider appreciation of oats as human food.

Origin
Oats are a crop of Mediterranean origin, the domestication dates back to ancient
times. Oat seeds are reportedly found in 4000 year old remains in Egypt.

Area and Production

Oats are presently grown in temperate parts of the world including USA, Canada,
Europe etc. as spring-sown cultivars. In the tropical countries and higher altitude region it is
grown as a winter annual. World oat production is generally concentrated between latitudes
35-65o N and 20-46o S. Oat rank around sixth in world cereal production statistics following
wheat, maize, rice, barley and sorghum. In India it is grown in Punjab, Haryana, Jammu &
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharastra and
Bengal. Oats crop is a heavy yielder and the average yield varies from 45 to 55 ton of green
fodder per hectare.

Climatic requirement
Oat can be grown successfully for fodder purpose during rabi season under both
irrigated and rainfed conditions. It requires a cool temperature during germination, tillering
and booting. High temperature at blooming increases the proportion of empty spilkelets. The
crop can be grown at temperatures varying between 50 to 300C. However optimum
temperature required is 250C. Oats can be grown in areas where the annual rainfall ranges
from 40-110 cm. Oats flourish in cool and moist climates. At low temperature its germination
is delayed, while grain production is hampered by hot and dry weather, especially from
heading to grain filling period.
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Soil requirement
Oats can be grown on variety of soils. Almost any reasonable fertile, well-drained soil
is suited if temperature and moisture conditions are favorable. Oat has been shown to tolerate
acid soils with a pH of 4.5 but soil pH up to 5.3-5.7 range for higher yields and is also fairly
tolerant to salt conditions. It can be grown on all types of soils except the alkaline and water
logged ones. Oats generally make their best growth on loam soils, but produce satisfactory
yield on heavy or light soil.

Method of sowing, Seed rate and Time of sowing

It is recommended to take 75 kg/ha seed for small seeded varieties, while for bold
seeded varieties the seed rate is 100 kg/ha. It can be planted with kera or pora method
depending upon the moisture availability. It is always better to sow the crop with seed cum
fertilizer drill by maintaining row to row distance of 25 cm. The optimum sowing time is mid
October to mid November.

Varieties
Variety Optimum Time of Recommendation and characteristics Forage
sowing time harvest yield
(q/ha)
Haryana Multi cut- Feb.-March It is suitable for all districts of Haryana. It 550
Javi October is erect and tall growing. It has good
(HFO- Single cut- regeneration and is specially suited for
114) November multi-cut. Its seed size is very bold.
OS-6 November Feb.-March It is suitable for all the oat growing 575
regions of the country. It grows erect with
more early vigour. Leaves are relatively
broad and green in colour. Flag leaf
remains erect at the time of emergence of
panicle.
OS-7 November Feb.-March It is suitable for all districts of Haryana. It 590
grows erect with more early vigour.
Leaves are relatively broad and light green
in colour. Flag leaf remains erect at the
time of emergence of panicle.
Haryana Multi cut- Ist cut 60-65 Recommended for whole Haryana. 650
Javi 8 Mid.October DAS and Regenerates fast after Ist cut. Its leaves are
Single cut- IInd cut in green and broad. Grains are medium bold.
November- Feb. March

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 In addition to these the recommended varieties at national level are as follows.
Varieties released Area of adaptation GFY (t/ha)
Kent Whole of India 45-50
OS-6 Whole of India 40-50
UPO-212 Whole of India 37-52
OL-125 Whole of India 35-48
UPO-94 Whole of India (Multicut) 45-50
OL-9 Northern and North-Western India 45-55
JHO-810 Kashmir valley 50-60
JHO-822 Central India (Multicut) 45-55
JHO-851 Whole of India (Multicut) 50-55
JHO 99-2 NE and NW India 50-55
Fertilizer requirement
Seeds must be treated with azotobacter. Apply 40 kg N/ha at sowing and 40 kg N/ha
at first irrigation. For multicut varieties 40 kg N/ha should also be applied after each cut.

Irrigation management
In general 3-4 irrigations are required. Irrigation should be applied at one month interval.
Irrigation is essential after each cutting in order to promote the regeneration of the plants.

Weed management
The vigorous growth habit of oats smothers the most of weeds. A few tall broadleaf
weeds, such as ragweed, goosegrass, wild mustard and buttonweed (velvetleaf) can
occasionally be a problem, as they complicate harvest and reduce yields. These can be
controlled with a modest application of a broadleaf herbicide, such as 2,4-D sodium salt @ 1
kg/ha spray in 500 liter water at 35 DAS.

Disease and pest management

Diseases/ Causal organism Symptoms Control
Insects
pests
Covered Ustilago kolleri Grains in ear of affected plants Seed treatment with
smut replaced by black mass of smut Emissan @ 2.5g/kg seed
spores.
Loose smut Ustlago avenae Grains transformed into black Seed treatment with
powdery mass of smut sori. Vitavex or bavistin @
2g/kg seed
Aphid Rhapalosiphum Leaves, leaf sheath and Spray of plain water @ 400
maidis inflorescence are covered with l/ha Application of
dark green aphid colonies with malathion or endosulfan @
a slight white covering. 0.05% in the patches of
Mottling and distortion of leaf aphid colony.
may occur.

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