Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

Secondary chord forces also develop at the 𝑻𝑻𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖

corners of the opening due to the negative
moments that occur at these locations. For the 𝑻𝑻𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖

ℓ�
diaphragm in Figure 6.15, the tension chord 𝑪𝑪𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖
force that occurs along the bottom edge of the
opening (that is, at the top of the bottom sub- ③
① ②

ℓ����
𝐿

𝐿𝐿
diaphragm) can be determined by the following
equation (see Figure 6.16):
𝑻𝑻𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖

ℓ�
𝑪𝑪𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖
(6.21)
𝑪𝑪𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖
𝑏𝑏� 𝑏𝑏�
where it has been assumed that 𝑏𝑏�
. The required chord reinforce-
ment along this edge is equal to
. Reinforcing bars must be provided
along the entire face of the opening and must Moment
be developed into the slab.

Because wind and seismic forces can act in

any direction, the tension and compression
edges of the diaphragm and opening also are
compression and tension edges. The larger
area of reinforcement determined from both
analyses (or from analyses where interaction of
orthogonal load effects must be considered) is
provided along the edges of the diaphragm and
opening for simpler detailing. 𝑀𝑀�𝒖��� 𝑀𝑀�

The requirements in ACI 8.5.4 must be satis- Figure 6.17 Determination of Chord Forces in a Diaphragm with an
fied in any slab system with openings, regard- Opening
less of the size of the opening.

Collector Forces, Transfer Forces, and Direction of Loading Requirements

The methods to determine collector forces and transfer forces given in Section 6.4.2 for the equivalent beam model with rigid
supports can be used in the corrected equivalent beam model with spring supports. Similarly, the direction of loading require-
ments in Section 6.4.2 must also be satisfied.

6.5 Strut-and-Tie Models

ACI 12.4.2.4(e) permits the use of strut-and-tie models that satisfy the general requirements of ACI 23.2 to determine in-plane
design forces in diaphragms. ACI R12.4.2.4 points out the importance of considering force reversals in the model, which could
occur under design load combinations. Reference 7 provides a general discussion on how strut-and-tie models can be used to
understand reinforcement layouts in diaphragms with significant openings.

Numerous resources are available that cover the basics of strut-and-tie modeling. As such, a discussion on this model is not
provided here.

6.6 Finite Element Models

As noted previously, finite element modeling is usually the most accurate way to determine in-plane design forces in diaphragms
and collectors. Such models are especially useful when the diaphragm has an irregular shape, is subjected to large transfer
forces, or has large openings or other types of irregularities.

The acceptability requirements in ACI 6.9 must be satisfied when constructing a finite element model for diaphragms. Reference
7 recommends using a finite element mesh no larger than one-fifth to one-third of the bay length or wall length. As noted above,
a finer mesh may be beneficial in certain cases, especially where section cuts are made through the diaphragm to determine
shear distribution. To account for cracking, a stiffness modifier should be applied to the gross in-plane stiffness of a diaphragm.
Recommendations for such modifiers are given in Section 6.2 of this publication.

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Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

6.7 Alternative Models

ACI 12.5.1.3(e) permits reinforced concrete diaphragms to be analyzed by any method other than those described above provid-
ed that equilibrium is satisfied and design strengths are obtained that are at least equal to the required strengths for all structural
elements in the load path. Several alternative methods can be found in Reference 7.

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 Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

Chapter 7
Design Strength
7.1 Overview
Basic performance requirements that must be satisfied for all reinforced concrete structural members and systems, including
diaphragms and collectors, are given in ACI Chapter 4. The general requirement for strength design is the following (ACI 4.6.2):

Design strength ≥ Required Strength (7.1)

or

(7.2)

The design strength of a member is equal to the strength reduction factor, , times the nominal strength of the member,
(ACI 4.6.1). Strength reduction factors and nominal strengths that are applicable to the design of diaphragms and collectors are
included in this chapter. The information needed to determine required strength, , is given in Chapters 3 through 6 of this
publication.

7.2 Strength Reduction Factors

Strength reduction factors, which are commonly referred to as resistance factors or -factors, play a key role in the determina-
tion of the design strength of a reinforced concrete member.

According to ACI 12.5.1.2, strength reduction factors to be used in the design of diaphragms and collectors must be determined
in accordance with ACI 21.2. A summary of pertinent strength reduction factors is given in Table 7.1.

The quantities and in Table 7.1 are the net tensile strain in the extreme layer of longitudinal tension reinforcement at
nominal strength and the net tensile strain in the longitudinal tension reinforcement used to define a compression-controlled
section, respectively.

For buildings where special moment frames, special structural walls, or both are used as the seismic force-resisting system
(SFRS), the strength reduction factor for shear in diaphragms is equal to 0.60 where the nominal shear strength of the dia-
phragm is less than the shear corresponding to the development of the nominal moment strength of the diaphragm (ACI
21.2.4.1). Also, the strength reduction factor for diaphragm shear must not exceed the least value of used in the shear design
of the vertical elements of the SFRS (ACI 21.2.4.2).

Table 7.1 ACI 318 Strength Reduction Factors for Diaphragms and Collectors

Action, Structural Element, or Net Tensile Strain, εt Strength Reduction Factor, φ

Tension-controlled sections 0.90

Members with spiral reinforcement conforming to ACI 25.7.3

Transition(1)
Other

Members with spiral reinforcement conforming to ACI 25.7.3 0.75

Compression-controlled sections

Other 0.65

Shear(2) 0.75
(1) For sections classified as transition, it is permitted to use a strength reduction factor corresponding to compression-controlled sections.
(2) A strength reduction for shear equal to 0.60 must be used when the provisions of ACI 21.2.4.1 are applicable. See also the requirements of ACI 21.2.4.2.

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Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

7.3 Nominal Strength

7.3.1 Overview Table 7.2 Design Strength Requirements for Diaphragms
The design strength of a diaphragm depends on the type of Model ACI Reference
model that is used to determine the internal force distribution
(see Sections 6.4 through 6.7 of this publication for permitted Beam Sections 12.5.2 through 12.5.4
analysis models). Design strength requirements based on Strut-and-tie Section 23.3
the model type are given in ACI 12.5.1.3 (see Table 7.2). The
requirements in ACI 12.5.2 through 12.5.4 for diaphragms Finite element Chapter 22
modeled as beams are given in the following sections. Alternative Section 12.5.1.3(d)

7.3.2 Moment and Axial Force

ACI 12.5.2 permits a diaphragm that has been modeled as a beam to be designed for in-plane moment and axial force using the
assumptions in ACI 22.3 (flexural strength) and 22.4 (axial strength or combined flexural and axial strength), which are the same
assumptions used in the design of reinforced concrete beams, columns, and walls. This includes the assumption that strains
vary linearly over the depth of the diaphragm when it is subjected to in-plane forces. Diaphragms in buildings assigned to SDC
D, E, or F must also be designed for flexure using the requirements in ACI Chapter 12 (ACI 18.12.8.1).

7.3.3 Shear
The design strength provisions for in-plane shear given in ACI 12.5.3 are based on the assumption that shear flow is approxi-
mately uniform over the depth of the diaphragm (see Section 6.4 and Figure 6.7).

Nominal shear strength, , for cast-in-place reinforced concrete diaphragms in buildings assigned to SDC A through C is deter-
mined by ACI Equation (12.5.3.3):

(7.3)

where gross area of the diaphragm (diaphragm thickness times width in the direction of analysis)
modification factor that accounts for the reduced mechanical properties of lightweight concrete
ratio of distributed slab transverse reinforcement to gross concrete area

The transverse reinforcement ratio, , is determined using the slab reinforcement that is parallel to the in-plane shear force.
When calculating by Equation (7.3), it is conservative to check the design shear strength requirements assuming that is
equal to zero. Also, in this equation is limited to 100 psi (ACI 12.5.3.4).

The nominal shear strength, , cannot exceed the maximum nominal shear strength, , determined by ACI Equation
(12.5.3.4):

(7.4)

Nominal and maximum shear strengths per unit length for various diaphragm thicknesses assuming normalweight concrete with
equal to 4,000 psi and 5,000 psi and with are given in Table 7.3.

Nominal and maximum shear strength requirements for diaphragms in buildings assigned to SDC D through F are given in ACI
18.12.9.1 and 18.12.9.2, respectively, and are the same as those discussed above for buildings assigned to SDC A through C.

Shear strength requirements must also be checked around any openings in a diaphragm. Even though the shear force at the
edge of an opening may be smaller than that at other locations within the diaphragm, the length of the opening must be de-
ducted from the overall depth of the diaphragm, which means and, thus, are smaller at that location. Consider the dia-
phragm in Figure 6.13, which contains a relatively large opening. The factored shear force along the interior edge of the opening
is much smaller than the maximum factored shear force at wall 2, but the depth of the diaphragm that is available to resist this
force is equal to minus the length of the opening in the direction of analysis, . Thus, along this edge, the nominal shear
strength of the diaphragm is equal to the following:

(7.5)

where is the thickness of the diaphragm.

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