AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

What are the different ferrous materials used on aircraft?

1. PROPERTIES OF METALS 
2. METAL WORKING PROCESSES
3. NON-FERROUS METALS
4. HEAT TREATMENT
5. STRAIN HARDENING
6. FERROUS METALS

WHERE IS IT USED
1. AIRCRAFT RIVETS
2. SPECIAL RIVETS
3. MECHANICAL LOCK RIVETS
4. SPECIAL FASTENERS
5. THREADED RIVNUTS
6. THREADED FASTENERS

HOW TO INSTALL
1. THREADED FASTENERS
2. DESIGNATION CODE
3. BOLT SELECTION
4. AIRCRAFT NUTS
5. AIRCRAFT SCREWS
6. AIRCRAFT PINS

PROPERTIES OF METALS
SIGNIFICANCE OF KNOWING THE PROPERTIES OF METALS
Knowing the properties of metals is essential for aircraft
mechanics/technicians for them to know where does each material is best
suitable for its specific use. If it can withstand specific type of stresses and
prevent damage and any accident.

MAIN PROPERTIES
STRENGTH
One way to classify metals is according to the amount of strength they
possess. A metal's strength is determined by the percentage of parent metal
and other elements used to make an alloy

A Parent Metal on alloy is the metallic element present in the largest amount
by weight.
An Alloy is when two or more kind of metals bond together and form another
metal but by not changing its metallic properties and to only make it more
stronger

One way to classify metals is according to the amount of strength they

possess. A metal's strength is determined by the percentage of parent metal
and other elements used to make an alloy

In short: A metal’s strength depends on the strength properties of its parent

metal.

STRENGTH
TENSILE STRENGTH
When a piece of sheet metal is pulled from each end, the resultant force is
called tension. The ability to withstand tension is called tensile strength, and
is measured in pounds per square inch

YIELD STRENGTH
The ability of a metal to resist deformation is called its yield strength. For
example, when a tensile load is applied to a material, the material resists any
deformation until its yield point is reached. However, once the yield point is
reached the metal stretches without an increase in the applied stress.
Furthermore, as the metal stretches, the molecular structure changes enough
to increase the metal's strength and, therefore, resist further deformation. This
continues until the ultimate load is reached, at which time the material breaks.

YIELD STRENGTH
The ability of a metal to resist deformation is called its yield strength. For
example, when a tensile load is applied to a material, the material resists any
deformation until its yield point is reached. However, once the yield point is
reached the metal stretches without an increase in the applied stress.
Furthermore, as the metal stretches, the molecular structure changes enough
to increase the metal's strength and, therefore, resist further deformation. This
continues until the ultimate load is reached, at which time the material breaks.

THE HIGHER THE YIELD STRENGTH

THE LOWER THE TENDENCY THE METAL COULD RESIST
DEFORMATION
THE LOWER THE YIELD STRENGTH
THE HIGHER THE TENDENCY THE METAL COULD BE DEFORMED

SHEAR STRENGTH
Shear strength describes a metal's ability to resist opposing forces. A rivet
holding two or more sheets of metal together resisting the force of the sheets 
trying to slide apart is an example of a shear load. When the rivets installed in
a joint have more strength than the metal in the surrounding joint, the joint is
said to be loaded in shear.
THE ABILITY OF A METAL TO RESIST SHEAR STRESS

BEARING STRENGTH
Bearing strength is the ability of a joint to withstand any form of crushing or
excessive compressive   distortion. Material under a compression load usually
fails by buckling or bending. The force at which something buckles while being
compressed varies with an object's length, cross-sectional area, and shape.
THE ABILITY OF A METAL TO RESIST COMPRESSION

TENSILE STRENGTH
ABILITY OF A METAL TO WITHSTAND TENSION
YIELD STRENGTH
ABILITY OF A METAL TO WITHSTAND DEFORMATION
BEARING STRENGTH
ABILITY OF A METAL TO WITHSTAND COMPRESSION
SHEAR STRENGTH
ABILITY OF A METAL TO WITHSTAND SHEAR STRESS

HARDNESS
A metal's hardness refers to its ability to resist  cutting, penetration, or
abrasion. The tensile strength of steel relates directly to its hardness, but for
most metals this relationship is not absolute. Some  metals are hardened
through heat-treating or work-hardening, while others are softened by a
process called annealing.
HEAT-TREATING
Heat treatment is the process of heating metal without letting it reach its
molten, or melting stage, and then cooling the metal in a controlled way to
select desired mechanical properties.
The measurable properties that allow a metal to resist external forces without
failing
For example:
Metal A can resist 60N, this means that beyond 60N of impact force, Metal A
will fail or break.

Carbon Steel
Melting point: 1450 degree Celsius
Temperature when heat treated: 750 degrees Celsius
WORK-HARDENING
This is the process of making a metal harder and stronger through plastic
deformation
Plastic deformation is the permanent distortion that occurs when a material
is subjected to tensile, compressive, bending, or torsion stresses that exceed
its yield strength and cause it to elongate, compress, buckle, bend, or twist.

ANNEALING
Is heating and cooling a material, such as steel. This is to soften and make the
metal less brittle.
MALLEABILITY
A material's ability to be bent, formed, or shaped without cracking or breaking
is called malleability. Hardness and malleability are generally considered
opposite characteristics. To help increase  malleability, several metals are
annealed, or softened. In this condition complex shapes can be formed. After
forming is complete, the metal is then heat treated to increase its strength. A
metal may be fully annealed when the forming is started, but hammering and
shaping can harden it to such an extent that it must be re-annealed before
forming is completed

IF THE METAL IS NOT YET MALLEABLE

IT WILL BE ANNEALED
THE ANNEALED METAL IS NOW MALLEABLE AND CAN NOW BE
FORMED INTO A DIFFERENT SHAPE
TO INCREASE THE STRENGTH OF THE NEWLY FORMED METAL
THE METAL WILL BE HEAT TREATED
TAKE NOTE THAT ANNEALING IS DIFFERENT FROM HEAT TREATING
ANNEALING TEMP
350 degrees Celsius
HEAT TREATING TEMP
750 degrees Celsius
DUCTILITY
The ability of metal to be drawn into wire stock, extrusions, or rods is
called ductility. Ductile metals are preferred for aircraft use because of their
ease of forming and resistance to failure under shock loads. For this reason,
aluminum alloys are often used for cowlings, fuselage and wing skins, and
formed or extruded parts such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads.

NOTE: Don’t be confused between Malleability and Ductility.

Malleability and ductility are related but are different from each other. A
malleable material is one in which a thin sheet can be easily formed by
hammering or rolling. In other words, the material has the ability to deform
under compressive stress.
In contrast, ductility is the ability of a solid material to deform under tensile
stress. Practically, a ductile material is a material that can easily be stretched
into a wire when pulled as shown in the figure below. Recall pulling is applying
tensile stress.

MALLEABILITY
Ability of a metal to be shaped via COMPRESSION (hammering or rolling)
DUCTILITY
Ability of a metal to be shaped via TENSION (drawing or extrusion)

BRITTLENESS
Brittleness describes a material's tendency to break or shatter when exposed
to stress, and is the  opposite of ductility and malleability. A brittle metal is
more apt to break or crack before it changes shape. Because structural metals
are often subjected to shock loads, brittleness is not a desirable property. Cast
iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel are examples of brittle metals.
Brittle metals will break when subjected to shock loads.
Brittle steels tend to have a higher surface hardness, so they are better for
applications where you will have moving parts rubbing against one another;
the steel will experience less wear overtime.
That is why reciprocating engines are made up of casted steel or aluminum
because of its high surface hardness that can resist more abrasion created by
the pistons rubbing against the cylinder walls

CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity is the property which enables a metal to carry heat or electricity.
If a metal is able to  transmit heat it is said to be thermally conductive.
However, before a metal can carry heat away from its source, it must first
absorb it. This ability to conduct heat away is called heat exchange. The fins
on the cylinder heads of an air cooled piston engine remove heat in this
fashion.
Thermal Conductivity is the ability of a material to transfer heat. Metals usually
has high thermal conductivity that allows metal to transfer heat much more
faster than plastic or rubbers.
Heat exchange is different from heat transfer. Heat exchange is metal’s ability
to dissipate or remove heat. Like how fast a metal can cool down when it is air
cooled.

Metals that can carry heat also carry electrons, making them good electrical
conductors. Electrical  conductivity is the measure of a material's ability to
allow electron flow. A metal conductor can be a wire, an aircraft frame, or an
engine. If you recall from your study of electricity, electrons flow much easier
in some metals than they do in others. Because of their molecular structures,
the best electrical conductors are gold, silver, copper, and aluminum.

THERMAL EXPANSION
The property of a metal to expand when heated and shrink when cooled is
called thermal expansion. The amount of expansion or contraction is    pre-
dictable at specific temperatures and is called its coefficient of expansion.
All aircraft experience thermal expansion and contraction as the ambient
temperature changes.
Heated = Expand
Cooled = Shrink
ELASTICITY
Elasticity describes a metal's tendency to return to its original shape after
normal stretching and  bending. The flexibility of spring steel used for the con-
struction of landing gear is a good example of elasticity. Another form of
elasticity is demonstrated when aircraft skins expand and contract when an
aircraft is pressurized.
As altitude increases, air pressure outside the aircraft decreases, requiring
aircrafts that fly in higher altitudes to be pressurised in order for oxygen to be
consumed properly by the passengers and flight crew.

This increase in cabin pressure makes the aircraft structure expand

A metal's elastic limit is the point beyond which the metal does not return to
its original shape after a deforming force is removed. Soft materials such as
lead, copper, and pure aluminum have very low elastic limits, while the elastic
limit of hard spring steel is very high.
`ELASTIC DEFORMATION

TOUGHNESS
Toughness is a material's ability to resist tearing or breaking when it is bent or
stretched. Hammer faces and wrenches are examples of metal that must be
tough as well as hard to be useful.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TOUGHNESS, HARDNESS AND STRENGTH

How much force it needs to be applied before the material
STRENGTH deforms

HARDNESS How a material hold together when friction is applied

TOUGHNES How a material can resist breaking/fracturing when force

S is applied

FUSIBILITY
The ability of metal to be joined by heating and melting is defined as fusibility.
To fuse metal means to melt two or more compatible pieces of metal into one
continuous part. The correct term is called fusion joining or welding.

Fusible alloys are metal alloys that melt at low temperatures, usually below
300º F or 150° C.
DENSITY
Density is a material's mass per unit volume, and throughout this section the
term is used to compare the weights of various metals. The standard from
which a metal's density is determined is water. For example, one cubic
centimeter of pure water weighs one gram and, therefore, has a density of
one. Aluminum has a density of 2.7; therefore, a cubic centimeter weighs 2.7
grams. In the English system, a cubic inch of pure water weighs 0.03611
pound, and aluminum with its density of 2.7 weighs 2.7 times this amount, or
0.0975 pound