Table 2.

3: The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1989)

Bilabi- Labio- Alveo- Postal- Retro- Phryn- Glot-

Dental Palatal Velar Uvular
al dental lar veolar flex geal tal

Plosive p b t d     k g   
Nasal m  n    N

Trill B r R

Flap or tap  
Fricative   f v   s z              
Lateral
Fricative
 
Approxi-
mant
    
Lateral
Approxi- l   
mant
Ejective
stop p’ t’ ’ c’ k’ q’
Implosive          

Where symbols appear in pairs, the one on the right represents a voiced consonant. Shaded areas denote
articulations judged impossible.

In conclusion we can say that consonant sounds are usually grouped based on (1) the state of
velum, (2) the state of glottis, (3) places of articulation, and (4) manner of articulation. Based on
the state of velum, we recognize oral sounds vs. nasal sounds. Based on the states of glottis,
sounds are grouped into voiceless vs. voiced sounds. In terms of places of articulation, English
sounds are classified into: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, alveopalatal, palatal, velar, and
glottal sounds; and based on manner of articulation, English sounds are divided into stop, nasal,
fricative, affricate, liquid, glide, and flap.

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 Exercises for Meeting 5

Consonant identification

The Chart of English Consonants

Place of articulation
Manner of
Articulation

p b t d k g 
m n 

f v   s z   h
t d
l
r
(w) y w
 (D)

Identify the initial consonant sound of each of the following words. Please use the voice, place,
and manner parameters, for example tree: /t/ voiceless alveolar stop.

1. Phase /f/, know /n/, cook /k/, king /k/, city /s/, three /, they //, jump / d/, shame //,
child / t/, ten /t/, dark /d/, very /v/.

Identify the final consonant sound of each of the following words. Please use the voice, place,
and manner parameters, for example eight: /t/ voiceless alveolar stop.

2. Finish //, comb /m/, hope /p/, goal /l/, star /r/, large / d/, rice /s/, house /z/, can /n/, tenth
/ /, my /y/, tell /l/, joke /k/, hate /t/, leave /v/.

Topic 6
 Natural Classes

Meeting 6

Consonant Identification and Natural Classes

Identification of individual sounds

There are normally three parameters (dimensions) used to identify consonant sounds. They
are the state of glottis (vocal cords), places of articulation, and manner of articulation. If we
want to identify a sound, we start from the voice, followed by the place of articulation, then
manner of articulation. The nasals, the liquids, and the glides are basically voiced so there is no
need to mention voice for these sounds. Similarly, glottal sounds are no specified for voice, so
voice is irrelevant for these sounds. The following table shows the name of individual sounds.

Table 3.1: The Phonetic Descriptions of Individual English Sounds

Sound
Names
s s
p voiceless bilabial stop
b voiced bilabial stop
m bilabial nasal
f voiceless labiodental fricative
v voiced labiodental fricative
 voiceless dental fricative
 voiced dental fricative
t voiceless alveolar stop
d voiced alveolar stop
n alveolar nasal
s voiceless alveolar fricative
z voiced alveolar fricative
 (D) voiced alveolar flap
Sound
Names
l lateral liquid
r retroflex liquid
t voiceless alveopalatal affricate
d voiced alveopalatal affricate
 voiceless alveopalatal fricative
 voiced alveopalatal fricative
y palatal glide
k voiceless velar stop
g voiced velar stop
 velar nasal
w labiovelar glide
 glottal stop
h glottal fricative

The above sounds can be classified into several groups based on the three parameters as follows:
 Table 3.2: Classification of English consonants based on the three parameters:
voice, place and manner
Parameters Sounds
I. Voice
Voiceless /p/, /f/, //, /t/, /s/, /t/, //, /k/, /h/ [- voice]
Voiced /b/, /m/, /v/, //, /d/, /n/, /z/, /l/, /r/, //, /d/, /y/, /g/, //, /D/
II. Place of articulation
Bilabial /p/, /b/, /m/ (p b m f v) = labial
Labiodental /f/, /v/
Dental // and //
Alveolar /t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /l/, /r/, /D/ water
Alveopalatal /t/, /d/, //, //
Palatal /y/
Velar /k/, /g/, //, /w/ = (labiovelar)
Glottal //, /h/
III. Manner of articulation
Stop /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, // [-continuant]
Fricative /f/, /v/, //, //, /s/, /z/, //, //, /h/ [+ continuant]
Nasal /m/, /n/, // [stop]
Affricate /t/, /d/
Liquid /l/, /r/
Glide /w/, /y/
Flap /D/

Aspiration in English put, pen, pillow, paper. Put [phut] took th cook kh
Papa, tatap, kakak, atap –ata, anak – ana, adat – ada, jam – ja, bulan – bula, karung – karu

p t k m n : stop [- continuant] senter - sentere, motor - motoro, kapal – kapala, tulis – tulisi
[+Continuant]

bajuditoko : stop [m n y w] [l r]

1.5.2 Natural classes

Why is the notion of natural classes important?

Because phonological processes normally involve sounds that belong to natural classes.

Phonological processes: addition, omission, metathesis, simplification, etc.

anak-ana, atap-ata, adab-ada, bulan-bula, karung-karu, adat, jarum-jaru. : motor – motoro, kapal
– kapala, tulis-tulisi

aspiration: p t k voiceless stop. Hissing sounds: -es: -s, -sh [+strident} sounds with high
degee of noice
 The notion of natural classes refers to the grouping of sounds which can be characterized
by using the minimal number of features. Fromkin and Rodman (1983:84) define a natural
class as “one in which the number of features which must be specified to define that class is
smaller than the number of features required to distinguish any member of that class.” The
features used to define a natural class can be voice feature (voice vs. voiceless), place feature
(labial, dental etc.), or manner feature (stop, fricative etc.). For example; the sounds /p/, /b/, /t/,
/d/, /k/, /g/ and // can be characterized by using one feature, stop; while for /p/ alone it must be
defined by using voiceless, bilabial, and stop. For /p/ we cannot simply say, for example,
voiceless because there are so many other voiceless sounds; we cannot say only bilabial because
there are other bilabial sounds, and we cannot say only stop, for there are many other stop
sounds. Therefore, for /p/ alone, we need three features to define it, while for /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/,
/k/, /g/ and // the feature stop is sufficient to cover those sounds.

The other example of natural class is the nasal group. When we mention nasal, it is enough to
cover /m/, /n/, and //. But when we want to define /m/, we have to mention at least two features,
bilabial and nasal. Bilabial must be mentioned in order to exclude alveolar and velar nasals, and
nasal must be mentioned in order to exclude other bilabial sounds /p/ and /b/.

Sounds that belong to a natural class can be defined by using only one or two features. The
sound groupings on Table 4 above indeed are based on natural classes because they are classified
based on voice, place, and manner of articulation. What groupings then belong to unnatural
classes? Take for example the following segments:

(1) /p/, f/, /d/, k/, l/, /m/, /t/, /s/, /w/

What features can you use to characterize these sounds? No. There is no single feature that can
be used to name them because the sounds do not form a natural class. There are stops /p, t, k/,
there are fricatives /f and s/, there is a nasal /m/, and there is a glide /y/. Consider the following
group. Do they form a natural class?

(2) /p/, /b/, /f/, /v/, /m/ : [labial]

Yes, they do. They form a natural class called labial; i.e. sounds produced by using lips. It can be
one lip (/f/ and /v/), or two lips (/p/, /b/, and /m/). What about the next, do they form a natural
class?

(3) /t/, /n/, /d/, /r/, /s/, /z/, /l/, [alveolar]

Yes, they are alveolar sounds. They are made at the same place of articulation, i.e. the alveolar
ridge by placing the tip or blade of tongue against or toward the alveolar ridge. How about the
next group?

(4) /f/, /v/, //, //, /s/, /z/, //, //, /h/ : fricative
Do they belong to a natural class? Yes, all of them are fricative sounds which are made by
forming a narrow passage between the articulators so that the airflow can escape through the
passage. What about the following group? Do they belong to a natural class?

(5) /f/, /s/, /d/, //, /t/, /k/, /p/, //: /d/ doesn’t belong to the group because it is voiced. The
other consonants are voiceless.

No, they don’t. Actually most of the sounds are voiceless, but there is one sound, /d/, which is
voiced

Sounds that belong to a natural class normally behave similarly with respect to certain
phonological processes. And the sounds that trigger the phonological process usually also form a
natural class. Take for example aspiration in English, which involves /p/, /t/, /k/. These sounds
fall into a natural class of voiceless stop. Only voiceless stops are involved in aspiration in
English. No other sounds are aspirated. The other example is nasalization in BI, which
involves /m/, /n/, //, and //. Again these sounds belong to a natural class called nasal. Only
nasal consonants trigger nasalized vowels in BI. Since phonological processes normally involve
groups of sounds, rather than individual sounds, the notion of natural class helps us explain why
certain class of sounds undergoes phonological processes, and why other groups do not. We will
return to this issue in later sections after distinctive features have been dealt with.

In conclusion, we can say that the consonant sounds are characterized by using three
parameters, the state of glottis, the place where the sounds are produced, and the manner how
they are produced. An individual consonant is defined by mentioning these three parameters.
Nasals, liquids, and glides are inherently voiced, so there is no need to specify this voice feature.
Similarly, glottal sounds // and /h/ are not characterized for voice, so voice is irrelevant for these
two sounds. Consonants normally belong to natural classes. A group of sounds belong to a
natural class if the number of feature needed to define the sounds in the class is smaller than the
number of features needed to define any member of the class. Natural classes help us explain the
types of sounds that can undergo phonological processes.

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