Chapter 3 Angles and Linear l{eas

Angles and Linear Measurements fr*/p*

65 /5)
^tJ
Padrryfu
(")

Norlh (ufui/h;

Because a great deal of underground surveying is not of the closed-

traverse type, extra precautions must be taken to ensure correct angular ASinuth
measurements.^ ordinariY, o, surface surveys, even a minor error may Ade
be detected before work based on the r.r.*y has progressed too fai.
This is because practically alt surface s.rrreys ur. .lorEd traverses, or /J
have a definitely discernible destination. -Under underground con-
I

.ATrmuth
v
ditions this ir. ,roj- 19 easily acco_mplished. A systern" of angular \
_
measurement should therefore be selected which provides the accuracy (.) \r \-
desired and at the same time obviates every possibitity that the traverse
will go astray.
Horizontal Angles
There are five methods by which the direction of a line may be
determined:
8rs
1. Direct reading (single angle right), Fig.23a.
2. Bearings, Fig. 23b. ;
3. Azimuths, Fig. 23c.
4. Deflection angles, Fig. 23d.
For practically all underground work two repetitions Frc. 2i. \'r
, .5. .$.Petition.
(doubled angle) are sufficient; Fig.23e.
trace out lines and loca
For
^ thatsetting
for
permanent stations underground-or on the surface,
matter-it is believed that the method of repetition should
methods. Progress bv C
there is always unenai
always be used. A direct and positive check is had o., th. first angle conveniently checked or
turned, as the second must iead within one minute of the firit. done, time will be sar"ed
Naturally this is true only if the transit is plunged (inverred) and is in the direction of the liner
::ut9lu-bly good adjustment and the vertiial angle is less tiian about transit. Since it is feh rb
5: Jf the plate bubbles are in adjustment and tf,ere is no eccentricity not be used in undererr
of the vertical axis (which seldom occurs with the modern transiti about them. Figure 13.
an average of the plunged readings will give the true angle. The use of deflecrion :

There are two justifications fol running a travers. 5y bearings or it is inconvenient ro cha
azimuths: to make a rapid reconnaissanie survey (suiface), and to made in recordine nshi

'asllrements
not of the closed-
r,\'ing is
a to ensure correct angular
)s, even a minor error may
ey has progressed too far.
)s are closed traverses, or
Under underground con-
d- A system of angular
hich provides the accuracy
possibitity that the traverse
i
irection of a line may be
. 2la.
'ound u'ork tu,o repetitions
ound-or on the surface,
:thod of repetition should
:k is had on the first angle
one minutc of the first.
,luneed (inverted) and is in
al anele is less than about
md there is no eccentricity
r*'ith the modern transit),
: lhe true angle.
a traverse by bearings or
e survey (surface), and to
Angles and Linear Measurements 27
a
D irec f treadinq'Arrqb,?igh/)
(")
Norlh tu1oulh)
Agimulh
Ang/e
/J -'--fasl Algletkasurd
ilht Riqh{
ASrmu{h
0ef/eclionAnq/e
(.)
(d)
keeli/rort (plunqe lcbccop on alleroale
wdbTa sclon'yro mly al olorf)
(.)
Frc. 23. Various methods for measuring direction.
trace out lines and locate monuments previously established by such
methods. Progress by these methods is undoubtediy faster; however,
there is always uncertainty about their accuracy. Such- traverses are
conveniently checked only by repeating the traverse. If this is to be
done, time will be saved by using the "doubled-angle" method. Also
the directisn of the lines may be read only to the least reading of the
transit. Since it is felt that the methods of bearings and azimuth should
not be used in underground traversing, nothing further will be said
about them. Figure 23, b and c, illustrates these two methods.
The use of deflection angles is subject to the same criticism. Again
it is inconvenient to check the angle, and in addition an error may be
made in recording right or left deflection. This mistake would usually
28 Angles and Linear Measurements Angles and Lineor -li,ec
be detected in a surface traverse, but underground a great deal of angle right is 2]0'49
cgstly wolk m_ight be done before ascertainingit. It may be said that for computine (as ther'
the use of deflection angles should be confined to the iaying out of be used for the office ,
curves, an application for which it is admirably suited. <} the angles are adjusted
_Angles
determined by direct reading and by repetition (two readings, open traverse the 3O sc
telescope PlungeA between them) are the most-satisfactory for mine It will be seen thar
surveying. The author has found that they apply with equal facitity number aneles should t
to surface surveys. Recent texts on plane surveying are rather relui- desirable to select a nr
tantly arriving at the same opinion. divided into 60 sec.. \.
Direct Readings. In using this method the angle is turned to the transit it is senerail-r'be
right (clockwise), commonly spoken of as an "ang1e right." The plate plunged) are all rhat
is set at zero, and the telescope is pointed at the backsight station conditions no doubt u
(hereafter BS; similarly, IS stands for instrument station and FS for more than sir readint
foresight station). Faulty plate graduations may be compensated for siehting, and the instr
by making a series of settings around the plate instead of on zero and cancel anv added atri.:
averaging the angle rights obtained. Only the most precise .work In addition. the time rc
would require this. By means of the lower motion the final adjustment less than i0 sec. rs fel:
on the backsight station is made; the upper motion is then released should be used. \\-rt
and the telescope is pointed at the foresight station, final adjustment reading to fractir-n: of
being made with the upper motion. At this point it is well to remind the There is much in fat t
reader always to complete this final setting by turning the motion sun'eving instead cf ::
against the spring action. By means of the reading glass (any attach- ertended traverses fcr
ment to the instrument for reading angles), that part of the scale rieridian unciergrou:c'
increasing in a clockwise direction is read. In Fig. la this is the inner Ba;cla-r' tl9i-. p. ir,
graduation. The method is very useful for recording detail (drift A:irerican transir a::d ';
outline and stopes), and the data thus obtained are readily plotted by
S:i. a::gl* nis.. tr lleas;
means of a protractor. But this procedure is not satisfactory for ::..]3'l.e e::c: ci ,ess ::,a:
setting permanent stations: there is no compensation for the instru- :: :.-,: :ian'.:=,-::,-:a:'s ::s=
ment's being in poor adjustment, nor is there any check on the work S=:.i. argies * fe. =Er
It should not be used for establishing traverse stations. sis:r-:'.is e::c: c: E5 r-r;
Repetitions. For establishing traverse stations the repetition method ----=--ies ::. ::€ :=::=
should be used. It is carried out in exactly the same way as direct -Er-s-:::g a:.9.- ,'i a--i :

: : :]=. -:!2C:: g ::.rr3 tr-i5

reading. When the second angle is to be turned, the telescope is
plunged, the lower motion is unclamped, and the telescope is pointed I:-: c:-le:;a. 3e3e: sio
-; lr..
at the backsight. The upper motion is then released and the telescope --

is pointed at the foresight. The second angle should agree within plus F. :.::e l-: :.i -s'-:-.lc
or minus one minute of the first reading muttiplied by two. For r:i.: Figi::e l-i: sa:-,
example: Say the first angle reads ll5" 24' . Multiplying this by two :"i-:: ::t:c:E.: a::-ts :
==s::ec i:.'=
givel 230" 48'. Now this can be'true only if the first angle is exactly '.1--: :c:
ll5' 24' . This frequently happens; but it is more likely that 230' :::it: :c =.3is-i: u i'=
48' + 1' will be read. The angle is considered doubled when this : -:- ' a: z7 a'-:t i:3
happens and the true angle is represented by the mean of the doubled :::::::.- 3.-::'i.
reading. For example: Say the doubled angle reads 230' 49' . The t l.:.i:
;:,--: -:-j,3!--C :::[
' and Linear Measurements
erground a great deal of
ng it. It may be said that
ined to the laying out of
bl1'suited.
,Y repetition (two readings,
lost satisfactory for mine
' with equal facility
"ppll are rather reluc-
,un'eving
he angle is turned to the
l "ansle right." The plate
I at the backsight station
ument station and FS for
i mav be compensated for
ate instead of on zero and
)' the most precise work
ilotion the final adjustment
er motion is then released
rt station, final adjustment
pint it is well to remind the
rs br turning the motion
readins slass (any attach-
s). that part of the scale
In Fie. la this is the inner
lor recording detail (drift
ined are readily plotted by
re is not satisfactory for
mp€nsation for the instru-
lre anv check on the work.
se stations.
.ions the repetition method
lr the same way as direct
e turned, the telescope is
nd the telescope is pointed
released and the telescope
le should asree within plus
I multiplied by two. For
\{ultiplying this by two
i[ the first angle is exactly
t is more likely that 230'
;idered doubled when this
n' the mean of the doubled
inele reads 230' 49'. The
Angles and Linear Measurements 29
angle right is 230" 49' + 2 : ll5o 24' 30'. If l-min. tables are ,used
foicomputing'(as they usually are), the first reading of 115"-24' wo$d
be used-for the offics work. In running many long, closed traverses,
the angles are adjusted so as to eliminate the 30-sec. readings. With an
open tiaverse the 30 sec. should be retained in the calculations.
because of the plunging procedure only even-
It will be seen that
number angles should be turned, that is,2, 4, 6,8, etc. It is still further
desirable t6 select a number of repetitions (2, 4, 6, 10) which, when
divided into 60 sec., will give no fractional seconds. With a l-min-
transit it is generally believed that six repetitions (three direct and three
plunged) aie alt that should be turned. Under absolutely perfect
iond'itions no doubt more could be used. However, when there are
more than six readings, lost motion in the instrument, inaccurate
sighting, and the instiument's slipping off the point will P.!b_1b.ly
canceliny added accuracy. (Breed and Hosmer, l?23: pp. 48-60.)*
In addition, the time requiied becomes important. If a final reading of
less than 10 sec. is felt 1o be justified, a 30-sqc. or 20-sec. instrument
should be used. With the introduction of the optical-type instrument
reading to fractions of a minute, a great deal of time may be saved.
There ls much in favor of using a 30-sec. transit for general mine
surveying instead of the l-min. instrument ordinarily used- Only -in
extended- traverses for connections, triangulation, or transferring the
meridian underground will it be necessary to exceed doubling the angle.
Barclay (1951, p. 5) concludes after a detailed comparison of the
American transit and the optical-type transit:
Small angles may be measured with the American-design repeating transits with a
probable"er.o. of less than one second. The instrument when operated according
io the manufacturer's instructions shows no systematic errors.
Small angles when measured with the optical-reading theodolites may- have a
systematic Jrro. of as much as eight seconds. The systematic error results from
iiaccuracies in the reading microicopes and will appear in the same. way when
measuring angles of any iize. Thesb conclusions are based on study of three
optical-reading theodolites.
The original paper should be consulted for details of the experimental
work.
Figure 23 illustrates the five methods of measuring t!. horizontal
anglJ. Figure 23b shows a bearing in the northeast quadrant, but the
ruil. priniiple applies to the other three quadrants. An azimuth angle
measured fiom the north is illustrated by Fig. 23c. Many engineers
prefer to measure azimuths from the south. As will be explained later
(p. 39), an azimuth angle is measured clockwise from one of these two
reference points.
* Also communication from Keuffel & Esser Co., Hoboken, N'J'
30 Angles and Linear Measurenents Angles and Linear -l(.ea
Vertical Angles
The measurement of the vertical angle is necessary for several
reasons. '-.um of the
Yuny engineers prefer carrying- elevations by
transit and_tape in surveying. By means of the slope
_underground
distance (sD) and the vertical angle (vA) the field data are readiiy
reduced to horizontal distances (HD) and vertical distances (vDi.
P.r." though elevations are not obtained in this wn), the horizontal
distance must be reduced from the slope distance. ilecause many of
the vertical angles are quite large, it is necessary that the transit have a
vertical circle ({ig: lc, p. 5) and not an arc. with an arc (90" each way
from zero) the index error must be known. When a full circle is used,
an average of the direct and the plunged readings gives the true vertical Frc 14

angle. With vertical angles exceeding four to five degrees, a difference

of several minutes will influence the horizontal distance adversely and excspt at the ends: f::
produce a considerable amount of error in the vertical distance. tser p. 59).
Broken chaining as practiced in civil engineering work is not satis- The instrumen'.n:t"ai s
factory for mine with ordinary care, using-to,oOo
slope distance :ance. He can th:n ie:r
-workings. ::gir. or a factor cal 5
and vertical angles, an. accuracy approaching I in may be
obtained without resorting to temperature and tension corrections. :ecr,i,ces the field in*2ir
In excessively hot mines a temperature correction may have to be ::i'An^e. In:Jt'.:::
applied for very accurate work. Some surveyors set the vertical circle :u:hor founci rhis :::ictr
at zero and "shoot" the corresponding point on the foresight plumb li :omparing tne inri!:L
bob string. By doing this they measure the horizontal distanie directly F::ure trat"eises *.=. i:
and eliminate the vertical distance. There is no special objection to 23,_-'rg.. I in 9.CO_, to
- :: -
this practice except that in most cases fietd time is thus sacrificed r€:::ng sUtions -<:or,C
in order to save office work. Ordinarily time is limited for the field i--t'.- FOf eyef i3i -1-'-*
operations, whereas there is no great rush about the office calculations. ,:: io daie. riiip.=:-
1,\1e:: al in:runat'.
Between the two, the method of observing the plumb bob wherever Di,- tr
it hangs and recording the slope distancq and the vertical angle is :.- ::3!-:io:S a:e JelIli:]
preferable. ::.*k tra\ej-se u-::L ;r:r
If elevations are carried with the transit survey, care must be exercised :L:l accuracr$ c.: . ::
r. .-:j-.i .,.j.'-^,--
that the vertical angle be recorded as plus or minus. r.-Llrsl\J E l.i.\-'-. -.--L
)-w* -_
_i,.
illt..\ifltate su:i ;=--:
Linear Measurements a'.::itc. Ar, ert::s:-.3 ;
For setting traverse stations all distances are measured with the ::,::=ies that ta:s :s :.f,c
steel tape illustrated in Figs . ll and 24. Most of the drift detail also is ::i-:t€ io i:',_r :-: : a3(
measured with this tape. The proper pull will be approached when the t,,i-'rb.:. As a:-:r:. ]r_t
tape is held as showninF.ig.24. The left hand is used to steady the tape --::--an:l ci =-13 ;;:i
and catch the reading with the thumb. The thumb of the right frand ;:=:
=33S'i:3=-::--
is hooked over the handle of the tape and the handle gra-sped by '-i :35.iC f,C' S t : ::-- :-- : f:
the fingers. Tension is then applied by pulling with thJright arm. _--.: a_r.i :_i a:::cI:---::-..
The operator- stands squarely facing the instrument. Approiimately ---s :jlzl.t :_( :3r-3: a_(
.j
32 pounds should be applied when a 200-ft. tape is unsupported -"--r-+i -::_-.--s
-.- -. b!-rv,--].-J,-.-<
-.-.
i _ _.,*
t and Linear MeasurQnents
is necessary for several
hvations by means of the
- 81' means of the slope
the field data are readily
l vertical distances (VD).
r this n,a), the horizontal
istance. Because many of
san' that the transit have a
With an arc (90' each way
trYhen a full circle is used,
lines gives the true vertical
o fir'e deErees, a difference
rtal distance adversely and
he vertical distance.
ineerine *'ork is not satis-
care. using slope distance
[ing I in 10,000 may be
: 8nd tension corrections.
)rrection may have to be
evors set the vertical circle
nt on the foresight plumb
horizontal distance directly
is no special objection to
:ld time is thus sacrificed
me is limited for the field
)oul the office calculations.
I the plumb bob wherever
and '.he vertical angle is
n'e:.'. care must be exercised
,r r.'linus.
ffi
s are measured with the
xt of the drift detail also is
ill be approached when the
rd is used to steady the tape
e thumb of the right hand
rd the handle grasped by
rullire u'ith the right arm.
rstrument. Approximately
[f:. tape is unsupported
Angles and Linear Measurements 31
Fro.24. Method of holding the 200-foot tape.
except at the ends; for 100 ft. of tape 20 pounds should be applied
(see p. 59).
The instrumentman should check his "pu11" against a known dis-
tance. He can then determine the force to be exerted and pull accord-
ingly, or a factor can be applied to the traverse measurements which
reduces the field measurements to a close approximation of the true
distance. In running traverses between triangulation stations the
author found this procedure most successful. The constant was found
by comparing the triangulated distance with that obtained by traversing.
Future traverses were then corrected by the constant. An accuracy of
about 1 in 9,000 to 1 in 10,000 was thus obtained. All measurements for
setting stations should be made to the nearest one-hundredth of a
foot. For everyday control and for setting stations to keep the workings
up to date, temperature and tension correction are not necessary.
When an important property boundary is being approached or important
connections are contemplated, it may become necessary to make a
check traverse with corrected measurements. There is ample evidence
that accuracies of I in 10,000 may be closely approached or even
exceeded without such correction by using reasonable care. In order to
approximate such results, measurements exceeding 200 ft. should be
avoidea. An extensive correspondence with practicing mine surveyors
indicates that this is the maximum in most mines. A few limit the
distance to 150 ft.; others are limited only by the length of the tape
available. As a rule, 200-ft. shots are exceptional because of extreme
irregularity of mine workings.
Linear measurements are made from the center of the end of the
telescope's horizontal axis. This involves a slight error, since the end of
the axii is approximately 2 to 3 in. to one side of the line of sight. .If
this distance ls taken as 0.25 e,-g@ taped distance as 4 ft., the
corrected distance would be {42 - 0.252 - 3.992 ft. A measurement
 32 Angles and Linear Measurements Angles and Linear I{e;:
so short would very seldom if ever be made in establishing permanent
stations. An error of this nature may be important in carryingelevations
with the transit, since the distance to the station (HI) abovl or below
the instrument is also measured to the end of the telescope axis.
Because nearly all stations in underground work are in the ^back, it
very commonly occurs that the HI isln the neighborhood of two feet.
In this case the discrepancy would be 2 - \/74F: 0.016, or
a.pprgximately 0.02 ft. It would be quite an extensive survey in which
this became important. There is only one solution to this problem:
If elevations must be carried closer than 0.5 to 1.0 ft. per tooo ft. of
distance, they should be determined by differential leveling. Ordip-
2r1ly, when the HI is close to 4 ft., elevations may be cairied with
the transit with an error of less than one foot per 50-00 ft. of traverse.
The vertical angles would be the average of the direct and the plunged
readings.
Fr,
Other measurements usually recorded are rights and lefts and downs.
The rights and lefts are measured at the forisight station facing the
direction in which the work is progressing. ThJy are measured Tam are received, run th:oug'i: ::
original sending un,l. .1. r-
the plumb b9b string to the rocli suiface oilagging and are recorded to f:equencies and strike an a.3
the nearest 0.1 ft. Downs are_occasionally measured for the purpose atr:rospheric conc j'.:..: s
of drawing profile sections. They are measured from the poini to readings at both siz'-lgrr-ls. :t-,.
which the vertical angle is turned (or from the station) to the track and
Tuo models are ara:.:
recorded to the nearest 0.1 ft. For making this measurement the S-ft.
is shou'n in Fig. l-<. \1
tape shown in Fig. 13 (p. 12) is used.
ouilt-in batten'. measL:3
In taking other detail in drifts _or stopes the distances are usually nas gfeatef accufau-\' g'rx
recorded to the nearest 0.5 ft. on large-scale maps (1 in. : l0 t6
co;na in tu'o ur:iis-ri.: :
20 ft.) closer readings may be necessary.
a:d the remote ter-r.i 3:
.-:angeable. Thi: p€r:.- -
Electronic Measuring Devices
Because there us,la--'.
Several instruments are available for the precise measurement of :he Tellurometer :::sa-( -:.
distances ranging from 50 ft. to many miles. Th.r. instruments have a This measuremen: :s :--:
constant error, so the precision is generally greater as the distance :he rertical angle :c LJ:i ::
increases. The instruments are avaitable for us-e by outright purchase, :it€ transitr. or ::e c:i:
rental or lease, and employment of a consultant owner. or aliimeter). Spacr ::::
Some of these instruments use microwave radiation; the Tellurom- ir:e of obstacles. ailhc.i:
eter is typical Another, the Geodimeter, uses a modulated light Cornmunication ls 'l'. :
beam, measuring distance by phase comparison. Both instruments cistances are ni3asuri-:.
consist of several components, but are easifu portable. iransit or theoiolire. .r r

:::kness. or clea: $ei::.=

Tellurometer \leasuremen:s :'it3'. :,.
A Tellurometer system consists of two portable instruments, easily mounted on -r::.er oPeratlon ii rhe :="
ordinary tripods, 'One of these, set up ou"r o.re point, transmits a series of micro-
waves toward a receiver, set up over another point. These strong, steady impulses
;ii:h calculation r-ri a::.::
' T:ll:.r;o:re:e:. I:: . -1-tl: t\ .
s and Linear Measurements
, in establishing permanent
)rtant in carrying elevations
ation (HI) above or below
:nd of the telescope axis.
J rlork are in the back, it
n.iglborhoo9 of two feet.
- 1 ?2 - 0.252 : 0.016, or
r extensive survey in which
solution to this problem:
5 to i.0 ft. per 1000 ft. of
ifferential leveling. Ordin-
rtions may be carried with
ot per 5000 ft. of traverse.
the direct and the plunged
riehts and lefts and downs.
:oresieht station facing the
. Thev are measured flm
lagging and are recorded to
' measured for the purpose
:asured from the point to
he station) to the track and
: this measurement the 8-ft.
s the distances are usually
'scale maps (1 in. : l0 to
Derices
re precise measurement of
. These instruments have a
Jl1 greater as the distance
)r use bv outright purchase,
rltant o\\'ner.
ie radiation; the Tellurom-
:,uses a modulated light
parison. Both instruments
lv portable.
irrstruments, easily mounted on
cint. transmits a series of micro.
t- These strong, steady impulses
Angles and Linear Measuren'tenls 33
Frc. 25. Tellurometer (Tellurometer).
are received, run through the circuitry of the receiver, and retransmitted to the
original sending unit. . . . Operators can take a series of readings on various
fre{uencies and-strike an average. . . . The speed of the microwaves is affected by
atmospheric conditions. . . . Operators take temoerature readings and barometric
*
readings at both stations, and allowances are made.
Two models are available for measuring distances. Model I\OIA-2
is shown in Fig. 25. Model MRA-3 weighs about 38 Ib. less, has a
built-in battery, measures to shorter distances (down to 100 ft.), and
has greater acturacy on lines of all lengths ( +0.0328 ft.). A11 models
come in two units-the master and the remote. The master transmits
and the remote receives the signal; but they are completely inter-
changeable. This permits readings to be made at either end of a line.
Because there usually is a difference in elevation between stations,
the Tellurometer measures the slope distance (as does the Geodimeter).
This measurement is converted to the horizontal in one of two ways:
the vertical angle to the station is measured (invariably with an optical-
type transit), or the difference in elevation is determined (by leveling
oi altimeter). Space intervening between stations must be relatively
free of obstacles,-although operators need not be able to see each other.
Communication is by built-in two-way radio. At the same time
distances are measured, horizontal angles may be measured with
transit or theodolite. The system works equally well in fog, rain,
darkness, or clear weather.
Measurements may be applied to traversing or trilateration. This
latter operation is the measuring of the sides in a triangulation system
with caiculation of angles (the reverse of standard triangulation, it is
* Tellurometer, Inc., 4435 Wisconsin Ave., Washington, D.C.
34 Angles and Linear Measurements Angles and Linetrr .l{,;3a
considered a tremendous time-saver as well as having increased accu-
racy). when running a traverse, the units may be leapfrogged; that is,
onl.l every other station is occupied with the master oriraniinitting unit.
Accuracy of the Tellurometer system over distances of 500 ft. to 40
miles has been established at l/300,000 * 2in. Distances up to 90 miles
have been measured. The *,2in.is present in all measurements regardless
of distance. The manufacturer gives the following accuracief under
normal conditions:
50O ft. to 1500 ft.: third to second order
order
l'*?ilJiJ #i',:,, i::?:1J:.nrs'[
The Tellurometer was developed at the request of South Aflican mining
interests for underground measurements.

Geodimeter
The Geodimeter system utilizes the velocity of light to determine distances from
50 feet to 40 miles. . . . The Geodimeter projects a modulated beam of light to a
passive reflector, which is placed at the oiher end of the distance to be mEasured.
The reflector, acting T a mirror, immediately sends the light beam back to the
Geodimeter. Three different light frequencies are used to measure each distance.
This triple-checks each measurement. The method used is known as pha* com-
parison. *

Several models are available. Model aD (Fig. 26) measures base

lines up to 3 miles in daylight and 15 to 20 miles in darkness. Each
condition has an accuracy of within +0.04 ft. A minimum day or
niglt measurement of 50 ft. may be expected. The several pieces
making up the unit weigh about 77 lb. The apparatus is quickiy set Fr

up (5 min.) and a reading taken in 5-10 min. Maximum erior is 0.04

ft. *211,000,000 of the distance. .
A large control net :--: ",;

The Geodimeter, like the Tellurometer, requires vertical angles or established in the Cc-::ir
differences in elevation to convert the slope distance measured to the Carter ( I 960; has desc:: )e(
horizontal distance. Horizontal angles may be turned while the devices. A detailed c:sc:
measurements are being made. eter has been publr.:# i
Only a few of the many applications of electronic measuring instru- sources mav be iou:.c u
ments can be mentioned. The Massachusetts Department ol Public \\'hitmore, ThompS,-ri. a
works saved 70 man-days on a job with closures of 1/130,000 on p. ai9: "Nen' Sun'e'.:;ig \
4-mile lines ("Massachusetts Cuti Surveying Time,,, 1962, p. 42). Houeh, 1960. p. 95r. f=n.
In Louisiana the State Highway Department used a Geodimeter to seismic sur\e,\' for o:. :ro,
re-establish a lost control point for bridge construction (Dougherty, Because of the fai cr '.,
L962). The new was run in 10 per cent of the time required are received. the fc.,;u:i
-survey
for the original triangulation. A base closure of 1/850,000 was attiined. tLauf, l96lb).
* AGA Corporation of America, P.O. Box447, South plainfield, N.J. The Geodimerer has a r^::. rz':
In fact it can be used lo i:r?

*=
.-:-=-=-:-
:: t..nj=:
,,.,t,:'
t:a:::tt''.........-.--: : ::t: i::::::::
and Linear Measurements Angles and Linear Measurements 35

as having increased accu-

ry be leapfrogged; that is,
naster or transmitting unit.
distances of 500 ft. to 40
l. Distances up to 90 miles
rll measurements regardless
ollo$'ing accuracies under

cond order
fost order

st of South African mining

at to determine distances from

rnodulated beam of light to a
rf the C:stance to be measured.
ds the iiqht beam back to the
usod ro measure each distance.
I us€C is known as pha* com-

) (Fig. 26) measures base

0 miles in darkness. Each
4 ft. A minimum day or
ected. The several pieces
[e apparatus is quickly set
m. \laximum error is 0.04
requires vertical u.rrr., o,
e distance measured to the
ra)' be turned while the
:lectronic measuring instru-
ctts Department of Public
r closures of 1/130,000 on
Fng Time," 1962, p. 42).
rent used a Geodimeter to
B construction (Dougherty,
r c€nt of the time required
- of I 850,000 was attained.
th PIainfreld, N.J.
Frc. 26. Geodimeter (AGA).
A large control net for use with photogrammetric mapping has beeh
established in the County of Los Angeles by trilateration (Stripp, n.d.).
Carter ( 1960) has described the major advantages of electronic measuring
devices. A detailed description of the Geodimeter and the Tellurom-
eter has been published by Poling (1958, n.1617). Several additional
sources may be found in the Bibliography (Ceeley, 1960, p. 2845;
Whitmore, Thompson, and Speert, 1959, p. 1059; E. J. Jones, 1959,
p. 479; "New Surveying Metho d," 1957 ; "New Instrument," 1961 ; and
Hough, 1960, p. 95). The last two discuss an application to a refraction
seismic survey for oil prospecting.
Because of the favor with which electronic measuring instruments
are received, the following excerpt is of interest to mining engineers
(Lauf, 1961b).
The Geodimeter has a wide variety of uses both on the surface and underground. : . .
In fact it can be used to advantage in almost every case where distances ranging
36 Angles and Linear Measurements
from l/4 mile to 8 miles are required to be measured to a high degree of accuracy
inashort time.... It can be used in.conjunction with a theodollte.... In open Bea,
cast mines, distances across the p.it which.are generally much too long to be *"ur-
ured by taPe.can be measured directly with the Geodimeter, instead"of indirectly
-applies
by triangulation methods. This also to water surfaces and areas covered
by slimes dams, or in which there is civing ground. . . . For underground pur_
Poses, the application of the Geodimeter is-miinly for carrying ouitf;..t r,r.l"y,
lgng straight tunnels between shafts and in lonf cross-cuts. And if it is used
11 in
c-onlunction with the gyro-theodolite a check is-obtained of both
distance and
direction.

As u'il[ be explained :;l I

\ erting survey notes 'r.o tr

ft'rllorved in plotting F.::r,
of surveys also. Stucer
should read Chapter i:
This s,r,stem lends r:s
trir the scale of the :31
::"-curate distances a:c
medium of the coord.tai
A coordinate svs:== :

eraphic terminologr. .al

ceparture are found :,1
jtori:ontal distance ix:'*l
cata are to have a useiu
and accurate means -r:
cirectl,r found fronn ::.
.{zimuths are readi:r ,-a.,c
--Lrurses *'hen the dire:::c
This is one of the :::ror
: .', r run n ing a sur\ ei

The relationship ':ci*

aopl,rine checks to t:3s€

A bearin_g ma) 'oe cei:

t€t\\'een the north-sour.e
:ris. The principle rs :he
:.orth is used as a ::i::e;
From Fie. 27 it u 1.. s.
,.f lour directioas. c3Dei
:orth. the bearing aiisle

, -,. , ,,..,..E,,,=, -:J