Chapter 7 Determination of True

the bearing or azimurh

Determination of True Meridian the angle right from d:,r
or bearing between rhe
sight station). All of lire
on Polaris, but mosi oo
The discussion to foi,,
nomenclature inr,olr ei :

The longitude of the

scaling the obsen'er's su
to the nearest l5 minutr
The purpose of this chapter is to give information for finding the time of culmination or r

meridian. Once the meridian is obtained, a true bearing for a base line of one-minute u'atch rir
AB can be set up and from that the traverse or traverses started. By longitude is seldom nec
averaging a number of morning and afternoon observations on th-e not occur in the formuL
sun or several on Polaris, a precision of less than one minute can be had; Longitude is usuailr :
for more extensive and precise determinations the reader is referred to or Greinwich. It is cc:
texts on advanced surveying. (Bouchard and Moffitt, 1959; Breed and There are24 hours ir. o:
Hosmer, 1962; Davis and Foote, 1953, p. a89; Hosmer, 1930; Hosmer the earth. One hour .-:
and Robbins, 1948; Kissam, 1956; Nassau, 1948.)
Al[ new surveys should be correctly oriented. There is no excuse for
establishing a permanent survey, no matter how restricted in extent, on
an assumed or magnetic meridian.
In the past it has been the practice of many mine engineers to assume This relationship proi:c,
a magnetic bearing for orientation or to start from some patented Standard Time Zones-
claim ol the assumption that it is correctly oriented. The reason for States is divided inro s:::
this has probably been an imagined difficulty in "shooting" the sun or longitude of our naii,..:.:.
Polaris. As a matter of fact, an astronomical observation involves no Standard Time pre rf,.'i ,

more difficulty than simple plane surveying, The total time it requires, hours west of Greenv.:--;
even with the most complicated formula in common use, is but a few at the 90th meridiar a:r
minutes. If tables suitable to accompany Hosmer's formula (Hosmer, Standard Time appiies ::
1930, pp. 134-35)* are handy, the observation and calculations should Greenwich; and the * s
not take more than ten minutes. Even with formulas involving natural Pacific Standard Time ::
and logarithmic tables to one minute, 20 minutes of time should be Greenwich. For the ;:.:
ample for making the calculations. the l50th meridian is !:
After many years of teaching this subject in an elementary way, the this is l0 hours t .rt oi
writer has arrived at the conclusion that sources of trouble lie in four incides with Anchorag:.
operations: (l) correcting time of observation to hours from 0r' s,ould be 9r' from Ci-
Greenwich Civil Time (GCT) ; (2) correcting declination from the Alaska. Each time zc:'i3
time given in the ephemeris to time of observation; (3) placing the sun of the standard merrdrai-
in the proper quadrant after solving the formula; and (4) combining Daylight-saving rine ::
* Tables of log sec and log vers are necessary. east applied to the l.r:a.
I

$
,t

t

l{ eridian
brmal:on for finding the
nre b:arine for a base line
e or iraverses started. By
rolr: r-rDsetvzltions on the
utn or"i. minute can be had;
rs :he reader is referred to
I \1t-riitt. 1959; Breed and
): Hcsmer. 1930; Hosmer
. lqJ:. I 1" long. - lll5 hr. : :4 min.
ed There is no excuse for
lori :estricted in extent, on
r rnr:'ie engineers to assume
star'. :rom some Patented
' o::.ented. The reason for
"shooting" the sun or
-r in
:al orservation involves no
The total time it requires,
crlr]-.r]on use, is but a few
los::er's formula (Hosmer,
on 3:d calculations should
for:-.ulas involving natural
mrrt::es of time should be
, in ai elementary waY, the
rur.-es of trouble lie in four
\ailon to hours from 6tt
:tii:q declination from the
...:1.-',n: (3) placing the sun
>rrnura: and (4) combining
Determination of True Meridian 77
the bearing or azimuth (which one depends on the formula used) with
the angle right from the backsight station in order to give the azimuth
or bearing between the permanent stations (instrument station to back-
sight station). All of these difficulties do not occur with an observation
on Polaris, but most do when observing other stars.
The discussion to follow assumes that the student is familiar with the
nomenclature involved in astronomical observations.
Longitude
The longitude of the point of observation is usually obtained by
scaling the observer's station on a map. It need not be known closely;
to the nearest 15 minutes of time (4") is sufficient. For estimating the
time of culmination or elongation, in star observations the equivalent
of one-minute watch time should be available. The actual value of the
longitude is seldom necessary for engineering astronomy, and it does
not occur in the formulas.
Longitude is usually expressed in angular measurement east or west
or Greenwich. [t is convenient for our purpose to express it as time.
There are 24 hours in one day, and 360" are passed in one revolution of
the earth. One hour of time is thus equivalent to 360" + 24t' : 15".
1' long.- ll15 min. 4sec.
1" long. : 4160 sec. : 1/15 sec.
This relationship provides factors convenient for conversion purposes.
Standard Time Zones. As an aid to business and industry, the United
States is divided into standard time zones. Roughly, each l5 degrees of
longitude of our national area represents one hour of time. Thus Eastern
Standard Time prevails on both sides of the 75th meridian and is "five
hours west of Greenwich"; Central Standard Time prevails similarly
at the 90th meridian and is six hours west of Greenwich; Mountain
Standard Time applies to the 105th meridian and is seven hours west of
Greenwich; and ihe westernmost zone in the 48 coritiguous states is
Pacific Standard Time at the 120th meridian and is eight hours west of
Greenwich. For the main part of Alaska and for the Hawaiian Islands,
the l50th meridian is generally accepted as the standard time zone:'
this is l0 hours west of Greenwich. The 150th meridian almost co-
incides with Anchorage. Sitka is nearly on the l35th meridian, and
would be gL from Greenwich; it is used for the adjacent part of
Alaska. Each time zone extends more or less 721 degrees to each side
of the standard meridian.
Daylight-saving time is the standard time of the first time zone to the
east applied to the local standard time.
78 Determination of True Meridian Determination of Trle
"Local time" is the time of a particular place with reference to the measured by the dechn;
passage of the sun over its individual meridian. "standard time" is as magnetic declinarron
accordingly an arbitrary approximation and can be in error as much as and magnetic north. I
or more than 30 minutes with reference to local time. If the longitude north of the equaror. I
of a place is known, the standard time is readily converted to local time. with N or plus for ncru
If th; instrument station is east of the time meridian from which the positions. (Some of lht
watch (standard time) is taken, the correction is added, and if west it minus.) This is also rn
is subtracted. lutely necessarv that tn:
ation in the various ;cn
A station is located at longitud rr'r1!l{'l#. The standard watch time is 8:50 a.r,,r. Values for the decl:na:
What is the local time? " declination musr be cor:
Longitude 116" 45' falls in the Pacific Standard Time zone, which is the 120th hours the obserr ario: :.:
meridan:
l2O" 116" 45' :3" 15' : (3. x 4^) + (15' x 4.) : 13-. usually used bv rhe ene
- engineering in strumenL.
The point is east of the time meridian; therefore, the local time is
discussion to follo*' u ii.
8h 50^ + 0h 13* : th 03m A.M. With the declinarion rs
Astronomical data are given for the meridian of Greenwich at mid- for one hour of long:iu
night. It is necessary, as a rule, to correct such information by the multiplied b1, this. li :
amount that the observer's standard time is east or west of Greenwich. added; if decreasins. rr
For example, the l20th meridian is eight hours west of Greenwich. At for longitude must n,1:
midnightor 0h Greenwich it would be 0h - 3tt : 4:00 p.ur. at the l20th correct the equation
".f :
meridian of the preceding day. The follou,in g exaripr(

Latitude
For observations of importance to the engineer, the latitude can be Time, 9:30 .q..rr. Lons::;&
obtained in one of two ways. A map of large enough scale to permit 21, t962.
The l05th mer.dial rs :r-i
scaling the latitude to one minute is the handiest method. (If the Hours past 0. Gree-a --:. "
observer's station can be located on the map this closely, one minute From the eph<::e:rs. J :
of arc equals roughly 6000 ft.) In the absence of such a map, an
observation will have to be made on the sun at noon or on Polaris at 1.^*

culmination. The sun observation is generally suitable and ordinarily is

most conveniently made. An average of several observations will give
a sufficient degree of precision. r-ri
- ..-L. --t_
The latitude should be known within one minute of the true value. I - l:.i-<
A mistake of one minute can cause an error equal to 12 minutes in the j:\!-1'
azimuth, depending on the value of the latitude and the number of
. \- t .
hours from noon that the solar is taken. The nearer noon and the - -- -\ l-

greater the latitude, the larger the azimuth error.

Declination I ::c. .0:.tl .- UL

t
L! ^_.-:
_ .
- -,.J
-
' .' _ i _ ^ --=..
Circumscribing the earth are the parallels of latitude. Comparable to I : \l-: -A->:(

\:
-

the latitude are the parallels of declination of the celestial sphere. Hence, . lt r
-
the angle that the sun is above or below the equatorial plane may be - :\a \'-r
-i_i
ninatiott of True Meridian
place u,ith reference to the
idian. "standard time" is
can be in error as much as
ocal time. If the longitude
lill' converted to local time.
: meridian from which the
on is added, and if west it
sancard * atch time is 8 :50 l.t't.
Trrre zone, rvhich is the 120th
-(15 x 4a):13m.
:- the .ocal time is
a A.\1 .
idian of Greenwich at mid-
I such information by the
east or u'est of Greenwich.
pssg \i'eSt of Greenwich. At
E' : -1:00 P.M. at the 120th
ngineer. the latitude can be
rse enough scale to permit
handiest method. (If the
ap rhis closely, one minute
bsence of such a map, an
rn at noon or on Polaris at
rllv suitable and ordinarily is
,r'iral observations will give
re minute of the true value.
r equal to l2 minutes in the
atitude and the number of
The nearer noon and the
erTor.
of latitude. Comparable to
:the celestial sphere. Hence,
he equatorial plane may be
Determination of True Meridian 79
measured by the declination. (Ddination as used here is not the same
as magnetic declination, which is the angle between geographic north
and magnetic north.) Values for the declination are either south or
north of the equator. In an ephemeris, declination values are prefixed
with N or plus for north positions of the sun and S or minus for south
positions. (Some of these ephemerides use N and S; others plus and
minus.) This is also true of other than circumpolar stars. It is abso-
lutely necessary that the proper sign be used when entering the declin-
ation in the various formulas.
Values for the declination are given for 0h Greenwich. The Greenwich
declination must be corrected by an amount representing the number of
hours the observation is from Greenwich midnight. As the ephemeris
usually ysed.by the engineer- is one of those-published bI makers of
engineering instruments, and Greenwich midnight is used there, the
discussion to follow will be based on midnight.
With the declination is given the hourly change (difference) in minutes
for one hour of longitude. The hours from Greenwich midnight are
multiplied by this. If the declination is increasing, the correction is
added; if decreasing, the correction is subtracted. This hourly change
for longitude must not be confused with the hourly change used to
correct the equation of time (which will be demonstrated later).
The following examples will illustrate the,principles involved.
Time, 9:30 n.r*r. Longitude, l06o f;:{l*rfl" -"rioian, l05th. Date, February
24, t962.
The l05th meridian is 105/15 : 7h from Greenwich.
Hours past 0h Greenwich when observation was taken : 9:30 * 7 : l615 GCT.
From the ephemeris, D : S 9o 43.O'(decreasing); and the hourly difference is
0.93'. (These figures are reproduced exactly as given in the ephemeris.)
The correction for thedeclination,c :16.5 x O.93' :15.3'; correcteddeclina-
d: S 9" 43.0' - 0'15.3' : S 9" 27.7'.
tion,
rime, 2:45 p.u. Longitude , nr" o7i{!l'o,i -*,dian. April 30, ts6z.
(12 + 2:45) * 6 :20175 GCT (a r.u. time must have l2h added to it),
D : N 14" 33.2'(increasing), hr. dif. :0.77',
c :20.75 x 0.77' : 16.0',
d: N 14" 33.2' + 0'l6.O' : N 14" 49.2'.
Example C
Time, 10:42 a.r'a. Longitude, l19'48'W. 120th meridian. June 30, 1962.
10:42 *8:18:'7GCT,
D : N 23" l3.O'(decreasing), hr. dif. : 0.15',
c:18.7 x O.l5':2.8',
d : N 23" l3.O' - 0'02.8' : N23" lO.2'.
80 Determination of True Meridian Determination of True -ltt
Example D horizontal movement is n:r
Time, 4:30 p.r.,r. Longitude, l5l" 24'W. l50th meridian. November'18, 1962, ment than at other time:
(12 + 4:30) * l0 : 2615 GCT (which puts the time into the 19th), limited to about one hour
D : S 19" 17.8'(for the l9th and increasing), hr. dif. :0.59', inexperienced observer. prr
c : (26.5 - 24) x 0.59' : [.5', The refraction correcticr
d : S 19" 17.8' + 0" 0l .5' : S 19" 19.3'.
may be obtained from uble
Example E give values. The user is c:
Time, 4:00 p.r',r. Longitude,3l" 24'E. 30th meridian. August 15,1962. sometimes in this same sc
In this example, the location is in east longitude; the difference in time must be declination when a solar al
subtracted to obtain the GCT of the observation. In determinin_e the venl,
(r2+4:00) -)- l4l0GCT, most desirable. If the insr:-
D : N 14"'16.6'(decreasing), hr. dif. : 0.78', be known and the transit r
c :14.O x 0.78' : 10.9', circle, index error and proc
d : N 14" 16.6' - 0' 10.9' : N l4o 05.7'.
telescope between shors. .r
Example F nated. The average of rhe
Time, 5:45 e.r'a. Longitude, l20o l5'E. 120th meridian. October 21,1962. The precision of the horuo
Time zone is 8 hr. east of Greenwich.
(24 + 5:45) - 8 - 2l\75 GCT for Octob er 20, 1962, Obs
D : S l0'05.1'(increasing), hr. dif. : 0.90', Derivation of Formula. t
c:21.75 x 0.90':19.6', astronomical formulas. a ::
d : S 10"05.1' + 00 19.6' :S l0' 24.7',.
presented. For greater de:
en_gi neering astronom-r ani
An error of I min. in the declination causes an error in the azimuth
The formula that aopee-,
similar to that for the latitude. Therefore, it is necessary that the renient to use rvith table=
standard watch time be known only within about l5 min., although it
taneents) is the one kno.*:
is customary to record it to minutes.

Altitude cosZ:
The altitude or vertical angle is the angle between the sun and the Thc important thine. oi --:
horizon. It is determined with the transit. The observed value of the rut the mathematical reas.-r
altitude must be corrected for refraction. Parallax is also present, and Ho.mer and Robbins. l9r!
in tables of refraction this correction is included. It is immaterial Errors or inaccuracies :i
whether or not the parallax correction is applied when an observation rnd altitude have their Ie:r:
is made with the one-minute transit. The value for the ordinary range ,:n the station's prime \e:::,
of observations (15' to 45") is 8" to 4" and is additive. . --cul meridian, hence due :".
Most instructions prescribe a time limit for solar observations- :.rsition of the bodr as3,:-
generally about 8:00 to 10:30 n.u. for morning observations, and about ::action will place the tr-. -
2:00 to 4:30 p.vt. for afternoon. As a matter of fact, the time should '.:e minimum refraction .n--
be based on limitations imposed by the refraction and the near ..'csc-rvation near the prirr.3 i
meridional position of the sun. Observations should not be made when :.1 orable function : ii r:e
the altitudeis less than 10", as the refraction is very uncertain. (Probably ;-n hour or so of local Bot-r
15" would be a better minimum for the less experienced person.)
This extends the time limit to about 5:30 A.M. or about 6:00 p.trl. at rZ
certain times of the year. As the sun approaches the meridian, its
i Itan
\1 - :
Tnindilon of True Meridian
rrrri,:an. November 18, 1962,
irlTle in:o the l9th),
r drf : 0.59',
r"rdian August 15, 1962.
e. rtre diffeience in time must
rrcrician. October 21, 1962.
. i96:.
S Derivation of Formula. For an understanding of the application of
tu>es 3n error in the azimuth
ore. i: is necessary that the
,in abcut l5 min., although it
rgle bet* een the sun and the
rt] Ti:e observed value of the
Parallar is also Present, and
s included. It is immaterial
apclied u'hen an observation
3 iaiue for the ordinary range
rd is additive.
imit for solar observations-
rrnins observations, and about
l"tt.i of fact, the time should
the refraction and the near
.ions should not be made when
rn is r erv uncertain. (ProbablY
the iesi exPerienced Person')
i0 .r,.rt. or about 6:00 P'u' at
approaches the meridian, its
Determination of True Meridian 8l
horizontal movement is more rapid in proportion to its vertical move-
ment than at other times. For this reason, observation should be
limited to about one hour preceding or following local noon. For the
inexperienced observer, probably two hours would be better.
The refraction correction, always subtracted from the vertical angle,
may be obtained from tables for that purpose. Tables in the ephemerides
give values. The user is cautioned against using the refraction tables,
sometimes in this same source, which are made up to apply to the
declination when a solar attachment is used.
be
In determining the vertical angle, a transit with a vertical circle is
most desirable. If the instrument has only an arc, the index error must
be known and the transit be in first-class adjustment. With the vertical
circle, index error and poor adjustment are obviated by plunging the
telescope between shots. Also, correction for semidiameter is elimi-
nated. The average of the two readings is taken as the vertical angle.
The precision of the horizontal angle is also improved.
Observation on the Sun
astronomical formulas, a few simple principles of their derivation are
presented. For greater detail the reader should consult textbooks on
engineering astronomy and plane surveying. (See references on p. 76.)
The formula that appeals to the author as the most rapid and con-
venient to use with tables of ordinary functions (sines, cosines, and
tangents) is the one known as the cos Z formula:
cosZ-cos* /?11'd,+
cos I
tan htanr.
The important thing, of course, is not the few, minutes of labor saved
but the mathematical reason for preferring a particular formula. (See
Hosmer and Robbins, 1948; Nassau, 1948.)
Errors or inaccuracies in watch time, longitude, latitude, declination,
and altitude have their least effect when the sun (or a star) is observed
on the station's prime vertical (the-vertical circle perpendicular to the
Iocal meridian, hence due east or west of the observer). Balancing this
position of the body against the maximum acceptable effect for re-
fraction will place the sun or star very near the prime vertical (because
the minimum refraction occurs near the prime vertical). When an
observation near the prime vertical is made, the cosine of Z is the most
favorable function; if the observation is near the meridian (within
an hour or so of local noon), the tangent of Z is favorable:
/Z
(tan 7
/ffi
- ^i
ls - ft)\
=d-l'
cos .r cos (s - p'.
82 Determination of True Meridian Determination of True -l{c

J pher e zenith distances. The pole

celestial equator E is an e
the celestial sphere. The s:
ation D is the angle rhe s
altitude is represenred D', ,
angle between the sun ai
between the zenith and ii:r
that the azimuth anele is 'l
ZS. The drawing sho*s ri
vations S would be to rhe
n'ould be measured coun:r
morning shot is the angle :

that the cos Z formula gire

hall-angle formulas occas ic
although the p.pr. r'alue i-<
bei ng measured counlerclu--.
Additional clarification
for a morning observario: :
conditions it may be PZS.
observation taken on ii-,e
may place the sun in ri:e I
the northwest quadranl
azimuth angle u'ill numi:
the sun is considerablr lsl
Frc. 37. Celestial sphere. meridian), the bearine anS.
the extent of the trigonort
But tan Zl2, or cos Zl2, sin Zl2 formulas contain, in the author's *'ill always be expressed i
opinion, too many opportunities for mistakes; and these mistakes are extending the tables ro r:
still further subject to being reduced by the square root and/or doubled
-half-angle interpretation b1, read it s. Z
because of the e*pression. (the members of these formulas Derivation of cos Z Fon
contain h, d, and / changed to co-h,* co-d, and co-/, which is 90" known as the PZS triansl,
minus the measured member.) In conclusion, experience and observa- triangle lrom which &-(!rur-I
tion suggest that the use of the cos Z formula is most easily applied and k of a great circle is oass
understood; furthermore, the actual difference in angular seconds done merely as a con\3nrir'
between the results obtained by the formulas, whether the prime vertical
or near meridian observation is used, is negligible if other than a
From L PZD,
high-precision instrument is used. cos: cos k cos 1-- -
.l
Figure 37 shows the northern part of the so-called celestial spheie. From L SZD.
The observer is assumed to be at the center of the earth. This assump- COS p : COS k Cos -'t .
tion is the reason for the parallax correction, because the observer is
actually at the surface. The zenith distance Z is the point directly over Combining (l) and tl)::
the staiion. It will be realized that there can be an infinite number of cos .t
:COS:-Sln--:
* Co-ft is co-altitude; co-d is co-declination; and co-/ is co-latitude. cos p
minarion of True Meridian
,1,S
t}$
as contain, in the author's
kes: a:rd these mistakes are
rquere root and/or doubled
mernb'ers of these formulas
i. a:d co-/, which is 90'
on. c\Derience and observa-
rla rs niost easily applied and
[enen,-e rn angular seconds
s. * helher the prime vertical
nee!:eible if other than a
he s.--.-alled celestial sphere.
r o[ :he earth. This assumP-
ion. b,:cause the observer is
e Z ',> ihe point directly over
;an 3e an infinite number of
f' -. ----- ,::tude.
Determination of True Meridian 83
zenith distances. The pole P is the north pole of the earth's axis. The
celestial equator E is an extension of the earth's equator to intersect
the celestial sphere. The sun S travels along the circle uP. The declin-
ation D is the angle the sun is north or south of the equator. The
altitude is represented by h, which is found with the transit. It is the
angle between the sun and the horizon. The latitude / is the angle
between the zenith and the equator. It will be observed in the figure
that the azimuth angle is the angle between the plane ZP and the plane
ZS. The drawing shows this for an A.M. observation; for p.na. obser-
vations S would be to the left of ZP, and the apparent azimuth angle
would be measured counterclockwise. The.bearing of the sun for a'
morning shot is the angle between ZE and ZS. It is well to state here
that the cos Z formula gives the sun's bearing and not its azimuth. The
half-angle formulas occasionally used give azimuth angles on solution,
although the p.u. value is not azimuth in the true sense of the word,
being measured counterclockwise.
Additional clarification is needed of the statement that in Fig. 37
for a morning observation the angle to the sun is EZS, but under certain
conditions it may be PZS. During the months of June to September an
observation taken on the sun near the prime vertical (east or west)
may place the sun in the northeast quadrant (and in the afternoon, in
the northwest quadrant). For an early morning observation the
azimuth angle will numerically equal the bearing angle (PZS). If
the sun is considerably south of the prime vertical (approaching the
meridian), the bearing angle will be in the southeast quadrant. When
the extent of the trigonometric tables is Iimited to 0" to 90o, the cosZ
will always be expressed as a bearing. Nothing is really gained by
extending the tables to include 0" to 180" and then confusing the
interpretation by readin g Z as an azimuth angle.
Derivation of cos Z Formula. Figure 38 shows a spherical triangle
known as the PZS triangle (Underhill, 1922, p. 60). It is the basic
triangle from which astronomical formulas may be derived. The arc
k of a great circle is passed through Z perpendicular to PS. This is
done merely as a convenience for solving PZS for Z.
From L PZD,
cos.r : cos k cos (, - *). (t)
From L SZD,
COSP : CoS k cos x- (2)
Combining (t) and (2) and eliminating cos k, we get
cos s
cosz*sinztanx. (3)
COS ID
84 Determination of True Meridian Determination of Tnte -l
Substituting these in (-
cos (90' - d) _ coS r

\ Simplifying,
\ sind:s:
\x Solving for cos Z.
\
I
cosZ: sind-sinr'
I
cos / cos
I

_ sind
cos / cos n
The solution given abor
sun north of the equato:
equator, sin d is minus. I:
Ftc. 38. PZS triangle.
The general formula shc
From L SZD,
cosS:tanxcotp co:Z =
or
sin/ An inspection of (E) shc.,
tan x: cotp
1 cos s - cosp
cos S. (4) occur. The correct inte:prr
This is one of the foui r
Eliminating tan x from (3), moment's reflection it shu-
cos ^r : cos z cosp * sin z sinp cos s (5a)
taken in the morning. rhe s

or northeast or the soithea-.:

n cos.r zcosp observer's meridian. Ii rai
-_-
,"tn (! \' - cos
(sb) the southwest or the nor:i
sin z sinp
the meridian. A plus cc:
.-
Explessions (5a, b) are the fundamental equations. on the basis of quadrants, a negative cosi:
(5b), the solution is carried out for the angle Pzs. Therefore, Therefore, if the cos Z is :
z:
of the sun is SE; if i: is
cos coS.r cosp * sin s sin p cos Z. (6) bearing is NE. For afiernc,
Substituting PS for z, PZ for s, and ZS for p in (6), we get sun a SW bearing; and a :
are all based on the obser..
cos PS : cos PZ cos ZS + sin pZ sin ZS cos Z. (7) to the station.
But, from Fig. 37, Making the Obsenarioo-
rules. After a few obsen a,
PS : co-declination
- (90" - rS) : 90o - d. or less automatic.
PZ: co-latitude _ (90" EZ) _ 90. _ l. Set the transit up so.:
- /.
2. Try to locate the ba:
ZS : co-altitude : (90" - sm) go"
- h. station.
-
ninatiort of True Meridian Determination of True Meridian 85

Substituting these in (7),

cos (90" - d)_ coS (90" - /) cos (90' - h)
* sin (90" - /) sin (90' - h) cos Z.
Simplifying,
sind: sin /sin ft * cos /cos h cosZ.

Solving for cos Z,

cosZ: sind-sinlsinh
cos / cos ft
sin d
tan I tan h.
cos / cos ft

The solution given above was made for northern latitudes, with the
sun north of the equator. When made with the sun south of the
equator, sin d is minus. In south latitudes, tan h tan / is plus.
The general formula should be written as follows:

cosZ: cos*sin d
ft cos /
T tan h tan l. (8)

An inspection of (8) shows that both negative and positive values can
(4) occur. The correct interpretation places the sun in its proper quadrant.
This is one of the four difficulties previously enumerated. After a
moment's reflection it should cause no trouble. If the observation is
taken in the morning, the sun can be in only one of two quadrants, the
(sa)
northeast or the southeast. In other words, it has to be east of the
observer's meridian. If taken in the afternoon, the sun can be in only
(sb) the southwest or the northwest quadrant, as the sun must be west of
the meridian. A plus cosine occurs in the northeast and northwest
DqLi:: --:.s. On the basis of quadrants, a negative cosine in the southeast and southwest quadrants.
: PZS T::.ereiore, fherefore, if the cos Z is negative for an A.M. observation, the bearing
of the sun is SE; if it is positive for an a.u. observation, the sun's
(6) bearing is NE. For afternoon observations the negative cosine gives the
t .'. : . i\e €ret sun a SW bearing; and a positive cosine a NW bearing. The bearings
F are all based on the observer's facing the sun and are not from the sun
ZS :,:: Z. (7) to the station.
Making the Observation. In observing the sun there are a few simple
rules. After a few observations the application of these becomes more
lJ'-; or less automatic.
l. Set the transit up solidly and carefully level.
2. Try to locate the backsight at least 500 ft. from the instrument
station.
86 Deturmination of True Meridian Determination of True -\

1 !9t the plate at zero and sighr the backsight starion.

4.. UnclaTP the upper motion and turn thelelescope to the sun. If
four readings should be
are averaged and a singir
a colored prismatic eyepiece or colored cap for the objective end of the 10. Point at backsii
telescope is not available, hold a card back of the eyepiece. It may be will indicate whether oi :
attached to a pencil with a paper clip and the pencii fastened to the greater than one minure
telescope by means of rubbeibinds. Bring the sun and cross hairs to a Only two pointings ar rhr
s.harp image on the_car9 uy using the focusing attachments and moving Calculation of Solar Ol
the card. A colored objective is not suitable, since it causes an uncertain observation will explain r

amount of refraction. Latitude. An obsenai

9tr
tude L13" 41.0' \f,' on Jl

d
Geological Survey' quaCl
Standard Time (MST). j
Frc. 39. Order of
observing the sun. of the station, 8254 fr.: I
D P Before undertakine rhc
MornrnT local standard time ior r
Afternooo
on the observer's locado
I Bring the sun _tangent to the cross hairs, as shown in Fig. 39.
Adherence to Fig. 39 is not necessary for getting correct data. - It is
the equation of time. rhr
meridian noon. Kno*i::r
simply a.convenient way of placing the limbi of tfie sun tangent to the tion after culmination. cr
cross hairs. The sun through its own motion is allowed Io become
tangent to one hair, while with the slow-motion screw the other hair is .r/_Sf :.-
Noon, true solar time. L{T
\gp, tangent to the other limb. The important point is to observe in
r

Longitude I 13" 41.0' $

diagonally opposite quadrants with the telescope inverted between
observations; this, among other things, eliminatls the correction for GAT (Greenwich Appare::: T
semidiameter. Equation of Time at 0: GCT
6. with the telescope in the direct position, sight on the sun, as in June l8
Change for l9h 34 * 4-1' , cf
Fig. 39, .r,.r"r. This can be done by first iocating thJsun through sighting
over the telescope as one would a rifle; neit, set the hair-s ap-proxil Equation of Time at ins=:_: :
mately tangent and clamp horizontal and vertical motion; wiitr ttre GCT:GAT-Eq.T.: G
right hand, operate vertical-angle tangent screw and with the left hand Longitude to MST (105:: \t-
turn the upper-motion screw. The sun's limbs are thus quickly brought'
\1ST
to tangency. or the suggestion in 5, above, may be fo[,owed. Watch fast
7. When tangency is obtained, time is called and recorded and the
horizontal and vertical angles are read. It is most convenient to read Watch time MST of u::e: *"
the horizontal angle first; then unclamp the upper motion and turn the Transit was set up ai ab
vertical circle to the observer and read (if^an engineer's transit is rvith telescope direcr anci r

used). This does not affect the setting of tne transit] since it must be lon'er limb, gave an a\ era
unclamped anyhow for the next reading. The refraction musl be
8. Plunge telescope and repeat 6 ana 7, catching the sun. It is perature. From the epher
essential to plunge the telescope. This compensates for standards out angle is 0.35'; the coit".r
of adjustment, collimation's biing out, and index error. for temperature is 1.0-t I
9. After a little practice the elapsed time between direct and plunged t Because the true sun is ':c.-g
readings should not excee d l% oi 2 *inutes. When facility is gain"ed, ro mean or watch time tGCT 5.
min;tion o-l' True Meridian
csiel:t station.
he iel:scope to the sun. If
[or tne objective end of the
of :he evepiece. It may be
the pencil fastened to the
lhe sun and cross hairs to a
rg aiia:hments and moving
si-n;s ii causes an uncertain
F:c 39. Order of
-^llen'rng the sun.
airs. :s shou'n in Fig. 39.
g€'.t::E ;orrect data. It is
!s ci ::r: sun tangent to the
,tio: :. allorred to become
rtic: s::.\\' the other hair is
,na:: :;:nt is to observe in
Eles;.',:e inverted between
imlnat:s the correction for
ion. s::ht on the sun, as in
ins l:: sun through sighting
rer--. >:t the hairs approxi-
ve r::;:.1 motion; with the
cre'* .:i rr ith the left hand
rbs a:e ihus quickly brought'
, 83., re follorved.
allsc .ild recorded and the
is ;:-.s: convenient to read
l uP;,3: niotion and turn the
Iif a: :rgineer's transit
rle :::::sit. since it must
i. ;::--:ins the sun. It is
opeisiles ior standards out
, ind:'r 3:ror.
tre:',' e:: direct and plunged
res. \\ ::n facility is gained,
Determination of True Meridian 87
four readings should be taken, two direct and two plunged. The four
are averaged and a single calculation is made.
10. Point at backsight and check zero setting started with. This
will indicate whether or not a wrong motion was used. If a discrepancy
greater than one minute is found, the observation should be repeated.
Only two pointings at the backsight are made-the start and finish.
Calculation of Solar Observation. The following latitude and azimuth
observation will explain the principles discussed
Latitude. An observation for latitude was made on the sun in longi-
tude 113" 4l.O' W on June 18, 1962. (Longitude was scaled from a
Geological Survey quadrangle sheet.) Watch time was for Mountain
Standard Time ltrlSf;, 1054h meridian and 3.5 min. fast. Elevation
of the station, 8254 ft.; temperature, 52o F.; transit, optical-type.
Before undertaking the observation, it is convenient to calculate the
local standard time ior the upper culmination of the sun. Depending
on the observer's location relative to the standard time meridian and
the equation of time, the culmination may take place before or after
meridian noon. Knowing the exact time prevents starting the observa-
tion after culmination, or avoids preparing for the observation too early.
MST of Upper Culmination of the Sun
Noon, true solar time, LAT (Local Apparent Time) - lztl 00^ 00.
Longitude 113'41.0'w +7 34 44
GAT (Greenwich Apparent Time)* 19 34 44.0
Equation of Time alOh GCT (GCT : GAT - Eq. T.),
June 18 (-) 0 48.1
Change for 19h 34^ 44" (diff. per hr. : 0.54') (-) 0 10.6
Equation of Time at instant of observation -( -) 0 s8.7
GCT : GAT - Eq. 1. : (GAT - (- Eq.f.)) t9 35 42.7
Longitude to MST (105th w) -7 00 00
MST l2h 35o, 42.7,
Watch fast + 3 30.0
l2h 39^ 12.7, p.u.
Watch time MST of upper culmination
Transit was set up at about 12:20p.u. Four alternating observations,
is with telescope direCt and on upper limb, and telescope inverted and on
be lower limb, gave an average vertical angle of 69' 30.4'.
The refraCtion must be corrected for rilevation of station and tem-
perature. From the ephemeris, the refraction for the measured vertical
ingle is 0.35'; the correction factor for altitude is 0.75; and the factor
foitemperature is 1.00. The parallax correction is 0.05' and is added.
t Because the true sun is being observed (this is apparent time), GAT must be converted
to mean or watch time (GCT) by using the Equation of Time-
88 Determination of True Meridian Determination of True .

Corrected refraction : r : 0.35 x 0.75 x 1.00 : -0.26, : For solving the abor e-
i:VA -r * parallax:69"30.4, -0"0.26, +0.05, functions are carried out
: 69o 30.2', It is recognized thar suc;
D : N 23" 23.4'(increasing); hr. dif. : 0.06,, observation made u'ith a
12.65h * 7h : 19.65 hr. GCT, seconds to convert the i
correction : 19.65 x 0.06 :1.2,, of several minutes in &
d : N 23" 23.4' + 0'01.2' : N23" 24.6,, observed data. The rrrtr
latitude : I :90. - h * d lated to the nearest l0 sa
: 90o - 69" 30.2' + 23'24.6' : 43" 54.4'N. off process" performC z
Azimuth. A solar observation was taken on June zo, 1962, to deter-
mine the bearing of aline AB. Other dataare the same as that used for log sin 23" 26.3':
the latitude observation. The value for the latitude was taken as 43o
54.0', N. log cos 39" 07.6' : 9.E89 -
BS IS Angle right VA Sun Time Tclescope
Iog cos 43" 54.0': j
9.7{-
B A 124" 26.4', 51'15.7 + 8:46 a.u. D =9.4_<:
Numberequal to log
304" 2t.o', 308" 38.5 + 8:48 P cosZ: -
125" Iol Z:lJ
23.O'. 50" 21.2 8:50 D
(by changing cos Z to log sc:
305" 17.2', 309" 33.2 + 8:52 P Cos Z is negative and *c ;

Z:Sl
B A 124" 51.g', 39" 08.7', + 8:49 a.u.
Bearing of Line AB. B
Average vertical angle: uous traverse, *'ith aj-
90" 00.0' 51" 15.7' :38" 44.3'
convenient, therefore. ic
308 38.5 - 270 00.0 : 38 38.5 that the point ,{ has ju:i
90 00.0 50 21.2 :39 38.8 The bearing of the sun :
309 33.2 - 270 00.0 :39 33.2 274" 05' 00" measured fr
51.9') measured ar .4. ':
Average VA: 39" O8.7'
assumption becomes an l
Average time : 8:49 l.r*.r. : 8.81 hr.:
8.81 +7:l5.8lhr.GCT,
angle right, 235" 0E' m'.
D :23o 25.8'(increasing); hr. dif. : 0.03,, Therefore, (274'- 0i' Cr
correction : 15.81 x 0.03 : 0.5', u'hich is the azimuth o: ri
d : N 23" 25.8' + 0' 00.5' : N 23' 26.3'. This would be roundeC e-
Refraction: interpolating from the ephemeris and correcting for altitude and The procedure gir en a
temperatur€ : l.l8'; parallax :0.11': However, it does har e iLr
h : 39" 08,7' - 0' 01.18' + 0" 00. ll' : 39" 07 .6' , and there is no possibilirr
cos Z : --
-'*--
-Icin -f
The bearing as foui:d :
cos /, cos /
T tan h tan l,
backsight. This backsieh
d is plus and latitude is north (minus), transit (on a base line ::
cosZ: sin23" 26.3' other fixed point). The I
- tan 39" 07.6' tan 43" 54.0'.
perrnanent line of kno'*:
irqg::-' ..' Tn,e -l{eridian Determination of True Meridian 89

-Q.l: For solving the above, Vega's book of logarithms is very useful. The
O' 0lc :- 0.05' functions are carried out to 10 sec., with rapid interpolation to seconds.
It is recognized that such precision is not always warranted with solar
= 0.06 .
observation made with a one-minute transit. The dropPing or adding of
seconds to convert the data to the nearest minute often causes an error
of several minutes in the azimuth. This exceeds the accuracy of the
6, observed data. The writer feels that the observation should be calcu-
lated to the nearest 10 sec. when tables are bvailable and the "rounding-
1.6 : r_i 54.4',N. off process" performed after the bearing of the line is obtained.
)n Jur.e 10, 1962, to deter- Numerical Solution
e the same as that used for log sin 23" 26.3' : 9.599 6328,
latitude n'as taken as 43o
logcos3g"o7.6,-9.8897|65,.,#,,,logtan39"07.6,:9.9l03486,
log cos 43" 54.O' :'ffiU, log tan 43" 54.0':
m.
Numbep e*" : -0 7 82832

:..:?,:'fi:1,;.:::i7,i:,:'j,:; ;:';
Z :85" 55.0'
(by changing cos Z to logcos Z and using Vega's tables).
'Cos a.u. Therefore'
Z1s iegative andihe observation was taken in the
Z :585" 55.0'E : bearing to the sun.
Bearing of Line AB. Bearings are most easily calculated in a contin-
uous traverse, with all angles measured to the right. It becomes
convenient, therefore, to asiume that the observer is on the sun and
B' +a
Blr that the point A hasjust been established in the traverse ry_1 fgresight.
9ts The beaiing of the sun to A then becomes N 85" 55' 00" W (azimuth
9 -i_: 274" 05' 00-" measured from the north). The actual angle right (124"
-
51.9') measured at A, backsight B, foresight sun, under the above
9' Cr!
assumption becomes an angle left. Subtracting it from 160" gives_the
angle iight, 235" 08' 06", mLasured at A, backsighl_t-un, fgl:*gll .B^ -"
0.0_i
Ttr"r"To.e, (274" 05'00" + 235" 08'06") 180' : 329" 13' 06',
which is the azimuth of the line AB; or the bearing is N 30" 46' 54' W -
.

16"i This would be rounded off to N 30" 47' W.

rl3 r--,--::e--:ing for altitude and The procedure given appears somewhat roundabout and unwieldy-
However, it does liave the ieature of showing exactly what takes place,
)-ll : _:,,01.6', and there is no possibility of getting the bearing of AB off 189".
The bearing is found aUovt is t[at of the instrument station to the
backsight. ffiis backsight station is probably never occupied with the
I- transii(on a base linJ it will generally be a tree, building spire,_ or
other fixed point). The two stitions simply represent a more or less
i9'C-: :an 43'54.0'.
permanent line of known bearing. When starting a traverse from ,4,
90 Determination of True Meridian Determination qf Tn,i
backsight B, the necessity for reversing the bearing arises before the equipment. The boox:r
traverse is calculated. That is, we want the bearing BA, which places (Greenwich Hour Ang.e
the backsight in the traverse, as the starting point. This requirement is polar distance (from :* i
occasionally forgotten by the beginner, who may draw his map, only polar distance); upFEr
to find it off 180" in orientation. elongation; and seve:ai
There is no need to take a magnetic bearing on the backsight and the Position of Polaris. A
sun, as is often recommended, to locate the quadrant and give a hint made by the use of sevr
as to the azimuth:-- Figure 40 shows the rrr:
Observation on Polaris continuing with the di--cr
When a Sreater degree of precision is required than can ordinarily will be explained. In ir
be had witti an observation on the sun, Polaris may be used. Several maximum elevation ahc,
objections arise when planning an observation on Polaris: (1) in- and lower culminatioi.
coirvenience of culmination (for latitude) and elongation (for azimuth); the pole, maximum cr"s:
and (2) the point from which the observation is made (mountainous These are known as east
region) may make the observation difficult. A-s th9-equator_is ag- of the stars shou,n in Fie
pr6ached (ihe latitude thus becoming smaller), the attitude of Polaris The apparent *on'.ral
he"t.ut.s (Polaris is very nearly on the geographic pole); that is, the position of the pci:.:e:
altitude of the pole is equal to the latitude of the place. Observation on lonstellation of Ca.sic ae
Polaris in latitudes less than about 15' N will not be too satisfactory. eiongation. For era-l-.:i
To help locate Polaris, practical use may be made of the nearness of Polaiis is near r*..t.r" ,

the star [o the pole. See Fig. 40. In 1962, Polaris was less than one e3stern elongation. u be;
degree from the pole. Hence, the altitude of Polaris will be closely equal iion; and u'hen belou, :
to the latitude. It is importanr lo rtc
Data for use with observations on Polaris will ordinarily be obtained l:e four extreme Dos:::,-:
from a solar ephemeris issued free by the manufacturers of surveying i,-,liowing elongat:on -1: c
: :rd horzontal. resDr-^::\
Cassropera herc: UC acout 20 minutes in riU;
Polaris rrr&\' oc.-zsi- :a
'I :ttrer-grade inst rurr:e ::-i
)
I
:--rrrection for par-allar :s
\\ \.^., r'iloo Mo/* L{
Generallr'. obsen'a::c r
C4
a"\ i.,J .zimuth at elongzltr^l
q r

\l
\ :uring earlv morning i-,c:
\d l,^. \ :'.lring these inc,-rn'. 3:.r3:
Q oou/ por'.
r' {.l."o,lOrtor \s Frc. 40. Constellations
:our for azimuth.
\ St--r>-,i
around the North Pole.

\ \.\
*\r *-Pe2aqo \\ Because obserr ati,-- tS (
\ z-;- r--r a_ : problem arises con:erl
a r:oss hairs. Stations .or
:< .Ot?l c)
r)
:; ior solar obsenat:.-.'ns
: Cs

\ 1.-
I
Cass'oDera G :-ectric cap lamp. ;ai'rloc
r 'L' ::ansits come supriiec u:
I
::ng. which u'ill refrec: l::
Ii the instrumerr co.- ri
Cacctopera here : LC
nin;iir'rrt of True Meridian
bearing arises before the
be an:re Bl. which places
loint This requirement is
) rn3\ drar,r' his map, only
g c: :te backsieht and the
qu3c:r.:rt and eive a hint
rb
lui:ec i;:an can ordinarily
Lans :ra'. be used. Several
atioi t1n Polaris: (1) in-
J e.rr:ta:ion (for azimuth);
ion :s n:ade (mountainous
it. A= :he equator is aP-
Lerl. ::: ;ltitude of Polaris
galL:: oole): that is, the
'the :.:.--.-. Observation on
I r',-"': ]3 ioo satisfactory.
be n-,:ie of the nearness of
. Pcl::is *'as less than one
Pol.:.' ',i rll be closely equal
s'rll ;':d.rnaril_v be obtained
nanui:;iurers of surveYing
F:- :: Cor.stellations
i.:: - -: : -.e \orth
Determination of True Meridian 91
equipment. The booklet will contain such information as the GHA
(Greenwich Hour Angle-found with data for the sun) of Polaris; the
polar distance (from which the declination is equal t9 90" minus the
polar distance); upper and lower culmination, and east and west
elongation; and several tables giving the bearing of P9!aris.
Position of Polaris. An estimate of the position of Polaris may be
made by the use of several of the constellations near the north p-ole.
Figure 40 shows the position and names of the constellations. Before
continuing with the discussion of this figure, culmination and elongation
will be exptained. In its journey around the pole, Polari.s reaches a
maximum elevation above and below the pole. This is known as uPPer
and lower culmination, respectively. During this same rotation about
the pole, maximum distances east and west of the pole are reached.
Theie are known as eastern and western elongation, respectively. (All
of the stars shown in Fig. 40 reach culmination and elongation.)
The apparent movemint of Polaris is counterclockwise. From the
position- bf the pointers in the Great Dipper th9 W-shaped
ionstellation of Cassiopeia, an estimate may be made of culmination or
elongation. For example, facing the pole with Cassiopeia on the left,
Polaiis is near western elongation; when Cassiopeia is on the right,
eastern elongation; when Cassiopeia is above the pole, uPper culmina-
tion; and when below the pole, lower culmination.
It is important to know ttrat when Polaris is approaching eithef of
the four eitreme positions, the motion for about 10 minutes before and
following elongation or culmination is for all practical purposes vertical
and horiZontal, respectively. This apparently constant direction allows
about 20 minutes in which to make several duplicate observations.
Polaris may occasionally be observed during twilight hours with the
better-grade instruments. Because of the great distance to the star,
correction for parallax is unnecessary.
Generally, o^bservations for latitude are made at culmination and for
azimuth ai elongation. But these positions many times occur either
during early mor.,ing hours or during daylight. To avoid observations
during theie inconvenient periods, Polaris may be observed at any
Pole. hour for azimuth.
\Because observations on Polaris will generally take pldce after dark,
a problem arises concerning the illumination of the BS (or FS) and the
crbss hairs. Stations for night observations are not usually ut far away
as for solar observations. Illumination of the station may be with an
electric cap lamp, carbide lamp, or other means. Most mine-surveying
transits come supplied with a special shade containing a_silvered insert
ring, which will ieflect light, shown from the side, onto the cross hairs.
If the instrument does not have this attachment, a piece of paper may
92 Determination of True Meridian Determinatiort of True -\l
be rolled into a cylinder and inserted in the sun shade. A weak light angles were measured:
played on the end of the cylinder will illuminate the cross hairs. - A g0'00.0
little experimenting with the lighting is required to prevent overcoming 3t 2 _(9.:
the weak light from the star. 90 OuO
Any convenient procedure may be followed for turning the angles- 312 59.-:
station to star, star to station, or station set by depressing the telescope -{r'
from the position of elongation. Whatever the method, the notes must L.:
permit no doubt of the direction of the final bearing. This means that Co
the IS, BS, and FS stations must be clearly recorded. Refraction data from an eci
Making the Observation. About 15 min. before the estimated time perature multiplier, 1.00. Co-
of elongation or culmination the transit is set up and leveled. Stations Latitude, I : h + (90. _ 6
Polar distance for June l6- :
are to be decided upon and arrangements made beforehand. Polaris
i

Declinatioo, d :90, 00.0

is followed until no movement (vertical for culmination; horizontal Then
for elongation) is discernible. The required angle is read and the ,,'- ,-r

telescope inverted and a second reading immediately taken. This :;i,

procedure will eliminate index error and various misadjustments of the : 4j'
transit. Some engineers prefer to transfer the position of Polaris at r, :
For upper culn-rinatioi, ,r

elongation to a stake several hundred feet a*ay. Both telescope Azimuth (at any timer. T
positions are marked on the stake. The point bisecting these marks is -13" 53.5' N; other dau sa
the true one for elongation. The azimuth of Polaris is calculated and The following nores '* en
turned to a second station during daylight.
Latitude. An observation for latitude was made on Polaris at lower
culmination, June 16, 1962; longitude, ll3" 41.0' W; elevation of ?l: r1 -
station, 8254 ft.; temperature, 52o F.; watch, MST (105th meridian)
and 3.5 min. fast. Empire Mine, Mackay, Idaho. Transit: optical-
tyPe.
MST of Lower Culmination
GCT of LC at Greenwich, June lO, 1962 20h 41.90-
Correction to June 16, 6 days x 3.91 ^lday 23.46
Colcui-a::: q,

GCT of LC at Greenwich, June 16, 1962 20 t8.44 Watch time June 18, 196:,::o=
Correction for local meridian, 0.011 ^ x 113.7" \\'atch correction (fastt
(0.011- : 3.95^lday + 360"; + east long.; west long.)
- 1.2.5
Standard time, l05th mericran
LCT of LC at I l3' 41.0' W 20 17.19 Change to 24-hr. basis
Conversion LCT to Std. T., 8.7" x 4*/degree
Civil time, MST
(west, add; east, subtract) + 34.80
Correction for time zone (\{ST
MST of LC at I 13' 41.0' W 20 51.99 GCT
Watch 3.5 min. fast + 3.50 GCT, June 19, 1962 (less l-i n:
Civil time MST 20 55.49
GHA, 0h June l9 (from rabl: ::
Less 12 hr. Correction for 5h 43o (tro= a:-
t2 00.00 r

Correction for 08. (from a: e::.d

Watch time of LC 8h 55.49 m p.M.
GHA for 5h 43 - 08' June : i. I i
Less west longitude
The transit was set up at about 8:40 p.vr. and the star located and
followed to no apparent change in altitude. The following vertical LHA
nina: ,: of True Meridian Determination of True Meridiart 93

: sun .hade. A weak light angles were measured:

nina:-: rhe cross hairs. A 90" 00.0' - 270
47' 00.7' : 42 59.3'direct
rcC ::, prevent overcoming 312 59.2 - 00.0 :42 59.2 plunged
90 00.0 47 00.6 :42 59.4 direct
312 59.3 - 270 00.0 :42 59.3 plunged
d tc: :urning the angles- Average VA 42 59.3',
bv de:ressing the telescope Less refraction 0.8
5e rne:hod, the notes must
I bea:rns. This means that Corrected ft 42" 58.5'
reco:ced. Refraction data from an ephemeris, r : 1.03'; elevation multiplier,0.75; tem-
perature multiplier, 1.00. Colrected refraction : 1.03 x 0.75 x 1.00 :0.8'.
befo:: the estimated time Latitude, I : h + (90' - d) for lower culmination.
ir up :rd leveled. Stations Polar distance for June 16,1962, from an ephemeris, 0' 55.02'(by interpolation).
made 5eforehand. Polaris Declination, d :90" 00.0' - 0' 55.02' : 89o 04.98'.
,r cu.::lnation; horizontal Then
'ed angle is read and the I :42 58.5' + (90" - 89"04.98')
irnrneJ iatelv taken. This
: 43" 53.52'N
ious :isadjustments of the -- 43'53',30" N.
For upper culmination, I : h - (90" - d).
the :.'',sition ol Polaris at
:tr :).
Both telescope
a,., Azimuth (at any time). Time of observation, June 18,1962; latitude,
int b:s:;ting these marks is 43" 53.5' N; other data same as used for the latitude observation.
rf, Pu..":rs is calculated and The following notes were taken:
BS IS Angle right VA Time FS Tclescope
s rnaci on Polaris at lower
13' j. 'J' W; elevation of B A 31" 22.7', 46'53.8', 10:45:52 p.t't. Polaris D
tch. \1ST (105th meridian) ztt 23.5 313" 07.6', lO:47:24 P

i'. Id::o. Transit: optical- B A 31" 23.1', 43" O6.9', 10:46:38 p.t"t. Polaris

o:
90o 00.0' - 463 53.8' : 43" 06.2'
iL. a
313" 07.6' - 27O" @.0' : 43' 07.6'
20h 41.90- Average ql" OA.V
VA
23.46
Calculation of LHA (Local l{our Angle)
20 18.44 Watch time June 18,1962 (from observation) lQh 46^ 38"
Watch correction (fast) 330
rts:.,t1i I 1.25
l0 43 08
Standard time, l05th meridian
20 17.t9 Change to 24-hr. basis +12
Civil time, MST 22 43 08
+ 34.80 Correction for time zone (MST is 7 hr. west of Greenwich) +7 00 00
20 51.99 GCT 29 43 08
+ 3.50 GCT, June 19, 1962 (less 24 hr.) s4308
GHA, 0h June 19 (from table in an ephemeris) 237" 30.O',
20 55.49 Correction for 5h 43* (from an ephemeris) 85 59.1
tz 00.00 Correction for 08' (from an ephemeris) 2.O

8h 55.49 m P.M. GHA for 5h 43'08'June 19, 1962 323" 31.1',

Less west longitude I 13 41.0
x. 3:i the star located and LHA 209" 50.1',
de. T:e following vertical
94 Determination of True Meridian Determination of Tr:,; -r

When LHA is less than 180", the star is west of north and t : LHA. If the vertical ansle :s
But when LHA is greater than 180" (as above), the star is east of north and found from tables
r:360'-LHA. 'u--tl
360' 00.0' published by Keuffel & l

-209 50.1 From Table 10 (for .- - 0

t: 150" 09.9'
LHA
Polar distance : p: 0" 55.03 (from an ephemeris):
I 50"

Z_ YI
cos
,, /? ^
150"
I 55"
09.;

where / : LHA, lt : true altitude, p : polar distance. From Table 1l (to co::a1

Vertical angle 43' 06.9'

Less refraction 00.8'

h 43'06.1', 55.07
55.03
logsin t :9.696795 s4.97

, _ sin 150" 9?.9'0"

55.03,
logp :1.7406O0
cos 43'06.1'
t.437395
: 0" 37.49' log cos ft :9.863407

log : 1.573988 which very closely checis :er

: 37.49 min.
Azimuth (at eloneaic:
(Note: sin 150" 09.9' : sin(180' - 150" O9.9'): sin29" 50.1.) eastern elongation. Jun:
Because the LHA than 180'(209o50.1'), Polaris is east
was greater
ll3" 41.0' W; MST arc
one direct and one plu:-le
of north. Therefore, the bearing of A to Polaris is N 0' 37.5' E. Con-
02.3',.
sidering Polaris-r4-,8 as a traverse, the bearing of Polaris to .,{ becomes
Caii,-;:.
S 0" 37.5' W and the angle right B-A-Polaris may be expressed as
-'

Time of EE at Greenri:::.- J:
Polaris- A-B (as an angle right) equal to 360' - 31 " 23.1' or 328" 36.9' . Correction to June l6 I 5 la'.:
Bearing of Line AB. The correct bearing from A to the backsight' ,B
may be calculated as follows. This procedure ensures without question GCT of EE at Greenrr:c:. J:
the correct bearinB of AB. Correction for longituie '*es:

Bearing, Polaris to ,4 s 0" 37.5',W LCT of EE, June 16, 196:. :

180 Correction, LCT to sta::Ca::

Azimuth, Polaris to I 180 37.5 MST of EE at I 13' 41 0 \\'

Angle right, Polaris-l-,B 328 36.9 Correction for latitude o::e:

509 14.4 Standard time of EE ar i 1l' ,

- 180 Plus watch correction

Azimuth, A to B 329" 14.4', Watch time of EE, June :6. l

Bearing, A to B N 30' 45.6',W Transit set up about 2:50 r.v
uinc:!,-',,'t o_f True Meridian Determination of True Meridian 95

r*orlhanc::LHA. If the vertical angle is not measured, the azimuth of Polaris may be
r. rhe star :s east of north and found from tables such as Tables 10 and 1l in the 1962 ephemeris
published by Keuffel & Esser. The following interpolations are made.
From Table 10 (for p : O" 54.67');

43'53.5',
rist:

[ar distance. From Table 1l (to correct Table 10 to other values of p):

x9
xrs
M:
)l-. i : 9.696795
il : i.-10600

1.1i7395
The values in italics were found by interpolation.
*ts i : 9.363407 O" 37.26' + 0'00.26' : 0o 37 -52',

1._(73988
37.-19 min.
= <ir 'i' 50.1.)
rlLN'50.1'), Polaris is east
r=
Polan. is N 0" 37.5' E. Con-
aring -rf Polaris to ,4 becomes
loiai:s ma\/ be exPressed as
50' - 3l' 23.1'or 328" 36.9'.
rs ar.:-r .{ to the backsight',8
lirre e:sures without question
which very closely checks the 0" 37.49' found by using the vertical angle.
Azimuth (at elongation). An observation was made on Polaris at
eastern elongation, June 16, 1962. Latitude, 43o 53.5' N; longitude,
113'41.0'VI; MST and watch 3.5 min. fast. The average angle right,
one direct and one plunged, station A, backsight B to Polaris, was 32"
02.3', .
Calculation of Time for Eastern Elongatiort
Time of EE at Greenwich, June lO,1962 (from the ephemeris) 2h 48.0^
Correction to June 16 (6 days @ 3.91*/day) 235
GCT of EE at Greenwich, June 16,1962 2 24.5
Correction for longitude west of Greenwich (113.7 x 0.011^) 1.3

,,, ' -.5 ' \\' LCT of EE, June 16, 1962,113'41.0'W 2 23.2
I i,j
_.

Correction, LCT to standard time, 8.7e x 4^/degree + 34.8

MST of EE at I l3'41.0'W 2 58.0

..Sq Correction for latitude other than 40' (from ephemeris) + 0.5

5,W ;-i -1 Standard time of EE at I l3' 41.0'W longitude 2 58.5

Plus watch correction 3.5
- I Sr-,

r.* Watch time of EE, June 16, 1962 3h 02.0* n.u.

^

i l,_) :i.6'w Transit set up about 2:50 n.r"r. for observation.

96 Determination of True Meridian
The azimuth of Polaris may be calculated from either
LInde
, : o''"' o'iri';?i[*i'"""" _Pcos /' minutes,
tinP..
sin Z: cos /
Polar distance, June 10, 1962 (from ephemeris) 0' 55.01'
Correc(ion to June 16 + 0.01
Polar distance, June 16, 1962 o' 55.02',

_ 55.02 55.02
: 76.3' : l" 16.3'east of north,
cos 43' 53.5' 0.720652
Running an undersrou:
sin 0' 55.02' 0.01s998
Si,.r z : frJ43" 53t : o.720652 :0.02219, surface traverse in bcrt
information to be obair
Z : l" 16.3' or N I' 16.3',E. care must be exercised ::
, over, in the immediate r
Combining this bearing to Polaris with the angle right gives the bearing of AB
as N 30'46.0'W- be carefully inspecrd r,
Observation on Other Stars injure the transit or i:s
Before concluding the discu-ssion on astronomical observations, note disturbed or made inaa-:
that many other bright stars are available. Books on engineering In setting up the rra:::
astronomy (see references given at beginning of chapter) and various loose material buried ir
ephemerides (Keuffel & Esser, Hoboken, N. J.; W. & L. E. Gurley, of the lack of lieht thesc
Troy, N. Y.) give instructions for identifying stars and contain declina- is getting a tripod lee as
tions for them. Very precise latitudes may be obtained by observing the transit from under :
stars at culmination. In an hour or so many stars may be recorded for not realize this has haepe
a precise latitude. Almost any number of stars may be observed near rvould cause considerab.r
the east and west prime vertical for azimuth. Data obtained for
azimuth (vertical angle, declination and latitude) are easily reduced to a E
star's bearing by applying the cos Z formula. Numbering Stariom. ,
In northern latitudes, stars culminating and passing to the south of stations is a source of ir:
the observer are generally used. ment is relativell' sin:c.:
following the strike n'ir:
little difficulty is expen:
numerous parallel dnfu.
out and developine rhe
strike and the dip, pr*er
the higher-grade ore is :
of low-grade ore. the o,
confusion, because contjr
Ordinarily the pracrix
each level in order to l

example, the 100-ft. ler e.