Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Statement of the Problem

Child labor seems to be primal issue in developing countries like Pakistan. Child labor means
that school age child involved in such occupation which put off their educational
achievements and ruin mental or physical capability. Child own house work (normal routine
work) not included in child labor definition because it does not affect child schooling and
health. Similarly, the term harmful work ignore in this study because parents loved their
siblings and they are not ready to send for such work which is beyond their child capacity.
According to International Labour Organization (ILO) assessments frequency of child labor
greater in Sub-Saharan African countries and 85 million children involved in harmful labor
activity. The specific form of child labor based on child age, mode of labor activity, working
spell and intent of work. In developing countries after maturity a child is allowed to take part
in labor market while in case of developed countries after completion of school education a
child is allowed to work (ILO).

Child labor survey was made in Pakistan in 1996, according to estimates of this survey 3.3
million children were occupied in labor activity out of which 33.2% children are literate.
Male working child more educated than female child. Almost 70% working children involved
in unpaid family business labor activity, 23% employees and 7% are self-employed. This
estimates also shows that 46% children worked greater than 35 hours, about 54% children
worked to assist their family income, 27% worked to supplement their family income and
14% worked due to absence of other family members.

According to the evaluations of Punjab Bureau of Statistics MICS (2007-2008) there are total
5870 children under the age of 5 to 14 years in Multan district among which 3750 goes to
school and remaining 2120 either engage in labor or leisure. In Multan district 11 percent
children involved in labor activity among which 2 percent received income and remaining
received nothing MICS (2007-2008).

In literature there are several studies with respect to Pakistan made on child labor, child
schooling and household poverty presented in different ways i-e Ray (2000), Rosati and

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Rossi (2001), Ali and Khan (2003), Khan (2003), Toor (2005), Mansuri (2006), Hou (2009),
Qureshi et al. (2014), Landmann and Frolich (2015) and Lima et al. (2015).

In Pakistan Child labor directly related with household poverty and head education brought
significant impact on child schooling. When the income of household (specifically the
layman) fall, he is unable to meet the basic needs so, he makes decision that their offspring
must participate in labor market Ray (2000). The same views were presented by Ali and
Khan (2003), Hou (2009) and Qureshi et al. (2014) in different manners. While some studies
support the wealth paradox (which negate the luxurious assumption of Basu and Van (1999))
presented by Heady and Bhalotra (2003), according to this paradox child labor increases up
to a certain level of land holding after this it will start decrease. Large land holding household
employ inside home cheap labor (i-e their children) and save income before they reached a
certain level of land holding, after this they prefer child schooling. While the small land
holding household sent their children to school that is because they have not enough land to
involve their children in it Lima et al. (2015) and Abdullahi et al. (2016).

The present study discussed how the children and household features determine child labor,
child schooling and household poverty. Child labor is not only due to poverty but there are
certain reasons that create the problem of child labor like children not interested in school,
schooling zero valuable in future and learn skills. So, labor decision not only pulls by
children but also household characteristics. The determinants of child labor, child schooling
and household poverty are interconnected to each other.

In developing countries education is regard as the formidable determinant of human training.

Women are fall back men of availing education facilities. In the presence of greater gender
disparity female are less or unable to avail educational opportunities. So, presence of more
girls in a household decreased the child schooling Ali and Khan (2003). A number of studies
show that child labor and child schooling inversely related to each other, according this child
can do one thing in a single time; they cannot perform both duties at the constant time Toor
(2005), Amin et al. (2006), Wahba (2006) and Basu et al. (2010). Similarly this study also
discuss low child schooling is not only due to household poverty but there are also certain
factors like household head education, number of female in house, number of non-wage
earners and child interest in education. Children interest in school education is also a factor
that determines either he/she continues education or move to labor market. In literature there

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is no study made on children interest in school education and household dependency ratio,
that’s why it is included in present study to analyze its impacts on child schooling decision.

The present study also discusses the elements of household poverty by assuming various
household attributes. Household characteristics includes mode of household wage, per capita
income, received non-labor income, number of household working person and outside home
working hours. Mostly poor household working person worked on daily wages so, they
bought necessary goods daily. The unique finding of this study is that number of household
working person positively related with poverty. There are three reasons of this positive
association first mostly household working person worked on low wage rate, second 30
percent working children involved in unpaid work and third is earning of one or two working
person are unable to meet the basic needs of large family size households.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

The foremost aim of this study is to cognized the main factors affecting child labor, child
schooling and household poverty other than presented in previous literature. The important
objectives of this study are given below.

i. To understand why children involve in labor activity

ii. To determine how household and children characteristics influence child labor
decision.
iii. To study how household and children characteristics are causing low child schooling
in selected district.
iv. To identify the factors those are affecting household poverty in Pakistan.
v. Provide adequate recommendations to policy makers, regional heads on how they can
control child labor, low child schooling and household poverty in Multan district.

1.3 Scope of the Study

This research will be valuable to identify the characteristics that cause child labor, low child
schooling and household poverty in Multan district. This study will focus the effects of
household characteristics which further influence child labor and schooling. This work will
also useful to propose a best policy implication of how to remove household poverty, child
labor and low child schooling from Pakistan economy.

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1.4 Data and Methodology

This research work based on primary data accumulated from 200 households of two selective
Tehsils of Multan district. Analysis of this study organized in two sections. In the first
section, researcher has formulated elementary data analysis. While in the second section
quantitative analysis has made to determine the factors associated with child labor, low child
schooling and household poverty. The quantitative analysis is a combination of three set of
analysis first statistical analysis, second correlation analysis and third empirical analysis in
which we use logistic model.

1.5 Organization of the Study

The research work of this study is arranged as follow: Chapter 1 introduction present a
concise introduction of subject, purpose and scope of the study. Literature review is discussed
in 2nd chapter, this provide reviews around child labor, child schooling and household poverty
that prevail in world with specific position of Pakistan. Chapter 3 rd is theoretical framework
in which researcher discoursed the different economic theories of child labor, children human
capital and household poverty. In chapter 4th data and methodology has been discussed.
Results and discussion have been made in chapter 5 th, which is comprised on statistical,
correlation and empirical analysis of primary data that has been collected from two selective
Tehsils of Multan district. Logistic model used to explore the empirical determinants of child
labor, child schooling and household poverty. While conclusions and policy implications
have been deliberate in chapter 6th.

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Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

There are countless studies on the issue of child labor, child schooling and household
poverty. In this chapter I will observe different literature especially with reference to
Pakistan, developing and developed countries of the world, how household poverty, child
labor and child schooling related to each other. I will discuss what are the main causes,
consequence or impact of child labor, low child schooling and household poverty on Pakistan
economy.

2.2 Review of Literature

Canagarajah and Coulombe (1992) evaluated the conditions of child labor and schooling in
Ghana. In this case study child labor defined as a school-going age children only performed
work outside the home for the sake of self as well as family survival. They analyzed that
welfare index of household reveal weak negative link with child labor and strong positive
link with school enrollment, while reverse is true in rural areas. The results of this study
showed that excessive cost of school, distance from school and inefficiency in teaching
methods bounds parents to send their child towards labor market. They concluded that female
literacy rate (i-e dwelling work excluded from definition) enhanced as compared to boys.
This study suggested amenable educational policies (especially in rural areas) and increment
in private as well as social returns of education decline child labor. On the contrary, mostly
girls spent more hours in domestic work which is also hinder them in school enrollment and
their study ignored this aspect of child labor.

Jensen and Nielsen (1997) examined the situation of child labor or school attendance in
Zambia. This study basically depends on two hypothesis of parents decision either their
children participate in labor market or in school, first poverty is the major cause of child
labor, second low quality of schools compelled parents to keep their children missing from
school. Theoretical as well as empirical analyses of this study supported the first hypothesis
while the second seems to be least applicable. The results of this study showed girls have low
school attendance or high dropout rate(i-e early marriages or pregnancy) as compared to
boys, step or non-biological relations, age of child, more family members involvement in

5
labor market, distance to school, defective capital market structure and remittances are
negatively related with school attendance or participation, while high grade achievement,
assets or saving, formal employment opportunities for household, rural residency (i-e more
primary school available there as compared to in urban),human capital of household head are
positively related with school attendance or participation. The study suggested whole decline
in cost of schooling, improved capital market structure and income generating possibilities
for household heads brought directly or indirectly positive impacts on children school
participation rate.

Patrinos and Psacharopoulos (1997) empirically analyzed the household family size, child
schooling and child labor in Peru. In this paper two situations are analyzed first estimation of
school progress in the form of repeat grade or overage, second chances of work of school
going children. The results of this study showed age of children, rural residency and number
of children in a family positively influenced age grade distortions, while reverse is true for
parent education(i-e especially male),large homes and private schooling. They concluded that
not any child repeat the same grade when he/she worked for finance his/her educational
expenses so, in this situation child performed the both duties at the same time. The authors
suggested that instantly ban on child labor seemed not a suitable decision (i-e it lead more
poverty among household) so, compensation and subventions must be offered to household
and working children to avoid full time child labor.

Blunch and Verner (2000) explored the association of poverty and child labor in Ghana. In
this case study harmful child labor term used to show how child labor competes with the
process of human capital accumulation of children directly. The preliminary results of this
study shows harmful child labor positively related with poverty and child age, while this
situation is mostly found in rural than urban areas and girls mostly involved in it (less attend
school). In their study, they constructed an economic model to find out the determinants of
harmful child labor whose results similar to the preliminary results but in different manner (i-
e ownership of assets, distance from education center, region of resides and gender). The
most credible point of this study is discussion about disable child’s (disability negatively
related with harmful child labor), these child’s involved in less physical movement activity in
both urban and rural regions. Through both approaches authors investigated that rural and
urban girls more involved in harmful child labor activity than boys similarly, low income or
non- low income girls mostly involved in harmful child labor activity than boys.

6
Ray (2000) analyzed the situation of child labor, child schooling and compare it with young
or mature labor through empirical evidence from Pakistan and Peru. This study basically
depends on two hypothesis, first direct link between working hours of a child and poverty,
second indirect link between school education and poverty while, luxury axiom(low family
income promote child labor) used to test its applicability in both countries. The results of this
study supported the above hypothesis only for Pakistan and negate Peru, child labor as a
source to escape from poverty trap in Pakistan than Peru, as female wage increased than
working hours of her also increased; men more financially supported their family income
than women in Pakistan as compared to Peru. While in case of Peru as male wage increased
then working hours for female decreased, women more financially supported their family as
compared to Pakistan. He concluded when all income of household fall below the poverty
line then parents have no any option but to derive out their children(especially girls than
boys) from school while, elder member and mother education brought significant impacts on
child labor and schooling in both countries. The author of this study suggested instant outlaw
on child labor not a suitable decision and such policies made that enhanced the education
standard in both countries especially in Pakistan.

Rosati and Rossi (2001) inspected the factors affect the worked hours of children and school
enrollment decision and its link with human capital accumulation process in two selective
countries. In this study they discussed the impacts of children work duration on school
enrollment/ class distortions and human capital accumulation process in Pakistan and
Nicaragua. The authors of this study found that increment in income indirectly influenced the
children work period, family size positively influenced child school enrollment decision and
reduced child work period, a child work more an hour in the presence of small siblings in the
house, work hours positive link with more number of school age children while reverse true
for Pakistan. They also concluded that gender differences greater in Pakistan than Nicaragua
so, male child worked more time than female, child working period greater in urban than
rural areas (rural children less enrolled in school as well as work less hours), in Pakistan an
additional hour of child work created 3.8 points more chances towards class distortion while
in Nicaragua this created 3.6 points more chances towards class distortion. The authors of this
study recommended that both minimum child work period as well as more school enrollment
policies made to accelerate the human capital formation process.

Shapiro and Tambashe (2001) explored the relationship between children education
investment decision and sex, poverty and household family size in capital of Democratic

7
Republic of Congo. In this study authors discussed that how economic improvement brought
variations in child school enrollment and more grades achievements, they also examined the
association between passed education of household headship holder and children. The
empirical results of this study revealed that improvement in household economic status
positively influenced the investment decision of children (both male and female) education,
female child (10-14) years obtained less education under the female headship as compared to
male, while family size negatively related with children education investment decision. They
also concluded that investment in children education inversely related under the headship of
others than parents and gender of headship holder not substantially influenced the decision of
male child (particularly) education investment.

Admassie (2003) examined the compatibility between child labor and school attendance in
subsistence economy of rural Ethiopia. In this paper author discussed all kinds of exploitative
(carry or lifting heavy weights and other dangerous works) or non-exploitative (routine life of
farm and domestic work) activity that children performed inside (i-e look after of small
siblings, cooking, house dusting and own farm work) and outside (hotel work, slavery and
look after of shop, etc.) house. The results of the study pretended that labor force
participation rate and gender discrimination positively influenced the growing age, mostly
less girls enrolled in school(too expensive and away from house) as compared to boys, a
school going children have the capacity to performed normal house and farm work. The
author of this study concluded household member favored male child investment that brought
long term benefits for them and avoid female child investment that brought only short term
benefits for them and long term benefits availed her in-law family. The results of his study
recommended short term flexible educational policies made during peak periods of child
demand as labor in agriculture sector and long term policies made for positive improvement
in demographic structure.

Ali and Khan (2003) examined the role of urban household of making simultaneous decision
regarding child schooling and labor in Pakistan. In this study authors discussed supply side
factors of child labor and examined the urban household’s characteristics, child
characteristics, and head of household characteristics that might influence the decision of
parents towards labor or school. This study based on four sequential parents decision stages
(i-e first, only going to school, second going to school and doing work, third only doing
work, fourth neither going to school nor doing work). The results of this study revealed
similar relationships found up to three stages as discussed in previous literature while, the 4th

8
stage result showed that in urban areas parents more concern towards education in urban
areas so, they sent less their children for work as compared to rural areas, birth order
positively influenced child labor, gender discrimination enhanced boys schooling so, they
less fall under this stages, households assets holding decreased the chances of work. They
suggested that Govt. should play their role for the provision of educational policies (for child
as well as adult) and control the demographic compositions.

Khan (2003) explored the performance of children in different activities specifically labor
and schooling in two districts of Pakistan. In this study authors discussed the features or
characteristics of different factors like child, parents, household, household headship holder,
residency location, family composition, etc. and examined its impacts on four decision stages
(i-e school only, work plus school, work only and only managing home). The results of this
study revealed that child birth order inversely influenced only work or school decision
(reverse happened for third and fourth stage), gender discrimination greater in rural areas as
compared to urban areas (girls faced low availability and quality of education, higher dropout
rate, etc.), child education and age status positively influenced the child only work or school
decision, while education and age status of household headship holder, household per capita
income and assets holding positively affected only child schooling decision. They also
concluded that mother education standard brought more significant results as compared to
father regarding child school decision only, family size negatively influenced child schooling
decision, while income and employment status of parents not influenced the child schooling
decision.

Aldaba et al. (2004) empirically examined the inverse link between child schooling and child
labor in Philippines. In this study authors discussed decision of child labor influenced market
wage rate and opportunities, parent preference towards child investment while the schooling
decision influenced child characteristics (total expenses on each child, age, health status and
highest grade obtained), household and community factors (distance/access to school and
school availability) and asset holding of household (parents qualification, subsidy and except
agriculture land). The results of this study revealed that parents more invested in girls than
boys, dropout rate higher for boys (more participated in labor market) than girls, child age
positively associated with market opportunities, parents qualification positively related with
child schooling decision, children of higher asset holding household and resides in
impoverished areas more involved in labor activity, while parents spend less on elder child
quality. They also determined the main causes behind the problem of child labor (role of

9
imperfect market and less availability of total assets) and working capacity of child initially
increasing then decreasing at growing age. The authors of this study recommended that
student education loan scheme made through which student get loan easily to manage their
educational expenses and prepared of poverty abolishment, similarly boys education policies
must motivated (specifically in impoverished areas) which further provide different types of
assistance to households and male child.

Edmonds (2005) analyzed the role of potential income as responses of child labor and
schooling in South Africa. This study used Old Age Pension Program (OAP) as a social cash
transfer for black South African elder member of poor families and age is the primary
determinant of it. A male is pension eligible at the age of 65 and a female eligible at the age
of 60, both are consider nearly eligible until this age. The author examined the impact of
social cash transfer on child labor and schooling when black elder family member moved
from nearly eligible to eligible status. He investigated that in rural region boys child
schooling increased and working hours decreased simultaneously under the headship of male
pension eligible, while under the headship of both female/male pension eligible working
hours decline more for girls(i-e mostly involved in domestic work) than boys(i-e engage in
market work).Pension only got Govt. employees after retirement but he did not discuss about
those poor people who are working in informal or private sector, suddenly unemployed
before this age and facing poverty, never enrolled their child in school and have no option but
to send their childs in labor market.

Ersado (2005) comparatively analyzed the household decision of children labor and
schooling activity in both rural and urban regions of Peru, Nepal and Zimbabwe. In this study
author discussed the role of school quality, mother work status, parents qualification, access
to banks, school education expenses, labor market structure, age and gender of child on
affected the decision of child work and school attainment in urban/rural region separately .
The results of this study revealed that in all countries child school attendance inversely
related with age, female and elder children school participation rate low as compared to boys
and small children, family qualification negatively related with child labor, responsibilities of
small siblings strongly affected child school attendance in urban areas than rural and only in
rural areas poverty is the main cause behind child labor. He also investigated that better labor
market structure and more school expenses positively influenced child school attainment
(specifically in Nepal and Peru) opposite happened in urban Peru, mother work outside home
promoted more child labor in Peru and Nepal, and access to credit market significantly

10
affected child school attendance in Nepal and Zimbabwe while reverse happened in Peru. The
results of this study suggested that small siblings day care centers (in urban region),
betterment in adult wage and school quality improved child school attainment (particularly in
Peru).

Moav (2005) examined the condition of low quality children and persistence poverty within
and across the countries. In this study author developed a dynamic model which generate
multiple equilibrium steady states within and across the countries, the high income steady
state shows more investment in child quality and less quantity of children while, low income
steady state shows low investment in child quality and more quantity of child. The each point
of multiple steady states depends on multiplier effects like at high point more income means
more opportunities of child investment, less resources devoted for more children So, the high
income parents(or highly qualified) prefer quality over quantity of their children. The results
of this study showed child labor inversely related with cost of quantity of child and positive
with life expectancy, technological spillover and income inequality. The author of this study
suggested child labor regulations and public schooling play a crucial role regarding the
contraction of child labor and fertility rates.

Toor (2005) explored the relationship of child labor with literacy and poverty in Pakistan. In
this study author analyzed the existence of child labor in 100 districts of Pakistan and
estimate the hypotheses whether it is more in impoverished areas and prevaling low
education attainment. The results of this study revealed that child labor not only persist in
impoverished areas but also in well developed areas of these districts, girls school dropout
ratio high as compared to boys at low income level, child labor negatively related with
literacy rate (both for girls and boys) and deprivation indicators (i-e out of school children,
homeless or rented house population and unemployment level in each district). He also
investigated male child labor positively associated with household size and per capita income
while reverse happened with female child labor. The results of this study suggested
government first overcome the issue of poverty then ban on child labor and improved the
education standard.

Amin et al. (2006) examined whether the labor market and dwelling work prevent the
children from school attainment in Bangladesh. In this study authors discussed the effects of
labor market work and dwelling work on children (separately for both male and female child)
labor and school attainment decision in urban and rural areas separately. The results of this

11
study revealed that labor market work less prevented the rural female child and urban male
(particularly small age) child regarding obtain school education while dwelling work activity
least prevented small rural and elder urban male child to got school education. They also
investigated that children involved in labor (either labor market or dwelling work) activity
mostly less attended school as compared to not working children. The results of this study
suggested that small sibling’s day care centers helpful in order to enhanced female child
school education. They also recommended that short as well as long term policies made
which enhanced children education similarly technological inventions in labor market and in
household work activity reduced the problem child labor and simultaneously enhanced child
schooling.

Beegle et al. (2006) analyzed the role of agriculture shocks to determine child labor in
Tanzania. In this study authors discussed whether the negative agriculture shocks (low
techniques of production lead to crop failure) promote child labor and how a household
compensate these effects of such shocks with assets (i-e cash, physical except land and
durable assets), buffer stock and loanable fund. The results of this study showed children of
shocks faced households thirty percent more involved in labor activity, crop shocks positively
related with school absence, household’s assets holding declined eighty percent effects of
such shocks. The authors of this study concluded that low income household bear shocks
after minimize their assets holding plus child labor while rich household bear shocks only
declined their assets holding instead of took loan. The results of this paper suggested that
during crop shock period easy loan availed scheme reduced the child labor problem and
improve the well-being status of low income households.

Dayioglu (2006) examined the role of household income of determining child labor in urban
Turkey. In this study author discussed the different indicators (annual household income
except child wage, household assets, annual father total incomes (both labor and non- labor
income)) to examined household income and financial or economic position of households,
this is considered the main determinant of child labor. The results of this study showed father
incomes (both labor and non-labor income) and his public employment status negatively
influence child labor, one more year parents education decreased child labor 0.2 percent and
increased school participation rate, age and quantity of children positive influenced child
labor and low wage child labor higher in absence of father at home. He concluded that child
labor higher in low assets holder household as compared to low income households. The
results of this study negated the cash transfer program that helped household to establish their

12
own business and lead to create more chances of child labor, and recommended poverty
reduction as well as small scale or medium scale financed program declined the problem of
child labor.

Khanum (2006) empirically analyzed the determinants of child labor and school participation
in Bangladesh. In this paper author discussed the impacts of child characteristics (age, gender
and relation with household), parents characteristics (parents education and employment
status, and size of family) and household characteristics (size of family, total assets,
availability and distance to school) on these four options (only school, only work, school plus
work and neither in school nor in labor market). The empirical results of this study showed
son and daughter of household more involved in only school and learnt no economic activity,
female child more involved in both activities as compared to boys, family size positive link
with child school attendance or enrollment, higher education standard of parents created more
trends towards child schooling, children of per day wage earners father mostly lie in second
and third option while, children of trade professionals only doing study, working mothers
status significantly influenced girls education and not of boys. The author of this study
concluded little domestic work permit girls to enrolled in school, they possess the capability
to perform both duties at the same time as compared to boys. The author of this study
suggested school participation of children enhanced in impoverished areas.

Mansuri (2006) empirically evaluated the effects of migration on children schooling and
labor activity in rural area of Pakistan. In this study author discussed how temporary
migration (only economic) of low skill household member towards developed countries
influenced the children human capital in developing countries. The results of this study
revealed that temporary migration of household member positively influenced the children
(particularly for female child) human capital investment decision so, children school
participation rate increased, declined school dropout rate and simultaneously decreased child
labor. She also concluded that migration of male household member towards developed
countries also reduced the gender disparity and improved household living standard or
declined poverty while female headship seemed to be less significant to determine the
migration effects in this area. According to this study male child enjoyed more benefits of
male migrated household under the female headship as compared to female child. This study
showed the temporary effects of migration which brought only short time period betterment
while ignore the long time period betterment.

13
Sakamoto (2006) empirically determined the behavior of parents towards their children and
children work in rural India (Uttar Pardesh and Bihar). In this study author examined the role
of qualitative factors like parents attitude or preference towards their children (clothe
spending on children), parents power to control household activities, environmental factors,
races etc. in determined child labor in UDCS. In this study the extent of parents concern
towards their children estimated from clothe spending on children, low clothe spending show
low concern of parents, this leads to promote child labor and vice versa. The results of this
study showed male head of household mostly sent their children for work and environmental
factors (existence of school, educated atmosphere and credit availability) and less spending
on children positively related with child labor. He also concluded child labor and father work
are substitute and religion did not affect child labor except caste. He suggested different
policies must be made by Govt. like bring awareness in parents’ attitude towards children
education, change power structure in houses and easy credit availability.

Togunde and Richardson (2006) analyzed the family size and its composition link with child
labor in urban Nigeria. In this study authors discussed the association of child labor with
different household variables (i-e religion, residence location, child working hours, age and
gender of household head and child work starting age, parent’s qualification status, etc.). The
results of this revealed age and of household head, child gender and residence location
approximately not influenced child working hours while working hours of child positively
related with child contribution in household total income, work starting age and family
size(household plus children quantity). They also concluded that children of Christian
religion less/no involved in labor activity as compared to other religions (Islam and
traditionalist) and child of low family size less participated in labor market, while these are
the children of high social and economic status parents. The authors of this study suggested
that there is a need to brought revolution in demographic factors of household that control the
overgrowing population and made policies to uplift the social economic status of parents.

Wahba (2006) examined the impacts of market wage rates and parents background on the
decision of child labor and child schooling in Egypt. In this study author analyzed that market
wage and children forefather social economic status determined the child labor and schooling
decision, according to him a children of past labor parents(who did the same work as their
child do today) involved in labor activity, he considered that child labor transmit from one
generation to others. The results of this study showed child labor and child schooling
inversely related to each other, in each region layman parents market wage negatively

14
associated with child (both male and female child) labor, child involvement in labor market
positive influenced child market wage, mother labor activity in her childhood brought more
significant impact on male child than father labor activity and parents qualification negative
influenced child labor while reverse is true for child schooling. He also concluded that
income inequality, more market information and presence of small siblings in households
positively associated with child labor activity, more child school participation rate increased
under female headship as compared to male, foreign remittances, and elder involvement in
manufacturing or public sector inversely related with child labor. The results of this study
recommended that cash transfer schemes made in those regions where elder face less market
wage rate system.

Das and Mukherjee (2007) discovered the role of females in determine the decision of male
child labor and schooling in urban India. In this study authors first discussed the impacts of
human capital on adult and child wage rates in labor market then examined the association
between parent’s human capital and child work as a labor decision, access to school and
school dropout rates. In this study authors found almost 2.5% male children of poor families
involved in labor activity in industrial sector of India, caste systems least influenced child
labor activity, more children involved in manual labor activity than harmful labor activity and
school dropout rate and child labor activity greater among Muslims children. They also
investigated that stability in income of father inversely related with child labor while mother
education status strongly affected child school participation rate than father education and
reverse happened for child labor activity. The results of this study suggested that Govt. took
initiative for the promotion of good quality of education (particularly for elder women) and
compulsory school attainment.

Duryea et al. (2007) explored the role of economic shocks and its impacts on child work and
school status in six big cities of Brazil. In this study authors made comparison between
temporary unemployed (i-e four month) household head and permanent employed household
head and examined its effects on child labor force participation rate and school attainment.
According to them temporary unemployed household head faced negative transitory
economic shock, these household head have not another option except to send their children
towards labor market when they have zero saving stocks. The results of this study revealed
that after such shocks the chances of grade distortions enhanced from 38 to 43% and shocks
effects positively influenced the chances of children participation in labor market, school
dropout rates and distorted the grade. They also concluded that shocks effects mostly bear

15
female child as compared to boys, temporary unemployment shocks negatively influenced
children. The results of this study recommended that short term as well as long term saving
schemes must be introduced that become a helping tool for temporary unemployed people
during such shocks.

Emerson and Souza (2007) determined the role of household head or parents gender bias and
its impacts on the decision of child labor and school attainment in Brazil. They examined that
the matter of parents (father, mother or both) qualification brought significant changes in
decision of child investment and involvement in labor market. The results of this study
showed that father qualification mostly positive influenced male child investment decision
and negative influenced male child labor market involvement decision as compared to mother
qualification while, mostly mother qualification positive influenced female child investment
decision and negative influenced female child labor decision as compared to father
qualification. The authors of this study suggested that in male dominating society cash
transfer to father declined child labor most effectively. But this study ignored the aspect of
how much amount out of this cash transfer father must spend on each child.

Fares and Raju (2007) examined the pattern and relationship of child labor among sixty five
developing countries of world. In this study authors basically distinguished the term of child
labor from child economic activity (work for wage plus work in own family farm), along with
its similarities and dissimilarities among different developing countries. They examined the
impact of both terms on region, employment sector, gender and human capital formation
process separately. The result of economically active children revealed that boys mostly
involved in economic activity as compared to girls, in all the countries average number of
economically active children (particularly boys than girls) mostly participated in agriculture
sector than other sectors(industrial and service sectors). They also concluded that there is
positive association between the rates of child economic activity and not attending school
activity, economically active children (particularly girls) school attainment rate greater in
both Latin America and Caribbean than other regions, while the results of child labor term
greater consistence with economically active children results.

Kruger (2007) examined whether the unexpected fluctuations in output level of coffee
making factory influenced the child labor and schooling decision in Brazil. In this study
author explored the variation in coffee factory output level in specific regions also varied the
employment incentives as well as school attainment of children (both male and female) of

16
least, middle and higher income families. The results of this study revealed that betterment in
economic situations (i-e increment in demand or amount of output level) promoted the more
chances of male child labor activity of low income families than middle income families,
elder male child more participated in school than in labor market. He also concluded that
results of such type of shocks strong negative affect the children (both male and female child)
welfare of less and middle income family while reverse is true for higher income family
children. According to him such type of economic growth more enhanced the disincentives of
children human capital formation process.

Shafiq (2007) empirically analyzed the role of household school education and its impacts on
child work decision in rural area of Bangladesh. In this study author discussed the household
education standard, financial status, family size and religion to determined children schooling
and work decision. The results of this study revealed that low financial position of household
negatively influenced the children school enrollment decision and promoted children work
activity, mother education more significantly influenced the children (specifically greater for
boys than girls) work or school decision as compared to educated father and more presence of
elder in family declined the chances of child labor. They also concluded that child work and
schooling least varied with direct cost of school while indirect cost significantly influenced
this decision. The results of this study suggested that there is need to made certain policies (i-
e child work reduction) particularly for some school educated households similarly
microfinance support scheme initiated to alleviate such problems.

Hou (2009) empirically discovered the link of wealth with child labor and child schooling in
terms of economic growth contexts from 1998 to 2006 in Pakistan. In this study author also
examined the link of wealth with child idleness situation, on the assumption that child
idleness declined as economic growth took place. In this study author investigated that
economic growth took place during such era declined poverty rate from 30% to 25%,
simultaneously enhanced the child (both girl and boy) school enrollment rate and reduced
child labor in country, in urban areas child labor rate more declined for boys than girls while
in rural areas this rate declined at the same rate for both gender, school enrollment rate more
enhanced for boys than girls in urban areas while reverse happened in rural area. He also
found child idleness rate more declined for girls than boys in rural areas and this rate less
declined for girls than boys in urban areas, as the male child grew old he more engaged in
labor activity and female child tends towards idleness, in rural areas children (particularly
girls) more involved in unpaid labor activity than in urban area. The results of this study

17
suggested that cash transfer scheme suitable only in those areas where children involved in
labor activity to meet their basic needs while effective school education promotion policies
made where the lack of schools quantity and quality (especially in rural) compel children to
involved in labor activity.

Kim (2009) empirically analyzed whether the children involvement in two activities (work
plus school) considered the best policy measure in Cambodia. In this study author composed
the term child work into two categories, first permit able (neither interfere child schooling nor
endangered them) child work and second non-permit able (interfere school participation as
well as harmful for health) child work. The author of this study found that only to some
extent poverty promoted the child labor, more male child involved in both activities (work
plus school) than female child, more female child remain idle than male child, teachers (less
paid job) spent less hours in classes, they failed to fulfill their responsibilities in well manner.
He also concluded that even flexible educational policies (limited resources access) not
permit the children to perform both duties at the same time. The results of this study
recommended that there is need to invent a diversified school education system which
promoted the more chances for children to perform both activities at the same time. This
study discussed more than one shift in school is necessary but he ignored the relieve behavior
of low salary teacher.

Basu et al. (2010) practically determined the association between child labor and family
wealth status. In this study authors included both own house work activity and outside house
activity to explain child labor while household wealth standard measured through the amount
of land holding and examined its relationship with child labor (specifically working hours).
The results of this study revealed that elder child’s and female more involved in labor activity
than others, women education more significantly decreased child labor as compared to men
education, more children engaged in domestic work than farm work and child labor activity
and school participation moved in opposite direction. The authors of this study explored that
children labor activity increased until land holding reached to peak point of such holding and
after this point child labor start decreased. The authors of this suggested that implementations
of educational (particularly women) as well as institutional reforms necessary for the
contraction of child labor similarly, reduced imperfections from male labor market
considered the right decision in this regard.

18
Boockmann (2010) used both individual and collectively level of data to examine the
importance and impacts of small age conventions of International Labor Organization
regarding children labor and schooling. In this paper author described the how the
international labor organization policies helpful of reducing children labor activity in
different nations (either these countries are adopted such policies or not) and simultaneously
increased school attainment. The results of collective analysis of this study revealed that
children school participation seems to similar in both convention followed or not followed
countries, presence of small siblings in household negatively influenced child schooling and
while in case of individual analysis children school participation rate greater in convention
following countries. According to him the results of both analytical approaches showed that
such conventions brought not fruitful results as desired by following countries.

Gartner and Gartner (2011) discovered the determinants of wage traps that further lead the
problem of child labor, worst form of poverty and declined in literacy rate. In this study
authors discussed the different forms of labor supply curve like positively, backward bending
and negatively sloped supply curves while examined its influence on relative subsistence
level of a household. The results of this study revealed that wage rates inversely related with
working hours, wage trap occurred under the negative wage elasticity’s and wage rate direct
related with household work strength. They concluded that decline in wage rate increase the
absolute poverty (below the subsistence level) which further enhanced school dropout rate
and children began to participation in labor market increased. The results of this suggested
that international assistance, restrictions on child labor and labor unions may helpful of
reducing absolute poverty and child labor from an economy. But the contract of labor union
took place only in industrial sector or some other civilized sectors not in the whole poor
economy.

Grigoli and Sbrana (2011) examined the factors determine the child labor and schooling in
Bolivia. In this study authors investigated the impacts of govt. assistance in the form of
school incentives on the behavior of parents regarding the decision of child labor and school
enrollment or attendance. The authors of this study found that child age and Spanish language
positively associated with child work decision, child work higher in rural areas than urban
while reverse true for school enrollment, and parent’s qualification declined the chances of
child work while increase the chances of school enrollment. They also concluded that zero
substitutability found between work and school among the children of extremely poor
households, while such types of policies more beneficial for extreme poor families than non-

19
poor. The results of this study suggested that school incentives schemes promote the school
enrollment or attendance (especially in rural areas) and certainly uplift the status of poor local
families’ children.

Zapata et al. (2011) observed whether the gender and caste/ethnic determined the child
domestic household work, which further lead the inverse link between child labor and
schooling in Bolivia. In this study authors used two types of child labor definitions, first
consisted only labor market work while second included both domestic household child work
plus labor market work. The results of this study revealed that children (both male and female
child) of local civilians more wanted to involved in labor activity (both house work plus
market work) than others non-indigenous, more male child involved in labor activity than
female child under first definition of child labor while more female child engaged in labor
activity under both definitions, gender discrimination lead to less female child enrollment in
school, children resided in rural areas have 30% more chances to remain out of school. They
also concluded that gender of headship holder not influenced the decision of child labor or
schooling, parents qualification brought significant impact on child schooling (especially for
male child), number of pre-school age children negatively associated with school enrollment
decision. The results of this study suggested public pre-school age children care centers and
civil education system promote the school participation of girls while flexible school
educational policies must be made in rural areas which facilitate the needs of farm holding
families (particularly during the peak periods of child labor demand).

Ahmad (2012) analyzed the relationship between poverty, education and child labor in
Aligarh city of India. In this study author explored mostly children involved in non-formal
activities (i-e dhabas work, rag pickers, vendors, etc.) in the city so, all the possible factors
that might influence child labor are age, gender differences, religion, education standard,
educational achievements of family, size of family, family work status, family income except
child work, child contribution in family income, structure of work, wage rates and work
timing, preference towards kinds of work. The results of this study showed child labor
positively related with age, quantity of children, low family income, low parents educational
achievements, low educational standard, higher offered wage, better work environment and
also work timing. He also concluded Muslim children more involved in labor activity than
Hindu. He suggested Govt. made those policies which compel parents to keep their children
away from labor market (i-e provision of school as well as technical education centers).

20
Sarkar and Sarkar (2012) examined what are the reasons behind the prevalence of child labor
with decreasing poverty. In this study authors included both paid and unpaid activity of
children performed in labor market and examined the impacts of higher income inequality
under decreased poverty rate on child labor and child schooling. The author of this study
investigated that income inequality positively influenced child labor, income inequality
inversely related with child schooling decision (low level of human capital formation) and
child working hours increased at low value of wealth distribution rank, while the child
schooling hours decreased. They also concluded that in poor economies income inequality
increased severity of both child labor and low child schooling problems. The results of this
study recommended that avoid child labor ban policies which usually distracted the parents
towards child schooling decision and promote the public welfare programs that enhanced the
quality of schooling.

Heymann et al. (2013) observed the role of child labor legislation (practiced in 2008 and
2012) and its impacts on secondary school enrollment rate of children. In this study authors
empirically analyzed the effectiveness of minimum age child labor law and its impacts on
child admission in secondary school. The results of this study revealed that mostly children
allowed to start work at the age of more than or equal to fifteen years in rich countries as
compared to poor countries, child labor legislation more influenced the female child
secondary school enrollment rate than male child in rich countries. They also found that
minimum child work age law brought significant results regarding child compulsory school
education policies. The results of this study suggested that extension in minimum child work
age and promotion of secondary school education considered the best way to escape from
poverty trap.

Kumar (2013) examined the role of gender disparity and parent’s child preference and its
effects on child labor and child schooling. In this study author explored the financial position
(holding of non-labor income) of household and its effects on male child preference function,
female child marriage expenditures and earning function bias. The author of this study found
that higher income parents distributed non labor income (i-e bequest) more equally among
male and female child, promote child investment equally and reduced gender inequality while
low income parents not spent equally among both children, they mostly preferred male child
investment than female and female child marriage expenditures positively influenced child
work while reverse true for schooling. The results of this study recommended that there was
need to make such policies which uplift the status poor families which further condemn

21
gender inequality from labor market, changed the parent’s preference towards male child and
reduced the female child marriage expenditures specific in low income localities.

Malik (2013) inspected whether poverty might affect child schooling and child labor in 30
states of India. In this study, author constructed the wealth index which is a combination of
different items that a household used in routine life, to estimate the economic status of each
household in these states. He used different characteristics of school attainment (i-e never
enrolled in school, enrolled in school, drop out ratios, interest of children and left school
before completing primary, secondary and matric standard) to measure the association of it
with poverty. The results of this study shows that poor economic states having high
percentage of never enrolled in school, dropout rates and left school before completing
primary, secondary and matric standard as compared to good economic states. He suggested
Govt. took initiative for promotion of compulsory school education programs as well as
brought betterment in social economic environment of schools in economically deprived
region of these states.

Onyemauwa et al. (2013) discovered the poverty status of household and its impacts on
children participation in labor activity in Isoko North of Delta state. In this study authors
discussed the poverty and social economic factors and its role in determine child labor in
state. The results of this study revealed that women have more household headship than men,
age determined the economic activity of head of household, education status of household
head positively influenced the children education, poverty gap greater under the women
headship as compared to men headship, similarly poverty gap also higher under middle age
(33 and 39) as compared to higher age (70 and 77) and household poverty along with child
labor negatively influenced the formal education status of household head. They also
concluded that poor people engaged in farming activity that’s why only farmer expenditures
influenced the poverty and household poverty status positively influenced the child labor
activity. The results of this study suggested that promotion of vocational and formal
education declined poverty as well as child labor in this state.

W.A and T.N (2013) deliberated the effects of household poverty status on child labor
performance among household in Nigeria. The main objective of this study is to analyzed the
different types of activities in which children engaged, different forms of characteristics like
child(age, sex, interest towards education, relation to head of household and disability),head
of household(age, sex, family size, education status, total income and poverty head count)

22
and community(residency area, distance to school and labor market),reasons or determinants
of child labor and household poverty status depend on children participation in labor market.
The result of this study revealed that children mostly engaged in hawking activity, they work
to support their low income parents, low income family children more involved in labor
activity as compared to non-low income family children, children worked more hours under
the female headship as compared to male, elder children worked more hours as compared to
younger children and as age of children increased working hours increased at declining rate.
They concluded urban leaving children worked more hours and distance from labor markets
negatively affected child labor.

Webbink et al. (2013) examined the role of household and context factors affecting child
labor in 221 districts of 18 developing countries. They analyzed the situation of child labor at
domestic, districts and national level and discussed the role of context factors in which
included resources (income/assets, parent’s education and work status), structure (child
quantity, birth Oder, child rank and urbanization) and culture (parent’s preference towards
labor and women status). The results of this study revealed that child labor (both male and
female) inversely related with higher education standard of parents, father engaged in high
nonfarm work, and more assets holding of household. They also concluded that mother work
status and absence of father more positively influenced female child labor, child labor more
directly link with age (specifically for boys); male children of large age difference parent
(father age minus mother age) less involved in labor activity and in urban areas mother
education strongly influenced the decision of child labor.

Chanda (2014) analyzed the impact of domestic child labor on child household poverty level
in Lusaka city of Zambia. He examined children(i-e mostly girls) who are participated in
domestic house work belongs to those families suffered in dangerous disease like HIV/Aids
or unable to meet both ends meet, children engage in this activity remained away from many
bad evils or crimes(i-e destitution, street begging, thefts and drug addiction, etc.).The result
of this study revealed that child domestic work leads to more poverty among children and
decline the chances of enrolled in school or to get technical skills to uplift their future status,
so drop out ratio high for girls as compared to boys. The study suggested that Govt. of
Zambia and NGOs create more institutions of technical and vocational training programs for
parents as well as their children’s similarly; shelter homes must be made for orphans and
vulnerable children’s.

23
Qureshi et al. (2014) examined whether the magnitude of poverty, demographic factors and
parental background influence the decision of child labor and school enrollment in Pakistan.
In this study the term child work defined as a 5-14 years child work in any formal or informal
sector, while three types of factors are discuss which might influenced the decision of work
or school, first is poverty factor measured directly(through consumption expenses of a
household) and indirectly(through access to electricity, sewerage system and number of
rooms in a house),second demographic factors(i-e including number of family members,
gender, region and elder income earner) and third parental factor(i-e including employment
status(either self-employed or employee) and education status). The results of this study
revealed that size of family and number of elder income earners significant positive impact
on child work, male children working more than female in both regions, similarly boys have
more capacity to work and got education at the same time than girls(more girls than boys fall
in this category of neither work no school),parents education(especially father) significant
positive impact on child schooling, employer position of both parents decline the chances of
child labor, while employee position of mothers brought significant positive impact on both
decisions(work or school),inflation as well as other proxies of poverty positively related with
child labor and negatively with child schooling. They suggested poverty reduction strategies
and cash transfer programs especially to mothers may decline child labor market participation
and enhanced school enrollment.

Bandara et al. (2015) investigated whether the significant variation in income and non-
income affected situation of child labor in Tanzania. In this study authors defined the term
non-income shocks as the sudden death of household family member and examined its direct
as well as indirect effects on children welfare (i-e education plus health) while the term
income shocks defined as the variations in weather (its effects on agriculture sector) and labor
market conditions. The results of this study revealed that income shocks not only affect the
children work and schooling decision but also brought variations in time allocation of
children, household savings in bank negatively related with child labor and agriculture shocks
also raise the other household family member working hours. They also found that non-
income shocks increase the children (particularly for male child than female) working hours
and declined the living status of household while household asset holding not seriously
influenced the effects of such shocks. The results of this study suggested that unexpected
agriculture shocks control measures helpful to reduce such problems while for non-income

24
shocks there is need to establish those schemes which raise household education and
indirectly reduced child labor.

Berenger and Chouchane (2015) discovered the role of gender discrimination and its impacts
on child labor and child schooling decision in South Sudan and Sudan. They examined girl’s
involvement regarding school attainment as well as in other activities low in South Sudan,
while male child labor high in Sudan. The study showed school involvement and gender
discrimination mostly prevail in urban areas of these regions. To measure how household
characteristics (i-e gender, education and employment status) impacts on child labor and
schooling decision authors used bivariate probit model. The study found that higher
education level of head of household and mother bring positive impacts on decision of child
schooling even both are not economically active. In their study, they suggested that time
relaxation education programs made for those children who belong to large land holding
families similarly, income generating and education policies especially for women control
child labor indirectly.

Landmann and Frolich (2015) assessed whether the health insurance assistance scheme
detriment the labor activity of children in Pakistan. In this study authors discussed the effects
of economic hardship shocks on household health and children labor activity decision while
for removing such effects they analyzed the role of health insurance scheme. According to
this scheme shock effected household submitted the health expenses bill to the organization
and after verification organization refunded the same amount to the household. The results of
this study showed that insurance scheme positively associated with better child health while
such scheme negatively related with children involved in dangerous labor activity and work
duration and their wages. They also found that insurance scheme brought more influential
results for male child (they more involved in labor activity) as compared to female child so,
male child school participation enhanced and work duration declined. This insurance scheme
is least beneficial for female child school attainment as compared to male child.

Le and Homel (2015) examined the role of child labor and its effects on school performance
of children in rural Vietnam. In this paper authors recognized the term child labor as
unskilled female child worked for average wage in the same community and examined its
impacts on school achievements (i-e ranked as poor, average, good and excellent.) while
different indicators used to estimate economic and financial position of household. The
authors of this study found that child labor inversely related with school performance, girls

25
more involved in labor activity as compared to boys that lead to low school grades and high
dropout rates of her, more difference in children age of a household less involved in labor
activity, tall heighted children posed the more capability of achieved good grades, children of
low economic households more involved in labor activity, parents qualification strong
positive impact on child school achievements, children resides at hills less enrolled in school
as compared to other resides. They also concluded that children of minority groups more
participated in labor market and less school achievements as compared to majority groups
household. The authors of the study suggested certain educational policies made which
decline the gender discrimination and brought innovative changes in parent’s attitude towards
the female literacy investment decision. This study ignored the children of small heighted
(naturally) wealthier household and height is not a good indicator to correctly determine the
household status and its impacts on child labor or school achievements.

Lima et al. (2015) employed the altruistic behavior of parents and link of child labor with
wealth paradox in rural Pakistan. In this paper authors discussed wealth paradox, according to
this paradox large land holding household prefer their own child bear all farm managing
responsibilities rather than hire outside labor, so their children involved in child labor activity
while zero or small land holding household children went to school. The authors of this study
investigated that child labor positive influenced with wealth paradox, in case of tolerated
parents child(both male and female) working hours declined as assets ownership enhanced
while in case of non-tolerated parents male child working hours declined under more small
land holding possession as compared to girls. They also concluded that wealth paradox exists
only in non-tolerated parents while luxury axioms (i-e low income parents have no option but
to send their children for work) useful only when examined child labor in tolerated
households. The result of this study suggested public welfare policies made which combat
child labor and change the attitude of parents.

Putnick and Bornstein (2015) explored whether child labor seems to be a hurdle in school
enrollment decision in low and middle income countries. This study employed three forms of
activities that usually household children preformed (inside excessive domestic work, work
outside the house, and family work) and examined the impacts of these forms on school
enrollment separately, while the effects of this link moderating through gender and country
level analysis. The authors of this study investigated that in these countries all types of child
labor negatively related with school enrollment while children engaged in outside work less
or insignificant with school enrollment and work outside the house more prevent the children

26
to enrolled in school as compared to other forms. They also concluded that child labor
consider not the real barrier of school enrollment in certain countries. The empirical results of
this study suggested that government and NGOs made those policies which promote the
universal primary education and declined poverty in these low middle income countries.

Abdullahi et al. (2016) examined whether poverty affects the situation of child labor in 42
developing countries of world. In this study authors basically used luxury axiom (low income
parents sent their children for work) and substitution axiom (adult and child are perfect
substitute) to examined the link between child labor and poverty. The result of this study
contradicted the positive association between child labor and poverty and, supported the
wealth paradox (i-e children belongs to large land holding families more engaged in work
while small land holding goes to school).So, they found that poverty is not the root cause of
child labor and large land holdings promoted the child labor in these selected countries. The
authors of this study suggested government of these developing countries establish
constitution or legislation to overcome child labor problem.

He (2016) analyzed the association between children market involvement and school
participation in Gansu province of China. In this study author explored the link between past
child labor activity and future exam (math and language only) grades achievements and the
influenced of past exam grade achievements on future child labor activity. The author of this
study found that own house work negatively related with child (particularly of female child)
grades achievements, low income household children more suffered in own house work than
high income, while children working capability, local teacher efficiency , mother wished her
children obtained more education and educational expenditures positively related with school
performance. According to him a child (specifically male child) who work greater than one
hour declined the more chances of better school grades as compared to child who did not
work while higher income villagers more supported their children to achieved best grade. He
also concluded that past school performance not significantly influenced the current child
work activity and fathers qualification inversely related with child school performance.

2.3 Conclusion

In literature everyone has attempted to discover the relationship of child labor, child
schooling and household poverty with certain other factors by holding in mind the goals of
their studies, which are diversified within countries and persons. In developing countries like

27
Pakistan normally it is consider that children involve in labor activity either to supplement
their family income or low interest in education. In this study an effort has been to determine
the other factors which simultaneously influenced child labor, child schooling and household
poverty.

In order to find out the determinants each of three terms models are made in subsequent
chapter. In child labor model my work is different from previous studies in the sense that in
determining the factors or elements of child labor like passed education of working children,
children interest in school education and life cycle of household head age are also taken along
with other variables. In exploring the factors of child schooling model dependency ratio,
children interest in education and female male ratio are taken as new variables. Similarly in
finding the elements of household poverty model mode of grocery purchase, total personal
expenses, outside home working hours and number of working person are also taken as
explanatory variables along with other variables.

28
Chapter 3

Theoretical Framework

3.1 Introduction

Theoretical framework delivers groundwork in order to understand how these theories are
standing in current situation or circumstances. Different theories which are related with labor
supply, human capital or education and poverty are examined in this chapter. In this chapter
theories are arranged into three sections, section 3.2.1 discusses labor supply theories, 3.2.2
discourse human capital theory while poverty theories are deliberated in section 3.2.3. Last
section described the conclusion of this chapter.

3.2 Theoretical Framework

Theoretical framework is divided into further three parts, in first part labor supply theories
are discussed, second part elaborate how human capital effect child schooling while in last
part researcher examined the poverty theories under different school of thoughts.

3.2.1 Labor Supply Theories

In this section theoretical background related to supply side labor theories discuss.

a). Classical Labor Supply Theory

Classical production function consist only one variable factor in the short run which is labor.
The labor supply theory based on the assumption of homogeneous labor units. The main
determinants of labor supply are price of labor, population size, and labor force participation
rate, taste of consumer and geographic, occupational and educational distribution of the labor
force. This theory of labor supply is the function of actual real wage rate, while keeping other
factors constant. According to this theory labor supply curve positively sloped, as the wage
rate increases labor supply increases simultaneously. But after a certain increment in money
wage rate decrease the labor supply, at this situation financial position of working people
improved and they prefer more leisure than involve in labor activity. The initial increments in
money wage promote labor force participation at specific level and further increment start
decreases it. So, labor supply curve positive sloped at initial increment level after it, it will be
backward bending or negative sloped.

29
Here in the following diagram labor supply taken on horizontal axis and wage rates on
vertical axis. At initial level labor supply L1 and wage rate W1 this is shown at point A, when
wage rate increased from W1 to W2 labor supply increases from L1 to L2 this is shown at B.
But after this point the increase in wage rate from W2 to W3 decrease the labor supply from
L2 to L3 this is shown at point C.

Diagram

Wage Rate

Labor Supply Curve

W3

W2 B

W1

0 L1 L2 L3 Labors

So in above diagram from point A to B substitution effect out weight the income effect this
leads to positively sloped labor supply curve while from point B to C income effect out
weight the substitution effect and this leads to backward bending supply curve.

b). Keynes Labor Supply Theory

According to Keynes theory of labor supply workers only know money wage, they are
uncertain about price level. So, workers make decisions on the basis of expected price, this
expectation based on past information about price. Labor supply function depends on
expected real wage rate which is positive influenced the workers labor decision. The
increment in expected income due to increase in wage rate increases the labor supply.
According to this theory labor supply curve positive sloped when workers have some degree
of money illusion, they are not know about changes in prices except money wage.

30
3.2.2 Children School Investment Theory

In this section researcher discuss how human capital investment effect child schooling
decision in households.

Gray Becker Human Capital Theory

Gray Becker (1964) offered human capital theory that explains the character of human capital
enlargement on earnings of workers. He accentuated education and training is the most
influential investment in human capital. An outlay on education, health and technical
trainings is famous as investment in human capital. Forthcoming productivity of workers rest
on current investment in human capital similarly, current time period workers’ productivity
shows the earlier investment in human capital. Higher investment in human capital more will
be its reward in the form of higher wages, as investment increase working techniques of
workers improved and firm will hire this efficient labor to increase output at low cost of
production. Variations in human capital stock like education, skill and experience results
difference in earn income. Wealthy families made more investment in human capital and
leave greater non-labor income for their children while on the other hand poor household less
invest in children human capital as well as leave small bequest for their siblings. So, when
parents are made more investment in child human capital there will greater chances of higher
child schooling and fewer or no chances of child labor.

3.2.3 Poverty Theories

In this section researcher discuss how poverty theories affect household characteristics. These
theories are given below

a). Classical Theory of Poverty

According to this theory there were two reasons behind the problem of poverty first people
make wrong choices which influence their productivity and create the problem of poverty,
second differences in genetic capabilities is another cause of potential poverty. Sometimes
individual makes wrong choices which disturb their working capacity or productivity and
productivity of individuals negatively related with poverty while reverse is true when
individual makes correct choices. Another potential cause of poverty is genetic abilities and
people have more genetic abilities face no chances of poverty while reverse is true for low
genetic abilities people. From the first reason people choices are fluctuate around the welfare
31
or poverty trap. According to these economists govt. should help poor people through
supportive policies and made arrangements for those people who are participating in labor
market.

b). Neo Classical Theory of Poverty

This theory of poverty to some extent is similar to classical theory. According to this theory
discriminated initial endowments (skill, capital and talent), market failure and random shocks
are the cause of poverty. In perfectly competitive market disparity in initial endowments
determines individual productivity which further creates poverty. Less talented people have
inefficient skill and capital produce less and face more chances of poverty. While on the other
hand people who have high skills, talent and capital produce more and face less or no chances
of poverty. Market failure includes externalities, moral hazard, adverse selection and less
information are the cause of poverty. Less or incomplete information is another cause of
poverty which is inversely related with it. Random shocks like sickness, recession and family
breakdown etc. in the life of poor people play a major role and this effect poverty positively
that’s why poor people become poorer during such shocks. They suggested that micro credit
scheme become helpful to promote skills, capital and talent of destitute peoples.

c). Keynesian Theory of Poverty

This theory of poverty is also known as liberal theory of poverty. According to this theory
market failure and underdevelopment symbols are the reasons behind the problem of poverty.
The effects of market failure in one sector transmitted to other sectors so, a nation would
remain under poverty trap. Keynesian incorporates low capital in the form of human,
business, infrastructure, natural, public institutions and knowledge. While low human capital
includes poor health, skills and education, low business capital includes poor conditions of
machinery and buildings, bad infrastructure includes poor system of transportation sanitation
and power and poor knowledge of capital know how this is directly affect human
productivity. They are suggested that economic growth in a nation leads to economic
development which further overcomes the problem of poverty and monetary or fiscal policy
helpful to reduce involuntary unemployment.

32
d). Marxian Theory of Poverty

Marxian economist examined that operational or physical factors like specific or biased labor
markets and corruption are the reasons behind the problem of poverty. Unnaturally wages are
lower as compared to marginal productivity of labor in capitalistic societies. Higher marginal
productivity of labor and low wages discourage laboring class and create the problem of
unemployment which further create or increase the chances of poverty in such societies. They
explored that there are different classes of labor in a market and prevailing discrimination
among them. To combat structural problems it is necessary to introduce non discriminated
laws and reforms in labor markets which further control unemployment and poverty. They
also viewed that poverty could be reduced through strict govt. regulation by implementing
minimum wages. According to this theory the initial purpose of Govt. regulation must be
improve the labor working conditions and enhance wage rates.

3.3 Conclusion

From above analysis labor supply curve positively sloped under both school of thoughts, it
means that as wage increases labor supply increases and low income household send their
children for work. This satisfied the income argument of child labor. High human capital
stock plays an important role in children investment decision, high child schooling means low
poverty and fewer chances of child involvement in labor activity. Here different poverty
theories also discussed to explore the elements of poverty. These theories provide deep
insight regarding such issues.

33
Chapter 4

Data, Methodology and Selection of Variables

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter researcher is presenting different tools and techniques to accomplish the
objectives of the study. This chapter is organized as follows: main profile of study area
describe in section 4.2. Properties of questionnaire expressed in section 4.3. Sample design
and data accumulation explain in section 4.4. In section 4.5 we discussed the methodology,
while construction of hypotheses is made in section 4.6. In section 4.7 models are specified
and determinants of these models are also discussed in the same section. Detailed description
of selected variables made in section 4.8. Concluding remarks of this chapter are given in
section 4.9.

4.2 Profile of the Study Area

Multan is a prominent district of South Punjab. South Punjab less advanced as compared to
upper Punjab. Multan district is split into four tehsils (1) Multan City (2) Multan Sadar (3)
Shujaabad (4) Jalalpur Pirwala. Multan city is the capital of this district. It is an ancient city
and well-known as a city of saint. Heat, Dust, Beggars and Graveyard are the features of this
city. According to estimates of 1998 census the total population is about 3116581 among
which 52.48% are male and 47.52% are female. About 42.18% population lives in urban area
while 57.82% lives in rural area. The average family size of this region is about 7. Literacy
rate of male population is 53.25% and for female population is 32.28%. Saraki, Punjabi and
Urdu are the main spoken languages of this region. Wheat and cotton are major crops of this
area.

4.3 Preparation of Questionnaire

A questionnaire was made to accumulate data. Questionnaire was made in English and at the
time of interview it is interpreted into Urdu. Questionnaire arranged into four sections or
portions i-e (1) Personal information (2) Child labor information (3) Child schooling
information (4) Household information.

34
a). Personal Information: It includes information about sex (male and female), number
of households, age, education, inside home working hours, outside home working hours,
monthly income and monthly personal expenses.

b). Child Labor Information: It includes information about children work starting age,
reason of work, type of labor activity, children earned income, control on earn income and
children interest in education.

c). Child Schooling Information: It includes information about child school

enrollment age, whether the children want to obtain school education, tuition education,
absent days from school, favorite or not favorite subject and pocket money.

d). Household Information: It includes information about home constructed material,

head, mode of head wage, source of drinking water, grocery shopping, assets ownership,
suffer disease and receive non-labor income.

4.4 Sample Design and Collection of Data

Accurate accumulation, analysis and better interpretation of data are considered the main
instruments of effective and consistent research. The collected data used to find out empirical
analysis of this study. South Punjab District of Multan was selected for data collection. A
widespread survey strategy was made to collect data from two selective Tehsils of Multan
District. Multan District is divided into four Tehsils i-e Multan city, Multan Sadar, Shujaabad
and Jalalpur Pirwala. Therefore, 200 households were selected from both Shujaabad and
Multan city tehsils. For the sake of this 200 low per capita income households were
interviewed whose 5 to 16 years old children either involved in child labor or child schooling.
Simple and stratified random sampling technique used in this survey.

Door to door contact technique used to obtain information from households. At the time of
households interview researcher strived to keep calm and passive behavior to collect accurate
data. Questionnaire translated into Urdu language. Certain information asked indirectly like
household’s monthly income and personal expenses etc. While some other information
obtained through observance.

35
4.5Methodology

In this study methodology is a combination of three forms of analysis first statistical analysis,
second correlation analysis and last is empirical analysis. While a prominent technique
logistic model used to examine the empirical analysis of this study. From these analyses
research is able to find out the determinants of child labor, child schooling and household
poverty in Pakistan. All these analyses explain as follows.

a. Statistical Analysis of Primary Data

The significance of overall models is easily obtained or checked through descriptive statistic.
Descriptive statistics also explain the significance of independent variables. All the estimated
functions were judge on prior statistical and economic criterion. E-views software used to
investigate the results of the specified models. Averages, standard deviations, skewness and
kurtosis are inspected to have the perfect view about the composition of variables. In this
analysis two types of averages mean and median are discussed, while standard deviation
shows the deviation from that average. The term skewness is used to check the lack of
symmetry of both dependent and independent variables while the term kurtosis used to show
the degree of peakness of distribution.

b. Correlation Analysis

Correlation shows the degree of association between two variables. Multiple correlation
analysis technique exercised when there is more than one explanatory variable. Its value
ranges between -1 and +1. The correlation matrix describes degree of interdependence
between pairs of dependent and independent variables. To explore the association between
variables we use the given criteria i-e Very Strong Negative (-1.0< r <-0.8), Strong Negative
(-0.6< r <-0.79), Moderate Negative (-0.4< r <-0.59), Weak Negative (-0.20< r <-0.39), Very
Weak Negative (-0.01< r <-0.19) and Very Strong Positive (1.0< r <0.8), Strong Positive
(0.6< r <0.79), Moderate Positive (0.4< r <0.59), Weak Positive (0.20< r <0.39), Very Weak
Positive (0.01< r <0.19) respectively.

c. Empirical Analysis

This section of the study provides the experimental techniques to investigate the elements of
each equation. When dependent variable of a specified model is qualitative in nature then two
methodologies are usually applied. These are given below.
36
 1. The Linear Probability Model (LPM)
2. Non Linear Probability Model (NLPM)
A). Logistic Model
B). Probit Model

According to Gujrati Logistic model provide better results as compared to probit model. This
method provides detail description of how binary or quantitative independent variables of
each model significantly influence the binary dependent variables. While E. Views Software
applied to estimate the analyses of the models separately. So, to find out the determinants of
child labor, child schooling and household poverty logistic model has been used in this study.

4.6 Construction of Hypotheses

This study discussed the determinants of child labor, child schooling and household poverty
in two selective Tehsils of Multan District. Numerous elements of child labor, child
schooling and household poverty are examined in earlier studies. The purpose of this study is
to find out such determinants which are not or less discussed in previous studies. Various
studies reviews help us to make some important hypotheses for this study. Some hypotheses
are made in the following to examine the factors of this study.

i. H0: Head age not influence child labor.

H1: Head age influence child labor.

ii. H0: Head age square not influence child labor.

H1: Head age square influence child labor.

iii. H0: Child age has not affected child labor.

H1: Child age has affected child labor.

iv. H0: Past education of working child not influences child labor.

H1: Past education of working child influences child labor.

v. H0: Household monthly income not affects child labor.

H1: Household monthly income affects child labor.

vi. H0: Child want school education not affected child labor.

37
 H1: Child want school education affected child labor.

vii. H0: Family size has no significant impact on child labor.

H1: Family size has significant impact on child labor.

viii. H0: Household poverty status does not affect child labor.

H1: Household poverty status affects child labor.

ix. H0: Female male ratio not influences child schooling.

H1: Female male ratio influences child schooling.

x. H0: Dependency ratio has not affected child schooling.

H1: Dependency ratio has affected on child schooling.

xi. H0: Household monthly income not affects child schooling.

H1: Household monthly income affects child schooling.

xii. H0: Child want school education not affected child schooling.

H1: Child want school education affected child schooling.

xiii. H0: Household head education not influences child schooling.

H1: Household head education influences child schooling.

xiv. H0: Per capita income has not significantly affected household poverty line status.

H1: Per capita income has significantly affected household poverty line status.

xv. H0: Total personal expenses of household not influence household poverty line status.

H1: Total personal expenses of household influence household poverty line status.

xvi. H0: Number of household working person has not significantly affected household
poverty line status.

H 1: Number of household working person has significantly affected household poverty

line status.

38
xvii. H0: Household outside home working hours not influenced household poverty line
status.

H1: Household outside home working hours influenced household poverty line status.

4.7 Model Specification

In this study we have made three models to separately investigate the determinants of child
labor, child schooling and household poverty of two Tehsils of Multan District and used the
famous methodologies. It is also explains how independent variables in each model might
influence dependent variable.

4.7.1 Child Labor Model

CL = f (HA, HASQ, AGE, EDU, CSE, FS, LHMI, PLS)

The equation is

CL = βo + β1 HA + β2 HASQ + β3 AGE - β4 EDU - β5 CSE + β6 FS - B7 LHMI + β8 PLS

CL = Child Labor

HA = Head Age

HASQ = Head Age Square

AGE = Age of Working Children

EDU = Education of Working Children

CSE = Children Want School Education

FS = Family Size

LHMI = Log of Household Monthly Income

PLS = Household Poverty Line Status

Explanation of Variables

In this section researcher is going to explain the dependent and independent variables
according to above mentioned model.

39
Dependent Variable

Where CL is dependent variable of this model that is child labor is used as dependent
variable. Child labor qualitative in nature, a household in which a child involve in labor
activity assign 1 otherwise 0.

Independent Variables

The independent variables of this model are head age, head age square, age of working
children, passed education standard of working children, children want school education,
family size, log of household monthly income and household poverty line status.

i. Head Age

In this study it is assumed that age of household head significantly influenced child labor
decision so, as the head become older and older their working capacity decreases and they
prefer to send their children for work rather than school. Age of household head positively
related with child labor. Child labor increases as the age of household head increase.

ii. Head Age Square

Here it is also assumed that square of household head age has significant effect on child labor
decision. Children of upper age household head more involve in labor activity than the lower
age. There is concave relationship with household head age square and child labor.

iii. Age

In previous literature less importance was given to working child age that’s why this is
included in the study. It is hypothesized that age of working child significantly influenced
child labor decision. Age of working child positively related with labor decision so, as the
child grows old his/her chances of involvement in labor activity increases.

iv. Education

Less literature is available on passed education standard of working children. In this study it
assumed that previous obtained education of working child inversely related with child labor
decision. More standard passed a child means that child faced less or no chances to involve in
labor activity at school going age.

40
 v. Children Want School Education

It includes dummy children want school education or not, it also affected child labor decision.
Mostly households want their children obtain only school education as compared to tuition or
madrasah education. More children want to obtain school education less chances to involve in
labor activity. Here it is assumed that children interest in school education inversely related
with child labor decision.

vi. Family Size

Pakistan is the 6th largest populated country so, due to existence of more population family
size variable included in the model. It is hypothesized that family size positively related with
child labor decision. Higher family sizes promote more chances of household children to
involve in labor activity. The same assumption was made in so many other previous studies.

vii. Log of Household Monthly Income

In this study it is assumed that household monthly income has significantly effect on child
labor decision. Log of household monthly income inversely related with child labor activity.
Less log of household monthly income means more children involve in labor activity.

viii. Household Poverty Status

In developing countries like Pakistan household poverty consider the main determinant of
child labor decision. Here in the model this variable is qualitative in nature and taken as
independent. Here it is assumed that household poverty positively determined child labor.
More children involved in labor activity as the household poverty increases.

4.7.2 Child Schooling Model

CS = f (FMR, HHE, CSE, DR, LHMI)

The equation is

CS = βo - β1 FMR + β2 HHE + β3 CSE - β4 DR+ β5 LHMI

CS = Child Schooling

FMR = Female Male Ratio

41
HHE = Household Head Education

CSE = Children Want School Education

DR = Dependency Ratio

LHMI = Log of Household Monthly Income

Explanation of Variables

In this section researcher is going to explain the dependent and independent variables
according to the nature of above mentioned model.

Dependent Variable

Where CS is the dependent variable which is child schooling in that model. Child schooling
variable is qualitative in nature and a household in which children goes to school assign 1
otherwise 0.

Independent Variables

In this model researcher discussed those independent variables which are given less or no
importance in previous literature. These variables are female male ratio, household head
education; children want school education, dependency ratio and log of household monthly
income.

i. Female Male Ratio

In developing countries like Pakistan female considered burden on parents and mostly female
child have no or less chance to get school education as compared to male child. In this model
female male ratio include to examine how its effect child schooling decision. So, it is
hypothesized that female male ratio negatively related with child schooling decision. More
presence of female leads to low child schooling. This variable also assists us to pretend the
gender discrimination in Pakistan.

ii. Household Head Education

Household head education is another important determinant of child schooling decision that’s
why it is included in the model. Here it is assumed that head education positively influenced

42
child schooling decision. Higher education of household head creates more chances for
children to obtain education rather than move to labor market.

iii. Children Want School Education

In previous literature no study discussed the importance of children interest in school

education that’s why this variable incorporates in the model. This variable qualitative in
nature, assigns 1 if household children want to obtain school education otherwise 0. It is
assumed that children interest in education significantly influenced child schooling decision.

iv. Dependency Ratio

In many developing countries there is higher dependency ratio while in previous literature
there was less importance given to this variable. In this model it is assumed that dependency
ratio negatively influenced child schooling decision. Higher dependency ratio left fewer
resources to bear child schooling expenses.

v. Log of Household Monthly Income

Like previous studies in this model it is also hypothesized that household monthly income
significantly influenced child schooling decision. It is positively related with child schooling
decision. Children of high income households more involve in child schooling than the low
income.

4.7.3 Household Poverty Model

PLS = f (HBGD, PCI, NOHWP, HRNLI, TPE, HOHWH)

The equation is

PLS = βo + β1 HBGD - β2 PCI + β3 NOHWP + β4 HRNLI - β5 TPE - β6 HOHWH

PLS = Poverty Line Status

HBGD = Household Bought Grocery Daily

PCI = Per Capita Income

NOHWP = Number of Household Working Person

HRNLI = Household Received Non-Labor Income

43
TPE = Total Personal Expenses of Household

HOHWH = Household Outside Home Working Hours

Variables and their Explanations

In this section of the study researcher is going to explain the dependent and independent
variables according to above mentioned model.

Dependent Variable

Where PLS is dependent variable in this model. This variable is qualitative in nature,
household living below the poverty line assign 1 and otherwise assign 0.

Independent Variables

The independent variables of this model are households bought grocery daily, per capita
income, number of working person, total personal expenses and outside home working hours.
These variables are hardly discussed in previous literature. These are given below

i. Household Bought Grocery Daily

Usually poor household worked on daily wages and they have nothing to save to purchase the
basic goods in advance so, household bought necessary goods daily. Here in the model it is
assumed that household poverty positively related with this variable.

ii. Per Capita Income

Like the previous literature in this study it is hypothesized that per capita income inversely
related with household poverty. Higher per capita income means there is low poverty.

iii. Number of Household Working Person

Number of household working person also significantly influenced household poverty. It is

assumed that number of working person positively related with household poverty. There are
three different reasons behind this phenomena first earnings of one or two working person are
unable to meet the needs of large family size household, second 30 percent working children
involved in unpaid labor activity these children are also included in economically active

44
household member and third working person are bound to work on low wage rates because
they believed that something is better than nothing.

iv. Household Received Non-Labor Income

In developing countries like Pakistan low income of household is not sufficient to meet day
to day needs so, they need additional income. Mostly low income households received non-
labor income either from their relatives or Govt. Here it is assumed that household poverty
positively related with non-labor income.

v. Total Personal Expenses of Household

Here it is hypothesized that total personal expenses of household members inversely related
with poverty line status. Higher personal expenses indicate that household faces no poverty.

vi. Household Outside Home Working Hours

Outside home working hours of household members also significantly influence poverty
that’s why this variable incorporates in the model. Here it is assumed that household poverty
negatively related with outside home working hours. More outside home working hours
decline household poverty.

4.8 Description of the Variables

The explanation of the selected variables are given below

Table 4.1 Description of selective variables

Variables Definitions
Dependent Variables
CL 1 If Child Working, Otherwise =0
CS 1 If Children goes to School, Otherwise =0
PLS 1 If Below Poverty Line, Otherwise =0
Independent Variables
AGE Age of Working Children in Years
EDU Passed School Education of Working
Children in Years
CWSE(Children Want School Education) 1 If Want, Otherwise =0
HA (Head Age) Age in Years
HASQ (Head Age Square) Age in Square
Log (HMI) Logarithm of household Monthly Income
FMR (Female Male Ratio) Number of Female/Number of Male

45
HHE (Household Head Education) Passed Education In Years
DR (Dependency Ratio) Below 14 and Above 60 years old/ Number of
family Members
HBGD (Household Bought Grocery Daily) 1 If Daily Bought, Otherwise =0
PCI (Per Capita Income) Total Income/Total Population
NOHWP (Number of Household Working In Numbers
Person)
HRNLI (Household Received Non-Labor 1 If Received, Otherwise= 0
Income)
TPE (Total Personal Expenses) In Rupees
HOHWH (Household Outside Home
Working Hours)
PLS 1 If Below Poverty Line, Otherwise = 0

4.9 Conclusion

In this chapter summary of study area discussed. Preparation of questionnaire and data
accumulation method explained. Sampling techniques also presented in this chapter.
Similarly to investigate the factors of child labor, child schooling and household poverty
some main hypotheses made. Methodological techniques contain descriptive and quantitative
analysis while quantitative analysis is a combination of three techniques first statistical
analysis, second correlation analysis and last is empirical analysis. For advance empirical
analyses of study three models of data are also constructed.

Chapter 5

Results and Discussion

5.1 Introduction

This chapter provides main findings of the study. This chapter consists of two main sections
first section explain elementary data analysis and second section describe the empirical
estimation of models. First section 5.2 comprised on frequency distributions of working

46
children characteristics; school going children characteristics and household characteristics.
While 5.3 section explore the statistical analysis of primary data, correlation analysis and
econometric analysis of child labor, child schooling and household poverty model. Finally
section 5.4 gives some concluding remarks.

5.2 Elementary Data Analysis

In this section an effort has been made to describe the statistics collected through a sample
survey in descriptive way. Let it be clear that sample were collected from the households
members, as they know much of the information about the reasons of household poverty and
other factors affecting child labor and child schooling. Here different factors affecting child
labor, child schooling and household poverty are described in distribution form with some
explanation of it. Here following distributions and their sub sections are made to present the
characteristics of working children, school going children and households to accurate the
collected data precisely.

5.2.1 Characteristics of Working Children

Working children characteristics includes work starting age, reason of work, type of labor
activity, per month earn income, involvement in paid and unpaid work and control on earn
income. All these are explaining as follows.

a. Distribution of Households by Children Work Starting Age

According to sample survey 23% of households children started work at the age of 12 year in
Multan city while in case of Shujaabad Tehsil 17% of households children started work at the
age of 10 year. This table shows that 20% households’ children started work at the age of 10
year in both Tehsils. These estimates pretend that mostly children started labor activity before
maturity age which is described by minimum age law of child labor.

Table 5.1 the percentage distribution of household by children work starting age

Age Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
4 1 0 1 1 1
(2)*
5 2 3 5 6 6
(5)* (8)*

47
 6 4 1 5 11 6
(9)* (3)*
7 1 6 7 18 9
(2)* (17)*
8 1 1 2 20 3
(1)* (3)*
9 3 4 7 27 9
(7)* (11)*
10 5 6 11 38 14
(11)* (17)*
11 7 3 10 48 13
(16)* (8)*
12 10 6 16 64 20
(23)* (17)*
13 6 1 7 71 9
(14)* (3)*
14 4 2 6 77 8
(9)* (6)*
15 0 3 3 80 4
(8)*

b. Distribution of Households by Reason of Child Work

This table describes the reasons behind the problem of child labor in two selective Tehsils.
The survey data reveals that 45% children involved in labor activity to supplement their
family income while it was only 27% in 1996 child labor survey. About 25% children are
involved in labor activity because they are not interested in school education. While 13%
children doing work to manage house.

Table 5.2 the percentage distribution of household by reason of child work

Reasons Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multa Shujaabad
Frequency
n
a. Supplement Family 24 12 36 36 45
Income (55)* (33)*

48
 b. Help in Paying 3 5 8 44 10
Family debt (7)* (14)*
c. Help in House 8 2 10 54 13
Work (18)* (6)*
d. Learn Skills 0 1 1 55 1
(3)*
e. Schooling zero 1 2 3 58 4
valuable in Future (2)* (6)*
f. School too far 0 2 2 60 3
(6)*
g. Not interested in 8 12 20 80 25
School (18)* (33)*

c. Distribution of Households by Type of Child Labor

The following table reveals that 43% of children involved in own father business activity,
25% children engaged in shopkeeper activity and 14% involved in other activities. While
children more involved in own father business activity in case of Shujaabad Tehsil than
Multan city. Only 1% household children involve in factory or industry work, it is manifest
that children have limited access towards industry or factory work. This is also reveals that
child labor is low in formal sector or industrialist less demand child as a cheap labor.

Table 5.3 the percentage distribution of household by type of child labor

Types Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Father own 8 26 34 34 43
Business (18)* (72)*
b. Relative Business 6 2 8 42 10
(14)* (6)*
c. Factory or 1 0 1 43 1
Industry work (2)*
d. Slavery in Houses 4 2 6 49 8
(9)* (6)*
e. Shopkeeper 17 3 20 69 25
(39)* (8)*
f. Others 8 3 11 80 14
(18)* (8)*

49
 d. Distribution of Households by Children Earned Income per Month

This table describes that 29% working children earned income 3 to 5 thousand rupees per
month. The survey data shows that more children earned 7 to 9 thousand rupees in Shujaabad
Tehsil than in Multan city. This is also reveals that wage rates lower in Shujaabad than
Multan city Tehsil.

Table 5.4 the percentage distribution of household by children earned income per month

Income Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
(In Rupees) Frequency
Less Than 3000 7 1 8 8 14
(18)* (6)*
3000-5000 12 4 16 24 29
(31)* (24)*
5000-7000 7 3 10 34 18
(18)* (18)*
7000- 9000 3 4 7 41 13
(8)* (24)*
9000- 11000 6 3 9 50 16
(15)* (18)*
11000- 13000 1 0 1 51 2
(3)*
13000- 15000 3 2 5 56 9
(8)* (12)*

e. Distribution of Households by Working Children

50
The survey data reveals that 70% (among which 39% children have no control on earned
income and 61% have some control) household children worked under certain paid
conditions while 30% engage in unpaid work. The child labor survey of 1996 was manifested
that 70 percent working children involved in unpaid labor activity. Here the data also shows
that children have more average control on earned income in case of Multan city Tehsil as
compared to Shujaabad.

Table 5.5 the percentage distribution of household by working children

Overview of Working Frequency Total Percentage

Children Multan Shujaabad
Not Controlled 15 7 22 39
(38)* (41)*
Have some Controlled 24 10 34 61
(62)* (59)*
Paid 39 17 56 70
(89)* (47)*
Unpaid 5 19 24 30
(11)* (53)*
Average control RS.2296 RS.1175

5.2.2 Characteristics of School Going Children

Characteristics of school going children includes school enrollment age, type of education
children want to be obtained, favorite and not favorite subject, inside home working hours
and absent days from school. All these are explaining as follows.

a. Distribution of Households by Children School Enrollment Age

The survey data describes 26% households enrolled their siblings at the age of 5 year and
23% enrolled at the age of 3 year. In case of Multan city 2 households never ever enrolled

51
their children in school while in Shujaabad Tehsils all households enrolled their children. The
survey data also reveals that in case of Multan city more children enrolled in school at the age
of 5 year than in Shujaabad. The following table also manifest that mostly children enrolled
school at an earlier age in Shujaabad tehsil than Multan city.

Table 5.6 the percentage distribution of household by children school enrollment age

Age Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
(In Years) Frequency
2.5 2 2 4 4 2
(2)* (2)*
3 6 39 45 49 23
(6)* (39)*
4 10 19 29 78 15
(10)* (19)*
5 31 21 52 130 26
(32)* (21)*
6 13 4 17 147 9
(13)* (4)*
7 10 4 14 161 7
(10)* (4)*
8 4 8 12 173 6
(4)* (8)*
9 7 2 9 182 5
(7)* (2)*
10 8 0 8 190 4
(8)*
11 7 1 8 198 4
(7)* (1)*

b. Distribution of Household by Type of Education Children Want

52
In survey there are four types of education describe that mostly household wished their
children must be obtain. The collected data shows that majority of household’s children
wants to get school education and this trend is greater in Shujaabad Tehsil than Multan city,
while only 8% household’s children want to obtain any technical vocational training.

Table 5.7 the percentage distribution of household by type of education children want

Type Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. School 66 81 147 147 74
(66)* (81)*
b. Tuition 12 3 15 162 8
(12)* (3)*
c. Madrasah 6 1 7 169 4
(6)* (1)*
d. Vocational 8 7 15 184 8
Training (8)* (7)*
e. Both a and b 7 6 13 197 7
(7)* (6)*
f. Nothing 1 2 3 200 2
(1)* (2)*

c. Distribution of Households by Inside Home Work Duration of School

Going Children

In the survey study children own house work is excluded from child labor definition because
this is the routine work and not influence the child schooling. The survey data shows that
about 26% school going children involved more than six hours in own house work and this
trend greater in Multan city than Shujaabad. The given table also manifests that schooling
going children of 37 households not performed any dwelling work.

53
Table 5.8 the percentage distribution of household by inside home working hours of school
going children

Hours Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
1 16 20 36 36 22
(22)* (22)*
2 15 22 37 73 23
(21)* (24)*
3 5 7 12 85 7
(7)* (8)*
4 8 11 19 104 12
(11)* (12)*
5 5 11 16 120 10
(7)* (12)*
6+ 23 20 43 163 26
(32)* (22)*

d. Distribution of Households by School Going Children Favorite

Subject

In the survey seven general subjects are taken to find out the child interest in school
education. In the survey data about 35% household’s school going children mostly interested
in English subject as compared to other and this trend greater is in Shujaabad Tehsil than in
Multan city. The table also expresses only 6 households children not interested in given
subjects.

54
Table 5.9 the percentage distribution of household by school going children favorite subject

Subjects Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. English 20 48 68 68 35
(21)* (48)*
b. Math 18 28 46 114 24
(19)* (28)*
c. Urdu 9 7 16 130 8
(10)* (7)*
d. Islamic Studies 8 7 15 145 8
(9)* (7)*
e. Computer 12 6 18 163 9
(13)* (6)*
f. Drawing 27 4 31 194 16
(29)* (4)*

e. Distribution of Households by School Going Children Not Favorite

Subject

The survey data shows that 41% of overall household’s schools going children are not
interested in learning mathematics and this trend is greater in Multan city than in Shujaabad.
While in Shujaabad Tehsil 41% of households’ school going children is not like the computer
subject as compared to other subjects.

Table 5.10 the percentage distribution of household by school going children not favorite
subject

55
 Subjects Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage
Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. English 2 4 6 6 3
(2)* (4)*
b. Math 57 20 77 83 41
(63)* (20)*
c. Urdu 2 0 2 85 1
(2)*
d. Islamic Studies 1 0 1 86 1
(1)*
e. Computer 5 48 53 139 28
(6)* (48)*
f. Drawing 3 19 22 161 12
(3)* (19)*
g. Others 20 9 29 190 15
(22)* (9)*

f. Distribution of Households by Absent Days of School Going Children

The data of survey shows that 71% household school going children absent from school one
day in a week and this percentage is greater in Multan city as compared to Shujaabad. While
20% household’s school going children are absent twice in a week. Overall distribution
shows that children school absent days tendency greater in Multan than Shujaabad.

Table 5.11 the percentage distribution of household by absent days of school going children

No. of Day’s Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
1 48 49 97 97 71
(64)* (79)*

56
 2 19 6 25 122 20
(25)* (10)*
3 3 2 5 127 4
(4)* (3)*
4+ 5 5 10 137 7
(7)* (8)*

5.2.3 Characteristics of Households

Household characteristics includes number of working person, mode of income payment,

members have no personal expenses, head sex, head education, assets ownership, source of
drinking water, received non-labor income, suffered disease, own residential structure and
mode of grocery bought. All these are explaining as follows.

a. Distribution of Households by Number of Working Person

The survey data describes that about 34% households among which only one person earn
income and this percentage is more in Shujaabad Tehsil than Multan city. The collected data
also reveals that only 6% households among which 5 to 6 members or more wage earners.
The whole collected data also pretend that number of working persons is greater in Shujaabad
as compared to Multan city Tehsil.

Table 5.12 the percentage distribution of household by number of working person

Person Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
1 32 36 68 68 34
(32)* (36)*
2 27 22 49 117 25

57
 (27)* (22)*
3 24 13 37 154 19
(24)* (13)*
4 12 12 24 178 12
(12)* (12)*
5 3 8 11 189 6
(3)* (8)*
6+ More 2 9 11 200 6
(2)* (9)*

b. Distribution of Household by Mode of Income Payment

The survey data shows that about 53% households worked on daily wages and this trend is
greater in Multan as compared to Shujaabad Tehsil. While about 40% households worked on
monthly wage and this percentage more in Shujaabad than in Multan city. While only 7%
household worked on weekly wages.

Table 5.13 the percentage distribution of household by mode of income payment

Mode Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
Daily 71 34 105 105 53
(71)* (34)*
Weekly 5 9 14 119 7
(5)* (9)*
Monthly 25 54 79 198 40

58
 (25)* (54)*
Hourly 0 2 2 200 1
(2)*

c. Distribution of Household Members Have No Personal Expenses

The survey data reveals that about 35% household parents have no personal expenses and this
tendency greater in Shujaabad than in Multan city. The data also shows that 26% of father
and other family members have no personal expenses; this is mostly happen in Multan city as
compare to Shujaabad Tehsil and about 14% household mothers have no personal expenses.

Table 5.14 the percentage distribution of household members have no personal expenses

No Personal Expenses Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Father 15 6 21 21 26
(33)* (17)*
b. Mother 1 10 11 32 14
(2)* (28)*
c. Both a and b 11 17 28 60 35
(24)* (47)*
d. Other Members 18 3 21 81 26
(40)* (8)*

d. Distribution of Households by Head Sex

The data of following table shows that about 43% households among which father has made
decisions only and this tendency is greater in Multan Tehsil than Shujaabad. While about
41% households among which both father and mother have made decisions and this
percentage is more in Shujaabad as compare to Multan city, only 5% household’s decisions
made by other family members rather than father or mother.

Table 5.15 the percentage distribution of household by head sex

Sex Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad

59
 Frequency
a. Father 56 30 86 86 43
(56)* (30)*
b. Mother 18 5 23 109 14
(18)* (5)*
c. Both a and b 24 57 81 190 41
(24)* (57)*
d. Other 2 8 10 200 5
(2)* (8)*

e. Distribution of Households by Head Education

The survey data describes that about 38% fathers (head of household) are literate either they
are passed primary, middle, metric or more and this tendency more in Multan city than
Shujaabad Tehsil. While about 47% household’s parents are literate and this trend higher in
Tehsil of Shujaabad as compare to Multan city. The survey data also reveals that only 9%
mothers’ are educated those are the head of household. The following table also shows that
26% household heads are illiterate.

Table 5.16 the percentage distribution of household by head education

Head Education Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Father 33 23 56 56 38
(50)* (28)*
b. Mother 12 2 14 70 9
(18)* (2)*
c. Both a and b 19 50 69 139 47
(29)* (61)*
d. Others 2 7 9 148 6
(3)* (9)*

60
 f. Distribution of Households by Assets Ownership

In survey three types of assets are taken to estimate the economic position of households,
table shows that 40% households own all assets and this trend is greater in Multan city than
Shujaabad. Mostly households of Shujaabad Tehsil have less ownership of assets. In the
sample survey it is reported that 7% households not owned these assets.

Table 5.17 the percentage distribution of household by assets ownership

Assets Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Bicycle 9 12 21 21 11
(10)* (13)*
b. Motor Cycle 5 7 12 33 6
(5)* (8)*
c. Fridge 10 4 14 47 8
(11)* (4)*
d. Above all 41 34 75 122 40
(44)* (37)*
e. Both a and b 6 5 11 133 6

61
 (6)* (5)*
f. Both b and c 19 21 40 173 22
(20)* (23)*
g. Both a and c 4 9 13 186 7
(4)* (10)*

g. Distribution of Households by Source of Drinking Water

The survey data reveals that 60% households obtain drinking water from deep well pump and
this percentage greater in Shujaabad Tehsil than Multan city. The survey data also reported
that 33% households obtain water from Govt. pipeline and this percentage greater in Multan
city than Shujaabad Tehsil. While only 2% households obtained drinking water from other
sources.

Table 5.18 the percentage distribution of household by source of drinking water

Source Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Deep Well Pump 47 72 119 119 60
(47)* (72)*
b. Hand Pump 5 7 12 131 6
(5)* (7)*
c. Govt. Piped Line 45 21 66 197 33
(45)* (21)*
d. Others 3 0 3 200 2
(3)*

h. Distribution of Household by Received Non-Labor income

62
Low income of people permits them to received non-labor income either from their relatives
or Govt. The survey data reveals that about 28% households received non-labor income
among which 95% received from relatives and 5% from Govt. The following data also
pretend that relatives more financial support the poor household than Govt.

Table 5.19 the percentage distribution of household by received non-labor income

Type Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Relatives 33 39 72 72 95
(97)* (93)*
b. Govt. 1 3 4 76 5
(3)* (7)*

i. Distribution of Household by Residence Structure

In this study it is also examined that physical structure of homes is an indicator of household
economic position that’s why this term is incorporated. The survey data shows that 13%
households have own mud houses and this trend greater in Tehsil of Multan city than
Shujaabad. The data also reveals that 87% households have own cemented houses while 20
households are living in rented houses.

Table 5.20 the percentage distribution of household by own residence structure

Form Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Kacha House 3 21 24 24 13
(4)* (22)*
b. Pakka House 80 76 156 180 87
(96)* (78)*

j. Distribution of Households by Suffering Disease

In this study following main disease are included to examine the physical fitness of
households. The following table describes that the 38% households suffered diseases among
which 22% suffered in sugar while 45% households suffered in other diseases.

63
Table 5.21 the percentage distribution of household by suffering disease

Type Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Sugar 7 10 17 17 22
(25)* (21)*
b. Heart Patient 0 4 4 21 5
(8)*
c. Fever 3 10 13 34 17
(11)* (21)*
d. Blood Pressure 5 3 8 42 11
(18)* (6)*
e. Others 13 21 34 76 45
(46)* (44)*

k. Distribution of Household by Mode of Grocery Buy

It is basically considered that poor people purchase necessary goods daily because they
worked on daily wages so, they have nothing to save. The survey data reveals that 32%
households buy grocery daily and this trend is higher in Multan city tehsil than Shujaabad.
While 40% households buy grocery monthly. While 29% households purchase necessary
goods weekly.

Table 5.22 the percentage distribution of household by mode of grocery buys

Type Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
Daily 43 21 64 64 32
(43)* (21)*
Weekly 17 40 57 121 29
(17)* (40)*
Monthly 40 39 79 200 40
(40)* (39)*

Overview of Household Characteristics

64
 The following table reveals that Shujaabad Tehsil more populated than Multan city. More
children involved in labor activity in case of Multan city and more children are going to
school in Shujaabad Tehsil. The female male ratio is greater in Multan city than Shujaabad
Tehsil with less dependency ratio.

Table 5.23 Overview of Household Characteristics

Characteristics Multan Shujaabad Total

Total Population 910 982 1892
Number of Male 403 464 867
(44)* (47)* (46)*
Number of Female 506 518 1024
(56)* (53)* (54)*
Number of children in household 374 400 774
(41)* (41)* (41)*
Number of children goes to school 295 338 633
(32)* (34)* (82)*
Number of children remain idle 25 20 45
(3)* (2)* (6)*
Number of children doing work 54 42 96
(6)* (4)* (12)*
Female Male Ratio 1.57 1.4 1.48
Head Count Ratio 0.2 0.22 0.21
Dependency Ratio 0.34 0.37 0.35
Percentage of Population Living Below Poverty line 20 23 43
(20)* (23)* (22)*
Percentage of Population Living Above Poverty Line 80 77 157
(80)* (77)* (78)*
Average Rent of House RS.4882 RS.9166

65
 *Percentages are shown in parenthesis

5.3 Econometric Analysis

Several versions of child labor, child schooling and household poverty based on econometric
analysis are available in literature. However the use of some specific versions depends upon
the objectives of the study as well as the data available on parameters of basic concerns.
Therefore to analyze the models precisely three econometric techniques are used.

5.3.1 Statistical Analysis of Primary Data

E-views software used to determine the statistical analysis of primary data for each model. To
have the clear idea about the structure of the variables, averages, standard deviations,
skewness and kurtosis are given in following table. The following table contains six columns.
First contains the name of variables. The mean of the variables are reported in column 2;
column 3 is for median, while standard deviation of the variables is presented in the column 4
and skewness are presented in column 5 and 6 present kurtosis respectively.

Child Labor Model

Additional descriptive analysis of child labor model provides the comprehensive profile of
working children and its determinants. The following table indicates that the 40%
household’s children involve in labor activity and average age of working child is near about
12 years. The average passed education of working child is approximately 4 years it means
that children left school before the completion of primary standard of education. The average
family size of household in the sample is that about 9. On the average about 73 percent
households children want to get school education and average age of households head is 43
years. Average per month income of households is Rs.28721 with a standard deviation
Rs.23510 and about 21 percent households living below the poverty line, similarly the other
variables disclose the sample statistic.

Table 5.24 Statistical Analysis of Child Labor Model

Variables Mean Median Std. Dev Skewness Kurtosis

Child Labor (CL) 0.40 0.00 0.49 0.40 1.16
Age of Working Child (AGE) 11.78 12.0 2.21 -0.34 2.98

66
Child Want School Education (CSE) 0.73 1.0 0.44 -1.06 2.13
Education of Working Child (EDU) 4.305 5.0 2.48 -0.31 2.15
Family Size (FS) 9.46 9.0 3.72 1.03 4.30
Head Age (HA) 43.10 42.0 7.54 0.62 3.31
Household Monthly Income (HMI) 28721 18450 23510.97 1.78 5.93
Household Poverty Line Status (PLS) 0.21 0.00 0.41 1.38 2.92

Child Schooling Model

The following table indicates that 98 percent household children are going to school. The
average education of households head is approximately 6 years; it indicates that mostly
household head are only primary pass. On the average about 73 percent household children
want to get school education. The average female male ratio is 1.5 and dependency ratio is
0.35. While the average monthly income of household is Rs.28721 with the standard
deviation Rs.23510.97, similarly the other variables disclose the sample statistic.

Table 5.25 Statistical Analysis of Child Schooling Model

Variables Mean Median Std. Dev Skewnes Kurtosis

s
Child Schooling (CS) 0.98 1.00 0.14 -6.85 48.02
Household Head Education (HHE) 5.78 5.00 4.68 0.08 1.83
Child Want School Education (CSE) 0.73 1.00 0.44 -1.06 2.13
Female Male Ratio (FMR) 1.50 1.15 1.19 2.51 11.43
Dependency Ratio (DR) 0.35 0.300 0.19 0.45 3.20
Household Monthly Income (HMI) 2872 18450 23510.97 1.78 5.93
1

Household Poverty Model

The following table indicates that mean of total personal expenses (TPE) of households is
Rs.11296.7 with the standard deviation Rs.10498.72. The 22 percent households are living
below the poverty line. The average per capita income (PCI) of households is Rs.3241.2 with
the standard deviation Rs.3334.16. The average number of working person (NOHWP) in a
household is 3. The following table also pretends that 38% households received non-labor
either from their relatives or Govt. About 32 percent poor households bought necessary goods

67
 daily (HBGD). The following table also shows that household engaged in outside work about
9 hours.

Table 5.26 Statistical Analysis of Household Poverty Model

Variables Mean Median Std. Dev Skewness Kurtosis

Total Personal Expenses (TPE) 11296.7 7700.0 10498.72 2.32 10.66
Household Poverty Line Status (PLS) 0.21 0.0 0.41 1.38 2.92
Per Capita Income (PCI) 3241.2 2354.0 3334.16 6.36 62.26
Number of Household Working Person 2.51 2.0 1.55 1.02 3.42
(NOHWP)
Household Received Non-Labor 0.38 0.0 0.48 0.49 1.24
Income (HRNLI)
Household Bought Grocery Daily 0.32 0.0 0.46 0.77 1.59
(HBGD)
Household Outside Home Working 8.72 9.0 2.36 -0.12 2.29
Hours (HOHWH)

5.3.2 Correlation Analysis

Correlation shows the degree of association between dependent and two or more independent
variables. The following correlation matrix describes degree of interdependence between
pairs of variables. To explore the association between variables we use a criterion which is
explained in chapter 4.

Child Labor Model

If we analyze the results of the correlation coefficient in terms of child labor, correlation
coefficient describes the extent of the relationship between child labor and independent
variables. Here we start one by one analysis of coefficients: child labor activity weak positive
associated with household poverty (PLS), children labor activity moderate positively related

68
 with age of working children (AGE) which means that as the children grew old their chances
of involvement in labor market increases. Children want school education (CSE) weak
negatively related with child labor, showing that more children want to get school education
less will be the child labor. Obtained education (EDU) of working children weak negatively
related with child labor. Household family size (FS) did not influence child labor activity,
both variables does not impact each other. Household head age (HA) weak positive related
with child labor. While household monthly income very weak positive related with children
labor activity.

Table 5.26 Correlation Matrix of Child Labor Model

Variables CL PLS Age EDU CSE HA FS HMI

Child Labor (CL) 1.00
Household Poverty Line Status (PLS) 0.24 1.00
Age of Working Child (Age) 0.40 0.07 1.00
Passed Education of Working Child (EDU) -0.36 -0.12 0.35 1.00
Children Want School Education (CSE) -0.24 0.01 -0.12 0.19 1.00
Head Age (HA) 0.24 0.07 0.31 -0.07 -0.01 1.00
Family Size (FS) 0.06 0.06 0.02 -0.00 0.18 0.20 1.00
Household Monthly Income (HMI) 0.13 -0.03 0.11 0.04 0.01 0.19 0.43 1.00

Child Schooling Model

The following table reveals that household monthly income (HMI), dependency ratio (DR)
and female male ratio (FMR) are not correlated with child schooling so, they does not
influence child schooling. While households Head education (HHE) and children want school
education (CSE) is very weak positive correlated with child schooling.

Table 5.28 Correlation Matrix of Child Schooling Model

Variables CS FMR HHE CSE DR HMI

Child Schooling (CS) 1.00
Female Male Ratio (FMR) -0.02 1.00
Household Head Education (HHE) 0.13 0.02 1.00
Children Want School Education (CSE) 0.15 0.01 0.11 1.00
Dependency Ration (DR) -0.03 0.12 0.15 0.11 1.00
Household Monthly Income (HMI) 0.04 -0.12 0.06 0.01 -0.14 1.00

69
 Household Poverty Model

The correlation coefficient of household bought grocery daily (HBGD) not correlated with
household poverty line status. Household outside home working hours (HOHWH) weak
negatively related with household poverty which means that as the outside home working
hours increase household poverty decrease. Household received non-labor income (HRNLI)
very weak positive correlated with household poverty line status. The number of household
working person (NOHWP) weak positively related with household poverty which means that
higher the number of working person in a households more chances to fall below the poverty
line. There are certain reasons behind this phenomenon first in mostly households single
working person worked on low daily wages and his earnings is not sufficient to meet the
needs of large family size, second 30% working children involved in unpaid labor activity.
The correlation coefficient of total personal expenses of household (TPE) and per capita
income (PCI) weak negatively related with household poverty which shows that poor
households have less personal expenses, similarly higher per capita income means that less
number of household’s lies below the poverty line.

Table 5.29 Correlation Matrix of Household Poverty Model

Variables PLS HBGD HOHWH HRNLI NOHWP PCI TPE

Household Poverty Line Status 1.00
(PLS)
Household Bought Grocery Daily 0.03 1.00
(HBGD)
Household Outside Home Working -0.24 -0.00 1.00
Hours (HOHWH)
Household Received Non-Labor 0.19 0.08 0.00 1.00
Income (HRNLI)
Number of Household Working 0.26 0.02 -0.19 0.03 1.00
Person (NOHWP)
Per Capita Income (PCI) -0.23 -0.02 -0.06 -0.04 0.30 1.00
Total Personal Expenses (TPE) -0.21 -0.04 0.09 0.03 0.41 0.43 1.00

70
 5.3.3 Empirical Analysis

The empirical results of this section are discussed in the light of hypothesis formulated in
chapter 4. The following tables are interprets the Logit estimates of child labor, child
schooling and household poverty model. The following tables contain five columns. First
contains the name of variables. The estimated parameters of the variables are reported in
column 2; column 3 is for standard error of the coefficients, while asymptotic Z-statistic of
the parameters of the explanatory variables is presented in the column 4 and probability
values are presented in column 5 respectively. While this study used two tailed test of
significance or z-statistics for determining the acceptance or rejection of null hypothesis in
order to check the reliability of the point estimates.

Child Labor Model

The logistic estimates of child labor model are given below. Where the head age, head age
square, working child age, working child education in completed years, children want school
education, family size, household poverty line status and log of household monthly income
are taken as independent variables and child labor is used as the dependent variable.

Table 5.30 Logistic Estimate of Child Labor Model

Variables Coefficient Std. Error Z- Statistics P- Values

Constant (C) -34.278 8.5929 -3.9891 0.0001
Head Age (HA) 0.9336 0.3127 2.9849 0.0028
Head Age Square (HAS) -0.0107 0.0034 -3.1161 0.0018
Age of Working Child (AGE) 1.250 0.2159 5.7929 0.0000
Passed Education of Working Child (EDU) -1.0451 0.1791 -5.8348 0.0000
Children Want School Education (CSE) -0.6387 0.5351 -1.1935 0.2326
Family Size (FS) 0.0919 0.0785 1.1709 0.2416
Log of Household Monthly Income (LHMI) 0.3231 0.4048 0.7980 0.4248
Poverty Line Status (PLS) 1.0612 0.6065 1.7497 0.0802
Log Likelihood = -65.70 Sample Size = 200
LR Statistics = 137.80 Probability (LR Statistics) = 0.0000
McFadden R-Squared = 0.51

71
The result of the constant term shows that the effect of intercept term on child labor is more
important. The value of McFadden R 2 which assures the quality of our estimates shows that
about 51 percent variations in the model are due to explanatory variables.

With this arbitrary choice, it is observed that the head age (HA) of households is explaining
child labor positively. The coefficient of head age is highly significant. It means that as the
age of household head increases child labor also increases. This can be seen as the age of
household head increase their working capacity declining after a certain age and it is difficult
for them to bear all financial affairs of their family alone that’s why they allow their children
to participate in labor market. In the sample study mean age of household head is 43 years.
The estimation of head age variable is indirectly reconciled with the result of Togunde and
Richardson (2006).

The coefficient of head age square has negative and significant impact on child labor.
Children of upper age household head more involve in labor activity while children of lower
age household head less involve in labor activity. The same result was found by Khan (2003).

Estimation of the model describes that age of child has positive and highly significant impact
on child labor. As the age of working child increases, its impact becomes highly significant
and the value of coefficient also increases. The statistic describes that 1 year increase in child
age increase 1.0 1 percent chances of child involvement in labor activity. The estimate of
child age variable reconciled with the results of Blunch and Verner (2000), Admassie (2003),
Aldaba et al. (2004), Dayioglu, Togunde and Richardson (2006), Hou (2009), Ahmad (2012),
Webbink et al., Onyemauwa and W.A and T.N (2013).

The variable EDU represent the past education standard of working children in years and is
introduced in the model to see whether child past education influenced child labor or not. The
variable is highly significant and having negative association with the child labor. The
coefficient of the variable indicates that 1 year increase in child education decrease 1.09
percent chances of child involvement in labor market. The estimate child education variable
is also consistent with the results of Amin et al. (2006).

No one can observe the child interest in school education in a society, therefore to see the
impact of children want school education variable included in the model for determine child
labor decision. The coefficient of this variable is negative and insignificant. It describes that
more child want to obtain school education fewer would be children involve in labor activity.

72
This result indicates that 1 percent change in children interest decreased child labor 0.59
percent.

It is observed that the family size (FS) of household is explaining child labor positively. The
coefficient of household family size is insignificant. The coefficient of the variable has
positive association with the child labor decision. This reveals that children belonging to a
large family faced more chances of involvement in labor market. This result indicates that 1
person increase in family size increase child labor 0.13 percent. The estimate of household
family size variable reconciled with the results of Qureshi et al. (2014), Ahmad (2012),
Togunde and Richardson (2006) and Toor (2005).

The coefficient of log of household monthly income (LHMI) has positive sign and
insignificant. Higher income of household leads more children involve in labor activity. In
developing countries low educated or uneducated parents less wants to invest in children
education so, their children more involve in labor activity. The results of this variable also
satisfy the wealth paradox (i-e as the household become wealthier child labor start increases).
The estimate of log of household monthly income reconciled with the results of Lima et al.
(2015) and Abdullahi et al. (2016).

The variable of PLS represent the household poverty line status and is included in the model
to see whether household poverty effected child labor or not. The variable is significant and
has positive association with child labor. The coefficient of the variable indicates that 1
percent increase in household poverty increase 1.06 percent chances of children to involve in
labor activity. The estimate of household poverty variable consistent with the results of
Blunch and Verner, Ray (2000), Aldaba et al. (2004), Ersado (2005), Hou, Kim (2009),
Onyemauwa et al. (2013) and Qureshi et al. (2014).

Child Schooling Model

The logistic estimates of child schooling model are given below. Where the female male
ratio, dependency ratio, household head education, log of household monthly income and
children want school education are taken as independent variables and child schooling is used
as the dependent variable.

73
 Table 5.31 Logistic Estimate of Child Schooling Model

Variables Coefficient Std. Error Z-Statistics P –Value

Constant (C) -5.6104 9.7656 -0.5745 0.5656
Female Male Ratio (FMR) -0.2365 0.4275 -0.5532 0.5801
Household Head Education (HHE) 0.3790 0.2253 1.6822 0.0925
Children Want School Education(CSE) 2.4419 1.2420 1.9660 0.0493
Log of Household Monthly Income 0.8521 0.9563 0.8909 0.3729
(LHMI)
Dependency Ratio (DR) -2.0458 2.6360 -0.7760 0.4377
Log Likelihood = -14.3989 Sample Size = 200
LR Statistics = 10.4178 Probability (LR Statistics) = 0.06422
McFadden R-Squared = 0.2656

The result of constant term shows that the effect of intercept term on child schooling is less
important. The value of McFadden R 2 which assures the quality of our estimates shows that
only 26 percent variations in the model are due to explanatory variables.

Keeping in mind the importance of gender discrimination in developing countries like

Pakistan, a variable FMR female male ratio included in the child schooling model. The result
is insignificant and has negative value. The statistic shows that female male ratio decline
child schooling. The coefficient of the variable indicates that 0.23 percent decline in child
schooling is due to 1 female child addition in a family.

Estimation of child schooling model describes that household head education has positive and
significant impact on child schooling. More educated household head are in favor of more
children schooling than less educated household head. It is described that household head
education significantly increases child schooling. The result indicates that 1 year increases in
head education increases child schooling 0.37 percent. The estimate of household head
education variable reconciled with the results of Berenger and Chouchan (2015), Onyemauwa
et al. (2013), Grigoli and Sbrana (2011), Khan (2003), Shapiro and Tambashe (2001), Ray
(2000) and Jensen and Nielsen (1997).

No one can ignore the children interest in school education in any society, therefore to see the
impact of children want school education variable included in the model for determine child
schooling. The estimated result is same, as was expected in the hypothesis. The coefficient of
this variable is positive and significant. It describes that more child want to obtain school

74
education greater would be the child schooling. This result indicates that 1 percent change in
children interest increased child schooling 2.4 percent.

An important variable in the model is log of household monthly income. Log of household
monthly income has a positive coefficient with insignificant value. The sign of the variable is
positive indicating that if the household income increases they will be prefer more children
schooling. The estimated result of this variable contradict the wealth paradox (i-e as the
household become wealthier they will prefer less child schooling) presented by Lima et al.
(2015) and Abdullahi et al. (2016).

The variable dependency ratio (DR) of household indicates the position of household
economically active and non-active person. The coefficient of this variable is also according
to expectation showing negative impact of dependency ratio on child schooling. This result
describes that fewer presence of economically active person in household decreases child
schooling, however this result is insignificant.

Household Poverty Model

The logistic estimates of household poverty model are given below. Where the household
bought grocery daily, per capita income, number of household working person, household
received non-labor income, total personal expenses and household outside home working
hours are taken as independent variables and household poverty line status is used as the
dependent variable.

Table 5.32 Logistic Estimate of Household Poverty Model

75
 Variables Coefficient Std. Error Z- Statistics P –Value
Constant (C) 0.9518 1.066 0.8923 0.3722
Household Bought Grocery (HBGD) 0.0776 0.5100 0.1523 0.8789
Per Capita Income (PCI) -0.0013 0.00031 -4.4701 0.0000
Number of Household Working Person 1.2048 0.2310 5.2154 0.0000
(NHWP)
Household Received Non-Labor Income 1.0507 0.5016 2.0947 0.0362
(HRNLI)
Total Personal Expenses (TPE) -0.00014 4.80E-05 -2.9933 0.0028
Household Outside Home Working Hours -0.17762 0.1061 -1.6731 0.0943
(HOHWH)
Log Likelihood = -55.72 Sample Size = 200
LR Statistics = 96.75 Probability (LR Statistics) = 0.00000
McFadden R-Squared = 0.46

The result of constant term shows that the effect of intercept term on household poverty is
less important. The value of McFadden R 2 which assures the quality of our estimates shows
that only 46 percent variations in the model are due to explanatory variables.

In this model we hypothesized that households who are living below the poverty line mostly
working on daily wages, less or zero savings do not allow them to purchase the basic goods
monthly or weekly so, they bought necessary goods daily. The result is insignificant and
coefficient has positive value. The coefficient of the variable indicates that 0.07 percent
increment in household poverty due to 1 percent change in household daily mode of buy
necessary goods.

Household per capita income is another important variable of poverty model. The results of
the variable state highly significant negative impact on household poverty. The estimated
result is the same, as was expected in the hypothesis. The statistic describes that 1 percent
decline in per capita income increase poverty 0.0013 percent.

Another important variable is number of household working person; the coefficient sign of
this variable favored the expectation showing positive impact on household poverty. The
positivity of the coefficient is due to the three certain reasons, first 30 percent working
children involved in unpaid labor activity and these children are also included in
economically active persons, second single working person earning is unable to meet the
needs of large family and third is mostly household working person worked on low daily

76
wages. The finding of this variable is also verified by both descriptive and empirical
analyses. The results of the model state highly significant positive impact of household
working person on poverty.

Household received non-labor income is another important determinant of household poverty

model. The coefficient sign of this variable is positive and significant. The sign of this
variable is indicating that increment in household poverty leads to 1.05 percent requirement
of non-labor income. From this result it can be concluded that poverty positively related with
household received non-labor income and same result is found as was expected.

The total personal expense of household member is another determinant of household

poverty. The result of the variable is significant and has negative impact on household
poverty. The statistic describes that a household has fewer personal expenses, which shows
that family faced more poverty. A 1 percent decrease in household personal expense
increases poverty 0.00014 percent. This is seems to be negligible impact on household
poverty.

Keeping in mind the importance of household working hours, a variable HOHWH household
outside home working hours is included in the model. The estimated result is the same, as
was expected in the hypothesis. The result is significant and coefficient has negative value.
From this result it can be concluded that if household outside home working hours increased
household poverty decreased. The coefficient of the variable indicates that 0.19 percent
decline in household poverty due to 1 hour increase in outside home work.

5.4 Conclusion

In this chapter, there were analyses of the data with the help of descriptive and econometric
analysis. Descriptive analyses provide more deep insight of this study and pretend children
and household characteristics. While through econometric tools we are able to determine how
own child and household characteristics influence child labor, child schooling decisions and
household poverty. Then there were estimation of the models of child labor, child schooling
and household poverty and interpretation of the selected variables.

Chapter 6

Conclusions and Policy Implications

77
6. 1 Introduction

The agenda of this study is to examine the factors of child labor, child schooling and
household poverty in two selective Tehsils of Multan District. Logistic technique applied to
elaborate the determinants of present study. Different forms of dependent and independent
variables are introduced to find out possible element of this study. Some important
conclusions are drawn from econometric analysis, these are given below.

6.2 Conclusions

i. One of the crucial factors of child labor decision is household head age. Household
head age had significant influence on child labor decision. The coefficient of
household head age is 0.93 and square of household age is -0.01 which shows that 93
percent variation in child labor decision is due to household head age while for 1
percent change in child labor due to head age square.
ii. Age of working child is a highly significant variable that affect the child labor
decision positively. As with the increase in age child become mature and his/her
working capacity also improved so, his/her chances to more involve in labor market
also increases.
iii. Results also state that education of working child highly significant and negatively
affected child labor. Higher education leads less involvement of children in labor
market.
iv. Children want school education had an insignificant influence on child labor. This
depends upon the children interest in school education and educational achievements
of their family members. The results indicated that more interest in school education
decrease the child labor activity.
v. Family size plays an important role in determine child labor. The sign of coefficient
indicates that children of large family size more involve in labor activity. So, child
labor starts increasing in large family system.
vi. In my study it was observed that log of household monthly income had insignificant
impact on child labor, my research results supports the wealth paradox. According to
this paradox parents involved their children in labor activity as the household income
increases.
vii. Household financial position considers the most important determinant of child labor
decision in developing countries. So, household poverty status allows children to

78
 participate in labor market. The sign of the coefficient also satisfied this
consideration.
viii. In the nutshell, the results of child labor model indicates that, in general, working
children in Multan district are selective especially in term of head age, head age
square, age of working child, education status of working child and household poverty
line status.
ix. It was observed that gender disparity greater in developing countries so, large female
male ratio decreased child schooling. It means that presence of more females in a
house decrease the chances of child schooling.
x. Results state that household head education plays an important role in determine child
schooling. The coefficient of variable is positive and significant impact on child
schooling decision. Educated head of households want their children obtain school
education rather than permit them to participate in labor market.
xi. Children want school education had a significant influence on child schooling. This
depended upon the children interest in school education and educational achievements
of family members. The results indicated that more interest in school education
increase the child schooling.
xii. Log of household monthly income positively influenced child schooling decision. The
coefficient of the variable is 0.85 which shows that 85 percent variations in child
schooling decision is because of log of household monthly income.
xiii. The study indicated that household dependency ratio is another determinant of child
schooling in developing countries. The presence of more dependent person in a house
decreases the chances of child schooling.
xiv. Poor household bought necessary goods daily and this variable affected household
poverty negatively. The coefficient of variable is 0.048 which shows that household
bought basic goods daily not bring too much change in household poverty.
xv. Per capita income of household is a highly significant factor and affects household
poverty negatively. In my study per capita income coefficient is -0.0013 which shows
negligible impact on household poverty.
xvi. Number of household working person is another main determinant of household
poverty model. The sign of the variable is positive because earning of single working
person is not enough to fulfill the needs of large family and 30% working children
involved in unpaid labor activity.

79
xvii. Household received non-labor income has significant positive impact on poverty. The
coefficient of household received non-labor income is 0.99 which shows that 99
percent change in poverty is because of financial assistance. So, requirement of non-
labor income increases as the household become poorer.
xviii. Personal expenses of household member are another determinant of poverty. This
variable is significant and affects household poverty negatively. The coefficient of
variable is -0.00013 which shows it does not bring too much change in household
poverty.
xix. Outside home working hours of household is a significant factor affects household
poverty negatively. The coefficient of the variable is -0.16 which shows that 16
percent change in household poverty is because of household outside home working
hours.

The above conclusion shows that mostly child labor, child schooling and household poverty
determinants are interrelated to one another.

6.3 Policy Implications

There are following actions that should be obeyed to decline child labor, household poverty
and promote child schooling in selective Tehsils of Multan District. These are given below

i. There is need to bring changes in primary and middle standard syllabus and
introduced more practical than theoretical subject in primary standard. This is because
it is the primary standard syllabus which developed the child interest in education.
ii. This study indicated that there is a need to make such policies which does not allow
parents to withdraw their children from school before the completion of school
education, if they do so they are imprisonment.
iii. Children interest in education play an important role so, Govt. should make those
educational policies which make school education most attractive and children are
ready to go to school happily.
iv. Government must utilize more resources to control increasing population.
Government should give incentives to less family size household which improve their
financial status.
v. Ministry of labor must develop an action against child labor and punish those who
demand children as a labor.

80
 vi. Government as well as NGOS must play their role to eliminate household poverty
which simultaneously reduced child labor and extend child schooling. Government
should give incentives to those households where poverty allows parents to send their
children for work.
vii. Pakistan is an Islamic Republic state so, we must reduce gender differences and
follow golden Islamic principles which provide female an equal opportunity to read
and write.
viii. Improve the quality of education so that its fruits must reach to the bottom.
ix. Adults Education Program should be introduce which change the attitude of adult
household members and parents towards children investment.
x. Stable high market wage increase the household income, reduced poverty and
simultaneously deter children to participate in labor market.
xi. Technical and vocational education should be made compulsory; institutions are
established for those children who are taking less or no interest in school education.
xii. Short term as well as long term benefits of education must be introduced which
change the attitude of shortsighted parents.
xiii. Government provides more employment opportunities of household adult’s members
which also decline poverty as well as dependency ratio indirectly.
xiv. Media should play its role to protect the rights of children and realize the
responsibilities of parents of their children.

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 Appendix

E-Views Tables of Logistic Model

Child Labor Model

Dependent Variable: CL
Method: ML - Binary Logit (Quadratic hill climbing)
Date: 06/18/17 Time: 09:50
Sample: 1 200
Included observations: 200
Convergence achieved after 7 iterations
Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob.
C -34.27819 8.592933 -3.989114 0.0001
HA 0.933669 0.312790 2.984976 0.0028
HASQ -0.010755 0.003451 -3.116165 0.0018
AGE 1.250931 0.215939 5.792985 0.0000
EDU -1.045198 0.179132 -5.834805 0.0000
CSE -0.638798 0.535197 -1.193577 0.2326
FS 0.091951 0.078525 1.170986 0.2416
LHMI 0.323108 0.404871 0.798050 0.4248
PLS 1.061278 0.606526 1.749763 0.0802

McFadden R-squared 0.511884     Mean dependent var 0.400000

S.D. dependent var 0.491127     S.E. of regression 0.329700
Akaike info criterion 0.747016     Sum squared resid 20.76205
Schwarz criterion 0.895440     Log likelihood -65.70162
Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.807081     Deviance 131.4032
Restr. deviance 269.2047     Restr. log likelihood -134.6023
LR statistic 137.8014     Avg. log likelihood -0.328508
Prob(LR statistic) 0.000000

Obs with Dep=0 120      Total obs 200

Obs with Dep=1 80

87
Child Schooling Model

Dependent Variable: CS
Method: ML - Binary Logit (Quadratic hill climbing)
Date: 06/18/17 Time: 10:26
Sample: 1 200
Included observations: 200
Convergence achieved after 6 iterations
Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob.
C -5.610473 9.765646 -0.574511 0.5656
HHE 0.379061 0.225326 1.682276 0.0925
CWSE 2.441968 1.242093 1.966010 0.0493
DR -2.045827 2.636081 -0.776087 0.4377
FMR -0.236566 0.427576 -0.553274 0.5801
LHMI 0.852101 0.956382 0.890962 0.3729

McFadden R-squared 0.265654     Mean dependent var 0.980000

S.D. dependent var 0.140351     S.E. of regression 0.140567
Akaike info criterion 0.203989     Sum squared resid 3.833266
Schwarz criterion 0.302939     Log likelihood -14.39892
Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.244033     Deviance 28.79785
Restr. deviance 39.21565     Restr. log likelihood -19.60782
LR statistic 10.41780     Avg. log likelihood -0.071995
Prob(LR statistic) 0.064226

Obs with Dep=0 4      Total obs 200

Obs with Dep=1 196

88
Household Poverty Model

Dependent Variable: PLS

Method: ML - Binary Logit (Quadratic hill climbing)
Date: 08/05/17 Time: 12:36
Sample: 1 200
Included observations: 200
Convergence achieved after 6 iterations
Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob.
C 0.951807 1.066626 0.892353 0.3722
HRNLI 1.050741 0.501603 2.094765 0.0362
NOHWP 1.204887 0.231021 5.215487 0.0000
AOHWH -0.177623 0.106159 -1.673183 0.0943
HBGD 0.077695 0.510020 0.152336 0.8789
PCI -0.001389 0.000311 -4.470131 0.0000
TPE -0.000144 4.80E-05 -2.993393 0.0028

McFadden R-squared 0.464721     Mean dependent var 0.215000

S.D. dependent var 0.411853     S.E. of regression 0.267928
Akaike info criterion 0.627232     Sum squared resid 13.85461
Schwarz criterion 0.742673     Log likelihood -55.72318
Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.673949     Deviance 111.4464
Restr. deviance 208.2026     Restr. log likelihood -104.1013
LR statistic 96.75620     Avg. log likelihood -0.278616
Prob(LR statistic) 0.000000

Obs with Dep=0 157      Total obs 200

Obs with Dep=1 43

89
 Child Labor, Child Schooling and Household Poverty in Pakistan

(A Case Study of Multan District)

Questionnaire

No Househol Relation Gender Age Education Outside Inside Monthly Monthly

d with the in in Years Home House Income Expenses
Members Respon Years Work Work
dent Duration Duration

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Section I

Child Labor Characteristics Questions

1. At what age did children start to work for the first time in his/her life?
------------------------------
2. Why children do work? a) Supplement family income b) Help pay family debt
c)Help in household Work d) Learn skills e) Schooling not useful for future f)
School too far / no school g) Cannot afford school fees h) Not interested in school.
3. In what type of labor activity children engage? a) Father own business b) Relative
business c) Factory or industry Work d) Slavery in houses e) Shopkeeper f) Others
4. Have the working children some control on their earned income? a) Yes b) No.
5. If yes how much amount they use from it--------------------

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6. When the working Children get wages? a) Daily b) Weekly c) Monthly.

Section II

School Characteristics Questions

1. What is the children school enrollment age? -------------------------

2. Which type of education children want to obtain? a) School b) Tuition Center c)
Madrasah d) Any Training Institutions e) Nothing.
3. Mostly children involve only in? a) Work b) School c) Tuition Center d) Madrasah
e) Idle or leisure
4. Do the children want to go to school? a) Yes b) No.
5. If No then chooses the reason. a) Poverty b) Lack of School Excess c) Social Norms
d) Greater Demand of Child Labor e) Poor school quality.
6. How many days’ children absent from school in a week? ----------------
7. Do each school going children also join tuition center? a) Yes b) No.
8. If yes then tell tuition fee--------------------
9. How many hours spent in tuition center? a) 2-3 b) 3-4.
10. School going child daily pocket money----------------
11. Which of the following subject children want to study at primary standard? a) English
b) Math c) Urdu d) Islamic Studies e) computer f) Drawing.
12. Which among the above mention subject’s children not want to study?
-----------------------------------
13. Which kind of syllabus studied at primary standard? a) Only theoretical b) More
theoretical than practical c) a, b and extra curriculum activities.
14. What is the Govt. schools fee structure? ------------------------------
15. What is the private schools fee structure? ------------------------------
Section III
Household Characteristics Question
1. Who is the household head? a) Father b) Mother c) Both a and b d) Others.
2. When the household purchases basic goods? a) Daily b) Weekly c) Monthly.
3. What is the household source of drinking water? a) Well pump b) Hand pump c)
Govt. piped line d) Others.
4. Does your household own this accommodation or rent it? a) Yes b) No.

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5. If yes then What type of accommodation do you live in? (a) Kacha House b) Bricks
plus Mud c) cement plus bricks d) Juggi.
6. If No tell what is the per month rent? --------------------------------
7. What was the mode of payment for the last payment period? a) Daily b) Weekly c)
Monthly d) Hourly.
8. Does the household receive non labor income? a) Yes b) No.
9. If yes then tell which kinds of non-labor income you receive? ------------------------
10. Does the household own any of the following? a) Bicycle b) Motor Cycle c) Fridge.
11. Has household suffer in any disease? a) Yes b) No.
12. If yes tell the name of disease--------------------------
13. Do household have complete availability of healthy diet? a) Yes b) No.

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