Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Statement of the Problem

Child labor seems to be primal issue in developing countries like Pakistan. Child labor means
that school age child involved in such occupations which put off their educational
achievements and ruin mental or physical capability. Child own house work (normal routine
work) not included in child labor definition because that does not affect child schooling and
health. Similarly, the term harmful work ignore in this study because parents loved their
siblings and they are not ready to send for such work which beyond their capacity. According
to International Labour Organization (ILO) assessments frequency of child labor greater in
Sub-Saharan African countries and 85 million children involved in harmful labor activity.
The specific form of child labor based on child age, mode of labor activity, working spell and
intent of work. In developing countries after maturity a child is allowed to take part in labor
market while in case of developed countries after completion of school education a child is
allowed to work (ILO).

Child labor survey was made in Pakistan in 1996, according to estimates of this survey 3.3
million children were occupied in labor activity out of which 33.2% children are literate.
Male working child more educated than female child. Almost 70% working children involved
in unpaid family business labor activity, 23% employees and 7% are self-employed. This
estimates also shows that 46% children working greater than 35 hours, about 54% children
worked to assist their family income, 27% worked to supplement their family income and
14% worked due to absence of other family members.

According to the evaluations of Punjab Bureau of Statistics MICS (2007-2008) there are total
5870 children under the age of 5 to 14 years in Multan districts among which 3750 goes to
school and remaining 2120 either engage in labor or leisure. In Multan districts 11 percent
children involved in labor activity among which 2 percent received income and remaining
received nothing MICS (2007-2008).

In literature there are several studies with respect to pakistan made on child labor, child
schooling and household poverty in different ways i-e Ray (2000), Rosati and Rossi (2001),

1
Ali and Khan (2003), Khan (2003), Toor (2005), Mansuri (2006), Hou (2009), Qureshi et al.
(2014), Landmann and Frolich (2015) and Lima et al. (2015).

In Pakistan Child labor directly related with household poverty and head education brought
significant impact on child schooling. When the income of household (specifically the
layman) fall, head is unable to meet the basic needs so, head make decision that their
offspring must participate in labor market Ray (2000). The same views were presented by Ali
and Khan (2003), Hou (2009) and Qureshi et al. (2014) in different manners. While some
studies support the wealth paradox (which negate the luxurious assumption of Basu and Van
(1999)) presented by Heady and Bhalotra (2003), according to this paradox child labor
increases up to a certain level of land holding after this it will start decrease. Large land
holding household employ inside home cheap labor (i-e their children) and save income
before they reached a certain level after this they prefer child schooling. While the small land
holding household sent their children to school that is because they have not enough land to
involve their children in it Lima et al. (2015) and Abdullahi et al. (2016).

The present study discussed how the children and household features determine child labor,
child schooling and household poverty. Child labor is not only due to poverty but there are
certain reasons that create the problem of child labor like child not interest in school,
schooling zero valuable in future and learn skills. So, child labor decision not only pulls by
children but also household characteristics. The determinants of child labor, child schooling
and household poverty are interconnected to each other.

In developing countries education is regard as the formidable determinant of human training.

Women are fall back men of availing education facilities. Presence of greater gender disparity
female are less or unable to avail educational opportunities. So, presence of more girls in a
household is decrease child schooling Ali and Khan (2003). A number of studies show that
child labor and child schooling inversely related to each other, according this child can do
one thing in single time; they cannot perform both duties at the constant time Toor (2005),
Amin et al. (2006), Wahba (2006) and Basu et al. (2010). Similarly this study also discussed
low child schooling is not only due to household poverty but there are also certain factors like
household head education, number of female in house, number of non-wage earners and child
interest in education. Children interest in school education is also a factor that determines
either he/she continues education or move to labor market. In literature there is no study

2
made on children interest in school education and household dependency ratio, that’s why it
is included in present study to analyze its impacts on child schooling decision.

The present study also discusses the elements of household poverty by assuming various
household attributes. Household characteristics includes mode of household wage, per capita
income, received non-labor income, number of household working person and outside home
working hours. Mostly person worked on daily wages so, they bought necessary goods daily.
The unique finding of this study is that number of household working person positively
related with poverty that is because mostly household working person engaged in same
family business which yield no personal income and high personal expenses of working
persons left less income for other family members.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

The foremost aim of this study is to cognized the main factors affecting child labor, child
schooling and household poverty other than presented in previous literature. The important
objectives of this study are given below.

1) To understand why children involve in labor activity

2) To determine how household and children characteristics influence child labor
decision.
3) To study how household characteristics are causing low child schooling in selected
district.
4) To identify the factors those are affecting household poverty in Pakistan.
5) Provide adequate recommendations to policy makers, regional heads on how they can
control household poverty in Multan districts.

1.3 Scope of the Study

This research will valuable to identify the characteristics that cause child labor, low child
schooling and household poverty in Multan district. This study will focus the effects of
household characteristics which further influence child labor and schooling. This work will
also useful to propose a best policy implication how to remove household poverty, child labor
and low child schooling in Pakistan economy.

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1.4 Data and Methodology

This research work based on primary data accumulated from 200 households of two selected
Tehsils of Multan district. Analysis of this study organized in two sections. In the first
section, researcher has formulated elementary data analysis. While in the second section
quantitative analysis has made to determine the factors associated with child labor, low child
schooling and household poverty. The quantitative analysis is a combination of three set of
analysis first statistical analysis, second correlation analysis and third empirical analysis in
which we use logistic model.

1.5 Organization of the Study

The research work of this study is arranged as follow: Chapter 1 introduction present a
concise introduction of subject, purpose, scope and constraint of the study. Chapter 2 is
theoretical framework in which researcher discoursed the different economic theories of child
labor, child human capital and household poverty. Literature review is discussed in chapter
3rd, this provide reviews around child labor, child schooling and household poverty that
prevail in world with specific position of Pakistan. In chapter 4 th data and methodology has
been discussed. Results and discussion have been made in chapter 5th, which further
comprised on statistical, correlation and empirical analysis of primary data that has been
collected from two selective tehsils of Multan district. Logistic model used to explore the
empirical determinants of child labor, child schooling and household poverty. While
conclusions and policy implications have been deliberate in chapter 6th.

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Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

There are countless studies on the issue of child labor, child schooling and household
poverty. In this chapter I will observe different literature especially with reference to
Pakistan, developing countries and developed countries of the world, how household poverty,
child labor and child schooling related to each other. I will discuss what are the main causes,
consequence or impact of child labor, low child schooling and household poverty on Pakistan
economy.

2.2 Review of Literature

Canagarajah and Coulombe (1992) evaluated the conditions of child labor and schooling in
Ghana. In this case study child labor defined as a school-going age children only performed
work outside the home for the sake of self as well as family survival. They analyzed that
welfare index of household reveal weak negative link with child labor and strong positive
link with school enrollment, while reverse is true in rural areas. The results of this study
showed that excessive cost of school, distance from school and inefficiency in teaching
methods leads parents have no other option but to send their child towards labor market. They
concluded that female literacy rate (i-e dwelling work excluded from definition) enhanced as
compared to boys. This study suggested amenable educational policies (especially in rural
areas) and increment in private as well as social returns of education decline child labor. On
the contrary, mostly girls spent more hours in domestic work which is also hinder them in
school enrollment and this study ignored this aspect of child labor.

Jensen and Nielsen (1997) studied the situation of child labor or school attendance in Zambia.
This study basically depends on two hypothesis of parents decision either their child
participate in labor market or in school, first poverty is the major cause of child labor, second
low quality of school compelled parents to keep their children missing from school.
Theoretical as well as empirical analyses of this study supported first hypothesis while the
second seems to be least feasible. The results of this study showed girls low school
attendance or high dropout rate(i-e early marriages or pregnancy) as compared to boys, step
or non-biological relations, age of child, more family members involvement in labor market,

5
distance to school, defective capital market structure and remittances are negatively related
with school attendance or participation, while high grade achievement, assets or saving,
formal employment opportunities for household, rural residency (i-e more primary school
available there as compared to in urban),human capital of household head are positively
related with school attendance or participation. The study suggested whole decline in cost of
schooling, improved capital market structure and income generating possibilities for
household heads brought directly or indirectly positive impacts on children school
participation rate.

Patrinos and Psacharopoulos (1997) empirically analyzed the household family size, child
schooling and child labor in Peru. In this paper two situations are analyzed first estimation of
school progress in the form of repeat grade or overage, second chances of work of school
going children. The results of this study showed age of children, rural residency and number
of children in a family positively influenced age grade distortions, while reverse is true for
parent education(i-e especially male),large homes and private schooling. They concluded that
not any children repeat the same grade when worked for finance their educational expenses
so, in this situation child performed the both duties at the same time. The authors suggested
that instantly ban on child labor seemed not a suitable decision (i-e it lead more poverty
among household) so, compensation and subventions must be offered to household and
working children to avoid full time child labor.

Blunch and Verner (2000) explored the association of poverty and child labor in Ghana. In
this case study harmful child labor term used to show how child labor competes with the
process of human capital accumulation of children directly. The preliminary results of this
study shows harmful child labor positively related with poverty and child age, while this
situation is mostly found in rural areas than urban and girls mostly involved in it (less attend
school). In their study, they constructed an economic model to find out the determinants of
harmful child labor whose results similar to the preliminary results but in different manner (i-
e ownership of assets, distance from education center, region of resides and gender). The
most credible point of this study is discussion about disable child’s (negatively related with
harmful child labor), these Childs involved less physical movement activity in both urban and
rural regions. Through both approaches authors investigated rural and urban girls more
involved in harmful child labor activity than boys similarly, low income or non- low income
girls mostly involved in harmful child labor activity than boys.

6
Ray (2000) analyzed the situation of child labor, child schooling and compare it with young
or mature labor through empirical evidence from Pakistan and Peru. This study basically
depends on two hypothesis, first direct link between working hours of a child and poverty,
second indirect link between school education and poverty while, luxury axiom(low family
income promote child labor) used to test its applicability in both countries. The results of this
study supported the above hypothesis only for Pakistan and negate Peru, child labor as a
source to escape from poverty trap in Pakistan than Peru, as female wage increased than
working hours of her also increased; men more financially supported their family income
than women in Pakistan as compared to Peru. While in case of Peru as male wage increased
then working hours for female decreased, women more financially supported their family as
compared to Pakistan. He concluded when all income of household fall below the poverty
line then parents have no any option but to derive their children(especially girls than boys)
out of school while, elder and mother education brought significant impacts on child labor
and schooling in both countries. The author of this study suggested instant outlaw on child
labor not a suitable decision and such policies made that enhanced the education standard in
both countries especially in Pakistan.

Rosati and Rossi (2001) inspected the factors affect the worked hours of children and school
enrollment decision and its link with human capital accumulation process in two selective
countries. In this study they discussed the impacts of child work duration on school
enrollment/ class distortions and human capital accumulation process in Pakistan and
Nicaragua. The authors of this study found that increment in income indirectly influenced the
child work period, family size positively influenced child school enrollment decision and
reduced child work period, a child work more an hour in the presence of small siblings in the
house, work hours positive link with more number of school age children while reverse true
for Pakistan. They also concluded that gender differences greater in Pakistan than Nicaragua
so, male child worked more time than female, child working period greater in urban areas
than rural (rural children less enrolled in school as well as work less hours), in Pakistan an
additional hour child work created 3.8 points more chances towards class distortion while in
Nicaragua this created 3.6 points more chances towards class distortion. The authors of this
study recommended that both minimum child work period as well as more school enrollment
policies made to accelerate the human capital formation process.

Shapiro and Tambashe (2001) explored the relationship between children education
investment decision and sex, poverty and household family size in capital of Democratic

7
Republic of Congo. In this study authors discussed that how economic improvement brought
variations in child school enrollment and more grades achievements, they also examined the
association between education standard of household headship holder and children. The
empirical results of this study revealed that improvement in household economic status
positively influenced the investment decision in children (both male and female) education,
female child (10-14) years obtained less education under the female headship as compared to
male, while family size negatively related with children investment decision in education.
They also concluded that investment in children education inversely related under the
headship of others than parents and gender of headship holder not substantially influenced the
decision of male child (particularly) investment in education.

Admassie (2003) examined the compatibility between child labor and school attendance in
subsistence economy of rural Ethiopia. In this paper author discussed all kinds of exploitative
(carry and lifting heavy weights and other dangerous works) or non-exploitative (routine life
of farm and domestic work) activity that children performed inside (i-e look after of small
siblings, cooking, house dusting and own farm work) and outside (hotel work, slavery and
look after of shop, etc.) house. The results of this study pretended labor force participation
rate and gender discrimination positively influenced of growing age, mostly less girls
enrolled in school(too expensive and away from house) as compared to boys, a school going
children hold the capacity to performed normal house and farm work. The author of this
study concluded household favored in male child investment that brought long term benefits
for them and avoid female child investment that brought only short term benefits for them
and long term benefits availed her in-law household. The results of this study recommended
short term flexible educational policies made during peak periods of child labor demand in
agriculture sector and long term policies made for positive improvement in demographic
structure.

Ali and Khan (2003) examined role of urban household of making simultaneous decision
regarding child schooling and labor in Pakistan. In this study authors discussed supply side
factors of child labor and examined the urban household’s characteristics, child
characteristics, and head of household characteristics that might influence the decision of
parents towards labor or school. This study based on four sequential parents decision stages
(i-e first, only going to school, second going to school and doing work, third only doing
work, fourth neither going to school nor doing work). The results of this study revealed
similar relationships found up to three stages as discussed in previous literature while, the 4th

8
stage result showed that in urban areas parents more concern towards education in urban
areas so, they sent less their children for work as compared to rural areas, birth order
positively influenced child labor, gender discrimination enhanced boys schooling so, they
less fall under this stages, households assets holding decreased the chances of work. They
suggested that Govt. should play their role for the provision of educational policies (for child
as well as adult) and control the demographic compositions.

Khan (2003) explored the performance of children in different activities specifically labor
and schooling in two districts of Pakistan. In this study authors discussed the features or
characteristics of different factors like child, parents, household, household headship holder,
residency location, family composition, etc. and examined its impacts on four decision stages
(i-e school only, work plus school, work only and only managing home). The results of this
study revealed that child birth order inversely influenced only work or school decision
(reverse happened for third and stage), gender discrimination greater in rural areas as
compared to urban areas (girls faced low availability and quality of education, higher dropout
rate, etc.), child education and age status positively influenced the child only work or school
decision, while education and age status of household headship holder, household per capita
income and assets holding positively affected only child schooling decision. They also
concluded that mother education standard brought more significant results as compared to
father regarding child school decision only, family size negatively influenced child schooling
decision, while income and employment status of parents not influenced the child schooling
decision.

Aldaba et al. (2004) empirically examined the inverse link between child schooling and child
labor in Philippines. In this study authors discussed decision of child labor influenced market
wage rate and opportunities, parent preference towards child investment while the schooling
decision influenced child characteristics (total expenses on each child, age, health status and
highest grade obtained), household and community factors (distance/access to school and
school availability) and asset holding of household (parents qualification, subsidy and except
agriculture land). The results of this study revealed that parents more invested in girls than
boys, dropout rate higher for boys (more participated in labor market) than girls, child age
positively associated with market opportunities, parents qualification positively related with
child schooling decision, children of higher asset holding household and resides in
impoverished areas more involved in labor activity, while parents spend less on elder child
quality. They also determined the main causes behind child labor (role of imperfect market

9
and less availability of total assets) and working capacity of child initially increasing then
decreasing at growing age. The authors of this study recommended that student education
loan scheme made from which student get loan to manage their educational expenses and
prepared poverty reduction as well as boys education policies must motivated (specifically in
impoverished areas) which further provide different types of assistance to households and
male child.

Edmonds (2005) analyzed the role of potential income as responses of child labor and
schooling in South Africa. This study used Old Age Pension Program (OAP) as a social cash
transfer for black South African elder member of poor families and age is the primary
determinant of it. A male is pension eligible at the age of 65 and a female eligible at the age
of 60, both are consider nearly eligible until this age. The author examined the impact of
social cash transfer on child labor and schooling when black elder family member moved
from nearly eligible to eligible status. He investigated in rural region boys child schooling
increased and working hours decreased simultaneously under the headship of male pension
eligible, while under the headship of both female/male pension eligible working hours
decline more for girls(i-e mostly involved in domestic work) than boys(i-e engage in market
work).Pension only got Govt. employees after retirement but he did not discuss about those
poor people who are working in informal sector, suddenly unemployed before this age and
facing poverty, never enrolled their child in school and have no option but to send their
Childs in labor market.

Ersado (2005) comparatively analyzed the household decision of children labor and
schooling activity in both rural and urban regions of Peru, Nepal and Zimbabwe. In this study
author discussed the role of school quality, mother work status, parents qualification, access
to banks, school education expenses, labor market structure, age and child gender on affected
the decision of child work and school attainment in urban/rural region separately . The results
of this study revealed that in all countries child school attendance inversely related with age,
female and elder children school participation rate low as compared to boys and small
children, family qualification negatively related with child labor, responsibilities of small
siblings strongly affected child school attendance in urban areas than rural and only in rural
areas poverty is the main cause behind child labor. He also investigated that better labor
market structure and more school expenses positively influenced child school attainment
(specifically in Nepal and Peru) opposite happened in urban Peru, mother work outside home
promoted more child labor in Peru and Nepal and access to credit market significantly

10
affected child school attendance in Nepal and Zimbabwe while reverse happened in Peru. The
results of this study suggested that small siblings day care centers (in urban region),
betterment in adult wage and school quality improved child school attainment (particularly in
Peru).

Moav (2005) examined the condition of low quality children and persistence poverty within
and across the countries. In this study author developed a dynamic model which generate
multiple equilibrium steady states within and across the countries, the high income steady
state shows more investment in child quality and less quantity of children while, low income
steady state shows low investment in child quality and more quantity of child. The each point
of multiple steady states depends on multiplier effects like at high point more income means
more opportunities of child investment, less resources devoted for more children So, the high
income parents(or highly qualified) prefer quality over quantity of their children. The results
of this study showed child labor inversely related with cost of quantity of child and positive
with life expectancy, technological spillover and income inequality. The author of this study
suggested child labor regulations and public schooling play a crucial role of the contraction of
child labor and fertility rates.

Toor (2005) examined the relationship of child labor with literacy and poverty in Pakistan. In
this study author analyzed the existence of child labor in 100 districts of Pakistan and
estimate the hypotheses whether it is more in impoverished areas and prevaling low
education attainment. The results of this study revealed that child labor not only persist in
impoverished areas but also in well developed areas among these districts, girls school
dropout ratio high as compared to boys at low income level, child labor negatively related
with literacy rate (both for girls and boys) and deprivation indicators (i-e out of school
children, homeless or rented house population and unemployment level in each district). He
also investigated male child labor positively associated with household size and per capita
income while reverse happened of female child labor. The results of this study suggested
government first overcome the issue of poverty then ban on child labor and improved
education standard.

Amin et al. (2006) examined whether the labor market and dwelling work prevent the
children from school attainment in Bangladesh. In this study authors discussed the effects of
labor market work and dwelling work on children (separately for both male and female child)
labor and school attainment decision in urban and rural areas separately. The results of this

11
study revealed that labor market work less prevented the rural female child and urban male
(particularly small age) child regarding obtain school education while dwelling work activity
least prevented small rural and elder urban male child to got school education. They also
investigated that children involved in labor (either labor market or dwelling work) activity
mostly less attended school as compared to not working children. The results of this study
suggested that small sibling’s day care centers helpful in order to enhanced female child
school education. They also recommended that short as well as long term policies made
which enhanced children education similarly technological inventions in labor market and in
household work activity reduced the problem child labor and simultaneously enhanced child
schooling.

Beegle et al. (2006) analyzed the role of agriculture shocks of determine child labor in
Tanzania. In this study authors discussed whether the negative agriculture shocks (low
techniques of production lead to crop failure) promote child labor and how a household
compensate these effects of such shocks with assets (i-e cash, physical except land and
durable assets), buffer stock and loanable fund. The results of this study showed children of
shocks faced households thirty percent more involved in labor activity, crop shocks positively
related with school absence, household’s assets holding declined eighty percent effects of
such shocks. The authors of this study concluded that low income household bear shocks
after minimize their assets holding plus child labor while rich household bear shocks only
declined their assets holding instead of took loan. The results of this paper suggested that
during crop shock period easy loan availed scheme reduced the child labor problem and
improve the well-being status of low income households.

Dayioglu (2006) studied the role of household income of determining child labor in urban
Turkey. In this study author discussed the different indicators (annual household income
except child wage, household assets, annual father total incomes (both labor and non- labor
income)) to examined household income and financial or economic position of households,
this is considered the main determinant of child labor. The results of this study showed father
incomes (both labor and non-labor income) and his public employment status negatively
influence child labor, one more year parents education decreased child labor 0.2 percent and
increased school participation rate, age and quantity of children positive influenced child
labor and low wage child labor higher in absence of father at home. He concluded that child
labor higher in low assets holder household as compared to low income households. The
results of this study negated the cash transfer program that helped household to establish their

12
own business leads to create more chances of child labor and recommended poverty
reduction as well as small scale or medium scale financed program declined the problem of
child labor.

Khanum (2006) empirically analyzed the determinants of child labor and school participation
in Bangladesh. In this paper author discussed the impacts of child characteristics (age, gender
and relation with household), parents characteristics (parents education and employment
status, and size of family) and household characteristics (size of family, total assets,
availabity and distance to school) and its impacts on these four options (only school, only
work, school plus work and neither in school nor in labor market). The empirical results of
this study showed son and daughter of household more involved in only school and learnt no
economic activity, female child more involved in both activities as compared to boys, family
size positive link with child school attendance or enrollment, higher education standard of
parents created more trends towards child schooling, children of per day wage earners father
mostly lie in second and third option while, children of trade professionals only doing study,
working mothers status significantly influenced girls education and not for boys. The author
of this study concluded little domestic work permit girls to enrolled in school, they possess
the capability to perform both duties at the same time as compared to boys. The author of this
study suggested school participation of children enhanced in impoverished areas.

Mansuri (2006) empirically analyzed the effects of migration on children schooling and labor
activity in rural area of Pakistan. In this study author discussed how temporary migration
(only economic) of low skill household towards developed countries influenced the children
human capital in developing countries. The results of this study revealed that temporary
migration of household positively influenced the children (particularly for female child)
human capital investment decision so, children school participation rate increased, declined
school dropout rate and simultaneously decreased child labor. She also concluded that
migration of male household member towards developed countries also reduced the gender
disparity and improved household living standard or declined poverty while female headship
seemed to be less significant to determine the migration effects in this area. According to this
study male child enjoyed more benefits of male migrated household under the female
headship as compared to female child. This study showed the temporary effects of migration
which brought only short time period betterment while ignore the long time period
betterment.

13
Sakamoto (2006) empirically analyzed the behavior of parents towards their children and
children work in rural India (Uttar Pardesh and Bihar). In this study author examined the role
of qualitative factors like parents attitude or preference towards their children (clothe
spending on children) , parents power to control household activities, environmental factors,
races ect in determined child labor in UDCS. In this study the extent of parents concern
towards their children estimated from clothe spending on children, low clothe spending show
low concern of parents, leads to promote child labor and vice versa. The results of this study
showed male head of household mostly sent their children for work and environmental
factors (existence of school, educated atmosphere and credit availability) and less spending
on children positively related with child labor. He also concluded child labor and father work
are substitute and religion did not affect child labor except caste. He suggested different
policies must be made by Govt. like bring awareness in parents’ attitude towards children
education, change power structure in houses and easy credit availability.

Togunde and Richardson (2006) analyzed the family size and its composition link with child
labor in urban Nigeria. In this study authors discussed the association of child labor between
different household variables (i-e religion, residence location, child working hours, age and
gender of household head and child work starting age, parent’s qualification status, etc.). The
results of this revealed age and of household head, child gender and residence location
approximately not influenced child working hours while working hours of child labor
positively related with child contribution in household total income, work starting age and
family size(household plus children quantity). They also concluded that children of Christian
religion less/no involved in labor activity as compared to other religions (Islam and
traditionalist) and child of low family size less participated in labor market, while they are the
children of high social and economic status parents. The authors of this study suggested that
there is a need to brought revolution in demographic factors of household that control the
overgrowing population and made policies to uplift the social economic status of parents.

Wahba (2006) examined the impacts of market wage rates and parents background on the
decision of child labor and child schooling in Egypt. In this study author analyzed that market
wage and children forefather social economic status determined the child labor and schooling
decision, according to him a children of past labor parents(who did the same work as their
child do today) involved in labor activity, he considered that child labor transmit from one
generation to others. The results of this study showed child labor and child schooling
inversely related to each other, in each region layman parents market wage negatively

14
associated with child (both male and female child) labor, child involvement in labor market
positive influenced child market wage, mother labor activity in her childhood brought more
significant impact on male child than father labor activity and parents qualification negative
influenced child labor while reverse true for child schooling. He also concluded that income
inequality, more market information and presence of small siblings in households positively
associated with child labor activity, more child school participation rate increased under
female headship as compared to male, foreign remittances, and elder involvement in
manufacturing or public sector inversely related with child labor. The results of this study
recommended that cash transfer schemes made in those regions where elder less market wage
system prevail.

Das and Mukherjee (2007) discovered the role of females in determine the decision of male
child labor and schooling in urban India. In this study authors first discussed the impacts of
human capital on adult and child wage rates in labor market then examined the association
between parent’s human capital and child work as a labor decision, access to school and
school dropout rates. In this study authors found almost 2.5% male children of poor families
involved in labor activity in industrial sector of India, caste systems least influenced child
labor activity, more children involved in manual labor activity than harmful labor activity and
school dropout rate and child labor activity greater for Muslims children. They also
investigated that stability in income of father inversely related with child labor while mother
education status strongly affected child school participation rate than father education and
reverse happened for child labor activity. The results of this study suggested that Govt. took
initiative for the promotion of good quality of education (particularly for elder women) and
compulsory school attainment.

Duryea et al. (2007) explored the role of economic shocks and its impacts on child work and
school status in six big cities of Brazil. In this study authors made comparison between
temporary unemployed (i-e four month) household head and permanent employed household
head and examined its effects on child labor force participation rate and school attainment.
According to them temporary unemployed household head faced negative transitory
economic shock, these household head have not another option except to send their children
towards labor market when they have zero saving stocks. The results of this study revealed
that after such shocks the chances of grade distortions enhanced from 38 to 43% and shocks
impacts positively influenced the chances of children participation in labor market, school
dropout rates and distorted the grade. They also concluded that shocks effects mostly bear

15
female child as compared to boys, temporary unemployment shocks negatively influenced
children. The results of this study recommended that short as well as long saving schemes
must be introduced that become helping tool of temporary unemployed people during such
shocks.

Emerson and Souza (2007) studied the role of household head or parents gender bias and its
impacts on the decision of child labor and school attainment in Brazil. They examined that
the matter of parents (father, mother or both) qualification brought significant changes in
decision of child investment and involvement in labor market. The results of this study
showed that father qualification mostly positive influenced male child investment decision
and negative influenced male child labor market involvement decision as compared to mother
qualification while, mostly mother qualification positive influenced female child investment
decision and negative influenced female child labor decision as compared to father
qualification. The authors of this study suggested that in male dominating society cash
transfer to father declined child labor most effectively. But this study ignored the aspect of
how much amount out of this cash transfer father must spend on each child.

Fares and Raju (2007) studied the pattern and relationship of child labor among sixty five
developing countries of world. In this study authors basically distinguished the term of child
labor from child economic activity (work for wage plus work in own family farm), along with
its similarities and dissimilarities among different developing countries. They examined the
impact of both terms on region, employment sector, gender and human capital formation
process separately. The result of economically active children revealed that boys mostly
involved in economic activity as compared to girls, in all the countries average number of
economically active children (particularly boys than girls) mostly participated in agriculture
sector than other sectors(industrial and service sectors). They also concluded that there is
positive association between the rates of child economic activity and not attending school
activity, economically active children (particularly among girls) school attainment rate
greater in both Latin America Caribbean than other regions, while the results of child labor
term greater consistence with economically active children results.

Kruger (2007) examined whether the unexpected fluctuations in output level of coffee
making factory influenced the child labor and schooling decision in Brazil. In this study
author explored the variation in coffee factory level in specific regions also varied the
employment incentives as well as school attainment of children (both male and female) of

16
least, middle and higher families. The results of this study revealed that betterment in
economic situations (i-e increment in demand or amount of output level) promoted the more
chances of male child labor activity of low income families than middle income families,
elder male child more participated in school than in labor market. He also concluded that
results of such type of shocks strong negative influenced the children (both male and female
child) welfare of least and middle income families while reverse true for higher income
family children. According to him such type of economic growth more enhanced the
disincentives of children human capital formation process.

Shafiq (2007) empirically analyzed the role of household school education and its impacts on
child work decision in rural area of Bangladesh. In this study author discussed the household
education standard, financial status, family size and religion to determined children schooling
and work decision. The results of this study revealed that low financial position negatively
influenced the children school enrollment decision and promoted children work activity,
mother education more significantly influenced the children (specifically greater for boys
than girls) work or school decision as compared to educated father and more presence of
elder in family declined the chances of child labor. They also concluded that child work and
schooling least varied with direct cost of school while indirect cost significantly influenced
this decision. The results of this study suggested that there is need to made certain policies (i-
e child work reduction) particularly for some school educated households similarly
microfinance support scheme initiated to alleviate such problems.

Hou (2009) empirically analyzed the link of wealth with child labor and child schooling in
terms of economic growth contexts from 1998 to 2006 in Pakistan. In this study author also
examined the link of wealth with child idleness situation, on the assumption that child
idleness declined as economic growth took place. In this study author investigated that
economic growth took place in this era declined poverty rate from 30% to 25%,
simultaneously enhanced the child (both girl and boy) school enrollment rate and reduced
child labor in country, in urban areas child labor rate more declined for boys than girls while
in rural areas this rate declined at the same rate for both gender, school enrollment rate more
enhanced for boys than girls in urban areas while reverse happened in rural sector. He also
found child idleness rate more declined for girls than boys in rural areas and this rate less
declined for girls than boys in urban areas, as the male child grew old more engaged in labor
activity and female child tends towards idleness, in rural areas children (particularly girls)
more involved in unpaid labor activity than in urban sector. The results of this study

17
suggested cash transfer scheme suitable only in those sectors where children involved labor
activity to meet their basic needs while effective school education promotion policies made
where the lack of schools quantity and quality (especially in rural) enhanced children to
involved in labor activity.

Kim (2009) empirically analyzed whether the children involvement in two activities (work
plus school) considered the best policy measure in Cambodia. In this study author composed
the term child work into two categories, first permit able (neither interfere child schooling nor
endangered them) child work and second non-permit able (interfere school participation as
well as harmful for health) child work. The author of this study found that only to some
extent poverty promoted the child labor, more male child involved in both activities (work
plus school) than female child, more female child did nothing than male child, teachers (less
paid job) spent less hours in classes, they failed to fulfill their responsibilities in well manner.
He also concluded that even flexible educational policies (limited resources access) not
permit the children to perform both duties at the same time. The results of this study
recommended that there is need to invent a diversified school education system which
promoted the more chances for children to perform both activities at the same time. This
study discussed more one shift in school is necessary but ignored the relieve behavior of low
salary teacher.

Basu et al. (2010) empirically analyzed the association between child labor and family wealth
status. In this study authors included both own house work activity and outside house activity
to explain child labor while household wealth standard measured through the amount of land
holding and examined its relationship with child labor (specifically working hours). The
results of this study revealed that elder child’s and female more involved in labor activity
than others, women education more significantly decreased child labor as compared to men
education, more children engaged in domestic work than farm work and child labor activity
and school participation moved in opposite direction. The authors of this study explored that
children labor activity increased until land holding reached to peak point of such holding and
after this point child labor start decreased. The authors of this suggested that implementations
of educational (particularly women) as well as institutional reforms necessary for the
contraction of child labor similarly, reduced imperfections from male labor market helpful in
this regard.

18
Boockmann (2010) used both individual and collectively level of data to examine the
importance and impacts of small age conventions of International Labor Organization
regarding children labor and schooling. In this paper author described the how the
international labor organization policies helpful of reducing children labor activity in
different nations (either these countries are adopted such policies or not) and simultaneously
increased school attainment. The results of collective analysis of this study revealed that
children school participation seems to similar in both convention followed or not followed
countries, presence of small siblings in household negatively influenced child schooling and
while in case of individual analysis children school participation rate greater in convention
following countries. According to him the results of both analytical approaches showed that
such conventions brought not fruitful results as desired in following countries.

Gartner and Gartner (2011) discovered the determinants of wage traps that further lead the
problem of child labor, worst form of poverty and declined in literacy rate. In this study
authors discussed the different forms of labor supply curve like positively, backward bending
and negatively sloped supply curves while examined its influence on relative subsistence
level of a household. The results of this study revealed that wage rates inversely related with
working hours, wage trap occurred under the negative wage elasticity’s and wage rate direct
related with household work strength. They concluded that decline in wage rate increase the
absolute poverty (below the subsistence level) which further enhanced school dropout rate
and children began participation in labor market increased. The results of this suggested that
international assistance, restrictions on child labor and labor unions may helpful of reducing
absolute poverty and child labor from an economy. But the contract of labor union took place
only in industrial sector or some other civilized sectors not in the whole poor economy.

Grigoli and Sbrana (2011) examined the factors determine the child labor and schooling in
Bolivia. In this study authors investigated the impacts of govt. assistance in the form of
school incentives on the behavior of parents regarding the decision of child labor and school
enrollment or attendance. The authors of this study found that child age and Spanish language
positively associated with child work decision, child work higher in rural areas than urban
while reverse true for school enrollment, and parent’s qualification declined the chances of
child work while increase the chances of school enrollment. They also concluded that zero
substitutability found between work and school among the children of extremely poor
households while such types of policies more beneficial for extreme poor families than non-
poor. The results of this study suggested that school incentives schemes promote the school

19
enrollment or attendance (especially in rural areas) and certainly uplift the status of poor local
families’ children.

Zapata et al. (2011) studied whether the gender and caste/ethnic determined the child
domestic household work, which further lead the inverse link between child labor and
schooling in Bolivia. In this study authors used two types of child labor definitions, first
consisted only labor market work while second included both domestic household child work
plus labor market work. The results of this study revealed that children (both male and female
child) of local civilians more wanted to involved in labor activity (both house work plus
market work) than others non-indigenous, more male child involved in labor activity than
female child under first definition of child labor while more female child engaged in labor
activity under both definitions, gender discrimination lead to less female child enrollment in
school, children resided in rural areas have 30% more chances to remain out of school. They
also concluded that gender of headship holder not influenced the decision of child labor or
schooling, parents qualification brought significant impact on child schooling (especially for
male child), number of pre-school age children negatively associated with school enrollment
decision. The results of this study suggested public pre-school age children care centers and
civil education system promote the school participation of girls while flexible school
educational policies must be made in rural areas which facilitate the needs of farm holding
families (particularly during the peak periods of child labor demand).

Ahmad (2012) analyzed the relationship between poverty, education and child labor in
Aligarh city of India. In this study author explored mostly children involved in non-formal
activities (i-e dhabas work, rag pickers, vendors, etc.) in this city so, all the possible factors
that might influence child labor are age and gender differences, religion, education standard,
educational achievements of family, size of family, family work status, family income except
child work, child contribution in family income, structure of work, wage rates, work timing,
preference towards kinds of work. The results of this study showed child labor positively
related with age and quantity of children, low family income, low parents educational
achievements, low educational standard, higher offered wage, better work environment and
also work timing. He also concluded Muslim children more involved in labor activity than
Hindu. He suggested Govt. made those policies which compel parents to keep their children
away from labor market (i-e provision of school as well as technical education centers).

20
Sarkar and Sarkar (2012) examined what are the reasons behind the prevalence of child labor
with decreasing poverty. In this study authors included both paid and unpaid activity children
performed in labor market and examined the impacts of higher income inequality under
decreased poverty rate on child labor and child schooling. The author of this study
investigated that income inequality positively influenced child labor, income inequality
inversely related with child schooling decision (low level of human capital formation) and
child working hours increased at low value of wealth distribution rank, while the child
schooling hours decreased. They also concluded that in poor economies income inequality
increased severity of both child labor and low child schooling problems. The results of this
study recommended that avoid child labor ban policies which usually distracted the parents
towards child schooling decision and promote the public welfare programs that enhanced the
quality of schooling.

Heymann et al. (2013) explored the role of child labor legislation (practiced in 2008 and
2012) and its impacts on secondary school enrollment rate of children. In this study authors
empirically analyzed the effectiveness of minimum age child labor law and its impacts on
child admission in secondary school. The results of this study revealed that mostly children
allowed to start work at the age of more than or equal to fifteen years in rich countries as
compared to poor countries, child labor legislation more influenced the female child
secondary school enrollment rate than male child in rich countries. They also found that this
minimum child work age law brought significant results regarding child compulsory school
educational policies. The results of this study suggested that extension in minimum child
work age and promotion of secondary school education considered the best way to escape
from poverty trap.

Kumar (2013) examined the role of gender disparity and parent’s child preference and its
effects on child labor and child schooling. In this study author explored the financial position
(holding of non-labor income) of household and its effects on male child preference function,
female child marriage expenditures and earning function bias. The author of this study found
that higher income parents distributed non labor income (i-e bequest) more equally among
male and female child, promoted child investment equally and reduced gender inequality
while low income parents not spent equally among both children, they mostly preferred male
child investment than female and female child marriage expenditures positively influenced
child work while reverse true for schooling. The results of this study recommended that there
was need to make such policies which uplift the status poor families that further condemn

21
gender inequality from labor market, changed the parent’s male child preference and reduced
the female child marriage expenditures in specific low income localities.

Malik (2013) examined whether poverty might affect child schooling and child labor in 30
states of India. In this study, author constructed the wealth index which is a combination of
different items that a household used in routine life, to estimate the economic status of each
household in these states. He used different characteristics of school attainment (i-e never
enrolled in school, enrolled in school, drop out ratios, interest of children and left school
before completing primary, secondary and matric standard) to measure the association of it
with poverty. The results of this study shows that poor economic states having high
percentage of never enrolled in school, dropout rates and left school before completing
primary, secondary and matric standard as compared to good economic states. He suggested
Govt. took initiative for promotion of compulsory school education programs as well as
brought betterment in social economic environment of schools in economically deprived
region of these states.

Onyemauwa et al. (2013) studied the poverty status of household and its impacts on children
participation in labor activity in Isoko North of Delta state. In this study authors discussed the
poverty and social economic factors and its role in determine child labor in this state. The
results of this study revealed that more women household headship holder than men, age
determined the economic activity of head of household, education status of household head
positively influenced the children education, poverty gap greater under the women headship
as compared to men headship, similarly poverty gap also higher under middle age (33 and 39)
as compared to higher age (70 and 77) and household poverty along with child labor
negatively influenced the formal education status of household head. They also concluded
that poor people engaged in farming activity that’s why only farmer expenditures influenced
the poverty and household poverty status positively influenced the child labor activity. The
results of this study suggested that promotion of vocational and formal education declined
poverty as well as child labor in this state.

W.A and T.N (2013) studied the effects of household poverty status on child labor
performance among household in Nigeria. The main objective of this study analyzed the
different types of activities in which children engaged, different forms of characteristics like
child(age, sex, interest towards education, relation to head of household and disability),head
of household(age, sex, family size, education status, total income and poverty head count)

22
and community(residency area, distance to school and labor market),reasons or determinants
of child labor and household poverty status depend on children participation in labor market.
The result of this study revealed that children mostly engaged in hawking activity, they work
to support their low income parents, low income family children more involved in labor
activity as compared to non-low income family children, children worked more hours under
the female headship as compared to male, elder children worked more hours as compared to
younger children and as age of children increased working hours increased at declining rate.
They concluded urban leaving children worked more hours and distance from labor markets
negatively affected child labor.

Webbink et al. (2013) studied the role of household and context factors affecting child labor
in 221 districts of 18 developing countries. They analyzed the situation of child labor at
domestic, districts and national level and discussed the role of context factors which included
resources (income/assets, parent’s education and work status), structure (child quantity, birth
Oder, child rank and urbanization) and culture (parent’s preference towards labor and women
status). The results of this study revealed child labor (both male and female) inversely related
with higher education standard of parents, father engaged in high nonfarm work, and more
assets holding of household. They also concluded that mother work status and absence of
father more positively influenced female child labor, child labor more directly link with age
(specifically boys); male children of large age difference parent (father age minus mother
age) less involved in labor activity and in urban areas mother education strongly influenced
the decision of child labor.

Chanda (2014) analyzed the impact of domestic child labor on child household poverty level
in Lusaka city of Zambia. He examined children(i-e mostly girls) participate in domestic
house work belongs to those families suffered dangerous disease like HIV/Aids or unable to
meet both ends meet, children engage in this activity remained away from many bad evils or
crimes(i-e destitution, street begging, thefts and drug addiction, etc.).The result of this study
revealed that child domestic work leads more poverty among children and decline the
chances of enrolled in school or to get technical skills to uplift their future status, so drop out
ratio high for girls as compared to boys. The study suggested that Govt. of Zambia and NGOs
create more institutions of technical and vocational training programs for parents as well as
their children’s similarly; shelter homes must be made for orphans and vulnerable children’s.

23
Qureshi et al. (2014) examined whether the magnitude of poverty, demographic factors and
parental background influence the decision of child labor and school enrollment in Pakistan.
In this study the term child work defined as a 5-14 years child work in any formal or informal
sector in industry, while three types of factors are discuss which might influenced the
decision of work or school, first is poverty factor measured directly(through consumption
expenses of a household) and indirectly(through access to electricity, sewerage system and
number of rooms in a house),second demographic factors(i-e including number of family
members, gender, region and elder income earner) and third parental factor(i-e including
employment status(either self-employed or employee) and education status). The results of
this study revealed that size of family and number of elder income earners significant positive
impact on child work, male children working more than female in both regions, similarly
boys have more capacity to work and got education at the same time than girls(more girls
than boys fall in this category of neither work no school),parents education(especially father)
significant positive impact on child schooling, employer position of both parents decline the
chances of child labor, while employee position of mothers brought significant positive
impact on both decisions(work or school),inflation as well as other proxies of poverty
positively related with child labor and negatively with child schooling. They suggested
poverty reduction strategies and cash transfer programs especially to mothers may decline
child labor force participation and enhanced school enrollment.

Bandara et al. (2015) studied whether the significant variation in income and non-income
affected situation of child labor in Tanzania. In this study authors defined the term non-
income shocks as the sudden death of household family member and examined its direct as
well as indirect effects on children welfare (i-e education plus health) while the term income
shocks defined as the variations in weather (its effects on agriculture sector) and labor market
conditions. The results of this study revealed that income shocks not only affect the children
work and schooling decision but also brought variations in time allocation of children,
household savings in bank negatively related with child labor and agriculture shocks also
raise the other household family member working hours. They also found that non-income
shocks promote the more children (particularly for male child than female) working hours
and declined the living status of household while household asset holding not seriously
influenced the effects of such shocks. The results of this study suggested that unexpected
agriculture shocks control measures helpful to reduce such problems while for non-income

24
shocks there is need to establish those schemes which raise household education and
indirectly reduced child labor.

Berenger and Chouchane (2015) studied the role of gender discrimination and its impacts on
child labor and child schooling decision in South Sudan and Sudan. They examined girl’s
involvement regarding school attainment as well as in other activities low in South Sudan,
while male child labor high in Sudan. The study showed school involvement and gender
discrimination mostly prevail in urban areas of these countries. To measure how household
characteristics (i-e gender, education and employment status) impacts on child labor and
schooling decision authors used bivariate probit model. The study found that higher
education level of head of household and mother bring positive impacts on decision of child
schooling even both are not economically active. In their study, they suggested that time
relaxation education programs made for those children who belong to large land holding
families similarly, income generating and education policies especially for women control
child labor indirectly.

Landmann and Frolich (2015) explored whether the health insurance assistance scheme
detriment the labor activity of children in Pakistan. In this study authors discussed the effects
of economic hardship shocks on household health and children labor activity decision while
for removing such effects they analyzed the role of health insurance scheme. According to
this scheme shock effected household submitted the health expenses bill to the organization
and after verification organization refunded the same amount to the household. The results of
this study showed that insurance scheme positively associated with better child health while
such scheme negatively related with children involved in dangerous labor activity and work
duration and their wages. They also found that insurance scheme brought more influential
results for male child (they more involved in labor activity) as compared to female child so,
male child school participation enhanced and work duration declined. This insurance scheme
is least beneficial for female child school attainment as compared to male child.

Le and Homel (2015) examined the role of child labor and its effects on school performance
of children in rural Vietnam. In this paper authors recognized the term child labor as
unskilled female child worked for average wage in the same community and examined its
impacts on school achievements (i-e ranked as poor, average, good and excellent.) while
different indicators used estimate economic and financial position of household. The authors
of this study found child labor inversely related with school performance, girls more involved

25
in labor activity as compared to boys that lead to low school grades and high dropout rates of
her, more difference in children age of a household less involved in labor activity, tall
heighted children posed the more capability of achieved good grades, children of low
economic households more involved in labor activity, parents qualification strong positive
impact on child school achievements, children resides at hills less enrolled in school as
compared to other resides. They also concluded that children of minority groups more
participated in labor market and less school achievements as compared to majority groups
household. The authors of this suggested certain educational policies made which decline the
gender discrimination and brought innovative changes in parent’s attitude towards the female
literacy investment decision. This study ignored the children of small heighted (naturally)
wealthier household and height is not a good indicator to correctly determine the household
status impacts on child labor or school achievements.

Lima et al. (2015) employed the altruistic behavior of parents and link of child labor with
wealth paradox in rural Pakistan. In this paper authors discussed wealth paradox, according to
this paradox large land holding household prefer their own child bear all farm managing
responsibilities rather than hire outside labor, their children involved in child labor activity
while zero or small land holding household children went to school. The authors of this study
investigated that child labor positive influenced with wealth paradox, in case of tolerated
parents child(both male and female) working hours declined as assets ownership enhanced
while in case of non-tolerated parents male child working hours declined under more small
land holding possession as compared to girls. They also concluded that wealth paradox exists
only in non-tolerated parents while luxury axioms (i-e low income parents have no option but
to send their children for work) useful only when examined child labor in tolerated
households. The result of this study suggested public welfare policies made which combat
child labor and change the attitude of parents.

Putnick and Bornstein (2015) studied whether child labor seems to be a hurdle in school
enrollment decision in low and middle income countries. This study employed three forms of
activities usually household children preformed (inside excessive domestic work, work
outside the house, and family work) and examined the impacts of these forms on school
enrollment separately, while the effects of this link moderating through gender and country
level analysis. The authors of this study investigated that in these countries all types of child
labor negatively related with school enrollment while children engaged in outside work less
or insignificant with school enrollment and work outside the house more prevent children to

26
enrolled in school as compared to other forms. They also concluded that child labor consider
not real barriers of school enrollment in certain countries. The empirical results of this study
suggested that government and NGOs made those policies which promote the universal
primary education and declined poverty in these low middle income countries.

Abdullahi et al. (2016) examined whether poverty affects the situation of child labor in 42
developing countries of world. In this study authors basically used luxury axiom (low income
parents sent their children for work) and substitution axiom (adult and child are perfect
substitute) to examined the link between child labor and poverty. The result of this study
contradicted the positive association between child labor and poverty and, supported the
wealth paradox (i-e children belongs to large land holding families more engaged in work
while small land holding goes to school).So, they found that poverty is not the root cause of
child labor and large land holdings promoted child labor in these selected countries. The
authors of this study suggested government of these developing countries establish
constitution or legislation to overcome child labor problem.

He (2016) analyzed the association between children market involvement and school
participation in Gansu province of China. In this study author explored the link between past
child labor activity and future exam (math and language only) grades achievements and the
influenced of past exam grade achievements on future child labor activity. The author of this
study found that own house work negatively related with child (particularly of female child)
grades achievements, low income household children more suffered in own house work than
high income, while child working capability, local teacher efficiency , mother wished her
children obtained more education and educational expenditures positively related with school
performance. According to him a child (specifically male child) who work greater than one
hour declined the more chances of better school grades as compared to child who did not
work and higher income villagers more supported their children to achieved best grade. He
also concluded that past school performance not significantly influenced the current child
work activity and fathers qualification inversely related with child school performance.

2.3 Conclusion

In literature everyone has attempted to discover the relationship between child labor, child
schooling and household poverty by holding in mind the goals of their study, which are
diversified within countries and persons. In developing countries like Pakistan children

27
involve in labor activity either to supplement their family income or low interest in education.
In this study an effort has been to determine the other factors which simultaneously
influenced child labor, child schooling and household poverty

In order to find out the determinants each of three terms models are made in subsequent
chapter. In child labor model my work is different from previous studies in the sense that in
determining the factors or elements of child labor passed education of working children,
children interest in school education and life cycle of household head age are also taken along
with other variables. In exploring factors of child schooling dependency ratio, children
interest in education and female male ratio are taken as new variables. Similarly in finding
the elements of household poverty mode of grocery purchase, total personal expenses, outside
home working hours and number of working person are also taken as explanatory variables
along with other variables.

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Chapter 3

Theoretical Framework

3.1 Introduction

Theoretical framework provides historical foundations in order to understand how these

theories are exist in current situation or circumstances. Different theories which are related
with labor supply, human capital or education and poverty are discussed in this chapter. This
chapter is classified into two section, first section consists of theoretical framework, second
describe the construction of hypothesis. Conclusion of this chapter is discussed in the last.

3.2 Theoretical Framework

Theoretical framework is divided into further three parts, in first part labor supply theories
are discussed, second part elaborate how human capital effect child schooling while in last
part researcher examined the poverty theories under different school of thoughts.

3.2.1 Labor Supply Theories

In this section theoretical background related to supply side labor theories will discuss.

3.2.1.1 Classical Labor Supply Theory

Classical production function consist only one variable factor in the short run which is labor.
The labor supply theory based on assumption of homogeneous labor units. The main
determinants of labor supply are price of labor, population size, and labor force participation
rate, taste of consumer and geographic, occupational and educational distribution of the labor
force. This theory of labor supply is the function of actual real wage rate, while keeping other
factors constant. According to this theory labor supply curve positively sloped, as the wage
rate increases labor supply increases simultaneously. But after a certain increment in money
wage rate decrease the labor supply, at this situation financial position of working people
improved and they prefer more leisure than involve in labor activity. The initial increments in
money wage promote labor force participation at specific level and further increment start
decreases. So, labor supply curve positive sloped at initial increment level after it, it will be
backward bending or negative sloped.

29
Here in the following diagram labor supply taken on horizontal axis and wage rates on
vertical axis. At initial level labor supply L1 and wage rate W1 this is shown at point A, when
wage rate increased from W1 to W2 labor supply increases from L1 to L2 this is shown at B.
But after this point the increase in wage rate from W2 to W3 decrease the labor supply from
L2 to L3 this is shown at point C.

Diagram

So in above diagram from point A to B substitution effect out weight the income effect this
leads to positively sloped labor supply curve while from point B to C income effect out
weight substitution effect this leads to backward bending supply curve.

3.2.1.2 Keynes Labor Supply Theory

According to Keynes theory of labor supply workers only know money wage, they are
uncertain about price level. So, workers make decisions on the basis of expected price, this
expectation based on past information about price. Labor supply function depends on
expected real wage rate which is positive influenced the workers labor decision. The
increment in expected income due to increase in wage rate increases the labor supply.
According to the theory labor supply curve positive sloped when workers have some degree
of money illusion, they are not know about changes in prices except money wage.

30
3.2.2 Children School Investment Theory

In this section researcher discuss how human capital investment effect child schooling
decision.

3.2.2.1 Gray Becker Human Capital Theory

Gray Becker (1964) presented human capital theory that explains the role of human capital
accumulation on earnings of workers. He stressed the education and training is the most
important investment in human capital. An expense on education, health and technical
trainings is known as investment in human capital. Future productivity of workers depends
on current investment in human capital similarly, current time period workers’ productivity
shows the past investment in human capital. Higher investment in human capital more will be
the return on investment in the form of higher wages as investment increase working capacity
increases of workers and firm will hire this efficient labor to increase output at low cost of
production. Difference in human capital stock like education, skill and experience results
difference in earn income. Wealthy families more investment in human capital and leave
greater non-labor income for their children while on the other hand poor household less
invest in children human capital as well as leave small bequest for their siblings.

3.2.3 Poverty Theories

In this section researcher discuss how poverty theories affect household characteristics. These
theories are given below

3.2.3.1 Classical Theory of Poverty

According to this theory there were two reasons behind the problem of poverty first people
make wrong choices which influence their productivity and create the problem of poverty,
second differences in genetic capabilities is another cause of potential poverty. Sometimes
individual makes wrong choices which disturb their working capacity or productivity and
productivity of individuals negatively related with poverty while reverse is true when
individual makes correct choices. Another potential cause of poverty is genetic abilities and
people have more genetic abilities face no chances of poverty while reverse is true for low
genetic abilities people. From the first reason people choices are fluctuate around the welfare
or poverty trap. According to these economists govt. help poor people through supportive
policies and made arrangements for such people participate in labor market.

31
3.2.3.2 Neo Classical Theory of Poverty

This theory of poverty to some extent is similar to classical theory. According to this theory
discriminated initial endowments (skill, capital and talent), market failure and random shocks
are the cause of poverty. In perfectly competitive market disparity in initial endowments
determines individual productivity which further creates poverty. People have inefficient
skill, less capital and talented produce less and face more chances of poverty. While on the
other hand people who have high skills, talent and capital produce more and face less or no
chances of poverty. Market failure includes externalities, moral hazard, adverse selection and
less information are the cause of poverty. Less or incomplete information is another cause of
poverty which is inversely related with it. Random shocks like sickness, recession and family
breakdown etc. in the life of poor people play a major role this effect poverty positively that’s
why poor people become poorer in such shocks. They suggested that micro credit scheme
become helpful to promote skills, capital and talent of destitute peoples.

3.2.3.3 Keynesian Theory of Poverty

This theory of poverty is also known as liberal theory of poverty. According to this theory
market failure and underdevelopment symbols are the reasons behind the problem of poverty.
The effects of market failure in one sector transmitted to other sectors so, a nation would
remain under poverty trap. Keynesian incorporates low capital in the form of human,
business, infrastructure, natural, public institutions and knowledge. While low human capital
includes poor health, skills and education, low business capital includes poor conditions of
machinery and buildings, bad infrastructure includes poor system of transportation sanitation
and power and poor knowledge of capital know how this is directly affect human
productivity. They are suggested that economic growth in a nation leads to economic
development which further overcomes the problem of poverty and monetary or fiscal policy
helpful to reduce involuntary unemployment.

3.2.3.4 Marxian Theory of Poverty

Marxian economist examined that structural factors like specific or biased labor markets and
corruption are the reasons behind the problem of poverty. Unnaturally wages are lower as
compared to marginal productivity of labor in capitalistic societies. Higher marginal
productivity of labor and low wages discourage laboring class and create the problem of
unemployment which further create or increase the chances of poverty in such societies. They

32
explored there are different classes of labor in market and prevailing discrimination among
them. To combat structural problems it is necessary to introduce no discriminated laws and
reforms of labor markets which further control unemployment and poverty. They also viewed
that poverty could be reduced through strict govt. regulation by implementing minimum
wages. According to this theory the initial purpose of Govt. regulation must be improve the
labor working conditions and enhance high wage rates.

3.3 Conclusion

From above analysis labor supply curve positively sloped under both school of thoughts, it
means that as wage increases labor supply increases. This satisfied the income argument of
child labor. High human capital stock plays an important role in children investment decision,
high child schooling means low poverty and fewer chances of child labor. Here different
poverty theories discussed to explore the determinants of household poverty. These theories
provide deep insight of regarding these issues.

33
Chapter 4

Data, Methodology and Selection of Variables

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter researcher is presenting different tools and techniques to achieve the objective
of this study. This chapter is arranged as follows: section 4.2 explains main profile of study
area. Section 4.3 presents all the features of questionnaire. We explain the sample design and
collection of data in section 4.4. Methodology discussed in section 4.5, while construction of
hypotheses is made in section 4.6. The expected determinants of child labor, child schooling
and household poverty are discussed in model specification section 4.7. Section 4.8 provides
a detailed description of selected variables. Finally section 4.9 gives some concluding
remarks.

4.2 Profile of the Study Area

Multan is an important district of South Punjab. As compared to upper Punjab South Punjab
is less developed. District Multan is divided into four tehsils (1) Multan City (2) Multan
Sadar (3) Shujaabad (4) Jalalpur Pirwala. Its capital is Multan city. Multan is an historical
city and is famous as a city of saints and also famous for Dust, Beggars, Heat and Graveyard.
Total area of Multan district is 3720sq km. According to 1998 census its total population is
3116581 among which 52.48% are male and 47.52% are female. 42.18% of total population
lives in urban area while 57.82% lives in rural area. Average household size of this region is
7.2. Literacy rate of male population is 53.25% and for female population is 32.28%. The
three main spoken languages of this region are Saraki, Punjabi and Urdu. Major crops of this
region are wheat and cotton.

4.3 Preparation of Questionnaire

For the collection of data a questionnaire was prepared. It was prepared in English then
translated into Urdu at the time of interview. Questionnaire divided into four sections i-e (1)
Personal information (2) Child labor information (3) Child schooling information (4)
Household information.

34
4.3.1 Personal Information: It includes information about sex (male and female), age,
and education, inside home working hours, outside home working hours, monthly income
and monthly personal expenses.

4.3.2 Child Labor Information: It includes information about children work starting
age, reason of work, type of labor activity, children earned income, control on earn income
and children interest in education.

4.3.3 Child Schooling Information: It includes information about child school

enrollment age, whether child wants to obtain school education, tuition education, absent
days from school, favorite or not favorite subject and pocket money.

4.3.4 Household Information: It includes information about home constructed

material, head, mode of head wage, source of drinking water, grocery shopping, nutrient
status, assets ownership, suffer disease and receive non-labor income.

4.4 Sample Design and Collection of Data

An effective and reliable research is based on right collection of data, analysis of data and
interpretation of the results. The empirical analysis of this study based on primary data from
carefully designed survey. Data was collected from South Punjab District Multan. A
comprehensive survey was designed to collect data from District Multan which was based on
simple and stratified random sampling. For these purpose 200 low per capita income
households were selected whose 5 to 16 years old children either involved in child labor or
child schooling were interviewed. The survey was based on simple and stratified random
sampling. There are four tehsils in Multan district i-e Multan city, Multan Sadar, Shujaabad
and Jalalpur Pirwala. Therefore, 200 households were selected from two Tehsils i-e
Shujaabad and Multan city.

Information was collected from household’s members through door to door contact. To
calculate accurate data at the time of interview researcher tried to maintain peaceful and
friendly atmosphere. Researcher verbally explained the questionnaire in Urdu language.
Some information like monthly income and personal expenses asked indirectly. While some
information extracted through observation.

35
4.5 Methodology

In this study methodology consist on three forms of analysis first statistical analysis, second
correlation analysis and last is empirical analysis. While a well-known technique logistic
model used to examine the empirical analysis of this study. From these analyses research is
able to find out the determinants of child labor, child schooling and household poverty in
Pakistan. All these are analysis explain as follows

4.5.1 Statistical Analysis of Primary Data

Descriptive statistics gives that the concept of significance of overall models which are being
used in the study and the significance of explanatory variables. All the estimated functions
were judge on prior statistical and economic criterion. E-views software was used to
determine the results of the models. To have the clear idea about the structure of the
variables, averages, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis are examined. In this analysis
two types of averages are discussed mean and median, while standard deviation shows the
deviation from that average. The term skewness is used to check the lack symmetry of both
dependent and independent variables and the term kurtosis used to show the degree of
peakness of distribution.

4.5.2 Correlation Analysis

Correlation shows the degree of association between two variables. When there is more than
one independent variable exist in the model then the multiple correlation analysis term used.
Its value lies between -1 and +1. The correlation matrix describes degree of interdependence
between pairs of variables. To explore the association between variables we use the given
criteria i-e Very Strong Negative (-1.0<r<-0.8), Strong Negative (-0.6<r<-0.79), Moderate
Negative (-0.4<r<-0.59), Weak Negative (-0.20<r<-0.39), Very Weak Negative (-0.01<r<-
0.19) and Very Strong Positive (1.0<r<0.8), Strong Positive (0.6<r<0.79), Moderate Positive
(0.4<r<0.59), Weak Positive (0.20<r<0.39), Very Weak Positive (0.01<r<0.19) respectively.

4.5.3 Empirical Analysis

This section provide the empirical method for determine child labor, child schooling and
household poverty equations. If the dependent variable of the model is in the form of
dichotomous or dummy the following two approaches are commonly used to estimate such;
these two approaches are as follows.

36
 1. The Linear Probability Model (LPM)
2. Non Linear Probability Model (NLPM)
A). Logistic Model
B). Probit Model

According to Gujrati Logistic model provide better results as compared to probit model. So,
here in this study we have used logistic model to analyze the determinants of child labor,
child schooling and household poverty. This method provides detail description of how
binary or quantitative independent variables of each model significantly influence the binary
dependent variables. While E. Views Software applied to estimate the analysis of these
models separately.

4.6 Construction of Hypotheses

This study discussed the determinants of child labor, child schooling and household poverty
in two selected districts of Multan city. The previous studies discussed various determinants
of child labor, child schooling and household poverty. The purpose of this study is to find out
such determinants which are not discussed in previous studies. In order to find out these
determinants there is need to make following hypotheses

After review of several studies now we are able to make some hypotheses.

1) H0: Head age not influence child labor.

H1: Head age influence child labor.

2) H0: Child age has not effected on child labor.

H1: Child age has effected on child labor.

3) H0: Past education of working child not influences child labor.

H1: Past education of working child influences child labor.

4) H0: Household monthly income not affects child labor and child schooling.

H1: Household monthly affects child labor and child schooling.

5) H0: Family size has no significant impact on child labor

H1: Family size has significant impact on child labor.

37
 6) H0: Household poverty status does not affect child labor.

H1: Household poverty status affects child labor.

7) H0: Female male ratio not influences child schooling.

H1: Female male ratio influences child schooling.

8) H0: Dependency ratio has no effect on child schooling.

H1: Dependency ratio has effect on child schooling.

9) H0: Household head education not influences child schooling.

H1: Household head education influences child schooling.

10) H0: Per capita income has no significant effect on household poverty line status.

H1: Per capita income has significant effect on household poverty line status.

11) H0: Total personal expenses of household not influence household poverty line status.

H1: Total personal expenses of household influence household poverty line status.

12) H0: Number of household working person has not significantly affected household
poverty line status.

H 1: Number of household working person has significantly affected household poverty

line status.

13) H0: Household outside home working hours not influenced household poverty line
status.

H1: Household outside home working hours influenced household poverty line status.

4.7 Model Specification

In this study we have made three models to separately investigate the determinants of child
labor, child schooling and household poverty in two districts of Multan and applied the well-
known techniques. It also explains how independent variables in each model might influence
dependent variable.

38
4.7.1 Child Labor Model

CL = f (HA, HASQ, AGE, EDU, CSE, FS, LHMI, PLS)

The equation is

CL = βo + β1 HA + β2 HASQ + β3 AGE + β4 EDU + β5 CSE + β6 FS + B7 LHMI + β8 PLS

CL = Child Labor

HA = Head Age

HASQ = Head Age Square

AGE = Age of Working Children

EDU = Education of Working Children

CSE = Children Want School Education

FS = Family Size

LHMI = Log of Household Monthly Income

PLS = Household Poverty Line Status

4.7.1.1 Explanation of Variables

In this section researcher is going to explain the dependent and independents variables
according to above mentioned model.

4.7.1.2 Dependent Variable

Where CL is dependent variable of this model that is child labor is used as dependent
variable. Child labor qualitative in nature, a household in which child involve in labor activity
assign 1 otherwise 0.

4.7.1.3 Independent Variables

The independent variables of this model are head age, head age square, age of working
children, passed education standard of working children, children want school education,
family size, log of household monthly income and household poverty line status.

39
1) Head Age

In this study it is assumed that age of household head significantly influenced child labor
decision so, as the head become older and older their working capacity decreases and they
prefer to send their children for work rather than school. Age of household head positively
related with child labor. Child labor increases as the age of household head increase.

2) Head Age Square

Here it is also assumed that square of household head age has significant effect on child labor
decision. Children of upper age household head more involve in labor activity than the lower
age. There is concave relationship with household age square and child labor.

3) Age

In previous literature less importance is given to working child age that’s why this is included
in that study. It is hypothesized that age of working child significantly influenced child labor
decision. Age of working child positively related with labor decision so, as the child grow the
chances of involvement in labor activity increases.

4) Education

Less literature is available on passed education standard of working children. In this study it
assumed that previous obtained education of working child inversely related with child labor
decision. More standard passed a child means less chances to involve in labor activity at
school going age.

5) Children Want School Education

It includes dummy children want school education or not, it also affected child labor decision.
Mostly households want their children obtain only school education as compared to tuition or
madrasah education. More children want to obtain school education less chances to involve in
labor activity.

6) Family Size

Pakistan is the 6th largest populated country so, due to existence of more population family
size variable included in the model. It is hypothesized that family size positively related with

40
child labor decision. Higher family sizes promote more chances of household children to
involve in labor activity. The same assumption was made in so many other previous studies.

7) Log of Household Monthly Income

In this study it is assumed that household monthly income have significantly effect on child
labor decision. Log of household monthly income inversely related with child labor activity.
Less log of household monthly income means more children involve in labor activity.

8) Household Poverty Status

In developing countries like Pakistan household poverty consider the main determinant of
child labor decision. In that model this variable qualitative in nature and taken as
independent. Here it is assumed that household poverty positively determined child labor.
More children involved in labor activity as the household poverty increases.

4.7.2 Child Schooling Model

CS = f (FMR, HHE, CSE, DR, LHMI)

The equation is

CS = βo + β1 FMR + β2 HHE + β3 CSE + β4 DR+ β5 LHMI

CS = Child Schooling

FMR = Female Male Ratio

HHE = Household Head Education

CSE = Children Want School Education

DR = Dependency Ratio

LHMI = Log of Household Monthly Income

4.7.2.1 Explanation of Variables

In this section researcher is going to explain the dependents and independents variables
according to the nature of above mentioned model.

41
4.7.2.2 Dependent Variable

Where CS is dependent variable of this model that is child schooling is used as dependent
variable. Child schooling variable qualitative in nature and a household in which children
goes to school assign 1 otherwise 0.

4.7.2.3 Independent Variables

In this model researcher discussed those variables independent variables which are given less
or no importance in previous literature. These variables are female male ratio, household
head education; children want school education, dependency ratio and log of household
monthly income.

1) Female Male Ratio

In developing countries like Pakistan female considered burden on parents and mostly female
child have no or less chance to get school education as compared to male child. In this model
female male ratio include to examine how its effect child schooling decision. So, it is
hypothesized that female male ratio negatively related with child schooling decision. More
presence of female leads to low child schooling. This variable also shows gender
discrimination in Pakistan.

2) Household Head Education

Household head education is another important determinant of child schooling decision that’s
why it is included in this model. Here it is assumed that head education positively influenced
child schooling decision. Higher education of household head creates more chances of
children to obtain education rather than move to labor market.

3) Children Want School Education

In previous literature no study discussed the importance of children interest in school

education that’s why this variable incorporates in this model. This variable qualitative in
nature, assigns 1 if household children want to obtain school education otherwise 0. It is
assumed that children interest in education significantly influenced child schooling decision.

42
4) Dependency Ratio

In many developing countries there is higher dependency ratio while in previous literature
there was less importance given to this variable. In this model it is assumed that dependency
ratio negatively influenced child schooling decision. Higher dependency ratio left fewer
resources to bear child schooling expenses.

5) Log of Household Monthly Income

Like previous studies in this model it is also hypothesized that of household monthly income
significantly influenced child schooling decision. It is positively related with child schooling
decision. Children of high income households more involve in child schooling than the low
income.

4.7.3 Household Poverty Model

PLS = f (HBGD, PCI, NOHWP, HRNLI, TPE, HOHWH)

The equation is

PLS = βo + β1 HBGD + β2 PCI + β3 NOHWP + β4 HRNLI + β5 TPE+ β6 HOHWH

PLS = Poverty Line Status

HBGD = Household Bought Grocery Daily

PCI = Per Capita Income

NOHWP = Number of Household Working Person

HRNLI = Household Received Non-Labor Income

TPE = Total Personal Expenses of Household

HOHWH = Household Outside Home Working Hours

4.7.3.1 Variables and their Explanations

In this section of the study researcher is going to explain the dependents and independents
variables according to above mentioned model.

43
4.7.3.2 Dependent Variable

Where PLS is dependent variable in this model. This variable qualitative in nature, household
below the poverty line assign 1 and other household assign 0.

4.7.3.3 Independent Variables

The independent variables of this model are households bought grocery daily, per capita
income, number of household working person, assets of households, total personal expenses
of households and household outside home working hours. These variables are hardly
discussed in previous literature. These are given below

1) Household Bought Grocery Daily

Usually poor household have no enough income to purchase basic or necessary goods
monthly so, they purchase daily. These are the households who work on daily wages. Here in
this model it is assumed that household poverty positively related with this variable. More
household fall below the poverty line more they purchase basic goods daily.

2) Per Capita Income

Like the previous literature in this study it is hypothesized that per capita income inversely
related with household poverty line status. Higher per capita income means there is low
poverty.

3) Number of Household Working Person

Number of household working person also significantly influenced household poverty. It is

assumed that number of working person negatively related with household poverty. But when
more household members involved in the same family business their marginal productivity
and earnings are low than their personal expenses and this situation contradict the above
supposition.

4) Household Received Non-Labor Income

In developing countries like Pakistan low income of household is not sufficient to meet day
to day needs so, they required additional income. Mostly low income households received

44
non-labor income either from their relatives or Govt. Here it is assumed that household
poverty positively related with non-labor income.

5) Total Personal Expenses of Household

Here it is hypothesized that total personal expenses of household members inversely related
with poverty line status. A higher personal expense of household members fewer chances to
household face no poverty.

6) Household Outside Home Working Hours

Household members outside home working hours also significantly influence poverty that’s
why this variable incorporates in this model. Here it is assumed that household poverty
negatively related with outside home working hours. More outside home working decline
household poverty.

4.8 Description of the Variables

The explanation of the selected variables are given below

Variables Definitions
Dependent Variables
CL 1 If Child Working, Otherwise =0
CS 1 If Children goes to School, Otherwise =0
PLS 1 If Below Poverty Line, Otherwise =0
Independent Variables
AGE Age of Working Children in Years
EDU Passed Education Standard of Working
Children in Years
CWSE(Children Want School Education) 1 If Want, Otherwise =0
HA (Head Age) Age in Years
HASQ (Head Age Square) Age in Square
Log (HMI) Logarithm of household Monthly Income
FMR (Female Male Ratio) Number of Female/Number of Male
HHE (Household Head Education) Passed Education In Years
DR (Dependency Ratio) Below 14 and Above 60 years old/ Number of
family Members
AHSE (Average Household School Average Passed Education of Household
Education)
HBGD (Household Bought Grocery Daily) 1 If Daily Bought, Otherwise =0
PCI (Per Capita Income) Total Income/Total Population
NOHWP (Number of Household Working In Numbers

45
Person)
HRNLI (Household Received Non-Labor 1 If Received, Otherwise= 0
Income)
TPE (Total Personal Expenses)
HOHWH (Household Outside Home
Working Hours)
PLS 1 If Below Poverty Line, Otherwise =0

4.9 Conclusion

In this data and methodology chapter profile areas of the study was discussed further
dependent and independent variables with explanation were presented. Data collection
method and sampling techniques were also presented. Methodological techniques include
descriptive and quantitative analysis while quantitative analysis is a combination of three
techniques first statistical analysis, second correlation analysis and last is empirical analysis.
Model specification of the data was developed for further empirical estimation of the results.

Chapter 5

Results and Discussion

5.1 Introduction

This chapter provides main findings of this study. This chapter consists of two main sections
first section explain elementary data analysis and second section describe the empirical
estimation of models. First section 5.2 comprised on frequency distributions of working child

46
characteristics, school going child characteristics and household characteristics. While 5.3
section explore the statistical analysis of primary data, correlation analysis and econometric
analysis of child labor, child schooling and household poverty model. Finally section 5.4
gives some concluding remarks.

5.2 Elementary Data Analysis

In this section an effort has been made to describe the statistics collected through a sample
survey in descriptive way. Let it be clear that sample were collected from the households
members, as they know much of the information about the reasons of household poverty and
other factors affecting child labor and child schooling. Here different factors affecting child
labor, child schooling and household poverty are described in frequency distribution form
with some explanation of it. Here following frequency distributions and their sub sections are
made to present the characteristics of working children, school going children and households
to accurate the collected data precisely.

5.2.1 Frequency Distributions of Working Children Characteristics

Working children characteristics includes work starting age, reason of work, type of labor
activity, per month earn income, involvement in paid and unpaid work and control on earn
income. All these are explaining as follows.

5.2.1.1 Distribution of Households by Children Work Starting Age

According to sample survey 23% of households children started work at the age of 12 year in
Multan city while in case of Shujaabad district 17% of households children started work at
the age of 10 year. This table shows that 20% of overall households’ children started work at
the age of 10 year. So, these estimates pretend that child labor started at pre maturity age.

Table 5.1 the percentage distribution of household by children work starting age

Age Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
4 1 0 1 1 1
(2)*
5 2 3 5 6 6
(5)* (8)*
6 4 1 5 11 6

47
 (9)* (3)*
7 1 6 7 18 9
(2)* (17)*
8 1 1 2 20 3
(1)* (3)*
9 3 4 7 27 9
(7)* (11)*
10 5 6 11 38 14
(11)* (17)*
11 7 3 10 48 13
(16)* (8)*
12 10 6 16 64 20
(23)* (17)*
13 6 1 7 71 9
(14)* (3)*
14 4 2 6 77 8
(9)* (6)*
15 0 3 3 80 4
(8)*

5.2.1.2 Distribution of Households by Reason of Child Work

This table describes that what are the reasons behind the problem of child labor in two
selected districts. The survey data reveals that 45% children involved in labor activity to
supplement their family income, 25% children involved in labor activity because they are not
interested in school. While 13% children doing work to manage house.

Table 5.2 the percentage distribution of household by reason of child work

Reasons Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multa Shujaabad
Frequency
n
a. Supplement Family 24 12 36 36 45
Income (55)* (33)*
b. Help in Paying 3 5 8 44 10
Family debt (7)* (14)*
c. Help in House 8 2 10 54 13
Work (18)* (6)*
d. Learn Skills 0 1 1 55 1

48
 (3)*
e. Schooling zero 1 2 3 58 4
valuable in Future (2)* (6)*
f. School too far 0 2 2 60 3
(6)*
g. Not interested in 8 12 20 80 25
School (18)* (33)*

5.2.1.3 Distribution of Households by Type of Child Labor

The following table reveals that 43% of children involved in own father business activity,
25% children engaged in shopkeeper activity and 14% involved in other activities. While
children more involved in own father business activity in case of Shujaabad district than
Multan city. Only 1% household children involve in factory or industry work, it is also
manifest that children have less techniques for the participation in industry or factory work.

Table 5.3 the percentage distribution of household by type of child labor

Types Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Father own 8 26 34 34 43
Business (18)* (72)*
b. Relative Business 6 2 8 42 10
(14)* (6)*
c. Factory or 1 0 1 43 1
Industry work (2)*
d. Slavery in Houses 4 2 6 49 8
(9)* (6)*
e. Shopkeeper 17 3 20 69 25
(39)* (8)*
f. Others 8 3 11 80 14
(18)* (8)*

49
5.2.1.4 Distribution of Households by Children Earned Income per Month

This table describes that 29% of working children earned income 3 to 5 thousand rupees per
month. The survey data shows that more children earned 7 to 9 thousand rupees in Shujaabad
district than in Multan city. This is also reveals that wage rates lower in Shujaabad district
than Multan city district.

Table 5.4 the percentage distribution of household by children earned income per month

Income Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujabad
(In Rupees) Frequency
Less Than 3000 7 1 8 8 14
(18)* (6)*
3000-5000 12 4 16 24 29
(31)* (24)*
5000-7000 7 3 10 34 18
(18)* (18)*
7000- 9000 3 4 7 41 13
(8)* (24)*
9000- 11000 6 3 9 50 16
(15)* (18)*
11000- 13000 1 0 1 51 2
(3)*
13000- 15000 3 2 5 56 9
(8)* (12)*

50
5.2.1.5 Distribution of Households by Working Children

The survey data reveals that 64% (among which 38% children have no control on earned
income and 70% have some control) household children worked under certain paid
conditions while 30% engage in unpaid work. Here the data also shows that children have
more average control on earned income in case of Multan city as compared to Shujaabad.

Table 5.5 the percentage distribution of household by working children

Overview of Working Frequency Total Percentage

Children Multan Shujaabad
Not Controlled 15 7 22 39
(38)* (41)*
Have some Controlled 24 10 34 61
(62)* (59)*
Paid 39 17 56 70
(89)* (47)*
Unpaid 5 19 24 30
(11)* (53)*
Average control RS.2296 RS.1175

5.2.2 Frequency Distributions of School Going Children Characteristics

Characteristics of school going children includes school enrollment age, type of education
children want to be interested, favorite and not favorite subject, inside home working hours
and school absent days. All these are explaining as follows.

5.2.2.1 Distribution of Households by Children School Enrollment Age

51
The survey data describes 26% of households enrolled their siblings at the age of 5 year and
23% enrolled at the age of 3 year. In case of Multan city 2 households never enrolled their
children in school while in Shujabad district all households enrolled their children. The
survey data also reveals that in case of Multan city more children enrolled in school at the age
of 5 year than in Shujaabad.

Table 5.6 the percentage distribution of household by children school enrollment age

Age Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
(In Years) Frequency
2.5 2 2 4 4 2
(2)* (2)*
3 6 39 45 49 23
(6)* (39)*
4 10 19 29 78 15
(10)* (19)*
5 31 21 52 130 26
(32)* (21)*
6 13 4 17 147 9
(13)* (4)*
7 10 4 14 161 7
(10)* (4)*
8 4 8 12 173 6
(4)* (8)*
9 7 2 9 182 5
(7)* (2)*
10 8 0 8 190 4
(8)*
11 7 1 8 198 4
(7)* (1)*

52
5.2.2.2 Distribution of Household by Type of Education Children Want

In survey there are four types describe which usually household children wants. The collected
data shows that majority of household’s children wants to get school education and this trend
is greater in Shujaabad district than Multan city, while only 8% household’s children want to
obtain any technical vocational training.

Table 5.7 the percentage distribution of household by type of education children want

Type Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. School 66 81 147 147 74
(66)* (81)*
b. Tuition 12 3 15 162 8
(12)* (3)*
c. Madrasah 6 1 7 169 4
(6)* (1)*
d. Vocational 8 7 15 184 8
Training (8)* (7)*
e. Both a and b 7 6 13 197 7
(7)* (6)*
f. Nothing 1 2 3 200 2
(1)* (2)*

5.2.2.3 Distribution of Households by Inside Home Work Duration of

School Going Children

In the survey study it was assumed that all the children of households who are assist their
families in domestic work considered not as child labor because this is an unpaid job. The
survey data shows that about 26% of school going children doing inside home work more
than six hours and this trend greater in Multan city than Shujaabad.

53
Table 5.8 the percentage distribution of household by inside home work duration of school
going children

Hours Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
1 16 20 36 36 22
(22)* (22)*
2 15 22 37 73 23
(21)* (24)*
3 5 7 12 85 7
(7)* (8)*
4 8 11 19 104 12
(11)* (12)*
5 5 11 16 120 10
(7)* (12)*
6+ 23 20 43 163 26
(32)* (22)*

5.2.2.4 Distribution of Households by School Going Children Favorite

Subject

In the survey seven different subjects are taken to find out the child interest in school
education. In the survey data about 35% of household’s school going children mostly
interested in English subject as compared to other and this trend greater in Shujaabad district
than in Multan city.

54
Table 5.9 the percentage distribution of household by school going children favorite subject

Subjects Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. English 20 48 68 68 35
(21)* (48)*
b. Math 18 28 46 114 24
(19)* (28)*
c. Urdu 9 7 16 130 8
(10)* (7)*
d. Islamic Studies 8 7 15 145 8
(9)* (7)*
e. Computer 12 6 18 163 9
(13)* (6)*
f. Drawing 27 4 31 194 16
(29)* (4)*

5.2.2.5 Distribution of Households by School Going Children Not Favorite

Subject

The survey data shows that 41% of overall household’s school going children is not
interested in learning mathematics and this trend is greater in Multan city than in Shujaabad.
While in Shujaabad district 41% of households’ school going children is not like the
computer subject as compared to other subjects.

Table 5.10 the percentage distribution of household by school going children not favorite
subject

55
 Subjects Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage
Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. English 2 4 6 6 3
(2)* (4)*
b. Math 57 20 77 83 41
(63)* (20)*
c. Urdu 2 0 2 85 1
(2)*
d. Islamic Studies 1 0 1 86 1
(1)*
e. Computer 5 48 53 139 28
(6)* (48)*
f. Drawing 3 19 22 161 12
(3)* (19)*
g. Others 20 9 29 190 15
(22)* (9)*

5.2.2.6 Distribution of Households by Absent Days of School Going

Children

The data of survey shows that 71% of household school going children absent one day in a
week from school and this percentage is greater in Multan city as compared to Shujaabad.
While 20% household’s school going children are absent twice in a week. Overall
distribution shows that children school absent days tendency greater in Multan than Shjaabad.

Table 5.11 the percentage distribution of household by absent days of school going children

No. of Day’s Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
1 48 49 97 97 71
(64)* (79)*

56
 2 19 6 25 122 20
(25)* (10)*
3 3 2 5 127 4
(4)* (3)*
4+ 5 5 10 137 7
(7)* (8)*

5.2.3 Frequency Distributions of Household Characteristics

Household characteristics includes number of working person, mode of income payment,

members have no personal expenses, head sex, head education, assets ownership, source of
drinking water, received non-labor income, suffered disease, own residential structure and
mode of grocery bought. All these are explaining as follows.

5.2.3.1 Distribution of Households by Number of Working Person

The survey data describes that about 34% households in which only one person earn income
and this trend more prevail in Shujaabad district than in Multan city. The collected data also
reveals that only 6% of households in which 5 to 6 or more income earners. Overall collected
data also pretend that number of working persons is greater in Shujaabad than in Multan city.

Table 5.12 the percentage distribution of household by number of working person

Person Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
1 32 36 68 68 34
(32)* (36)*
2 27 22 49 117 25

57
 (27)* (22)*
3 24 13 37 154 19
(24)* (13)*
4 12 12 24 178 12
(12)* (12)*
5 3 8 11 189 6
(3)* (8)*
6+ More 2 9 11 200 6
(2)* (9)*

5.2.3.2 Distribution of Household by Mode of Income Payment

The survey data shows that about 53% households worked on daily wages and this trend is
greater in Multan as compared to Shujaabad district. While about 40% of households worked
monthly wage and this percentage more in Shujaabad than in Multan city. While only 7%
household worked on weekly wages.

Table 5.13 the percentage distribution of household by mode of income payment

Mode Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
Daily 71 34 105 105 53
(71)* (34)*
Weekly 5 9 14 119 7
(5)* (9)*
Monthly 25 54 79 198 40

58
 (25)* (54)*
Hourly 0 2 2 200 1
(2)*

5.2.3.3 Distribution of Household Members Have No Personal Expenses

The survey data reveals that about 35% household’s father and mother have no personal
expenses and this tendency greater in Shujaabad than in Multan city. The data also shows that
26% of father and other family members have no personal expenses; this is mostly happen in
Multan city as compare to Shujaabad district and about 14% household mothers have no
personal expenses.

Table 5.14 the percentage distribution of household members have no personal expenses

No Personal Expenses Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Father 15 6 21 21 26
(33)* (17)*
b. Mother 1 10 11 32 14
(2)* (28)*
c. Both a and b 11 17 28 60 35
(24)* (47)*
d. Other Members 18 3 21 81 26
(40)* (8)*

5.2.3.4 Distribution of Households by Head Sex

The data of following table shows that about 43% households in which only father have the
decision making authority and this tendency greater in district of Multan city than in
Shujaabad. While about 41% households in which both father and mother have the decision
making authority and this more in Shujaabad as compare to Multan city, only 5% households
decision made by other family members rather than father or mother.

Table 5.15 the percentage distribution of household by head sex

Sex Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency

59
 a. Father 56 30 86 86 43
(56)* (30)*
b. Mother 18 5 23 109 14
(18)* (5)*
c. Both a and b 24 57 81 190 41
(24)* (57)*
d. Other 2 8 10 200 5
(2)* (8)*

5.2.3.5 Distribution of Households by Head Education

The survey data describes that about 38% fathers (head of household) are literate either they
are primary, middle, metric and more and this tendency more in Multan city than Shujaabad
district. While about 47% both parents are literate and this trend higher in district of
Shujaabad as compare to Multan city. The survey data also reveals that only 9% mothers’
head of household are educated. The following table shows that 26% households are
illiterate.

Table 5.16 the percentage distribution of household by head education

Head Education Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Father 33 23 56 56 38
(50)* (28)*
b. Mother 12 2 14 70 9
(18)* (2)*
c. Both a and b 19 50 69 139 47
(29)* (61)*
d. Others 2 7 9 148 6
(3)* (9)*

60
5.2.3.6 Distribution of Households by Assets Ownership

In survey three types of assets are taken to estimate the financial position of households, table
shows that 40% of households own all assets and this trend is greater in Multan city than in
Shujaabad. In the sample survey it is reported that 7% households have no ownership of the
following assets. Mostly households of Shujaabad district have less ownership of assets.

Table 5.17 the percentage distribution of household by assets ownership

Assets Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Bicycle 9 12 21 21 11
(10)* (13)*
b. Motor Cycle 5 7 12 33 6
(5)* (8)*
c. Fridge 10 4 14 47 8
(11)* (4)*
d. Above all 41 34 75 122 40
(44)* (37)*
e. Both a and b 6 5 11 133 6
(6)* (5)*
f. Both b and c 19 21 40 173 22

61
 (20)* (23)*
g. Both a and c 4 9 13 186 7
(4)* (10)*

5.2.3.7 Distribution of Households by Source of Drinking Water

The survey data reveals that 60% of households obtain water from deep well pump and this
percentage greater in Shujaabad district than Multan city. The survey data also reported that
33% of households obtain water from Govt. sources and this percentage greater in Multan
city than Shujaabad district. While only 2% household obtained drinking water from other
sources.

Table 5.18 the percentage distribution of household by source of drinking water

Source Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Deep Well Pump 47 72 119 119 60
(47)* (72)*
b. Hand Pump 5 7 12 131 6
(5)* (7)*
c. Govt. Piped Line 45 21 66 197 33
(45)* (21)*
d. Others 3 0 3 200 2
(3)*

5.2.3.8 Distribution of Household by Received Non-Labor income

Low income of people allows them to received non-labor income either from their relatives
or from Govt. The survey data reveals that about 28% households received non-labor income

62
among which 95% received from relatives and 5% from Govt. The following data also
pretend that relatives are more financial support the poor household than Govt.

Table 5.19 the percentage distribution of household by received non-labor income

Type Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Relatives 33 39 72 72 95
(97)* (93)*
b. Govt. 1 3 4 76 5
(3)* (7)*

5.2.3.9 Distribution of Household by Residence Structure

In this study it is also examined that physical structure of houses is an indicator of household
poverty that’s why this term incorporated in this study. The survey data shows that 13%
households have own mud made houses and this trend greater in district of Multan city than
Shujaabad. The data also reveals that 87% households have own cemented made houses.

Table 5.20 the percentage distribution of household by own residence structure

Form Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
a. Kacha House 3 21 24 24 13
(4)* (22)*
b. Pakka House 80 76 156 180 87
(96)* (78)*

5.2.3.10 Distribution of Households by Suffering Disease

In this study following main disease are included to examine the mental or physical capability
of households. The following table describes that the 38% households suffered diseases
among which 22% suffered in sugar while 45% households suffered in other diseases.

Table 5.21 the percentage distribution of household by suffering disease

Type Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency

63
 a. Sugar 7 10 17 17 22
(25)* (21)*
b. Heart Patient 0 4 4 21 5
(8)*
c. Fever 3 10 13 34 17
(11)* (21)*
d. Blood Pressure 5 3 8 42 11
(18)* (6)*
e. Others 13 21 34 76 45
(46)* (44)*

5.2.3.11 Distribution of Household by Mode of Grocery Buy

It is basically considered that poor people purchase necessary goods daily and they have low
purchasing power. The survey data reveals that 32% households buy grocery daily and this
trend is higher in district of Multan city than Shujaabad. While 40% households buy grocery
monthly. While 29% households purchase necessary goods weekly.

Table 5.22 the percentage distribution of household by mode of grocery buys

Type Frequency Total Cumulative Percentage

Multan Shujaabad
Frequency
Daily 43 21 64 64 32
(43)* (21)*
Weekly 17 40 57 121 29
(17)* (40)*
Monthly 40 39 79 200 40
(40)* (39)*

Overview of Household Characteristics

The following table reveals that Shujaabad district more populated than Multan city. More
children in labor activity in Multan city and more children go to school in Shujaabad district.
The female male ratio is greater in Multan city than Shujaabad district with less dependency
ratio. About 99% household have per capita income less than Rs.13365.

64
 Table 5.23 Overview of Household Characteristics

Characteristics Multan Shujaabad Total

Total Population 910 982 1892
Number of Male 403 464 867
(44)* (47)* (46)*
Number of Female 506 518 1024
(56)* (53)* (54)*
Number of children in household 374 400 774
(41)* (41)* (41)*
Number of children goes to school 295 338 633
(32)* (34)* (82)*
Number of children remain idle 25 20 45
(3)* (2)* (6)*
Number of children doing work 54 42 96
(6)* (4)* (12)*
Female Male Ratio 1.57 1.4 1.48
Head Count Ratio 0.2 0.22 0.21
Dependency Ratio 0.34 0.37 0.35
Percentage of Population Living Below Poverty line 20 23 43
(20)* (23)* (22)*
Percentage of Population Living Above Poverty Line 80 77 157
(80)* (77)* (78)*
Average Rent of House RS.4882 RS.9166
*Percentages are shown in parenthesis

5.3 Econometric Analysis

65
 Several versions of child labor, child schooling and household poverty based on econometric
analysis are available in literature. However the use of some specific versions depends upon
the objectives of the study as well as the data available on parameters of basic concerns.
Therefore to analyze the models precisely three econometric techniques are used.

5.3.1 Statistical Analysis of Primary Data

E-views software was used to determine the statistical analysis of primary data for each
model. To have the clear idea about the structure of the variables, averages, standard
deviations, skewness and kurtosis are given in following table. Table contains six columns.
First contains the name of variables. The mean of the variables are reported in column 2;
column 3 is for median, while standard deviation of the variables is presented in the column 4
and skewness are presented in column 5 and 6 present kurtosis respectively.

5.3.1.1 Child Labor Model

Additional descriptive analysis of child labor model provides the comprehensive profile of
working children and its determinants. The following table indicates that the 40%
household’s children involve in labor activity and average age of working child is 11.78
years. The average passed education of working child is 4.3 its means that children left
school before completing primary standard of education. The average family size of
household in the sample is that about 9.4 percent. On the average about 73 percent
households children want to get school education and average age of households head is 43
years. Average per month income of households is Rs.28721 with a standard deviation
Rs.23510; similarly the other variables disclose the sample statistic and about 21 percent
households living below the poverty line.

Table 5.24 Statistical Analysis of Child Labor Model

Variables Mean Median Std. Dev Skewness Kurtosis

Child Labor (CL) 0.40 0.00 0.49 0.40 1.16
Age of Working Child (AGE) 11.78 12.0 2.21 -0.34 2.98
Child Want School Education (CSE) 0.73 1.0 0.44 -1.06 2.13
Education of Working Child (EDU) 4.305 5.0 2.48 -0.31 2.15
Family Size (FS) 9.46 9.0 3.72 1.03 4.30
Head Age (HA) 43.10 42.0 7.54 0.62 3.31
Household Monthly Income (HMI) 28721 18450 23510.97 1.78 5.93

66
Household Poverty Line Status (PLS) 0.21 0.00 0.41 1.38 2.92

5.3.1.2 Child Schooling

The following table indicates that 98 percent household children are going to school. The
average education of households head is 5.7; it indicates that mostly household head are
primary pass. On the average about 73 percent household children want to get school
education. The average female male ratio is 1.5 and dependency ratio is 0.35. While the
average monthly income of household is Rs.28721 with the standard deviation Rs.23510.97,
similarly the other variables disclose the sample statistic.

Table 5.25 Statistical Analysis of Child Schooling Model

Variables Mean Median Std. Dev Skewnes Kurtosis

s
Child Schooling (CS) 0.98 1.00 0.14 -6.85 48.02
Household Head Education (HHE) 5.78 5.00 4.68 0.08 1.83
Child Want School Education (CSE) 0.73 1.00 0.44 -1.06 2.13
Female Male Ratio (FMR) 1.50 1.15 1.19 2.51 11.43
Dependency Ratio (DR) 0.35 0.300 0.19 0.45 3.20
Household Monthly Income (HMI) 2872 18450 23510.97 1.78 5.93
1

5.3.1.3 Household Poverty Model

The following table indicates that mean of total personal expenses (TPE) of households is
Rs.11296.7 with the standard deviation Rs.10498.72. The 22 percent households are living
below the poverty line. The average per capita income (PCI) of households is Rs.3241.2 with
the standard deviation Rs.3334.16. The average number of working person (NOHWP) in a
household is 2.5. The average of households received non-labor (HRNLI) from relatives or
Govt. is 38 percent. About 32 percent poor households bought necessary goods daily
(HBGD) and 40 percent household children involved in labor activity. The following table
also shows that household engaged in outside work about 8 to 9 hours.

67
 Table 5.26 Statistical Analysis of Household Poverty Model

Variables Mean Median Std. Dev Skewness Kurtosis

Total Personal Expenses (TPE) 11296.7 7700.0 10498.72 2.32 10.66
Household Poverty Line Status (PLS) 0.21 0.0 0.41 1.38 2.92
Per Capita Income (PCI) 3241.2 2354.0 3334.16 6.36 62.26
Number of Household Working Person 2.51 2.0 1.55 1.02 3.42
(NOHWP)
Household Received Non-Labor 0.38 0.0 0.48 0.49 1.24
Income (HRNLI)
Household Bought Grocery Daily 0.32 0.0 0.46 0.77 1.59
(HBGD)
Household Outside Home Working 8.72 9.0 2.36 -0.12 2.29
Hours (HOHWH)

5.3.2 Correlation Analysis

Correlation shows the degree of association between dependent and two or more independent
variables. The following correlation matrix describes degree of interdependence between
pairs of variables. To explore the association between variables we use a criterion which is
explained in chapter 4.

5.3.2.1 Child Labor Model

If we analyze the results of the correlation coefficient in terms of child labor, correlation
coefficient describes the extent of the relationship between child labor and independent
variables. Here we start one by one analysis of coefficients: child labor activity weak positive
associated with household poverty (PLS), children labor activity moderate positively related
with age of working children (AGE) which means that as the children grow old labor activity
increases. Children want school education (CSE) weak negatively related with child labor,
showing that more children want to get school education less will be the child labor. Obtained
education (EDU) of working children weak negatively related with child labor. Household
family size (FS) did not influence child labor activity, both variables does not impact each

68
 other. Household head age (HA) weak positive related with child labor. While household
monthly income very weak positive related with children labor activity.

Table 5.26 Correlation Matrix of Child Labor Model

Variables CL PLS Age EDU CSE HA FS HMI

Child Labor (CL) 1.00
Household Poverty Line Status (PLS) 0.24 1.00
Age of Working Child (Age) 0.40 0.07 1.00
Passed Education of Working Child (EDU) -0.36 -0.12 0.35 1.00
Children Want School Education (CSE) -0.24 0.01 -0.12 0.19 1.00
Head Age (HA) 0.24 0.07 0.31 -0.07 -0.01 1.00
Family Size (FS) 0.06 0.06 0.02 -0.00 0.18 0.20 1.00
Household Monthly Income (HMI) 0.13 -0.03 0.11 0.04 0.01 0.19 0.43 1.00

5.3.2.2 Child Schooling

The following table reveals that household monthly income (HMI), dependency ratio (DR)
and female male ratio (FMR) are not correlated with child schooling so, they does not
influence child schooling. While households Head education (HHE), children want school
education (CSE) very weak positive correlated with child schooling.

Table 5.28 Correlation Matrix of Child Schooling Model

Variables CS FMR HHE CSE DR HMI

Child Schooling (CS) 1.00
Female Male Ratio (FMR) -0.02 1.00
Household Head Education (HHE) 0.13 0.02 1.00
Children Want School Education (CSE) 0.15 0.01 0.11 1.00
Dependency Ration (DR) -0.03 0.12 0.15 0.11 1.00
Household Monthly Income (HMI) 0.04 -0.12 0.06 0.01 -0.14 1.00

5.3.2.3 Household Poverty Model

69
 The correlation coefficient of total personal expenses of household (TPE) and per capita
income (PCI) weak negatively related with household poverty line status which shows that
higher the total personal expenses lower will be households faced poverty, similarly higher
per capita income means that lower the number of household’s lies below the poverty line.
The number of household working person (NOHWP) and children labor activity (CL) weak
positively related with household poverty line status which means that higher the number of
working person in a households more chances to fall below the poverty line status. There are
two reasons behind this phenomena first all working person involve in same family business
so, they have no personal income, second more personal spending of working person left less
income of other family members so, they remain under the shadow of poverty and third all
working person work against low wage rates. Household received non-labor income
(HRNLI) very weak positive correlated with household poverty line status. The coefficient of
household bought grocery daily (HBGD) not correlated with household poverty line status.
Household outside home working hours (HOHWH) weak negatively related with household
poverty line status which means that as the outside home working hours increase household
poverty decrease.

Table 5.29 Correlation Matrix of Household Poverty Model

Variables PLS HBGD HOHWH HRNLI NOHWP PCI TPE

Household Poverty Line Status 1.00
(PLS)
Household Bought Grocery Daily 0.03 1.00
(HBGD)
Household Outside Home Working -0.24 -0.00 1.00
Hours (HOHWH)
Household Received Non-Labor 0.19 0.08 0.00 1.00
Income (HRNLI)
Number of Household Working 0.26 0.02 -0.19 0.03 1.00
Person (NOHWP)
Per Capita Income (PCI) -0.23 -0.02 -0.06 -0.04 0.30 1.00
Total Personal Expenses (TPE) -0.21 -0.04 0.09 0.03 0.41 0.43 1.00

5.3.3 Empirical Analysis

70
 The results in this chapter are discussed in the light of hypothesis formulated in chapter 4.
The following tables are interprets the Logit estimates of child labor, child schooling and
household poverty model. Table contains five columns. First contains the name of variables.
The estimated parameters of the variables are reported in column 2; column 3 is for standard
error of the coefficients, while asymptotic Z-statistic of the parameters of the explanatory
variables is presented in the column 4 and probability values are presented in column 5
respectively. While this study used two tailed test of significance or z-statistics for
determining the acceptance or rejection of null hypothesis in order to check the reliability of
the point estimates.

5.3.3.1 Child Labor Model

The logistic estimates of child labor model are given below. Where the head age, head age
square, working children age, working children education in completed years, children want
school education, family size, household poverty line status and log of household monthly
income are taken as independent variables and child labor is used as the dependent variable.

Table 5.30 Logistic Estimate of Child Labor Model

Variables Coefficient Std. Error Z- Statistics P- Values

Constant (C) -34.278 8.5929 -3.9891 0.0001
Head Age (HA) 0.9336 0.3127 2.9849 0.0028
Head Age Square (HAS) -0.0107 0.0034 -3.1161 0.0018
AGE of Working Child (AGE) 1.250 0.2159 5.7929 0.0000
Passed Education of Working Child (EDU) -1.0451 0.1791 -5.8348 0.0000
Children Want School Education (CSE) -0.6387 0.5351 -1.1935 0.2326
Family Size (FS) 0.0919 0.0785 1.1709 0.2416
Log of Household Monthly Income (LHMI) 0.3231 0.4048 0.7980 0.4248
Poverty Line Status (PLS) 1.0612 0.6065 1.7497 0.0802
Log Likelihood = -65.70 Sample Size = 200
LR Statistics = 137.80 Probability (LR Statistics) = 0.0000
McFadden R-Squared = 0.511

The result of the constant term shows that the effect of intercept term on child labor is more
important. The value of McFadden R 2 which assures the quality of our estimates shows that
about 51 percent variations in the model are due to explanatory variables.

With this arbitrary choice, it is observed that the head age (HA) of households is explaining
child labor positively. The coefficient of head age is highly significant. It means that as the

71
age of household increases child labor also increases. This can be seen as the age of
household head increase working capacity declining after the certain age and it is difficult for
him to bear all financial affairs of his household that why they allow their children to
participate in labor market. In the sample study mean age of household head is 43 years. The
estimation of head age variable is indirectly reconciled with the result of Togunde and
Richardson (2006).

The coefficient of head age square has negative and significant impact on child labor.
Children of upper age household head more involve in labor activity while children of lower
age household head less involve in labor activity. The same result is found by Khan (2003).

Estimation of the model describes that age of child has positive and highly significant impact
on child labor. As the age of working child increases, its impact becomes highly significant
and the value of coefficient also increases. The statistic describes that 1 year increase in child
age increase 1.0 1 percent chances of child involvement in labor activity. The estimate of
child age variable reconciled with the results of Blunch and Verner (2000), Admassie (2003),
Aldaba et al. (2004), Dayioglu, Togunde and Richardson (2006), Hou (2009), Ahmad (2012),
Webbink et al., Onyemauwa and W.A and T.N (2013).

The variable EDU represent the past education standard of working children in years and is
introduced in the model to see whether child past education influenced child labor or not. The
variable is highly significant having negative association with the child labor. The coefficient
of the variable indicates that 1 percent increase in child education decrease 1.09 percent child
involvement in labor force participation. The estimate child education variable is also
consistent with the results of Amin et al. (2006).

No one can observe the child interest in school education in many society, therefore to see the
impact of children want school education variable included in the model for determine child
labor decision. The coefficient for this variable is negative and insignificant. It describes that
more child want to obtain school education fewer would be children involve in labor force
participation. This result indicates that 1 percent change in children interest decreased child
labor 0.59 percent.

It is observed that the family size (FS) of household is explaining child labor positively. The
coefficient of household family size is significant. The coefficient of the variable has positive
association with the child labor decision. This reveals that children belonging to a large

72
 family increase the probability to participate in labor market. This result indicates that 1
percent increase in family size increase child labor 0.13 percent. The estimate of household
family size variable reconciled with the results of Qureshi et al. (2014), Ahmad (2012),
Togunde and Richardson (2006) and Toor (2005).

The coefficient of log of household monthly income (LHMI) has positive sign and
insignificant. Higher income of household leads more children involved in labor activity. In
developing countries low or uneducated parents less wants to invest in children education so,
their children more involve in labor activity. The results of this variable also satisfy the
wealth paradox (i-e as the household become wealthier start child labor increases). The
estimate of log of household monthly income reconciled with the results of Lima et al. (2015)
and Abdullahi et al. (2016).

The variable of PLS represent the household poverty line status and is included in the model
to see whether household poverty effected child labor or not. The variable is significant and
has positive association with child labor. The coefficient of the variable indicates that 1
percent increase in household poverty increase 1.06 percent chances of children to involve in
labor activity. The estimate of household poverty variable consistent with the results of
Blunch and Verner, Ray (2000), Aldaba et al. (2004), Ersado (2005), Hou, Kim (2009),
Onyemauwa et al. (2013) and Qureshi et al. (2014).

5.3.3.2 Child Schooling Model

The logistic estimates of child schooling model are given below. Where the female male
ratio, dependency ratio, household head education, log of household monthly income and
children want school education are taken as independent variables and child schooling is used
as the dependent variable.

Table 5.31 Logistic Estimate of Child Schooling Model

Variables Coefficient Std. Error Z- Statistics P – Value

Constant (C) -5.6104 9.7656 -0.5745 0.5656
Female Male Ratio (FMR) -0.2365 0.4275 -0.5532 0.5801
Household Head Education (HHE) 0.3790 0.2253 1.6822 0.0925
Children Want School Education(CSE) 2.4419 1.2420 1.9660 0.0493

73
Log of Household Monthly Income 0.8521 0.9563 0.8909 0.3729
(LHMI)
Dependency Ratio (DR) -2.0458 2.6360 -0.7760 0.4377
Log Likelihood = -14.3989 Sample Size = 200
LR Statistics = 10.4178 Probability (LR Statistics) = 0.06422
McFadden R-Squared = 0.2656

The result of constant term shows that the effect of intercept term on child schooling is less
important. The value of McFadden R 2 which assures the quality of our estimates shows that
only 26 percent variations in the model are due to explanatory variables.

Keeping in mind the importance of gender discrimination in developing countries like

Pakistan, a variable FMR, and female male ratio included in the child schooling model. The
estimated result is as, as was expected in the hypothesis. The result is insignificant and has
negative value. The statistic shows that female male ratio decline child schooling. The
coefficient of the variable indicates that 0.23 percent decline in child schooling is due to 1
percent increment in female member.

Estimation of child schooling model describes that household head education has positive and
significant impact on child schooling. More educated household head is in favor of more
children schooling than less educated household head. It describe that household head
education significantly increases child schooling. The result indicates that 1 percent increases
in head education increases child schooling 0.37 percent. The estimate of household head
education variable reconciled with the results of Berenger and Chouchan (2015), Onyemauwa
et al. (2013), Grigoli and Sbrana (2011), Khan (2003), Shapiro and Tambashe (2001), Ray
(2000) and Jensen and Nielsen (1997).

No one can ignore the child interest in school education in any society, therefore to see the
impact of children want school education variable included in the model for determine child
schooling. The coefficient for this variable is positive and significant. It describes that more
child want to obtain school education greater would be child schooling. This result indicates
that 1 percent change in children interest increased child schooling 2.4 percent.

An important variable in the model is log of household monthly income. Log of household
monthly income has a positive coefficient with insignificant value. The sign of the variable is
positive indicating that if the household income increases they will be prefer more children

74
 schooling. The estimated results of the variable contradict with wealth paradox (i-e as the
household become wealthier they will prefer less child schooling) presented by Lima et al.
(2015) and Abdullahi et al. (2016).

The variable dependency ratio (DR) of household indicates the position of household
economically active and non-active person. The coefficient of this variable is also according
to expectation showing negative impact of dependency ratio on child schooling. This result
describes that fewer presence of economically active person in household decreases child
schooling, however this result is insignificant.

5.3.3.3 Household Poverty Model

The logistic estimates of household poverty model are given below. Where the household
bought grocery daily, per capita income, number of household working person, household
received non-labor income, total personal expenses, household outside home working hours
and child labor are taken as independent variables and household poverty line status is used
as the dependent variable.

Table 5.32 Logistic Estimate of Household Poverty Model

Variables Coefficient Std. Error Z- Statistics P –Value

Constant (C) 0.9518 1.066 0.8923 0.3722
Household Bought Grocery (HBGD) 0.0776 0.5100 0.1523 0.8789
Per Capita Income (PCI) -0.0013 0.00031 -4.4701 0.0000
Number of Household Working Person 1.2048 0.2310 5.2154 0.0000
(NHWP)
Household Received Non-Labor Income 1.0507 0.5016 2.0947 0.0362
(HRNLI)
Total Personal Expenses (TPE) -0.00014 4.80E-05 -2.9933 0.0028

75
Household Outside Home Working Hours -0.17762 0.1061 -1.6731 0.0943
(HOHWH)
Log Likelihood = -55.72 Sample Size = 200
LR Statistics = 96.75 Probability (LR Statistics) = 0.00000
McFadden R-Squared = 0.46

The result of constant term shows that the effect of intercept term on household poverty is
less important. The value of McFadden R 2 which assures the quality of our estimates shows
that only 46 percent variations in the model are due to explanatory variables.

In this model we hypothesized that household living below the poverty line mostly they are
working on daily wages so, they bought grocery or necessary goods daily, the estimated
result is as, as was expected in the hypothesis. The result is insignificant and coefficient has
positive value. The positive sign of the variable indicating that if household become poorer,
they will more buy necessary goods daily. The coefficient of the variable indicates that 0.07
percent increment in household poverty due to 1 percent change in household bought
necessary goods daily.

Per capita income of household is another important variable of household poverty model.
The results of the model state highly significant negative impact on household poverty. The
statistic describes that 1 percent decline in per capita income increase poverty 0.0013 percent.

Another important variable is number of household working person, the coefficient sign of
this variable against the expectation showing positive impact on household poverty. But
positivity of the coefficient may be due to that reasons, that mostly working persons involved
in same family business and their participation not changed the productivity and hence
income level, more personal spending of household working person left fewer income for
other members. The results of the model state highly significant positive impact of household
working person on poverty.

Household received non-labor income is another important determinant of household poverty

model. The coefficient sign of this variable is positive and significant. The sign of this
variable is indicating that an increment in household poverty leads the 1.05 percent
attainment of non-labor income. From this result it can be concluded that household poverty
line status positively related with household received non-labor income and same result is
found as was expected.

76
A total personal expense of household member is another determinant of household poverty.
The results of the model significant and negative impact on household poverty line status.
The statistic describes that if a household fewer personal expense, this increase the household
poverty. A decrease in household personal expense 1 percent increase poverty 0.00014
percent. This is seems to be negligible impact on household poverty.

Keeping in mind the importance of household members outside home working hours, a
variable HOHWH, average outside home working hours included in the model. The
estimated result is as, as was expected in the hypothesis. The statistic shows that the
increment in average outside home working hours decline household poverty. The result is
significant and coefficient has negative value. From this result it can be concluded that if
average household outside home working hours increased household poverty decreased. The
coefficient of the variable indicates that 0.19 percent decline in household poverty due to 1
percent increase in average outside home working hours.

5.4 Conclusion

In this chapter, there was analysis of the data with the help of descriptive analysis and
econometric analysis. Descriptive analysis provide more deep insight of this study and
pretend how own child and household characteristics. While through econometric tools we
are able to determine how own child and household characteristics influence child labor,
child schooling and household poverty. Then there were estimation of the models of child
labor, child schooling and household poverty and interpretation of the selected variables.

Chapter 6

Conclusions and Policy Implications

6. 1 Introduction

The purpose of the present study was to explore the determinants of child labor, child
schooling and household poverty in Multan city of Pakistan. The main task of estimating the
data in child labor and schooling decision context was carried out by applying logistic model
of estimation. Various types of variables were identified as the possible determinants of child
labor, child schooling and household poverty. The important conclusions of the study are as
follows:

77
6.2 Conclusions

1. One of the crucial factors in child labor decision is household head age. Household
head age had significant influence on child labor decision. The coefficient of
household head age is 0.93 and square of household age is -0.01 which shows that 93
percent change in child labor is due to household head age while for 1 percent change
in child labor due to head age square.
2. Age is a highly significant variable that affect positively on child labor. As with the
increase in age child become mature and their skills also improved so, their chances to
involve in labor market also increases.
3. Results also state that education of working child highly significant and negatively
affected child labor. More education leads children involvement in labor market.
4. Children want school education had an insignificant influence on child labor. This
depended upon the children interest in school education and educational achievements
of family members. The results indicated that more interest in school education
decrease the child labor activity.
5. Family size plays an important role in determine child labor. The sign of coefficient
indicates that children of large family size more involve in labor activity. So, child
labor starts increasing in extended families.
6. In my study it was observed that log of household monthly income had insignificant
impact on child labor, our results supports the wealth paradox. According to this
paradox more children participated in labor market as household income extended.
7. Household financial position considers the most important determinant of child labor
decision in developing countries. So, household poverty status allows children to
participate in labor market. The sign of the coefficient also satisfied this
consideration.
8. In the nutshell, the results of child labor model indicates that, in general, working
children in Multan district are selective especially in term of head age, head age
square, age of working child, education status of working child and household poverty
line status.
9. It was observed that gender disparity greater in developing countries so, large female
male ratio decreased child schooling. It means that presence of more female in
household decrease the chances of child schooling.

78
10. Results state that household head education plays an important role in determine child
schooling. The coefficient of variable is positive and significant impact on child
schooling decision. Educated head of household want their children obtain school
education instead of doing anything else.
11. Children want school education had a significant influence on child schooling. This
depended upon the children interest in school education and educational achievements
of family members. The results indicated that more interest in school education
increase the child schooling.
12. Log of household monthly income positively influenced child schooling decision. The
coefficient of the variable is 0.85 which shows that 85 percent variations in child
schooling decision is because of log of household monthly income.
13. The study indicated that household dependency ratio is another determinant of child
schooling in developing countries. The presence of more dependent person in a
household decreases the chances of child schooling.
14. Poor household bought necessary goods daily are positively affected household
poverty. The coefficient of variable is 0.048 which shows that household bought basic
goods daily not bring too much change in household poverty.
15. Per capita income of household is a highly significant factor affect negatively on
household poverty. In my study per capita income coefficient is -0.0013 which shows
negligible impact on household poverty.
16. Number of household working person is another main determinant of household
poverty model. The sign of the variable is positive because either mostly household
working person involved in same family business so, they have no personal/separate
income or personal expenses of working person increase which left less income for
other family members.
17. Household received non-labor income has significant positive impact on household
poverty. The coefficient of household received non-labor income is 0.99 which shows
that 99 percent change in household poverty is because of financial assistance.
18. The total personal expense of household is another determinant of household poverty.
This variable is significant and affects household poverty negatively. The coefficient
of variable is -0.00013 which shows it does not bring too much change in household
poverty.
19. Household outside home working hours of household is a insignificant factor affect
household poverty negatively. The coefficient of the variable is -0.16 which shows

79
 that 16 percent change in household poverty is because of household outside home
working hours.
20. Involvement of children in labor activity is another determinant of household poverty.
Its coefficient is 0.56 which indicates that 56 percent change in household poverty is
because of children involvement in labor market.

All these factors which influence child labor, child schooling and household poverty are
interrelated to each other.

6.3 Policy Implications

There are following steps that should be followed to minimize child labor, household poverty
and enhanced child schooling in selected district. These are as follow

1. There is need to bring changes in primary and middle standard syllabus and
introduced more practical than theoretical subject in primary standard. This is because
it is the primary standard syllabus which developed the child interest in education.
2. The study indicated that there is a need to make such policies which does not allow
parents to withdraw their children from school before the completion of school
education, if they do so they are imprisonment.
3. Children interest in education play an important role so, Govt. should make those
educational policies which make school education most attractive and children are
happily ready to go for school.
4. Government must utilize more resources to control increasing population.
Government can give incentives to less family size household which improve their
economic status.
5. Ministry of labor must develop an action against child labor and punish those who
demand children as a labor.
6. Government as well as NGOS must play their role to eliminate household poverty
which simultaneously reduced child labor and extend child schooling. Government
should give incentives to those households where poverty allows parents to send their
children for work.
7. Pakistan is an Islamic Republic state so, we must reduce gender differences and
follow golden Islamic principles which provide female an equal opportunity to read
and write.

80
 8. Improve the quality of education so that its fruits must reach to the bottom.
9. We should control our personal expenses by following the simple Islamic life and
avoid the extravagant or lavish display.
10. Adults Education Program should be introduce which change the attitude of adult
household members and parents towards children investment.
11. Stable high market wage increase the household income, reduced poverty and
simultaneously deter children to participate in labor market.
12. Technical and vocational education should be made compulsory institutions are
established for those children who are taking less or no interest in school education.
13. Short term as well as long term benefits of education must be introduced which
change the attitude of shortsighted parents.
14. Government provides more employment opportunities for household adult’s members
which also decline poverty indirectly.

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Appendix

86
 Original E-Views Tables

Child Labor Model

Dependent Variable: CL
Method: ML - Binary Logit (Quadratic hill climbing)
Date: 06/18/17 Time: 09:50
Sample: 1 200
Included observations: 200
Convergence achieved after 7 iterations
Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob.
C -34.27819 8.592933 -3.989114 0.0001
HA 0.933669 0.312790 2.984976 0.0028

87
 HASQ -0.010755 0.003451 -3.116165 0.0018
AGE 1.250931 0.215939 5.792985 0.0000
EDU -1.045198 0.179132 -5.834805 0.0000
CSE -0.638798 0.535197 -1.193577 0.2326
FS 0.091951 0.078525 1.170986 0.2416
LHMI 0.323108 0.404871 0.798050 0.4248
PLS 1.061278 0.606526 1.749763 0.0802

McFadden R-squared 0.511884     Mean dependent var 0.400000

S.D. dependent var 0.491127     S.E. of regression 0.329700
Akaike info criterion 0.747016     Sum squared resid 20.76205
Schwarz criterion 0.895440     Log likelihood -65.70162
Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.807081     Deviance 131.4032
Restr. deviance 269.2047     Restr. log likelihood -134.6023
LR statistic 137.8014     Avg. log likelihood -0.328508
Prob(LR statistic) 0.000000

Obs with Dep=0 120      Total obs 200

Obs with Dep=1 80

Child Schooling Model

Dependent Variable: CS
Method: ML - Binary Logit (Quadratic hill climbing)
Date: 06/18/17 Time: 10:26
Sample: 1 200
Included observations: 200
Convergence achieved after 6 iterations
Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob.
C -5.610473 9.765646 -0.574511 0.5656
HHE 0.379061 0.225326 1.682276 0.0925
CWSE 2.441968 1.242093 1.966010 0.0493
DR -2.045827 2.636081 -0.776087 0.4377

88
 FMR -0.236566 0.427576 -0.553274 0.5801
LHMI 0.852101 0.956382 0.890962 0.3729

McFadden R-squared 0.265654     Mean dependent var 0.980000

S.D. dependent var 0.140351     S.E. of regression 0.140567
Akaike info criterion 0.203989     Sum squared resid 3.833266
Schwarz criterion 0.302939     Log likelihood -14.39892
Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.244033     Deviance 28.79785
Restr. deviance 39.21565     Restr. log likelihood -19.60782
LR statistic 10.41780     Avg. log likelihood -0.071995
Prob(LR statistic) 0.064226

Obs with Dep=0 4      Total obs 200

Obs with Dep=1 196

Household Poverty Model

Dependent Variable: PLS

Method: ML - Binary Logit (Quadratic hill climbing)
Date: 08/05/17 Time: 12:36
Sample: 1 200
Included observations: 200
Convergence achieved after 6 iterations
Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob.
C 0.951807 1.066626 0.892353 0.3722
HRNLI 1.050741 0.501603 2.094765 0.0362
NOHWP 1.204887 0.231021 5.215487 0.0000

89
 AOHWH -0.177623 0.106159 -1.673183 0.0943
HBGD 0.077695 0.510020 0.152336 0.8789
PCI -0.001389 0.000311 -4.470131 0.0000
TPE -0.000144 4.80E-05 -2.993393 0.0028

McFadden R-squared 0.464721     Mean dependent var 0.215000

S.D. dependent var 0.411853     S.E. of regression 0.267928
Akaike info criterion 0.627232     Sum squared resid 13.85461
Schwarz criterion 0.742673     Log likelihood -55.72318
Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.673949     Deviance 111.4464
Restr. deviance 208.2026     Restr. log likelihood -104.1013
LR statistic 96.75620     Avg. log likelihood -0.278616
Prob(LR statistic) 0.000000

Obs with Dep=0 157      Total obs 200

Obs with Dep=1 43

Child Labor, Child Schooling and Household Poverty in Pakistan

(A Case Study of Multan District)

Questionnaire

No Househol Relation Gender Age Education Outside Inside Monthly Monthly

d with the in in Years Home House Income Expenses
Members Respon Years Work Work
dent Duration Duration

90
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Section I

Child Labor Characteristics Questions

1. At what age did children start to work for the first time in his/her life?
------------------------------
2. Why children do work? a) Supplement family income b) Help pay family debt
c)Help in household Work d) Learn skills e) Schooling not useful for future f)
School too far / no school g) Cannot afford school fees h) Not interested in school.
3. In what type of labor activity children engage? a) Father own business b) Relative
business c) Factory or industry Work d) Slavery in houses e) Shopkeeper f) Others
4. Have the working children some control on their earned income? a) Yes b) No.
5. If yes how much amount they use from it--------------------
6. When the working Children get wages? a) Daily b) Weekly c) Monthly.

Section II

School Characteristics Questions

1. What is the children school enrollment age? -------------------------

2. Which type of education children want to obtain? a) School b) Tuition Center c)
Madrasah d) Any Training Institutions e) Nothing.

91
3. Mostly children involve only in? a) Work b) School c) Tuition Center d) Madrasah
e) Idle or leisure
4. Do the children want to go to school? a) Yes b) No.
5. If No then chooses the reason. a) Poverty b) Lack of School Excess c) Social Norms
d) Greater Demand of Child Labor e) Poor school quality.
6. How many days’ children absent from school in a week? ----------------
7. Do each school going children also join tuition center? a) Yes b) No.
8. If yes then tell tuition fee--------------------
9. How many hours spent in tuition center? a) 2-3 b) 3-4.
10. School going child daily pocket money----------------
11. Which of the following subject children want to study at primary standard? a) English
b) Math c) Urdu d) Islamic Studies e) computer f) Drawing.
12. Which among the above mention subject’s children not want to study?
-----------------------------------
13. Which kind of syllabus studied at primary standard? a) Only theoretical b) More
theoretical than practical c) a, b and extra curriculum activities.
14. What is the Govt. schools fee structure? ------------------------------
15. What is the private schools fee structure? ------------------------------
Section III
Household Characteristics Question
1. Who is the household head? a) Father b) Mother c) Both a and b d) Others.
2. When the household purchases basic goods? a) Daily b) Weekly c) Monthly.
3. What is the household source of drinking water? a) Well pump b) Hand pump c)
Govt. piped line d) Others.
4. Does your household own this accommodation or rent it? a) Yes b) No.
5. If yes then What type of accommodation do you live in? (a) Kacha House b) Bricks
plus Mud c) cement plus bricks d) Juggi.
6. If No tell what is the per month rent? --------------------------------
7. What was the mode of payment for the last payment period? a) Daily b) Weekly c)
Monthly d) Hourly.
8. Does the household receive non labor income? a) Yes b) No.
9. If yes then tell which kinds of non-labor income you receive? ------------------------
10. Does the household own any of the following? a) Bicycle b) Motor Cycle c) Fridge.
11. Has household suffer in any disease? a) Yes b) No.

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12. If yes tell the name of disease--------------------------
13. Do household have complete availability of healthy diet? a) Yes b) No.

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