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Received September 3rd, 2011; revised October 5th, 2011; accepted November 6th, 2011.
ABSTRACT
Today’s search for alternative sources of energy to reduce the use of fossil fuels is motivated by environmental, socio-
economic and political reasons. The use of agro-industrial and municipal wastes of plant origin for ethanol production
appears to be the best option to solve the dilemma of using food sources to produce biofuels, since it adds value to these
wastes in eco-efficient processes. This paper highlights the potential of agro-industrial and municipal wastes for cellu-
losic ethanol production.
lactose, mannose, xylose, arabinose, uronic acids and ace- mize the use of food sources for ethanol production [10].
tyl groups. The branched chain presents a degree of po- Based on this idea, the Chinese government encourages
lymerization of less than 200 units [14]. Pectin is a com- the production of ethanol only from non-food substrates,
plex heteropolysaccharide constituted of axial connec- e.g., perennial grasses, and plant husks and chaff [27],
tions of α-1,4-D-galacturonic acid units composed of ra- and strictly controls the territorial expansion of food sub-
mose, arabinose and galactose [15]. Lignin is a phenol- strates used in ethanol production [28]. Currently, China
lic polymer that contributes to the structural rigidity of
plant tissues [12]. It is composed of macromolecules syn- Table 1. Cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin contents of some
thesized by radicals from three p-hydroxycinnamic pre- agro-industrial and urban residues of plant origin.
cursor alcohols: p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl [14]. Compound (%)
Glucose molecules are joined by glycosidic bonds to Plant biomass
Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin
form linear chains (cellulose) that interact with each other
through hydrogen bonds, forming a structure of elemen- Sugarcane bagasse 33 30 29
tary fibrils that are water-insoluble and highly crystalline. Wheat straw 30 24 18
Four elementary fibrils are grouped in a hemicellulose mo- Sorghum straw 33 18 15
nolayer, surrounded by a hemicellulose and lignin matrix, Rice straw 32 24 13
called cellulose microfibrils [14,16, 17].
Oat straw 41 16 11
Lignocellulosic material is a generic term that de-
scribes the main constituents of plants, i.e., cellulose, he- Maize ear 42 39 14
micellulose and lignin [18], as indicated in Figure 1. Its Maize stalk 35 15 19
composition depends not only on the type of plant (Table Barley straw 40 20 15
1), but also on the selected part of the plant [19], and on Alfalfa stalk 48.5 6.5 16.6
growth conditions [20,21]. This material differs from pro-
Rice husk 36 15 19
ducts with high sugar and starch content [5,22-24].
Eucalyptus grandis 38 13 37
3. Global Scenario Eucalyptus saligna 45 12 25
Global ethanol production is monopolized by two major Pinus sp. 44 26 29
producers, the USA, which uses corn starch, and Brazil, Journal 61 16 21
which uses sugarcane sucrose [25]. In both cases, this Processed paper 47 25 12
production is based on food sources. According to Pi-
Angiosperm wood 40 - 50 24 - 40 18 - 25
mentel et al. [26], the allocation of food sources for the
production of biofuels reaches a critical point when an Gymnosperm wood 45 - 50 25 - 35 20 - 30
impasse is reached between the production of raw mate- Nuts husk 25 - 30 25 - 30 30 - 40
rial for fuel ethanol or for food. This impasse represents a White paper 85 - 99 0 0 - 15
bottleneck in the maintenance and expansion of the bio- Grasses 25 - 40 35 - 50 19 - 25
fuels market. One of the short-term alternatives would be
Leafs 15 - 20 80 - 85 0
to use these plants solely for food and use only their lig-
nocellulosic materials for the production of ethanol. This Cottonseed lint 80 - 90 0 - 15 0
would help mitigate environmental pollution and mini- Source: [29-34].
is the world’s largest rice and wheat producer. The coun- supplies and favorable weather conditions, which may
try generates huge amounts of agro-industrial residues, lead to regional development (employment and income
which may be used alternatively for ethanol production generation, population devolution and an increase in for-
instead of impacting the environment [35,36]. eign exchange reserves). However, it is important to un-
Brazil’s sugarcane production seeks to meet domestic derline the need for strategic agricultural zoning studies
and export market demands for ethanol and sugar. How- to avoid environmental and socioeconomic disasters pro-
ever, this economic dependence has serious negative con- moted by huge green deserts, as well as the use of biofu-
sequences for the population. In early 2011, there was a els as an extra energy supply and not merely to replace
shortage of ethanol as a result of the higher demand for non-renewable sources of energy.
sucrose for sugar production (due to rising sugar export Renewable sources of energy are desirable because
prices), allied to the sugarcane off-season, which resulted they represent a safe and sustainable energy supply, and
in an average price increase of 20.5%. lower GHG emissions [3,44]. Ethanol production using
Another prospect is ethanol production in Brazil driven lignocellulosic biomass is one of the most important te-
by the incorporation of sugarcane bagasse ethanol pro- chnologies for an ecologically feasible [45] and sus-
duced at the same industrial plant, resulting in lower pro- tainable production of renewable fuels [44,46-48] to mi-
duction costs. This proposal would increase the availabil- nimize the environmental impact caused by GHG. The
ity of ethanol during the sugarcane off-season, and rep- six main GHGs are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
resent higher economic and ecological efficiencies in the hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluo-
process. This concept is strengthened by data from Bra- ride [49]. The carbon dioxide produced by burning biofu-
zil’s 2010/2011 sugarcane harvest. Although it was a els is partially recycled in the process of photosynthesis,
bumper crop, it did not suffice to meet the demand for which is when plant biomass is formed [50,51]. Ethanol
ethanol and sugar production. In the 2011 season, Bra- has a positive carbon balance [52], and also releases low
zil’s sugarcane production volume will fall short of in- amounts of nitrous oxide and sulfur dioxide during com-
dustrial demand by 23%. This volume is expected to be bustion [53].
approximately 632 million tons, while the volume needed The use of municipal waste of plant origin as a sub-
to meet current domestic and export demand is 775.6 strate for ethanol production can lead to a temporary in-
million tons. The projections for 2020 are that Brazil’s crease in organic compounds and toxic substances in the
sugarcane production will fall 34% below demand, with environment [54]. However, this amount is small when
an estimated supply of 974 million tons to meet a de- compared to that produced by liquid fossil fuels [55].
mand exceeding 1.3 billion tons [37]. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
All around the world, new alternatives are being in- Change [49], climate change is caused by the excessive
vestigated for the production of cellulosic ethanol based increase of GHGs in the atmosphere, intensified by hu-
on crops as the source of raw materials. These alterna- man activities, which is the case of fossil fuels that have
tives include eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.) and leucaena been in use since the pre-industrial age. Significant amou-
(Leucaena sp.) as well as fast-growing grasses of high nts of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere
productivity, e.g., elephant-grass (Pennisetum purpureum), annually. In 2002, about 24 billion metric tons of carbon
used as forage in South America, switchgrass (Panicum dioxide would be produced by burning fossil fuels. This
virgatum), a species native to North America, and tall number is estimated to reach 33 billion by 2015 [51].
grass of the genus Miscanthus, which is of greater inter- Studies on biofuel by Sukimaran et al. [56] demon-
est in Europe [38]. Although cultivated plant biomass strated that the potential of ethanol is comparable to that
represents an advance in cellulosic ethanol production, of petroleum, making it economically feasible for com-
agro-industrial residues and municipal waste of plant ori- mercial purposes. Moreover, these authors emphasize
gin are priorities for use as substrates for cellulosic ethanol that the octane rating of ethanol is higher than that of
production [30,39-43]. gasoline and that it produces lower air pollutant emis-
sions. In the 1990s, the Tennessee Valley Authority (USA)
4. Socioenvironmental, Economic and
developed an efficient technology for converting vegetable
Political Policies
waste into ethanol [57]. The material was composed of
Changes in the global energy matrix have been driven by 45% glucose and 9% hemicellulose [2,58,59] and al-
fuels derived from animal, plant and microbial organic lowed for the production of cellulosic ethanol. According
matter. The search for cheaper fuels in developing coun- to Shi et al. [9], the use of municipal waste of plant ori-
tries has fostered a growth in the economic activity of gin for ethanol production is a promising strategy to sup-
biofuel production, facilitated by the fact that most of ply the world’s energy needs and reduce GHG emissions.
these countries have large tracts of land, available water Their estimates of the socioeconomic development of
173 countries point to a global production of 82.9 billion ing decades, with a strong contribution from the road
liters of ethanol from municipal waste, replacing the con- transport sector up to 2030 [60]. The growing use of bio-
sumption of 5.36% of gasoline. fuels is influenced mainly by the Montreal (1987), Kyoto
In a comparison of the eco-efficiency of liquid fuels, (1997) and Copenhagen (2009) Protocols. However, the
i.e., gasoline, corn starch ethanol and cellulosic ethanol, UN Climate Change Conference (COP-16) held in Mex-
Hill et al. [55] found that cellulosic ethanol is the most ico in 2010 pointed to uncertainties for the second phase
eco-efficient. These authors reported the following costs of the Kyoto Protocol, which sets mandatory and volun-
to produce 1 billion gallons of fuel: gasoline—US$ 416 tary targets for the reduction of global emission caps
million, corn starch ethanol—US$ 614 million, and cel- (GEC) in industrialized countries. Nevertheless, there is a
lulosic ethanol—US$ 208 million. Figure 2 indicates the tendency for a period without mandatory targets for en-
time required to eliminate CO2 emissions produced by vironmental preservation from 2012. The increase in
deforestation, harvesting and production of some biofuels. biofuel consumption is influenced by voluntary and man-
These findings emphasize the importance of producing datory targets adopted by some countries (Table 2). Ac-
cellulosic ethanol, which not only adds value to plant cording to the World Energy Assessment [61] and Gol-
biomass for biofuel production but also requires no ex- denberg [62], projections for the world energy scenario
pansion of farmland. up to 2100 are optimistic, with an increase in renewable
The International Energy Agency’s projections for the sources and the consequent reduction of non-renewable
global biofuel demand reveal a drastic growth in the com- sources [61].
Figure 2. Time required to eliminate carbon dioxide emissions caused by deforestation, harvesting and production of some
biofuels [63].
Germany Addition of 6.75% of anhydrous ethanol to gasoline in 2010; increase to 8% in 2015 and 10% in 2020. Mandatory
Mixture of 20% to 25% of anhydrous ethanol in gasoline and 5% of biodiesel in diesel in 2010; expan-
Brazil Mandatory
sion of the use of hydrated ethanol.
Canada Addition of 5% of anhydrous ethanol in gasoline in 2010; addition of 2% of biodiesel in diesel in 2012. Mandatory
Italy Addition of 5.75 % of anhydrous ethanol in gasoline in 2010 and increase to 10% in 2010. Mandatory
Source: [64].
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