Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Evaluation of intermediate temperature cracking performance of warm

mix additive modified asphalt binders
Aniket V. Kataware ⇑, Dharamveer Singh
Transportation Systems Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India

h i g h l i g h t s

⁄

Intermediate temperature cracking performance using G sind, DENT and LAS test.

WMA additives showed significant effect on cracking performance of asphalt binders.
⁄

Performance ranking of asphalt binders based G sind, Nf and CTOD parameters was not consensus.
⁄

G sind and CTOD showed similar performance ranking for few asphalt binders.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the present study, intermediate temperature cracking performance of different types of asphalt binders
Received 14 April 2018 containing warm mix asphalt (WMA) additives was evaluated using three test methods namely,
Received in revised form 25 June 2018 Superpave fatigue parameter, linear amplitude sweep (LAS) and double edge notch test (DENT). The
Accepted 27 June 2018
Superpave fatigue, LAS, and DENT tests are based on dissipated energy, viscoelastic continuum damage
Available online 3 July 2018
(VECD) and work of fracture approaches, respectively, and thus each of the tests may result into different
performance ranking of asphalt binders. The outcome of the Superpave fatigue, LAS and DENT tests are
Keywords:
G⁄sind, number of cycles to fatigue failure (Nf), and critical tip opening displacement (CTOD) based on
Warm mix additives
Superpave fatigue performance
which cracking potential of asphalt binder can be assessed. An asphalt binder having a low Superpave
Linear amplitude sweep test parameter, high Nf and high CTOD values are expected to have better intermediate temperatures
Double edge notch test cracking performance. The present study selected three control binders namely virgin (AC), styrene-
Intermediate temperature performance butadienestyrene (SBS) and crumb rubber modified (CRM) binders were modified using three WMA addi-
tives namely Fischer-tropsch (FT) wax based, chemical surfactant (CS) based and water based (WB).
Control binders were modified with 2%, 6% and 2% (by weight of asphalt binder) of FT, WB and CS, respec-
tively, using a mixer. The results showed that, based on G⁄sind and CTOD parameters, CS modification
reduced stiffness (reduced G⁄sind) and improved ductile performance (increased CTOD) of control
binders. However, WB and FT modification increased stiffness and degraded the ductile performance
of control binders, except for SBS with 6%WB binder which showed higher CTOD than control SBS binder.
On the other hand, considering performance based on Nf parameter, WMA additive modification
improved fatigue life of control binders, except for SBS with 2%CS binder which showed lower Nf as
compared to control SBS binder. Control binders with and without WMA additives were ranked based
on G⁄sind, Nf and CTOD parameters. AC and CRM binder with and without WMA additives followed
similar performance ranking based on G⁄sind and CTOD parameters. It is difficult to conclude over the
best suitability of intermediate temperature performance parameter as mentioned tests involve different
loading conditions and analysis approaches. Hence, further investigation on asphalt mixes is necessary to
identify the best suited intermediate temperature performance parameter of asphalt binders, and its
possible correlation with mix performance.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: aniket.kataware@gmail.com (A.V. Kataware), dvsingh@civil.iitb.ac.in (D. Singh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.06.227
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
166 A.V. Kataware, D. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176
1. Introduction
The primary purpose of asphalt binder in asphalt mixes is to
provide sufficient workability, coating and binding of aggregates
for a strong structure. Improved workability of asphalt binder
can be achieved either by increasing construction temperature or
with the help of additives. Accordingly, asphalt mixes can be cate-
gorized as hot mix asphalt (HMA), cold mix and warm mix asphalt
(WMA) technology. HMA technology requires temperature in the
range of 150–190 °C for pavement construction [1]; such high tem-
perature is associated with high fuel consumption and significant
emission of greenhouse gases. WMA technology involves modifica-
tion of asphalt binders/mixes with warm mix additives to reduce
production and construction temperature [2–6]. Different types
of WMA additives are available such as chemical, water, and wax
based additives. WMA technology can be considered as an eco-
nomical and environmentally viable option for asphalt pavement
construction. Further, modification by WMA additives can influ-
ence the rheological performance of asphalt binders [5,7]. As of
now limited studies are available on long term performance of
WMA modified asphalt binders/mixes, and there is a need to
conduct related studies to gain confidence on WMA technology.
Therefore, one of the motivations of the study is to evaluate the
performance of long term aged asphalt binders modified with
three different WMA additives.
In case of asphalt pavements, fatigue cracking, low temperature
cracking, rutting and moisture susceptibility are the modes of fail-
ure. Asphalt mixes consist of a composite structure of asphalt bin-
der, aggregates, and air voids. Most of the failures occur within the
asphalt binder and aggregates alone or between asphalt binder and
aggregates or within the structure of asphalt mix. Therefore, better
pavement performance can be ensured by various factors such as
the strength of asphalt binder and aggregate, proper coating, adhe-
sion of aggregates with asphalt binder, the interlocking of asphalt
binder and aggregate structure, etc. The present study focuses on
fatigue performance of asphalt pavements, and such performance
is mainly monitored by asphalt binder’s behavior at an intermedi-
ate temperature. Researchers have developed many fatigue-
related, i.e., intermediate temperature performance testing meth-
ods for asphalt binders, such as Superpave fatigue test, linear
amplitude sweep (LAS) and double edge notch test (DENT). These
methods are briefly discussed in next paragraphs.
The Superpave fatigue parameter (G*sind) is directly propor-
tional to dissipated energy. Therefore, the lower value of G*sind
is expected to have better fatigue performance [8,9]. Measurement
of G*sind parameter is done at 10 rad/s frequency, i.e., at lower
strain level [10–12]. As per ASTM D6373, the intermediate
temperature of asphalt binder corresponds to 5000 kPa (maxi-
mum) value of G*sind. Lee et al. [9] evaluated fatigue resistance
of recycled binders with WMA additives and observed that asphalt
binders with Aspha-minÒ and SasobitÒ additives showed the
higher value of G*sind. Similarly, Akisetty et al. [13] and Xiao
et al. [14] reported an increase in G*sind value of crumb rubber
modified binders when modified with AsphaminÒ and SasobitÒ.
Also, Ziari and Babagoli [15] observed an increase in G*sind value
of virgin binder after SasobitÒ modification. The assumption
behind G*sind parameter was that the asphalt binder with lower
G*sind value would be softer and more elastic and can provide bet-
ter fatigue resistance [16]. However, this assumption does not hold
true for all asphalt binder types. Further, G*sind parameter is not
able to capture damage potential of asphalt binder as its determi-
nation involves load application in the linear visco-elastic (LVE)
range [16]. In contrast, fatigue phenomena can involve high stress
and strain concentrations.
Therefore, LAS test was developed to overcome limitations of
G*sind parameter [16,17]. The LAS test is a cyclic torsion test, the
first phase involves frequency sweep loading and the second phase
involves amplitude sweep loading. LAS test able to capture asphalt
binder’s behavior beyond LVE range. In this test viscoelastic contin-
uum damage (VECD) principle has been used to evaluate fatigue
life (Nf) of asphalt binder. The Nf of asphalt binder correlated well
with the laboratory and field fatigue performance [17–19]. Wax
based, chemical based and water based WMA additives modifica-
tion improved fatigue performance (i.e., increased Nf) of polymer
and crumb rubber modified binders [5,7]. Similarly, Ziari and
Babagoli [15] reported improvement in Nf of virgin binder after
SasobitÒ modification. On the other hand, Singh et al. [20] reported
a reduction in Nf of PPA and Elvaloy modified asphalt binder after
addition of wax based, chemical based and water based WMA
additives. However, few researchers have raised concerns over
LAS test. Elseifi et al. [12] stated that the validation and evaluation
of LAS test are needed for shingle modified asphalt binders. Zhou
et al. [8] did not observe a better correlation between LAS data
and mix fatigue performance (push-pull asphalt mix fatigue test)
hence suggested further evaluation of LAS test. Also, edge fracture
between parallel plates during LAS test are potential concerns [21].
Further, DENT test was developed to evaluate intermediate
temperature performance of asphalt binders. Andriescu et al. [11]
stated that fracture tests on laboratory asphalt binder samples
could reproduce higher stress-strain in the field. Further, asphalt
binders would be ductile in nature at ambient temperature, hence
essential work of fracture method can be used to evaluate fatigue
performance [11]. Also, DENT test evaluates ductile failure/fracture
resistance of asphalt binder at intermediate temperature [22].
Andriescu et al. [10] suggested critical tip opening displacement
(CTOD) parameter to identify ductile failure and strain tolerance
of asphalt binder [22]. Also, CTOD value showed good correlation
with field cracking/distress [8,21,23]. Since CTOD showed an
inverse relationship with field cracking/ distress, higher CTOD is
expected for better fatigue resistance [8,21]. Other parameters
evaluated from DENT test can be used such as the essential work
of fracture (we) is the work done in fracture process zone, and
the non-essential or plastic work of failure (bwp) is an energy
absorbing process and peak load (Ppeak) [10]. Higher we and bwp
indicate better resistance to ductile failure and fatigue cracking,
respectively [22]. Also, High Ppeak indicates brittle nature of asphalt
binders [22]. Ahmed et al. [24] reported a reduction in CTOD
value of asphalt binder after modification by commercial wax
based WMA additive. On the other hand, asphalt rejuvenator
and asphaltene dispersant modification increased CTOD value
of asphalt binder [24]. DENT test parameters indicate stretching
ability of asphalt binder between aggregates to form a thin film
without fail [8].
Therefore, considering pros and cons of test protocols, there is a
need to develop understanding and confidence over these tests and
related performance parameters. The literature review showed
that various test methods could be used to evaluate intermediate
temperature performance of asphalt binder. Parameters assessed
from these tests showed good correlation with laboratory and field
performance of asphalt mixes. Therefore, it could be hypothesized
that the performance parameters evaluated for asphalt binders
should show similar performance results or similar performance
ranking. If the later is valid, then a better characterization of
asphalt binders is possible to minimize pavement failure. If the
hypothesis is not valid, then there is need to examine, whether
the applicability of the parameters is binder type specific (unmod-
ified, modified, WMA modified). Therefore, the authors have used
three types of asphalt binder (virgin, polymer modified, and crumb
 A.V. Kataware, D. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176
rubber modified binder) and three types of WMA additives (wax,
chemical, and water based) for evaluation. The objectives of the
present study are to evaluate intermediate temperature perfor-
mance of asphalt binders using three approaches namely Super-
pave fatigue parameter, LAS test and DENT, and to study the
effects of WMA modification. Also, to examine ranking of asphalt
binders with and without WMA additives, with respect to interme-
diate temperature performance based on different approaches.
2. Materials
2.1. Asphalt binders
The present study used three control binders namely, virgin
(AC), Styrene–Butadiene–Styrene modified (SBS) and Crumb
Rubber Modified (CRM). As per Indian Standards IS 73 and IS
15462, the control binders were found to be acceptable (Table 1).
The AC, SBS and CRM binders showed high-temperature Perfor-
mance Grade (PG) as 70, 76 and 88, respectively. Accordingly, the
CRM binder observed to be stiffer followed by SBS and AC binder.
2.2. WMA additives
The present study used three different WMA additives namely,
Fischer-Tropsch process wax based (FT), chemical surfactant based
(CS) and water based (WB). Sasol Wax, AkzoNobel, and PQ
chemicals supplied FT (solid pellet), WB (powder) and CS (liquid)
additives, respectively.
SasobitÒ is FT WMA additive; it is a long chain aliphatic hydro-
carbons with the chemical formula C n H2nþ2 [25]. FT additive is a
microcrystalline wax with 100 °C melting point, and reduces vis-
cosity of asphalt binder and thus reduces construction temperature
by 20–30 °C [3,25].
RedisetÒ is CS based additive with a fatty polyamine, non-ionic
components and –NH+3 group structures [26–28]. Also, CS
additive contains cationic surfactants and organic additives to
reduce asphalt binder’s viscosity [26]. The modification by CS addi-
tive could lead to lowering construction temperature by 15 °C [29].
AdveraÒ is WB additive; it contains zeolite. WB additive could
reduce construction temperatures of asphalt binder up to 20 °C
[2,3,6]. It contains entrapped water (18–22%), which expands at
elevated temperature and cause a foaming effect [2,6]. Accordingly,
facilitates workability and sufficient aggregate coating on asphalt
binder at a lower temperature.
2.3. Preparation of asphalt binders with WMA additives
Researchers have reported a range of WMA additives dosages
such as, 0.8–4%FT (by weight of asphalt binder), 0.25–0.3%WB
(by weight of asphalt mix) and 1–2%CS (by weight of asphalt bin-
der) [1,3,25,26,28,30,31]. In the present study WMA dosage within
Table 1
Properties of asphalt binders.
Tests Asphalt binders
AC
Reported IS 73*
Penetration (1/10) mm, min 43 45
Softening Point in °C, min 53.2 47
Ductility in cm, min >100 >75
Viscosity at 60 °C in poise 2400 2400–3600
Viscosity at 150 °C in poise – –
High Temp. PG in °C 70 – 76
*
Requirement as per Indian standard code.
167
the mentioned range have been adopted. Accordingly, control
binders (AC, SBS, and CRM) were modified with 2%FT, 6%WB and
2%CS using a mixer at 140 °C for half hour, to ensure homogeneous
mixing. In such a way, total twelve asphalt binder combinations
(three control binders and nine WMA modified control binders)
were prepared in the laboratory for further evaluation.
2.4. Aging of asphalt binders
The short-term aging of asphalt binder combinations was
carried out using thin film oven (ASTM D1754). It is expected that
WMA modified asphalt binders would undergo less aging therefore
past studies have used 20 °C lower temperature for short term
aging of WMA modified asphalt binders [32,33]. Accordingly, con-
trol binders were aged at 163 °C (for 5 h), while control binders
with WMA additives were aged at 143 °C (for 5 h). Control binders
with and without WMA additives would undergo similar climatic
conditions during their service life, hence long term aging condi-
tions were kept same. Therefore, long term aging of control binders
with and without WMA additives was carried out using Pressure
Aging Vessel (PAV) as per ASTM D6521.
3. Methodology and experimental plan
The present research work utilized the methodology shown in
Fig. 1. The control binders were modified using three different
WMA additives. Then, twelve asphalt binders were conditioned
for short term and long term aging to simulate field aging condi-
tions. Control binders with and without WMA additives were eval-
uated at an intermediate temperature (i.e., 25 °C, expected
intermediate pavement temperature) using three methods namely
Superpave, LAS, and DENT. The Superpave fatigue test and LAS test
was used to evaluate fatigue performance, and DENT was used to
evaluated fracture resistance of control binders with and without
WMA additives.
4. Laboratory tests
The detail test protocol and significance of Superpave fatigue
test, LAS test, and DENT test is discussed in the following
paragraphs
4.1. Superpave fatigue parameter (G*sind)
4.1.1. Test protocol
Superpave fatigue test involves the determination of dynamic
shear modulus and phase angle of long term aged asphalt binder
by using dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) as shown in Fig. 2a. The
test was performed using 8 mm dia. parallel plate geometry (with
2 mm gap) at 10 rad/s frequency in accordance with ASTM D7175
SBS CRMB
Reported IS 15462* Reported IS 15462*
49 30–50 32 <50
61.8 60 60.7 60
>100 – 20.4 –
– – – –
7.1 3–9 8.8 3–9
– 88 –
168 A.V. Kataware, D. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176

Control binders
AC, SBS and CRM
Control Binders

WMA additives
TFO and PAV aging
2%FT, 2%CS, 6%WB
WMA modification Sample Preparation

Superpave test LAS test DENT test

Fatigue parameter Fatigue life Fracture resistance

Fig. 1. Methodology adopted in the present study.

Fig. 2. Superpave parameter and LAS test set up details (a) dynamic shear rheometer (b) loading pattern and binder sample.

(Fig. 2b). The measurements were taken at 25 °C after that Super-
pave fatigue parameter (G*sind) was estimated (ASTM D 6373).
4.1.2. Significance of Superpave fatigue test
The asphalt pavement would undergo repetitive loading.
There will be energy loss in asphalt mix (i.e., energy dissipation)
during every loading cycle. If the energy loss is high, then there
is more probability that pavement would fail under fatigue load-
ing and vice-versa. Therefore, a similar concept has been
adopted for Superpave fatigue parameter evaluation of asphalt
binder. Fig. 2b shows the loading involved during the test. The
dissipated energy of binder per cycle of loading can be estimated
using Eq. (1)
Z of G*sind is expected to have better fatigue performance [8,9]. As
DU ¼ rde
where, DU = energy loss per cycle or dissipated energy, r = shear
stress, e = shear strain.
After integrating Eq. (1) for sine wave loading from 0 to 2p,
DU ¼ p  emax  rmax  sind ð2Þ
where, rmax = maximum shear stress, emax = maximum shear strain.
Since the complex modulus (G*) can be shown by Eq. (3)
rmax
G ¼ ð3Þ
emax
The dissipated energy under constant strain condition can be
represented using Eq. (4) after substituting Eq. (3) in Eq. (2).
DU ¼ p  emax 2  ðG  sindÞ ð4Þ
*
It can be seen that Superpave fatigue parameter (G sind) is
directly proportional to dissipated energy. Hence, the lower value
ð1Þ per ASTM D6373, at an intermediate temperature, the value of G*-
sind less than 5000 kPa (for long term aged asphalt binder) is
expected for better fatigue performance. The discussion on d, G*
and G*sind of control binders with and without WMA additives is
presented in the results and discussion section.
 A.V. Kataware, D. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176
4.2. Linear amplitude sweep test
4.2.1. Test protocol
The LAS test was performed on long-term aged asphalt binder
combinations using DSR (with 8 mm parallel plate geometry with
2 mm gap) at 25 °C in accordance with AASHTO TP 101-14 (Fig. 2).
The LAS test consists of two loading phases. The first phase
involves the application of frequency sweep loading from 0 to
30 Hz at 0.1% strain level (Fig. 3a). And the second phase is ampli-
tude sweep loading from 0 to 30% strain level at 10 Hz frequency
(Fig. 3b). The storage modulus, complex modulus, shear stress,
shear strain data was collected for fatigue performance analysis
(discussed later).
4.2.2. Significance of linear amplitude sweep test
Fatigue failure in asphalt pavement is due to the action of repet-
itive loading. During each loading cycle asphalt binder would
undergo damage and this damage will get accumulated over the
pavement’s life. Once damage reaches its ultimatum the crack ini-
tiation/formation happens. Therefore, it is necessary to examine
Fig. 3. LAS test details (a) frequency sweep loading (b) amplitude sweep loading (c) frequency sweep data analysis and (d) amplitude sweep.
169
asphalt binders damage performance over a range of amplitudes
(strain sweep). Hence, LAS test consists of amplitude sweep load-
ing. Further analysis of asphalt binder damage using visco-elastic
continuum damage (VECD) has been used. In a VECD approach,
the damage evolution of the material can be characterized based
on stiffness reduction [17]. For many decades researchers have
used VECD analysis to predict damage evolution in asphalt mixture
[17].
Based on studies conducted by various researchers, the number
of cycles to failure is given by Equation [17].
Nf ¼ Aðcmax ÞB ð5Þ
where, cmax = maximum expected strain induced (%), A is damage
evolution parameter, B is undamaged material property.
Firstly, the undamaged material property parameter ‘B’ was
determined using frequency sweep data as it was done when the
material was in undamaged stage and the load applied was within
LVE range. Then parameter B was determined as
B ¼ 2a ð6Þ
170 A.V. Kataware, D. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176
The parameter ‘a’ is inverse of the slope of log (storage modu-
lus) v/s log (Frequency) plot (Fig. 3c), as follows
1
a¼ ð7Þ
slope of logðsto:mod:Þv s logðfrequencyÞ plot
Secondly, parameter ‘A’ was determined using asphalt binder’s
response under strain sweep loading (Fig. 3d). For ‘A’ parameter
evaluation VECD approach was used
f ðDf Þ
ð1þð1C ÞaÞ
2 ment is due to repetitive loading and during which material will
A ¼ fatigue law coefficient ¼ (8)where, f is the
ðð1þð1C 2 ÞaÞðpC 1 C 2 Þa Þ
frequency of loading (Hz), Df is damage accumulation at failure, C1
and C2 are model coefficients.
The Nf of asphalt binder showed good correlation with labora-
tory and field fatigue performance [17–19]. A higher value of Nf
is expected to have better fatigue performance of asphalt binder.
Therefore, Nf and other LAS test parameters of control binders with
and without WMA additives are discussed in the results and
discussion section.
4.3. Double edge notch test
4.3.1. Test protocol
DENT test was carried on control binders with and without
WMA additives using force ductimeter at 25 °C in accordance with
AASHTO TP 113 (Fig. 4a). In this test asphalt binder sample was
molded in three ligament lengths of 5 mm, 10 mm and 15 mm
and test was performed by applying strain (tensile load) at the rate
Fig. 4. DENT test details (a) Ductimeter, (b) loading pattern and binder sample, (c) load versus displacement and (d) total specific work of fracture v/s ligament length plot.
of 100 ± 2.5 mm/min (Fig. 4b). The data of force and displacement
was collected for fracture analysis (discussed later).
4.3.2. Significance of double edge notch test
Asphalt binder is expected to undergo higher strain during
repetitive loading. Accordingly, Andriescu et al. [11] stated that
fracture tests on laboratory asphalt binder samples could repro-
duce higher stress-strain in the field. The cracking failure of pave-
undergo failure due to ductile and brittle process. Therefore to
understand load-induced cracking in asphalt pavement, DENT test
was formed [10]. For analysis of DENT test, work of fracture con-
cept was used. Work of fracture is work done by a material till
the occurrence of a failure. Therefore, total specific work of fracture
(TWF) by asphalt binder was determined by calculating the area
under load-displacement curve till ductile failure is reached
(Fig. 4c). The TWF can be calculated as follows
Ztf
Wt ¼ Pd ð9Þ
0
where, Wt is TWF in kJ/m2, tf is a time when ductile failure is
reached, P is tensile load in N, and d is displacement in mm.
The TWF is the sum of essential and non-essential (plastic)
work of failure [10].
W t ¼ W e þ W p ¼ LB  we þ bL2 B  wp ð10Þ
 A.V. Kataware, D. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176
where, we is essential work of fracture in kJ/m2; wp is non-essential
work of fracture in MJ/m3
Specific total work of failure (wt) can be calculated using
Eq. (11)
wt ¼ W t =LB ¼ we þ bLwp
Then, wt v/s ligament length (L, mm) plot (Fig. 4d) was used to
estimate we (intercept) and plastic work-bwp (slope of the line).
The CTOD can be determined as the ratio of essential work of
failure and net section stress
dtð5mmÞ ¼ we =rn
where, rn is net section stress = Ppeak/BL
DENT test was used to evaluate the ductile performance of con-
trol binders with and without WMA additives. The cracking/ dis-
tress is inversely proportional to CTOD value [21]. Hence, a
higher value of CTOD is expected to lower cracking failure. The dis-
cussion on CTOD and other DENT parameters of control binders
with and without WMA additives is presented in the results and
discussion section.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Superpave fatigue test
5.1.1. Phase angle (d)
The d is lag between applied shear stress and the resulting shear
strain. Its value ranges from 0° to 90°. A value of 0° corresponds to
the purely elastic material, while 90° corresponds to the viscous
material. Fig. 5a shows d value of control binders with and without
WMA additives evaluated at 25 °C temperature. The AC, SBS and
CRM binders showed d value of 53.3°, 53.9°, and 60.5°, respectively.
The FT modification decreased d value of CRM and SBS binder, indi-
cating improvement in elastic performance. On the other hand, AC
binder with FT additive showed higher d value as compared to con-
trol AC binder, indicating reduced elastic response. Similarly, both
Fig. 5. (a) Phase angle, (b) complex modulus and (c) Superpave fatigue parameter of asphalt binders.
171
CS and WB additive modification increased d value of control bin-
ders, hence showed increased viscous response.
5.1.2. Complex modulus (G*)
G* is a measure of the total resistance of a material to deforma-
ð11Þ
tion when exposed to repeated pulse of shear stress. Higher value
of G* indicates asphalt binder with higher stiffness and vice-versa.
Fig. 5b shows value of G* for control binders with and without
WMA additives. The AC, SBS and CRM binders showed G* value
of 20.6 MPa, 5.8 MPa, and 4.6 MPa, respectively. The FT and WB
modification increased G* value of control binders. Increase in stiff-
ð12Þ ness (i.e., G*) after addition of FT was due to crystalline network/
lattice structure of FT [2,3,31], similarly increase in G* after WB is
due to its filler effect [6]. On the other hand, CS additive decreased
G* value of control binders, indicating softening of asphalt binder.
5.1.3. Superpave fatigue parameter (G*sind)
The G*sind value of control binders with and without WMA
additives at 25 °C temperature is presented in Fig. 5c. Asphalt bin-
der with lower G*sind value is expected to have better fatigue per-
formance, as its stiffness would be lower and thus more
sustainable under repetitive fatigue loading. The AC, CRM, and
SBS binders showed G*sind value of 16.5 MPa, 4.7 MPa, and 4.0
MPa, respectively. It means SBS and CRM binders indicate accept-
able fatigue performance, whereas AC binder could fail against fati-
gue loading. Such enhanced fatigue performance of SBS and CRM
could be attributed to the presence of polymer and rubber struc-
ture, respectively, which provided elasticity to binders.
The FT modification increased G*sind value of all control bin-
ders. For example: after 2%FT modification, G*sind value of SBS
and CRM binders was increased by 60% and 43%, respectively.
The AC binder showed minimal change in G*sind value after FT
modification. Such increased stiffness is attributed to crystalline
network/lattice structure of FT which improves the stability of
the asphalt binder [2,3,31]. Also, 6%WB additive modification
increased G*sind value of control binders. Similarly, a study by Diab
and You [6] observed an increase in G*sind value of asphalt binder
172 A.V. Kataware, D. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176
after WB modification. Such behavior can be attributed to filler
effect of WB additive which enhances the stiffness of asphalt
binder. On the other hand, CS modification decreased G*sind
significantly, as it softens asphalt binder. In particular, 2%CS mod-
ification reduced G*sind value of AC binder by 46%. Similar trend
was observed for SBS and CRM binders as well. By ranking stiffness
of asphalt binders in order of lower to higher, AC binders with and
without WMA additives can be ranked as AC + 6% WB > AC + 2% FT
> AC > AC + 2% CS binder. CRM binders were ranked as CRM + 2%
FT > CRM + 6% WB > CRM > CRM + 2% CS. Similar order of ranking
to the later was observed for SBS binder with and without WMA
additives.
On a general note, 2%FT and 6%WB modification increased
G*sind whereas 2%CS modification decreased in G*sind value of
control binders. Hence, based on G*sind parameter, CS modified
control binders can have good fatigue performance followed by
WB and FT modified control binders. However, as discussed earlier,
many researchers have raised concerns over the applicability of
G*sind fatigue parameter [11,12,16,34,35]. The reason for the above
concerns is that the Superpave fatigue parameter test is conducted
within linear viscoelastic (LVE) range of the asphalt binder, i.e. at
one strain level (2%), whereas fatigue failure may occur in non
LVE range and at higher strain levels. Therefore, trends observed
for fatigue performance using G*sind need to be relooked using
another parameter. Hence, the LAS and DENT tests were conducted
for further evaluation of control binders with and without WMA
additives.
5.2. Fatigue performance using linear amplitude sweep test
5.2.1. Maximum shear stress
The maximum shear stress (smax) of control binders with and
without WMA additives observed in LAS test is presented in
Fig. 6a. The asphalt binders with higher smax are stiffer in nature
[18]. The AC binder (with and without WMA) showed the maxi-
mum smax as compared to SBS and CRM binder (Fig. 4a), indicating
brittle nature of AC binder. FT modification increased smax of con-
trol binders, indicating hardening effect after FT. For example, AC
with 2%FT showed 1380 kPa stress as compared to 1290 kPa for
control AC binder. A similar trend was observed for SBS and CRM
binders. Also, 6%WB modification increased smax of SBS and CRM
binder, whereas it decreased smax of AC binder. On the other hand,
2%CS modification led to decrease the smax value of control binders,
indicating softening effect after CS addition. It is interesting to note
that the control binders with and without WMA additives showed
similar trends based on both the parameters: smax and G*sind
(Figs. 5b, 6a).
5.2.2. Maximum shear strain
The maximum shear strain (emax) observed in control binders
with and without WMA additives during LAS test is presented in
Fig. 6b. The high value of emax indicates the high yielding capacity
of asphalt binder, and asphalt binder is expected to endure under
higher strain level without failure. Control SBS showed higher emax
as compared to AC and CRM binder, indicating the better yielding
capacity of SBS binder. The 2%FT, 2%CS and 6%WB modification
improved emax of all control binders, except SBS + 2%CS which
showed lower emax as compared to control SBS binder. Therefore,
WMA modification improved the yielding capacity of control bin-
ders. The combined effect of smax and emax value can affect fatigue
performance. Asphalt binder with lower smax and higher emax is
expected to perform better under repetitive loading condition,
since lower smax can facilitate resilient behavior and higher emax
can facilitate better yielding capacity. The fatigue performance
based on Nf is discussed in the next section.
5.2.3. Fatigue life
The fatigue lives of control binders with and without WMA
additives were determined using Eq. (5) for strain level ranging
from 1 to 6%. Fig. 6c–e show Nf of AC, CRM and SBS binders (with
and without WMA additives), respectively. As expected, increase in
strain level decreased fatigue life of asphalt binder. WMA additive
modification improved fatigue lives of all control binders, except
SBS with 2%CS showed poor fatigue performance as compared to
control SBS binder. In particular, FT, CS and WB modified AC
showed higher fatigue life at all strain levels as compared to con-
trol AC binder. By ranking fatigue performance in order of higher
to lower Nf, AC binders with and without WMA additives can be
ranked as AC + 2% FT > AC + 2% CS > AC + 6% WB > AC binder. CRM
binders were ranked as CRM + 2% CS > CRM + 6% WB > CRM + 2%
FT > CRM binder. And SBS binders were ranked as SBS + 2% FT >
SBS + 6% WB > SBS binder > SBS + 2% CS.
Moreover, Hintz et al. [19] observed a better correlation
between field fatigue cracking (LTPP) and Nf at 4% strain level.
Therefore, Nf of control binders with and without WMA additives
at 4% strain level is presented in Fig. 6f. Control SBS binder showed
higher Nf followed by CRM and AC binder. Therefore order of better
fatigue performance was observed to be SBS > CRM > AC binder.
For all control binders, a significant increase in Nf was observed
after 2%FT modification. In particular, FT modified AC, SBS and
CRM binder showed 346%, 86% and 102% increment in Nf, respec-
tively, as compared to respective control binders. The SBS + 2%FT
showed highest Nf value, a similar trend was observed in case of
emax (Fig. 6b, f). Hence, better fatigue performance can be expected
after 2%FT modification. Such enhanced performance can be attrib-
uted to the crystalline network structure of FT additive which sta-
bilizes control binder. Similarly, 6%WB modification increased Nf of
AC, SBS and CRM binder by 60%, 7%, and 283%, respectively. There-
fore, WB modification enhanced fatigue performance of control
binders. Also, 2%CS modification increased Nf of AC and CRM bin-
der by 104% and 369%, respectively, indicating improvement in
endurance against fatigue for AC and CRM binder. On the contrary,
CS modification reduced Nf of SBS binder by 16%. By looking at
Fig. 6b and f, it can be concluded that a reduction in emax can
adversely affect Nf.
Interestingly, AC + 2%FT, SBS + 2%FT, and CRM + 2%CS binders
showed significantly higher Nf as compared to respective control
binders. Therefore, FT modification found to be more compatible
for AC and SBS binder. Similarly CS additive and CRM binder com-
bination found to be compatible to enhance fatigue performance.
Also, other control binder and WMA combinations can be used to
enhance fatigue performance. Whereas, care should be taken while
modifying SBS binder with CS additive, to ensure acceptable fati-
gue performance.
5.3. Ductile performance using double edge notch test
5.3.1. Peak load
The Ppeak of control binders with and without WMA additives in
DENT test was determined by using force-displacement plot
(Fig. 4c) of 5 mm ligament sample and presented in Fig. 7a. The
Ppeak corresponds to the highest load observed during DENT test.
Higher values of Ppeak indicate brittle nature of asphalt binder
[22], as it will break early during ductile loading. The 2%FT modifi-
cation increased Ppeak of control binders. In particular, 2%FT modi-
fication increased Ppeak of AC, SBS, and CRM by 64%, 35% and 13%,
respectively, indicating a transition from ductile to brittle nature of
control binders. This can be attributed to increased stiffness after
FT modification. Similarly, 6%WB modification increased Ppeak of
AC and CRM binder, whereas reduced Ppeak of SBS binder. Hence,
6%WB modification can improve ductile nature of SBS binder,
whereas affects the ductile property of AC and CRM binder.
 A.V. Kataware, D. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176 173

Fig. 6. LAS test results (a) maximum shear stress, (b) maximum shear strain, (c) fatigue life of AC binder, (d) fatigue life of CRM binder, (e) fatigue life of SBS binder and (f)
fatigue life of asphalt binders at 4% strain level.

Interestingly, 2%CS modification reduced Ppeak of all control bin-
ders, enhancing their ductile resistance. This could be due to soft
nature (i.e., low stiffness) of CS modified control binders.
5.3.2. Specific essential work
The specific essential work (we) value for control binders with
and without WMA additives is presented in Fig. 7b. The higher
value of we is expected for better resistance to ductile failure
[22,36]. This holds true for SBS asphalt binder after WMA modifi-
cation. For instance, 2%CS and 2%FT modified SBS showed higher
and lower ‘we’ value, respectively, hence SBS with 2%CS has better
resistance against ductile failure than SBS with 2%FT. This can be
confirmed with CTOD trend (Fig. 7d). Whereas AC with 2%CS
showed lower we value compared to 2%FT modified AC, but still
showed better fracture resistance, which was confirmed with
CTOD value. For the CRM control binder, no conclusion could be
drawn. Therefore, the detail investigation is needed to define/
understand the significance of we parameter.
5.3.3. Specific essential plastic work
The specific essential plastic work (bwp) of control binders with
and without WMA additives is presented in Fig. 7c. Asphalt binder
with a higher value of bwp is expected to have better resistance to
fatigue cracking [22,37]. The 2%FT modification increased the bwp
value of AC binder, indicating improvement in fatigue cracking
resistance, which can be confirmed with Nf (Fig. 5). On the con-
trary, 2%FT modification decreased bwp value of SBS and CRM bin-
der, whereas corresponding binder combinations showed excellent
174 A.V. Kataware, D. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176
Fig. 7. DENT test results (a) peak tensile load, (b) essential work, (c) essential plastic work and (d) CTOD of asphalt binders.
Nf (Fig. 5). A similar trend was observed for 2%CS and 6%WB mod-
ified control binders. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude on binder
performance based on the bwp parameter. Hence a detailed study
is needed to gain understanding over bwp parameter.
5.3.4. Critical tip opening displacement
The CTOD for control binders with and without WMA additives
was calculated using Eq. (12) and plotted in Fig. 7d. Control SBS
binder showed better ductile performance followed by CRM and
AC binder. A similar trend was observed in case of G*sind and Nf,
parameters. All three-fatigue related parameters showed similar
ranking for control binders. Accordingly, any of the three tests
may be suitable for fatigue performance comparison of control bin-
ders (AC, SBS and CRM). Also, study by Zhou et al. [8] reported sim-
ilar fatigue performance ranking for different asphalt binders based
on CTOD parameter and asphalt mix push-pull test. Therefore,
Zhou et al. [8] recommended DENT test to characterize fatigue
resistance of asphalt binders. However, WMA additive modifica-
tion showed significant effect on control binder’s ductile perfor-
mance. After 2%CS modification, the CTOD value of AC, SBS and
CRM binder was increased by 31%, 384% and 73%, respectively,
indicating an enhancement in fracture resistance performance
(ductile failure resistance). This trend can be attributed to soft nat-
ure of control binders after CS modification. Whereas, 2%FT modi-
fication adversely affected CTOD value. In particular, 2%FT
modification decreased CTOD value of AC, SBS and CRM binders
by 42%, 55%, and 18%, respectively. Hence, FT modified control bin-
ders showed poor resistance against ductile/fracture failure, this
could be due to stiffer nature of FT modified control binders which
can make them brittle. The 6%WB modification improved fracture
resistance of SBS binder, however, showed less effect on fracture
resistance performance of AC and CRM binders. By ranking ductile
performance of asphalt binders in order of higher to lower CTOD,
AC binders with and without WMA additives can be ranked as
AC + 2% CS > AC > AC + 6% WB > AC + 2% FT. Similar order of
ranking was observed for CRM binder with and without WMA
additives. On the other hand, SBS binders were ranked as SBS + 2%
CS > SBS + 6% WB > SBS > SBS + 2% FT.
5.4. Comparison of performance ranking of asphalt binders
In this paper, the cracking performance (at intermediate tem-
perature) of control binders with and without WMA additives
has been evaluated using Superpave fatigue test, LAS test and
DENT test. The WMA additives showed significant effects on crack-
ing performance at intermediate temperature of control binders.
The summary of effect of WMA additives on long term perfor-
mance of control binders is presented in Table 2. The 2% CS modi-
fication decreased G*sind and increased CTOD of control binders. As
reported by many researchers, G*sind parameter is indicator of
stiffness, higher G*sind value shows stiffer binder and vice-versa.
Therefore, softening effect of CS additive decreased G*sind of con-
trol binders. Similarly, DENT test involves tensile load application
(constant pull), therefore softer binder would get stretched more
i.e., they will show more displacement before failure. Hence, softer
binder i.e., control binders with 2%CS showed higher CTOD value
and hence better ductile performance. On the other hand, WB
and FT modification increased G*sind and decreased CTOD param-
eters of control binders (except SBS with 6%WB binder), indicating
an adverse effect on fatigue and ductile performance. Such perfor-
mance was due to the higher stiffness of WB and FT modified con-
trol binders. The WB modification could have reorganized polymer
structure which led to improvement of its ductile performance and
hence SBS binder with 6%WB showed more CTOD as compared to
control SBS binder. Interestingly both parameters G*sind and CTOD
showed similar effects/change (i.e., either increase or decrease in
parameter values based on Table 2) on control binders with
WMA additives, authors strongly believe that these performance
parameters can have similar trend with stiffness properties of
asphalt binders.
LAS test involves application of high shear strain, therefore the
asphalt binder with better shear strength and endurance can
 A.V. Kataware, D. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176 175

Table 2
Effect of WMA additives on long term performance of asphalt binders.

Asphalt binders G*sind Nf CTOD

2%FT 2%CS 6%WB 2%FT 2%CS 6%WB 2%FT 2%CS 6%WB
AC " ; " " " " ; " ;
CRM " ; " " " " ; " ;
SBS " ; " " ; " ; " "

Table 3
Long term performance ranking of asphalt binders with and without WMA additives.

Asphalt binders AC binder CRM binder SBS binder

* *
G sind Nf CTOD G sind Nf CTOD G*sind Nf CTOD
Control 2 4 2 2 4 2 2 3 3
Control + 2%FT 3 1 4 4 3 4 4 1 4
Control + 2%CS 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 1
Control + 6%WB 4 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 2

perform well. FT and WB modified control binders showed
increased Nf as compared to control binders. This could be due to
enhancement in crystalline structure (in case of FT) and filler effect
(in case of WB) which improved fatigue performance of control
binders. In case of AC and CRM binders, though CS modification
reduced their stiffness, but it improved their yielding capacity
(increased maximum shear strain, Fig. 6b) and improved fatigue
life (Table 2). However, CS modification affected polymer structure
of SBS binder and degraded its yielding capacity, therefore SBS bin-
der with 2%CS showed lower fatigue life as compared to control
SBS binder.
The hypothesis is that the cracking performance (at intermedi-
ate temperature) assessed thorough tests mentioned above should
rank asphalt binders in a similar trend. Therefore, the asphalt bin-
ders were ranked based on their performance through different
parameters. For ranking, three parameters were considered namely
G*sind, Nf, and CTOD. Asphalt binder with a lower value of G*sind
and higher value of Nf and CTOD is expected to have better inter-
mediate temperature performance. The asphalt binder with better
performance has assigned with rank 1, and that with poor perfor-
mance has assigned rank 4. The ranking of control binders with and
without additives is presented in Table 3.
For AC binder, based on G*sind and CTOD parameters, AC + 2%CS
and AC binder showed better ranking i.e., rank 1 and 2, respec-
tively, indicating improvement in fatigue and ductile performance
after CS modification. On the other hand, based on Nf parameter,
WMA additives increased the fatigue life of AC binder. The order
of ranking based on Nf parameter was AC + 2%FT (rank 1), AC +
2%CS (rank 2), AC + 2%WB (rank 3), AC (rank 4).
For CRM binder with and without WMA additives, G*sind and
CTOD parameters showed the same order of ranking. Also, only
CS modification improved the ductile performance of CRM binder.
The order of ranking was CRM + 2%CS (rank 1), CRM (rank 2), CRM
+ 6%WB (rank 3), CRM + 2%FT (rank 4). On the other hand, WMA
additives improved fatigue life of CRM binder.
For SBS binder, SBS + 2%CS binder showed rank 1 based on
G*sind and CTOD parameters. A similar trend was observed for
AC binder. However, SBS + 2%CS binder showed rank 4 based on
Nf. Further in case of FT modified SBS binder, Nf parameter showed
best ranking (rank 1), whereas G*sind and CTOD parameters
showed poor ranking (rank 4).
In general, AC and CRM binders with and without WMA addi-
tives followed similar ranking based on G*sind and CTOD parame-
ters. This could be due to similar trend of these parameters with
stiffness of asphalt binder. However, in other cases, no uniform
ranking of control binders with and without WMA additives was
observed based on G*sind, Nf and CTOD parameters. Moreover, con-
flict in performance ranking was observed. For example, FT modi-
fication improved the ranking of control binders based on Nf.
However, FT modified control binders showed poor ranking based
on G*sind and CTOD parameters. Drawing definite conclusions
based on ranking is difficult, and hence future studies must be con-
ducted by comparing such ranking with field/laboratory perfor-
mance of mixes.
6. Conclusion and recommendations
The specific conclusions of the study are as follows:
a. Fischer-Tropsch wax modification induced crystalline struc-
ture in control binders which increased stiffness and
improved fatigue life of control binders. However, FT modi-
fied control binders showed poor ductile performance as
compared to respective control binders.
b. Chemical surfactant modification decreased stiffness as well
as improved ductile performance of control binders. More-
over, CS modification improved fatigue lives of AC and
CRM binders. However, decreased fatigue life of SBS binder
through degradation of polymer structure.
c. Water based additive modification increased stiffness and
improved fatigue life of control binders. Further SBS with
6%WB showed improvement, however AC and CRM with
6%WB showed degradation in ductile performance.
d. Performance ranking of control binders with and without
WMA additives based on all parameters i.e., G*sind, Nf and
CTOD parameter was not consensus. However, G*sind and
CTOD parameter shared similar ranking for few asphalt bin-
der combinations. Such similar ranking could be due to sim-
ilarity of these parameters with stiffness property of asphalt
binders.
It is to be noted that G*sind parameter is an indicator of the stiff-
ness of asphalt binders. Further, LAS can be used to evaluate fatigue
resistance, as it involves loading in the nonlinear viscoelastic
region of asphalt binders, and similar loading conditions can be
expected on the field during repetitive loading. On the other hand,
DENT tests can be used to evaluate ductile performance, as it deter-
mines asphalt binder’s ability to get stretched without failure. The
applicability of these tests to predict fatigue performance of
asphalt mix must be validated using laboratory and field asphalt
mix performance.
176 A.V. Kataware, D. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 184 (2018) 165–176
7. Limitation and future scope of the study
The present study is limited to three control binders and three
WMA additives (with fixed dosages). Therefore, future study con-
sidering different types of asphalt binders and WMA additives
(varied dosage of WMA additives) is recommended to validate
the observations made in the present study. Further, to gain more
confidence on three binder test methods, future studies on labora-
tory/field performance of mixes (with or without WMA additives)
are recommended to examine correlation with asphalt binder
performance data.
Conflict of interest
None.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge Mr. Arindam Purohit, a
summer intern from IIT Roorkee, Mr. Prabin Kumar Ashish, and Mr.
Aditya Kumar Das, Ph.D. scholars at IIT Bombay for their help in
experimental work.
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