International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 246e251

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International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture

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Original Article

Effect of water jet peening using ultrasonic waves on pure Al and

AleCu alloy surfaces
Masataka Ijiri*, Daichi Shimonishi, Daisuke Nakagawa, Toshihiko Yoshimura
Sanyo-Onoda City University, 1-1-1 Daigaku-Dori, Sanyo- Onoda, Yamaguchi 756-0884, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Al has been widely used in many common products, such as household items, industrial products, and
Received 15 June 2018 accessories. To respond to the increasing demand for its use, the enhancement of various properties of Al
Received in revised form by adding different elements has been explored. As a result, numerous types of aluminum alloys have
15 August 2018
been developed, the addition of elements is a complex process, and the recycling of such alloys is
Accepted 17 August 2018
Available online 31 August 2018
difficult. In this study, the improvement of the residual stress, strength, and corrosion resistance of the
surface of pure Al specimens by the multifunction cavitation (MFC) processing was investigated.
Moreover, although the strength of AleCu alloys is greater than that of pure Al, the added Cu reduces the
Keywords:
Pure Al
corrosion resistance; thus, the improvement of the corrosion resistance of the surface of AleCu alloy
AleCu alloy specimens by MFC processing was also explored. In the MFC-processed pure Al, water jet peening always
Cavitation erosion suppressed the erosion generated in the center part of the specimen surface and improved the residual
Water jet peening stress applied to the specimen surface. Furthermore, the MFC processing of the AleCu alloy was
Multifunction cavitation confirmed to improve the surface residual stress, strength, and corrosion resistance. Dissolved oxygen
Corrosion resistance generated during processing is involved in the improvement of the corrosion resistance, and it is
considered that the corrosion resistance was improved by the formation of an oxide film as a result of
this dissolved oxygen bonding with Al on the surface.
© 2018 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction involves subjecting the material surface to high mechanical forces

Al is widely used in many applications, including household
items, industrial products, and accessories. To respond to the
increasing demand for its use, various desirable properties of Al
have been enhanced by alloying it with different elements. How-
ever, the addition of elements to create these alloys is a complicated
process, and these elements are difficult to remove during Al
recycling [1]. In addition, although the addition of Cu improves the
strength of AleCu alloys, it also reduces their corrosion resistance.
Therefore, research is being conducted on how to improve the
mechanical properties of the surface of pure Al without the need for
a complex alloying process.
One technique for improving the fatigue strength and stress
corrosion cracking resistance of metal parts is peening. Peening
* Corresponding author. Sanyo-Onoda City University, 1-1-1 Daigaku-Dori,
Sanyo-Onoda, Yamaguchi 756-0884, Japan.
E-mail address: ijiri@rs.tusy.ac.jp (M. Ijiri).
Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Board of International Journal of
Lightweight Materials and Manufacture.
to induce work hardening and plastic deformation of the surface
layer. One notable peening technique is water jet peening (WJP) [2]
[3], which involves the impingement of a high-pressure water jet
on the surface of the material. When WJP is conducted underwater,
cavitation occurs, resulting in the injection of a high-speed water
jet containing fine microscopic cavitation bubbles. These cavitation
bubbles repeatedly appear and disappear in turbulent flows in the
surrounding water and generate an extremely large impact force,
along with sound. The bubbles shrink rapidly as a result of the
surrounding pressure, generate large shock waves and microjets,
and then disappear. This impact pressure results in slight plastic
deformation of the material surface. When a minute portion of the
material surface is stretched and plastically deformed, it is elasti-
cally restrained by the surrounding material, so that compressive
residual stress is introduced at the surface region. Therefore, when
WJP is applied to a material surface under tensile residual stress, it
is possible to convert it to compressive stress.
In a previous report [4], erosion was shown to occur in the
center of a region of a pure Al surface subjected to fixed-point WJP.
However, it was found that this erosion was not caused by

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlmm.2018.08.004
2588-8404/© 2018 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 M. Ijiri et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 246e251
cavitation bubbles, but instead by erosive bubbles generated in this
region. It is possible to suppress the formation of such erosive
bubbles by attaching a swirling flow nozzle (SFN) to the outlet of
the water jet nozzle. This also increases the number and size of
cavitation bubbles.
In the present study, a multifunction cavitation (MFC) [5e8]
method using WJP with a SFN was combined with ultrasonication
in order to process pure Al and an AleCu alloy. In this approach,
WJP is used to generate high-pressure cavitation bubbles, and high-
temperature hot spots are produced on the material surface by
repeated isothermal expansion and adiabatic compression due to
the sound pressure produced by the ultrasonic irradiation
exceeding the breaking threshold before the cavitation bubbles
collapse. If a cavitation bubble begins to collapse when it is
approaching the specimen surface, the volume of the bubble de-
creases, and a microjet is formed that impacts the surface. The
impact force at the time of collapse is imparted to the surface by the
impingement of large (several hundred micrometers) high-
pressure (approximately 1000 MPa) and high-temperature
(several thousand degrees Celsius) cavitation bubbles generated
by WJP. MFC processing of low-alloy steel has been reported to
improve the residual stress, strength, and corrosion resistance of
the steel surface [9] [10]. Other improvements to the functional
properties of the surfaces of specimens with various compositions
have also been reported [5e7]. In the present study, the improve-
ment of the compressive residual stress, strength, and corrosion
resistance of the surface of pure Al by MFC processing was
investigated.
AleCu alloys have poor corrosion resistance, which poses
problems when they are used in corrosive environments; however,
they have extremely high strength and superior toughness in
comparison with other Al alloys. AleCu is known as an alloy with
excellent heat resistance because it experiences little strength
reduction even at high temperatures. Although the number of ap-
plications of AleCu to current products is small, it has been an
important alloy that was once commonly used for mechanical
components of aircraft and automobile parts. In previous studies
[3] [9] [10], SFN-MFC has been shown to improve the corrosion
resistance and strength of the surface of CreMo and NieCreMo
steels as well as the residual stress for these materials. In particular,
the corrosion resistance of the processed surface is improved
because the surface is heated during MFC processing and selective
oxidation occurs, causing Cr to diffuse to the surface. It is consid-
ered that the dissolved oxygen combines with Cr and forms an
oxide film on the surface, thereby improving the corrosion resis-
tance. In this study, the improvement of the residual stress,
corrosion resistance, and strength of the surface of AleCu alloy
specimens by MFC processing was also investigated.
2. Experimental methods
The materials used for the tested specimens were pure Al
(Nippon Light Metal Co., Ltd.) and an AleCu alloy (UACJ Corpora-
tion) subjected to T3 treatment, the chemical compositions of
which are given in Table 1. The Al was cut into square specimens
with dimensions of 60 mm
60 mm
10 mm. To remove the
surface roughness and improve workability, the pure Al and AleCu
Table 1
Chemical composition of the pure Al and AleCu alloy (mass%).
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Ti V Al
Pure Al 0.06 0.31 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01
AldCu 0.68 0.56 3.8 0.47 0.53 0.02 0.02 e Bal.
247
alloy surfaces were ground uniformly to average roughness's Ra of
0.193 and 0.551 mm, respectively.
Fig. 1 shows a diagram of the equipment used for MFC pro-
cessing. This equipment was similar to a conventional WJP appa-
ratus, in that a jet of room temperature tap water was discharged
from a nozzle at 35 MPa. The nozzle diameter was 0.8 mm, the
distance between the nozzle and the specimen was 65 mm, and the
reactor dimensions (JIS-SUS310S) were 41 cm
44 cm
60 cm. The
depth of the water in the reactor was about 37 cm, and the nozzle
was installed about 28 cm from the reactor bottom. The conduit of
the WJ nozzle in Fig. 1 was processed in a closed state. During the
MFC treatment, an ultrasonic transducer (WD-1200-28T, Honda
Electronics Co., Ltd.) was positioned orthogonal to the water jet
nozzle and ultrasonic waves irradiated the water jet. The output of
the ultrasonic transducer was 800 W and the nominal drive fre-
quency was 28 kHz. A swirl flow nozzle (SFN) [4] was used at the tip
of the WJ nozzle to increase the number of cavitation bubbles and
their size. In this paper, MFC and WJP using SFN are abbreviated as
SFNeMFC and SFNeWJP, respectively. Processing times were 2, 10,
20, and 30 min.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements (Smart Lab, Rigaku Co.,
Ltd.) were carried out with Cu Ka radiation of 45 kV, 200 mA and
10 /min in the 2q range of 5 e90 . Residual stress was determined
by an X-ray stress analyzer (MSF-3M, Rigaku Co., Ltd.) with the half-
width method using Cr Ka emission at 30 kV and 10 mA, after
measuring the strain for (211) lattice planes. A region of
1 cm
1 cm was measured. Tensile and compressive residual
stresses were taken to be positive and negative, respectively. The
corrosion resistance was evaluated by measuring the surface po-
tential using a Kelvin probe force microscopy (KFM) system
equipped with a multi-compatible miniature probe microscope
(AFM5200S, Hitachi High-Tech Sciences Co., Ltd.). The measure-
ment area was 100 mm
100 mm. The dissolved oxygen (DO)
content of the water in which cavitation occurred in an SUS310S
reactor for 30 min was obtained using a portable analyzer (OMe71,
Horiba, Ltd.).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Surface modification of pure Al by different processing methods
To improve the mechanical properties of the surface of pure Al,
the specimens were processed using WJP, SFN-WJP, and SFN-MFC
for 2 min. Photographs of the resultant processed surfaces are
shown in Fig. 2. The results for WJP and SFN-WJP have been re-
ported previously [4], and are shown for comparison purposes.
The surface of each specimen was painted with an oil-based ink
prior to processing to identify the peening position. The area of ink
removal (peening range) on the specimen surface had a diameter
of 56.0 mm for WJP, 43.7 mm for SFN-WJP and 45.1 mm for SFN-
MFC. SFN-WJP has a smaller peening range than WJP because of
the size of the SFN injection port. The peening range for SFN-MFC
was found to be slightly larger than that for SFN-WJP This is
considered to be a result of the cavitation bubbles generated by
the WJ nozzle growing by repeated isothermal expansion and
adiabatic compression due to the ultrasonic waves, thereby
increasing the processing region for SFNeMFC as a result of the
slight increase in the cross-sectional area of the bubble. In the
erosion trace region formed by erosive air bubbles, as indicated by
the dashed boxes labeled A in Fig. 2, the erosion marks were
smallest after SFN-MFC processing.
Fig. 3 shows SEM images of the regions labeled A in Fig. 2. After
WJP processing, dropped particles, voids, cracks, scrapes, and raised
Bal. regions were observed on the specimen surface (Fig. 3(a)), and
dropped particles, voids, and cracks were observed after SFN-WJP
248 M. Ijiri et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 246e251

Fig. 1. Equipment for surface processing by MFC.

Fig. 2. Change in surface morphology produced by (a) WJP, (b) SFN-WJP, and (c) SFN-MFC treatment for 2 min.

processing (Fig. 3(b)). However, after SFN-MFC processing, only
voids and dropped particles were observed (Fig. 3(c)). These results
indicate that SFN-MFC provided the highest degree of suppression
of erosive air bubbles. It is thought that the formation of erosion
marks was suppressed by the addition of an SFN and the resulting
increase in the number and size of cavitation bubbles. The reason
why almost no erosion traces were formed during SFN-MFC pro-
cessing is that the ultrasonication caused repeated isothermal
expansion and adiabatic compression of the erosive air bubbles.
When these bubbles collide with the surface, they have a broader
impact area than in the case of WJP, which is thought to suppress
the formation of erosion traces.
Table 2 gives the residual stress and Ra measurement results to
demonstrate the effect of each processing method. These mea-
surements were carried out in the area outlined by the dashed box
labeled B in Fig. 2 after each processing method. To ascertain the
effects of processing, tensile residual stress was imparted on the
surface of each specimen by grinding the specimen before pro-
cessing. The compressive residual stress is considered to increase
after processing as the result of a shakedown effect. Tensile residual
stress was applied to the abraded specimens in the direction par-
allel to grinding, and it was confirmed that compressive residual
stress was present in the direction perpendicular to grinding. The
residual stress in the grinding direction was measured after each of
the different processing methods. After the processing of each
specimen, the tensile residual stress was improved to compressive
residual stress, and SFN-MFC yielded the greatest improvement.
Compressive residual stress occurs when the surface is compressed
by the cavitation collapse pressure and deformation in the lateral
direction is elastically constrained by the surroundings. The Ra
measurement results revealed that the surface roughness after
SFN-MFC processing was small. The likely cause of the suppression
of the surface roughness was considered to be the exposure of the
surface to high temperatures. Regarding the temperature applied to
the surface, the temperature at which pearlite cementite is spher-
oidized has been reported to be approximately 727  C or more [3].
However, although the approximate surface temperature was
confirmed by the structural change of the material surface at the
 M. Ijiri et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 246e251 249

Fig. 4. Mass loss due to erosion plotted against processing time.

Fig. 4 shows the measurement results for the mass loss due to
erosion plotted against the processing time. These results indicate
that the amount of cavitation erosion generally does not increase
linearly with processing time but shows more complex changes
and undergoes latent, acceleration, stationary, and deceleration
periods [11]. If the amount of erosion is large, the risk of material
breakage is high. WJP showed the largest amount of erosion,
whereas erosion was comparatively suppressed in SFN-WJP and
SFN-MFC. This is considered to be due to the formation of cavitation
clouds and the increase in the number and size of cavitation bub-
bles, which is a feature of SFN.
From these results, it was clarified that the erosion of pure Al,
which is a problem in WJP processing, is suppressed by SFN-WJP
and SFN-MFC. Furthermore, in comparison with WJP, SFN-MFC
was shown to reduce the surface roughness and the residual
stress after processing.

3.2. Surface modification of AleCu alloy by different processing

methods

Fig. 5 shows photographs of the surfaces of AleCu alloy speci-

mens processed with WJP, SFN-WJP, and SFN-MFC for 2 min. The
specimen surface was painted with oil-based ink prior to process-
ing to identify the peening position. Observation of the region from
which the ink was removed after processing indicated the di-
ameters of the peening regions for WJP, SFN-WJP, and SFN-MFC
were 39.11, 38.62, and 38.90 mm, respectively. These diameters
are similar to those given in the previous section for pure Al. In
Fig. 3. SEM images of the specimen surface after (a) WJP, (b) SFN-WJP, and (c) addition, in comparison with pure Al, the AleCu alloy has high
SFN-MFC treatment for 2 min. Enlargement of the region labeled A in Fig. 2. strength, so little roughening by peening was observed. However,
in WJP, a non-negligible skin roughness was observed, unlike with
present stage, it is not possible to determine the accurate surface the other two processing methods.
temperature, because there are various disturbances to the tem- Table 3 gives the residual stress measurement results after each
perature in the cavitation bubbles; thus, this remains as a task for processing method. It was confirmed that tensile residual stress
future study. was present in the abraded material in the direction parallel or
perpendicular to the grinding. The residual stress after the different
Table 2 processing methods was measured in the direction along which the
Residual stress and surface roughness of pure Al after various treatments.
most tensile residual stress was applied. The tensile residual stress
Residual stress [MPa] Ra [mm] was improved to compressive residual stress by each processing
As-received after Parallel direction þ4.39 0.110 technique. This is because the Al-Cu alloy has higher strength than
grinding Vertical direction ー25.29 0.124 pure Al, which leads to higher residual stress. The compressive
WJP ー33.23 2.464 residual stress is generated by restraining the plastic deformation
SFN-WJP ー34.57 2.367
of the surface, which is compressed by the cavitation collapse
SFN-MFC ー39.84 1.974
pressure and pushed out in the lateral direction from the
250 M. Ijiri et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 246e251

Fig. 5. Change in surface morphology by (a) WJP, (b) SFN-WJP, and (c) SFN-MFC treatment for 2 min.

Table 3
Residual stress of AleCu alloy after various treatments. surface during corrosion under a liquid thin film. The present au-
Residual stress [MPa] thors [9] [10], also previously measured the surface of CreMo and
NieCreMo steels with KFM to evaluate their corrosion resistance.
As-received after grinding Parallel direction þ23.23
Vertical direction þ8.53 Because the measurement of the surface potential is greatly
WJP ー224.38 affected by the surface roughness, the specimen surface was mirror
SFN-WJP ー225.23 polished before processing. It is considered that the surface po-
SFN-MFC ー193.19 tential for the specimen after WJP processing was lower than that
for the mirror-polished specimen because of an increase in surface
Table 4
defects. Additionally, the surface potential for the specimen pro-
Surface potential and hardness of AleCu alloy after various treatments. cessed by SFN-WJP was even greater than that for the WJP spec-
imen, likely because SFN-WJP introduces fewer surface defects than
Hardness [HV] Surface potential [mV]
WJP as a result of the increase in the number and size of cavitation
Mirror-polished specimen 121 ± 2 721 ± 35 bubbles. The increase in surface potential in comparison with the
WJP 148 ± 3 703 ± 34
mirror-finished specimen is likely also affected by the rise in the
SFN-WJP 149 ± 4 958 ± 40
SFN-MFC 155 ± 7 1046 ± 33 temperature inside the cavitation bubbles. This rise in temperature
was a result of the impulsive sound during the SFN-WJP processing,
which changed the vibration state in the reactor and affected the
inside of the cavitation bubbles during processing. However, there
surroundings. It is considered that the surface hardens considerably remain many unclear points about this temperature rise. In MFC
as a result of this plastic deformation. processing, as the cavitation bubbles collapse, it is considered that
Table 4 shows the measurement results for the hardness and hot spots inside the bubbles give rise to a high temperature on the
surface potential of the specimen surface after each processing surface of the specimen, formation of an oxide film, and improve-
method was used. The surface hardness was significantly improved ment of the corrosion resistance, as in the case of low-alloy steel. It
by each type of processing. To investigate the structural change to is considered that an oxide film formed on the specimen surface
the processed surface, the specimen surfaces were measured by and improved the corrosion resistance.
XRD, but no difference in the diffraction peaks before and after To clarify the origin of the oxide film on the specimen surface
processing was observed. Because the width of the diffraction after MFC processing, the measurement results for the water
peaks was not changed, the cause of this hardness increase is not temperature in the tank during processing with each considered
fine refining of the crystal grains. It is possible that the hardness technique are shown in Fig. 6. In each processing method, the water
increased because the surface was elastically bound by the temperature in the tank increased over time. This occurred as a
compressive residual stress. result of the pressurization of the water by a high-pressure pump,
To observe the effect of the different types of processing on the as the kinetic energy of the water was converted to thermal energy.
corrosion resistance of the specimen surface, the specimen surface From the viewpoint of bubble energy, it is thought that both WJP
was measured with KFM. In an illustrative example of the appli- and MFC generate larger bubble collapse energies than ultra-
cation of KFM to the corrosion field, Schmutz et al. [12] used KFM to sonication, which also results in an increase in water temperature.
measure the distribution of inclusions and the potential difference The slightly higher temperature obtained during SFN-MFC in
between these inclusions and the base material, and examined the comparison with those during WJP and SFN-WJP processing is due
corrosion characteristics of the material. Because KFM can capture to the application of ultrasonic energy, which produces hot spots in
changes in shape and potential distribution without contacting the the bubbles generated by MFC. From the viewpoint of bubble en-
surface, it is a very suitable technique for studying atmospheric ergy, this result suggests the existence of hot spots in MFC bubbles.
corrosion. Stratmann et al. [13] focused on this point and measured In MFC processing, repeated isothermal expansion and adiabatic
the corrosion potential of iron under an alternately dry and wet compression occurs in the process of cavitation bubble growth.
environment by KFM. Yamashita et al. [14] measured the surface When bubbles collide with the specimen surface, some will be in a
potential of carbon steel under a liquid thin film by KFM, and re- state of isothermal expansion, which reduces the collisional energy.
ported the influence of the thickness of the aqueous solution on the Furthermore, since the bubble interiors are at a higher temperature
corrosion potential. Moreover, Masuda et al. [15] used KFM to than in the case of WJP, the surface roughness is expected to be
continuously observe the change in the potential distribution of the lower than with the other processing methods in order to reduce
 M. Ijiri et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 246e251
Fig. 6. Underwater temperature plotted against processing time.
Fig. 7. DO concentration plotted against processing time.
the number of internal defects. In the future, investigations should
be carried out into the dependence on the distance between the WJ
nozzle and the specimen surface, and also the depth distribution of
the residual stress in the specimen.
Fig. 7 shows the time dependence of the dissolved oxygen (DO)
concentration in the reactor for each processing method. The DO
concentration decreased over time for each processing technique.
In WJP and SFN-WJP, the pressure applied to the specimen surface
rises because of the generation of microjets in which part of the
bubble is deformed, or shock waves are caused by the bubble
rapidly growing again; this in turn causes the temperature of both
the water and the processing surface to increase. As a result, the DO
and Al form compounds, causing the DO concentration to decrease.
However, in WJP, because the shock waves produced by the
microjets are stronger than in SFN-WJP, the oxide film tends to peel
off, causing the corrosion resistance to decrease. During MFC, the
bubbles, which have a high internal temperature and pressure,
increase the specimen surface temperature to a greater extent than
during WJP because of the hot spots inside the bubbles. Thus, the
DO concentration is reduced to a greater degree as a passivation
layer is produced.
251
As described previously, in the MFC technique, large bubbles
with a high temperature (several thousand degrees Celsius) and
high pressure (approximately 1000 MPa) are generated by a WJ
nozzle when then irradiated with ultrasonic waves before colliding
with the specimen surface. Thus, this is an effective technique for
improving the residual stress, strength, and corrosion resistance of
the surface.
4. Conclusions
In pure Al processed by SFN-MFC, erosion at the center part of
the WJP-processed region was suppressed, and the surface residual
stress was improved. Additionally, after SFN-MFC processing, the
roughness of the surface was reduced, and processing for a long
time was confirmed to suppress the erosion of the surface. For an
AleCu alloy, improvements in residual stress, strength, and corro-
sion resistance were also obtained. DO generated during processing
is involved in the improvement of corrosion resistance, and the
formation of an oxide film resulting from the bonding of DO and Al
is also considered to be a factor.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Innovative Science & Tech-
nology Initiative for Security Program of the Acquisition, Technol-
ogy & Logistics Agency (ATLA) of Japan. This research was
supported in part by the Light Metal Educational Foundation, Inc.
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