Scientific African 12 (2021) e00812

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Scientific African
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sciaf

Evaluation of the properties of Al-6061 alloy reinforced with

particulate waste glass ✩
Adeolu Adesoji Adediran a,c,∗, Abayomi Adewale Akinwande b,
Oluwatosin Abiodun Balogun b, Olanrewaju Seun Adesina a,c, Adeniyi Olayanju c,
Tajudeen Mojisola d
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Landmark University, Omu Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria
b
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
c
Landmark University SDG 17 (Partnership for the Goals Research Group), Landmark University, Omu Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria
d
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Air Force Institute of Technology, Kaduna, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, an investigation was carried out on the effect of waste glass particles (WGP)
Received 16 February 2021 (sieved to -23 μm) with varying proportions of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 wt.% on the properties of
Revised 24 May 2021
Al-6061 alloy. The produced composite samples were subjected to various tests; density,
Accepted 4 June 2021
porosity, tensile, impact, compression, and wear. The results showed that increasing the
addition of waste glass led to a progressive reduction in density, elongation, strain, and
Editor: DR B Gyampoh impact energy as WGP increased from 0 to 10 wt.%. The Brinell hardness was observed to
increase progressively from 0 to 10 wt.% of WGP. There was an enhancement of yield and
Keywords:
ultimate tensile strength, peaking on an incorporation rate of 6 wt.% WGP after which the
WGP/Al-6061
strength deteriorated. As in the case of yield and ultimate compressive strength, the max-
Glass particulate
Property evaluation imum value was realized at 8 wt.% WGP addition while 10 wt.% led to a fall in strength.
Reinforcement Analysis of wear performance revealed a lower wear rate at the lowest variables of applied
Casting load, sliding velocity, and distance. It was further observed that increasing the WGP con-
tent has resulted in a better reduction of wear. Therefore, waste glass particle infusion of
Al-6061 is good for enhancing the properties of the alloy for engineering applications.
© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of
Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Introduction

Aluminium (Al) and its alloys have varied engineering applications. Al is a silvery-white lightweight metal (density
2.7 g/cm3 ), soft and malleable with excellent thermal and electrical conductivity and excellent corrosion resistance. It is
mostly used in the manufacturing of electrical transmission line in aircraft and automobile parts. Aluminium alloys are
also used in kitchen utensils, window frames, and other related applications. For better property enhancement, demand for

✩
Editor: DR B Gyampoh.
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: adediran.adeolu@lmu.edu.ng (A.A. Adediran).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2021.e00812
2468-2276/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
A.A. Adediran, A.A. Akinwande, O.A. Balogun et al. Scientific African 12 (2021) e00812

aluminium reinforcement with varieties of nano or microparticles has placed additional responsibilities on the materials en-
gineers to produce stronger aluminium alloys with better performance for different forms of application. This agreed with
the rapid development in modern industries where traditional aluminium is no longer able to meet the new concept of
‘lightweight high strength materials. Hence, this new concept of ‘lightweight high strength’ is now being explored to pro-
duce aluminium matrix composites reinforced with series of nano or microparticles to achieve remarkable properties such
as high mechanical and corrosion-resistant properties [1,2]. Particulates utilized may include graphite [3], Fe2 O3 [4], SiO2
[5], which have been known to produce enhanced properties in the alloy. Utilization of ZrB2 particulates in the Al-6111 ma-
trix showed a rise in tensile strength up to 30 wt.% [6] even as ZrO3 showcased an uptrend in tensile strength up to 5 wt.%
inclusion [7]. SiC employed in reinforcing Al 6061 in [8] revealed an enhancement of yield and ultimate tensile strength
with 0 to 4 wt.% inclusion, while elongation was observed to reduce progressively as the content increased from 0 to 4%.
It was observed that SiC is a good strengthener in Al alloy. Other additives employed in previous studies are TiC [9], WC
[10], Al2 O3 [11], Si3 N4 [12], and AlN [13], and the results showed that the addition of these reinforcements enhanced the
performance of Al and Aluminium alloys. The application of waste in reinforcing and strengthening Al alloys has proved
successful [14]. The use of wastes like waste glass [15,16], rice husk ash [17], and fly ash [18] has been researched. In [15],
−90 μm was utilized to enhance the properties of scrap aluminium and the result showed that ultimate tensile strength,
ultimate compressive strength were enhanced with increasing portion of the additive. It was observed that elongation and
impact strength were reduced, however, experimental analysis on tribological properties was not evaluated. This study in-
volve the use of waste glass with particle size of −23 μm. It is envisaged that fine particulate reinforcement of additive will
achieve better performance than coarse particulate. Al 6061 is a commom grade of Aluminiun alloy used in engineering
applications, hence, improvement on the properties will further improve its performance in service as well as its life span.
This study focuses on the evaluation of the properties of an aluminium alloy doped with waste glass sieved to −23 μm,
thereby increasing the knowledge on the influence of waste materials on the properties of Al-6061 alloy and also observing
properties of waste glass/Al-6061 composite.

Material procurement and processing

Aluminium alloy Al-6061 was utilized with waste glass particulates as reinforcement. Waste glass dishes, plates, and cups
were collected from a recycling shop and washed thoroughly under running water to remove all forms of macro impurities,
after which they were dried in the open air for 2 days. Following this was crushing and grinding of the waste glass into
smaller particles before further process of milling into a powdery form using a ball mill. The process was succeeded by
sieving using a laboratory sieve shaker whose upper aperture was 2.38 mm. Fine glass powder sieved to 23 μm was collected
and was oven-dried at 120 0 C for 24 h to remove volatile content.
The Al-6061 ingot was procured from a commercial Aluminium smelting company, and the composite was produced via
the mechanical stir casting method. The ingot was put in a graphite crucible and heated to 770 0 C until all was melted [14].
Preheated fine glass (initially preheated to 600 0 C for 2 h) was introduced into the melt in a weight proportion of 2, 4, 6,
8, and 10 wt.% followed by continuous stirring before being poured into the mould and allowed to cool steadily to room
temperature.

Test procedure

Three samples representing each mix were examined for each test and the average result was computed for analysis.

Density
In line with ASTM 6683-01 [19], the specimen was weighed in the air as M1 and later suspended in distilled water. Mass,
when suspended in distilled water, was labelled M2 . With the use of Eq. (1), the density was evaluated.
M1
Density (d ) = (1)
M1− M2

Porosity
Porosity was probed by initially obtaining the theoretical density (ƌt ) applying Eq. (2).

Theoretical density (dt ) = dm Vm + dr Vr (2)

ƌm is the density of matrix,
Vm is the volume fraction of matrix,
ƌr is the density of reinforcement and
Vr is the volume fraction of reinforcement
Porosity is therefore evaluated using Eq. (3).
dt − dm
Porosity (% ) = (3)
dm

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A.A. Adediran, A.A. Akinwande, O.A. Balogun et al. Scientific African 12 (2021) e00812

Table 1
showing the chemical composition of Al-6061 and waste glass.

Al-6061 elemental composition Waste glass

Element Amount (%) Chemical compound Amount (%)

Al 96.14 SiO2 72.14

Mg 0.85 Al2 O3 12.11
Si 0.48 Fe2 O3 2.45
Fe 0.32 MgO 3.12
Cu 0.01 SO3 1.21
Cr 0.06 K2 O 0.05
Zn 0.03 TiO2 0.05
Ti 0.15 P2 O5 0.15
Mo 0.10 Others 6.56
Others 1.86 LOI 2.11

Tensile properties
Samples machined to dimensions 30 mm in length and 5 mm in diameter were subjected to a tensile test using a
universal testing machine (Instron 3369 Series) at a strain rate of 10−4 /s and a crosshead speed of 2.5 mm/min’ while
applying a load of 10 0 0 kg as per ASTM E8/E8M-21 [20]. Tensile properties evaluated are yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength, elongation, and tensile strain at failure.

Hardness
In line with ASTM E10-17 [21], already prepared samples with smooth surfaces were subjected to indentation with 125 kg
load application for 10 s. Brinell hardness scale was used for measurement.

Impact test
Charpy impact test was carried out as per IS 1757 [22] specification with a specimen 10 x 10 mm2 dimension notched
at 600 . The pendulum hammer was 30 kg in mass and the results obtained were recorded for further analysis.

Wear test
The abrasion test was carried out as stated in ASTM G0174-04 [23] using an abrasion machine with variables of applied
loads of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 N, the sliding velocity of 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 m/s, and sliding distance of 10 0, 20 0, 30 0,
40 0, and 50 0 m. Wear volume was measured at each instance and wear rate evaluated employing Eq. (4) according to [24].

V
Wear rate = (4)
Lxd
where, V is the wear volume
L is the applied load
D is the sliding distance.

Compressive strength
Variation in compressive strength with particulate inclusion in the composite was assessed by subjecting each composite
specimen to compressive loading using the universal testing machine (Instron 3369 Series) as stipulated in ASTM E09-9
[25] procedures. Values obtained were recorded and analysed. The Loads, yield and maximum parameters as monitored
from the computer screen during the test were obtained and recorded. Compressive strengths were probed with the use of
Eqs. (5) and (6), respectively.
Load at yield
Compressive yield strength = (5)
Cross sectional area

Maximum load
Ultimate Compressive strength = (6)
Cross sectional area

Microstructural analysis
The synthesized composites were subjected to microstructural analysis to evaluate the distribution of waste glass partic-
ulate in the composites. This was aimed to understand the fair distribution of the WGP in the Al-6061 matrix.

Results and discussion

The representative elemental compositions in weight percentage (wt.%) for the Al-6061 and waste glass are as presented
in Table 1.

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A.A. Adediran, A.A. Akinwande, O.A. Balogun et al. Scientific African 12 (2021) e00812

Porosity Density
2.5 2.74
2.72
2
2.7

Porosity (%)
1.5 2.68

Density
2.66
1 2.64
2.62
0.5
2.6
0 2.58
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Waste glass particles proportion (%)
Fig. 1. Effect of waste glass on porosity and density of aluminium composite developed.

Property evaluation of WGP/Al-6061 composites

The variation in porosity and density of the aluminium composites developed are as presented in Fig. 1.
As highlighted in Fig. 1, the porosity increased with a proportional rise in the WG particles. The optimum porosity
obtained in the current study is 2.2%, a value lower than 4% reported in [26]; further confirming the reliability of the stir
casting method. Similarly, the porosity level is lesser than the value of 2.52% reported by [27] which is as a result of bamboo
leaf ash used as compared with WG used in this study. Increased porosity can be linked to entrapped gas and bubbles during
the production process. Apart from this, shrinkage during solidification and gas evolution can also be responsible [8,28] for
increase in porosity. Density, on the other hand, was noticed to reduce gradually with a rise in porosity. The reduction in
density, in this case, was linked to the gradual increase in porosity. The lowest density was reported at 10 wt.% WG which
is a 3.8% reduction relative to control (0 wt.% WG). The reduction is marginal (lower than 5%). The investigation carried out
by [29] in which Al-LM-6 was reinforced with WG showed a depreciation in density with the lowest density recorded at
10 wt.% WG inclusion; the value of which was 2.63 g/cm3 compared to 2.68 g/cm3 recorded at 0 wt.% WG. The decrease
was 1.9% (less than 5%); a marginal reduction. A similar marginal reduction was obtained by [30] involving the infix of
WG in Al-536. However, a contrary submission occurred in Al-LM6 in [29] of which the density trended upward with the
inclusion of WG, effectuating to 2.72 (at 10 wt.%) from 2.68 (at 0 wt.%), a marginal difference of 1.5%. The inference made
is the incorporation of waste glass in aluminium alloy presents a marginal difference in density when compared with the
control (0 wt.% WG). Hence, WG could be a good reinforcement for the lightweight application of aluminium alloy.
Yield strength and ultimate strength were observed to appreciate with a corresponding increase in WG from 2 to 6 wt.%.
This improvement is linked to increasing dislocation density owing to the adhesion of WG to the matrix. It was observed
that at 2, 4, and 6 wt.%, WG yielded 9.1, 12.2 and 14.9% yield strength and 27.1, 41.7 and 53.5% ultimate tensile strength,
respectively. These particles serve as agents impeding dislocation mobility within the matrix. By different mechanisms dis-
location kinks and jogs, or by Orowan mechanism, the dislocation increases around particles provoking higher strength
performance up to 6 wt.% WG. With a rise in WG at 8 and 10 wt.%, there was a 3.3 and 6.3% reduction in strength rel-
ative to value attained when 6 wt.% WG was added for yield strength. In the case of ultimate tensile, the reduction was
5.8 and 11.3% respectively. Even at that, 8 and 10 wt.% WG still resulted in 11.1 and 7.7% improvement in yield tensile and
44.4 and 36.1% improvement in ultimate tensile strength relative to control. The reduction may be attributed to dislocation
multiplication effectuating the clustering of dislocations impeding further deformation. The consequence of this impact brit-
tleness, eventually amounting to failure. Waste glass inclusion in [29] resulted in an increase in strength from 0 to 7.5 wt.%
before eventual depreciation at increasing WG content. As observed, WG had a higher impact in enhancing ultimate tensile
strength than yield strength. The variation in yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of waste glass particles proportion
are as presented in Fig. 2.
A similar report was noticed in [16] where the yield strength peaked at 7.5 wt.% proportion before an eventual decline.
There is a syntax between these observations and the findings of those in [28]. Ceramic particulates amounted to an en-
hancement of yield strength with an increasing proportion of the additive [7]. In their work, Prasad et al. [28] showed that
there was an increment in UTS with rising steel particles introduced in Al-Si-Mg alloy. Similar to that was the uptrend in
tensile and UTS of Al-6063 with the incorporation of 0 – 18% alumina (Al2 O3 ). Alaneme et al. [26] attributed this increase
to dislocation mobility. There was an uptrend in UTS with the inclusion of fly ash (0–12 wt.%) [18,31] and rice husk ash
[28]. Particulate addition to metal matrix has been proved to have a diminishing effect on elongation [27,32]. Fig. 2 shows
the relationship between elongation and WGP proportion. It was observed that WGP assimilation amounted to a decrease
in elongation as confirmed in [33]. Sharma et al. [12] attributed this to the brittle nature of the particulates, impeding the
flowability of the material. Similar report has been documented by [34]. The elongation decreased progressively from 14% to

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Yield tensile strength Ultimate tensile strength

96 230

Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)

Yield tensile strength (MPa)
94 210
92 190
170
90
150
88
130
86
110
84 90
82 70
80 50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Waste glass particles proportion (%)
Fig. 2. Effect of waste glass on the yield and ultimate tensile strength of aluminium composite developed.

Hardness Impact energy

124 16.05
Brinell Hardness (HBR)

14.05
104

Impact Energy (J)

12.05
84
10.05
64 8.05
6.05
44
4.05
24
2.05
4 0.05
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Waste glass particles proportion (%)
Fig. 3. Effect of waste glass on Brinell hardness and impact strength composite developed.

8% at 0 to 10 wt.% WGP content. This trend is in tandem with [15] in which an infix of WGP in Aluminium alloy, resulting in
depreciation of elongation almost 12% down to 6% depicting that the additive can evoke up to a 50% decrease in elongation.
The variation in elongation and strain of the composite developed is as presented in Figure Supplementary material1
(Figure SM1).
Likewise, the strain (Figure SM1) is proportional to elongation, trending downwards with increased assimilation in WG.
The reports of [31] revealed a downward trend in strain on infix of 4 – 8 wt.% SiC (silicon carbide), affirming the result
of this study in that ceramic particles result in depreciation in the ductility of base metal. Waste glass particles contain
a high amount of ceramic silica, and brittle alumina, hence, its increasing presence in Al-6061 provokes the lowering of
strain. Further analysis on elongation depicts that 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 wt.% WG led to 14.3, 21.4, 35.7, 35.7 and 42.9% reduction.
Equally, evaluation of strain showed that 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 wt.% WG resulted in 13.6, 18.2, 36.4, 50.0 and 59.1 depreciation
in strain. Fig. 3 shows the effect of waste glass on Brinell hardness and impact strength of the composite developed.
Similar to the findings reported by [15,17,35], the utilization of recycled waste; fly ash, rice husk ash, and WG has shown
an increase in hardness value with a proportional rise in the additives. Aluminium alloy has also been exhibited to observe
an enhancement in hardness with an increment in the proportional infusion of ceramic particulates. For example, [35] re-
vealed enhancement of hardness with 0 to 15 wt.% SiC content. Likewise, [36] presented a rise in hardness as TiB2 (titanium
diboride) proportion increased in Al-7075. Another validation to the experience is reported in [4]. Ceramic particles are char-
acterized with higher hardness compared to Al. However, when they are used as reinforcement with soft aluminium alloy,
the result is in increased hardness of the alloy. Author [26], reported that when WG content of 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 wt.% were
added to Al alloy LM 6, a rise in hardness was noted. In another findings by [36], the hardness in A-356 alloy was enhanced
by 10, 20, and 30 wt.% WG. These results confirmed the observations made in this study which further corroborate the
report from [29]. In the present investigation, inclusion of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 wt.% WG showed a progressive rise of 14.3, 21.4,
35.7, 35.7, 42.9% in Brinell hardness serially.
The impact strength was observed to depreciate with a proportional increase in WG content, this trend was similar to
the findings reported by [4]. A thermal mismatch between the alloy matrix and WG particles amounting to the inducement
of residual stress within the matrix is evident in the results obtained. With further assimilation of WGP, the residual stress

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Yield compressive strength Ultimate compressive strength

184 250.05

Ultimate compressive strength

Yield compressive strength
164
144 200.05
124
150.05
(MPa)

(MPa)
104
84
100.05
64
44 50.05
24
4 0.05
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Waste glass particles proportion (%)
Fig. 4. Effect of waste glass on yield compressive and ultimate compressive strengths of aluminium composite developed.

increases, ultimately lowering the impact strength. Similarly, the results obtained from the investigation by [34] support the
findings reported in this study. The utilization of WG in reinforcing aluminium alloy in [15] also corroborate the trend of
results in this study with impact energy depreciating as WG content increases. In contrast to Brinell hardness, 2, 4, 6, 8, and
10 wt.% WG revealed progressive decrease of 15.4, 20.3, 35.0, 34.3, 44.8% in impact strength respectively. The effect of waste
glass on yield compressive and ultimate compressive strengths of aluminium composite developed are as shown in Fig. 4.
Previously, recycled waste like rice hush ash and fly ash incorporated into aluminium alloy showcased an increase in
compressive strength [17]. Similarly, the mix of WG in Al alloy [16] presented an uptrend in compressive strength from 0
to 7.5 wt.%, a trend replicated in this study depicting a record of amplification in yield and ultimate compressive strength.
Other ceramic particulates diffused into Al alloy led to an increment in the compressive strength as reported by [35]. Waste
glass is finely dispersed within the matrix leading to enhanced stress distribution under compressive loading. Relative to
control mix, infusion of 2, 4, 6, 8 amounted to 8.3, 14.0, 19.0 and 31.4% appreciation in yield compressive strength and 9.2,
13.6, 22.3 and 16.3% appreciation in ultimate compressive strength respectively. Authors [4] linked the rise in strength to a
reduction in interparticle distance. B4C (boron carbide) employed in reinforcing Al-7075 amounted to a rise in compressive
strength from 5 to 20 wt.% B4C even as the particles served as crack arresters [33]. Beyond 8 wt.% proportion, the yield
and ultimate compressive strength reduces by 17.0 and 4.9, respectively, owing to coagulation of particles inducing residual
stress within the matrix.

Tribological performance

Effect of different experimental variables on tribological properties (wear rate)

The effect of applied load, sliding speed, and sliding distance was evaluated in Figures SM2 (a), (b), and (c). Figure SM2
revealed a rise in wear rate with increasing load application due to the high temperature generated, indicating that the
applied load enhanced the wear rate of the matrix. The rate of wear declined at increasing WG content which is based
on the work hardening experienced by the specimen at higher load. Findings made by [4] presented the same trend for
Al-6061. Figure SM2 showed a rise in wear rate with sliding speed, while an increase in particle proportion amounted to
a reduction in wear rate. The rising addition of WG amounted to increasing hardness and lessened softness. Based on the
presence of the particulates, the surface of the soft matrix is in contact with an abrasive surface, hence reducing the wear
volume loss as indicated in [11].
Sliding distance is another experimental factor affecting the wear rate. It has been reported in previous studies by [11],
that the wear rate increased with higher sliding distance and reduced as WGP increased. Waste glass can be seen to enhance
hardness indicating inducing resistance to wear. It can therefore be concluded that the wear resistance was enhanced by
waste glass particles incorporation.

Relationship between wear rate, applied load, and waste glass particle proportion
The relationship between the wear rate, applied load, and waste glass particle proportion are as presented in Figs. SM3–
SM5, respectively.
Figs. SM3 and SM4 show the outcome of wear rate as determined by the combined variation in sliding velocity and waste
glass particles. The wear rate increased with a rise in applied force but reduced with an increase in waste glass content.
Similarly, Figure SM5 depicts the increasing wear rate along sliding velocity and sliding distance with contracting behaviour
with an increasing proportion of waste glass in that the wear rate depreciated with increasing waste glass powder content.

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A.A. Adediran, A.A. Akinwande, O.A. Balogun et al. Scientific African 12 (2021) e00812

Fig. 5. SEM micrographs of WGP/Al-6061 composites with different weight percentage of reinforcing particles. (a) 6 wt.%, (b) 8 wt.%, (c) 10 wt.%.

Microstructure of the WGP/Al-6061 composite

The synthesized composites were subjected to microstructural analysis to evaluate the distribution of the waste glass
particles in the composites. It was observed from the micrographs, Fig. 5 that a fair distribution of WGP exists in the com-
posites. The images of samples reinforced with different weight percentages of WGP are shown in Fig. 5(a–c). The changes
in microstructure can be seen from Fig. 5(a) through (c). With the increase in the percentage weight of waste glass particles,
the number of particle clusters embedded in the matrix alloy was also growing at the same pace. The distribution status of
the WGP in Al-6061 as shown in Fig. 5(a) was not quite good from the beginning because some particles clustered when the
content of the WGP was below 6 wt.%, thereby providing an opportunity for open porosity. However, increasing the content
of the WGP to about 8 wt.% in Fig. 5(b), evenly dispersed waste glass particles (WGP) were observed and the observed open
porosity in Fig. 5(a) has drastically reduced. This improvement was attributed to the sufficiency and even distribution of the
reinforcement (WGP) at 8 wt.% addition.
However, with an increment in the content of the reinforcement (WGP) to about 10 wt.% Fig. 5(c), waste glass particles
begin to agglomerate again, thereby forming clusters of WGP in the Al-6061 matrix with larger sizes, although without the
presence of the observed open porosity in Fig. 5(b). The clustering of these WGP particles without fair distribution in the
Al-6061 matrix was observed to have responsible for the drop in the mechanical properties of this WGP/Al-6061 composite
as detailed in Figs. 1, 2, SM1, and 3 respectively.

Conclusions

Investigations were carried out to evaluate the effects of waste glass particulate on the WGP/Al-6061 composite. The
breakthrough recorded in the research is in the actualization of the optimum amount of reinforcement (WGP) required to
synthesize Al-6061 composites. Based on the conducted studies, the following conclusions are drawn:

• the adopted stir casting technique in fabricating the WGP/Al-6061 composites showed uniform dispersion of waste glass
particulate at 8 wt.%.

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• an increase of WGP increased the density, hardness, and tensile strength of the composite while decreasing the wear and
porosity.
• microstructural analysis revealed that the waste glass particulates uniformly dispersed at the optimum addition of 8 wt.%
of WGP.

Authors’ statement

All authors have seen this final version of the manuscript and approved it for submission. The article is original and
hasn’t received prior publication and also not currently under consideration for publication elsewhere.

Funding

This work receives no direct funding.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Adeolu Adesoji Adediran: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
editing. Abayomi Adewale Akinwande: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing –
review & editing. Oluwatosin Abiodun Balogun: Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writ-
ing – review & editing. Olanrewaju Seun Adesina: Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing. Adeniyi Olayanju: Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing
– review & editing. Tajudeen Mojisola: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing –
review & editing.

Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledged Landmark University Centre for Research and Development (LUCRID) through Landmark Uni-
versity SDG 17 (Partnership for the Goals Research Group), for their support.

Supplementary materials

Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.sciaf.2021.e00812.

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