Course Title: Bio 2

Course Description: General Biology 2

2nd Quarter Modular Learning Guide # 1

Expected Time Completion: 20 hours

Topics: ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY (PART 3); GENETICS (Part 1)

A. Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the learner is expected to:

Organismal Biology (Part 3)

1. Describe the role of the different hormones in the body
2. Compare innate and adaptive immune responses
3. Describe how the innate immune response helps protect a person from illness
4. Define the term “antibody”
5. Name the different kinds of antibodies produced by humans and
6. Explain the function of each type of antibody

Genetics (Part 1)
1. Describe the features of Mendelian principles to identify the basics of inheritance

B. Learning Contents

LESSON 1: IMMUNE SYSTEM

(Image source: https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/immunity-comic-strip-11017502

Questions to Ponder…
a. How does the body protect itself from disease causing organisms?
b. What happens to you when you get sick?
c. What do you think are the causes of these diseases: common colds, diarrhea,
Influenza
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*common colds –caused by rhinoviruses
diarrhea – caused by Various bacterial toxins
influenza – caused by Influenza virus

WHAT IS AN IMMUNE SYSTEM?

-It is the body’s defense against disease causing organisms, malfunctioning cells, and foreign
particles.
-group of cells, molecules, and organs that act together to defend the body against foreign
invaders that may cause disease, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi
*The health of the body is dependent on the immune system’s ability to recognize and then
repel or destroy these invaders.

Most animals have systems that resist disease. The disease resistance provided by these
systems is called immunity.

Two types of Immunity:

-innate
-adaptive

A. Innate/nonspecific immunity
-the body’s first, generalized line of defense against all invaders
-furnished by barriers such as skin, tears, mucus, and saliva, as well as by the rapid inflammation
of tissues that takes place shortly after injury or infection (fast-acting)
* Internal defenses of the innate immune response consist of phagocytic cells, natural killer
cells, antimicrobial proteins (interferons, complement system) and the inflammatory response
(that involves histamines, mast cells).
*These innate immune mechanisms hinder the entrance and spread of disease but can rarely
prevent disease completely.

The First Line of Defense

1. Skin
- The dead, outer layer of skin, known as the __________, forms a shield against invaders
and secretes chemicals that kill potential invaders
-You shed between 40 – 50 thousand skin cells every day!
- Dead skin cells constantly slough off, making it hard for invading bacteria to colonize.
Sweat and oils contain anti-microbial chemicals, including some antibiotics.

2. Mucus and cilia

- As you breathe in, foreign particles and bacteria bump into mucus throughout your
respiratory system and become stuck.
-Hair-like structures called cilia sweep this mucus into the throat for coughing or
swallowing.
- Mucus contains lysozymes, enzymes that destroy bacterial cell walls.
-The normal flow of mucus washes bacteria and viruses off of mucus membranes.
-_______ in the respiratory tract move mucus out of the lungs to keep bacteria and
viruses out.

3. Saliva
- Saliva contains many chemicals that break down bacteria. However, thousands of
different types of bacteria can survive these chemicals.

4. Stomach acid
- Swallowed bacteria are broken down by incredibly strong acids in the stomach that
break down your food
- The stomach must produce a coating of special mucus or this acid would eat
through the stomach!

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Role of Phagocytes
- Phagocytes are several types of white blood cells (including macrophages and neutrophils)
that seek and destroy invaders. Some also destroy damaged body cells.
Phagocytes are attracted by an inflammatory response of damaged cells.

* If invaders actually get within the body, then your white blood cells (WBCs) begin their attack.
*WBCs normally circulate throughout the blood, but will enter the body’s tissues if invaders are
detected.
* These white blood cells are responsible for eating foreign particles by engulfing them.
*Once engulfed, the phagocyte breaks the foreign particles apart in organelles called
lysosomes.

How about for cells infected with virus?

*Viruses enter body cells, hijack their organelles, and turn the cell into a virus making-factory.
The cell will eventually burst, releasing thousands of viruses to infect new cells.
* Virus-infected body cells release interferon when an invasion occurs.
Interferon  chemical that interferes with the ability of viruses to attack other body cells
a protein produced by cells in response to virus infection that inhibits viral
replication

Role of T-cells
T-cells or T lymphocytes recognize infected human cells and cancer cells. T-cells will attack
these infected cells, quickly kill them, and then continue to search for more cells to kill.

T-cells are natural killer cells of the immune system.

-____________ directly attack foreign substances in the body.
Diseases that damage the ability of T cells to function threaten the body's ability to defend
itself against infection.

THE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE

*Injured body cells release chemicals called histamines, which begin inflammatory response
-Capillaries dilate
-Pyrogens released, reach hypothalamus, and temperature rises
-Pain receptors activate
-WBCs flock to infected area like sharks to blood

Role of inflammation
 Inflammation is signaled by mast cells, which release histamine.
 Histamine causes fluids to collect around an injury to dilute toxins. This causes swelling.
 The temperature of the tissues may rise, which can kill temperature-sensitive microbes.

Role of fever
 Fever is a defense mechanism that can destroy many types of microbes.
 Fever also helps fight viral infections by increasing interferon production.
 While high fevers can be dangerous, some doctors recommend letting low fevers run
their course without taking aspirin or ibuprofen.

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 Non-specific Immunity

If an invader gets past this first line of defense, the cells, molecules, and organs of the
immune system develop specifically tailored defenses against the invader. The immune system
can call upon these defenses whenever this particular invader attacks again in the future.

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Things to Remember about innate immunity:
1. The innate immune response is always the first response to an infection.
2. The innate immune response acts fast.
3. Inflammation is characterized by fever, redness, swelling, pain, and loss of function in the
infected area.
4. Inflammation can help kill the pathogen (fever produces heat that may kill the bacteria/
viruses or make them stop replicating for example).

B. Adaptive or specific immunity

- involves the recognition of traits specific to particular pathogens using a vast array
of receptors

Four distinguishing properties:

- responds only after the invader is present
- it is specific, tailoring each response to act only on a specific type of invader
- it displays memory, responding better after the first exposure to an invader, even if
the second exposure is years later
- it does not usually attack normal body components, only those substances it
recognizes as nonself

 Adaptive immune responses are actually reactions of the immune system to structures
on the surface of the invading organism called antigens.

Two types of adaptive immune responses:

1. The Humoral response
 Involves the production and secretion of antibodies or immunoglobulins against
specific antigens (any foreign body/structure- pollen, bacteria, virus, dust).
Antibodies are produced by cells that secrete them in the bloodstream or display
them in the surface of some cells, ready to face and combat any antigen.
 proteins called ____________, which can stick to and destroy antigens, appear in
the blood
 Humoral immune responses resist invaders that act outside of cells, such as
bacteria and toxins (poisonous substances produced by living organisms).
 Humoral immune responses can also prevent viruses from entering cells.
 The humoral immune response involves a complex series of events after antigens
enter the body.
- First, macrophages take up some of the antigen and attach it to class II MHC
molecules, which then present the antigen to T helper cells.
- The T helper cells bind the presented antigen, which stimulates the T helper cells
to divide and secrete stimulatory molecules called interleukins.
-The interleukins in turn activate any B lymphocytes that have also bound the
antigen. The activated B cells then divide and secrete antibodies. Finally, the
secreted antibodies bind the antigen and help destroy it.

2. Cell mediated response

 occurs when cytotoxic cells defend the body against infection. The development
of B and T cells, memory cells and plasma cells are important aspects of cell
mediated immune mechanism.
 During cell-mediated immune responses, cells that can destroy other cells
become active. Their destructive activity is limited to cells that are either infected
with, or producing, a specific antigen. Cell-mediated immune responses resist
invaders that reproduce within the body cells, such as viruses. Cell-mediated
responses may also destroy cells making mutated (changed) forms of normal
molecules, as in some cancers.
 The cell-mediated immune response involves a complex series of events after
antigens enter the body.

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 -Helper T cells are required, so some of the antigen must be taken up by
macrophages and presented to helper T cells. The helper T cells bind the
presented antigen and thereby become activated to divide and secrete
interleukins. The interleukins in turn activate any killer T cells that have already
bound antigen attached to class I MHC molecules on infected cells. The
activated killer T cells can then kill any cells displaying antigen attached to class I
MHC molecules, effectively eliminating any cells infected with the antigen.

Helper T-cells
- Helper T-cells have receptors for recognizing antigens. If they are presented with
an antigen, they release cytokines to stimulate B-cell division.
The helper T-cell is the key cell to signal an immune response. If helper T-cells are
disabled, as in people with AIDS, the immune system will not respond.

B-cells
- B-cells in general produce antibodies. Those antibodies that bind with the
invader’s antigen are stimulated to reproduce rapidly.
-B-cells differentiate into either plasma cells or memory B-cells. Plasma cells rapidly
produce antibodies. Memory cells retain the “memory” of the invader and remain
ready to divide rapidly if an invasion occurs again.

Role of Antibodies:
-Antibodies released into the blood stream will bind to the antigens that they are
specific for.
-Antibodies may disable some microbes, or cause them to stick together
(agglutinate). They “tag” microbes so that the microbes are quickly recognized
by various white blood cells.

“Killer” T cells
- While B-cells divide and differentiate, so do T-cells.
-Some T-cells become cytotoxic, or “killer” T-cells. These T-cells seek out and
destroy any antigens in the system, and destroy microbes “tagged” by
antibodies.
-Some cytotoxic T-cells can recognize and destroy cancer cells.

* When the invader is destroyed, the helper T-cell calls a halt to the immune response.
*Memory T-cells are formed, which can quickly divide and produce cytotoxic T-cells to quickly
fight off the invader if it is encountered again in the future.

Things to remember:
1. Without the innate immune response, the adaptive immune response cannot be
activated, because the innate immune response gives the rest of the immune system
signals that say there is a real threat to the body that must be eliminated.
2. Therefore, stopping inflammation is not always a good thing. For example, you need to
have a fever to really mount a full-blown response against a pathogen so taking
paracetamol when you have a mild fever (below 38.3ºC) for example, may not always
be a good thing since you may lose the sterilizing effects of the fever and dampen the
danger signals that activate the adaptive immune response. However, it is still best to
get medical advice on how to treat disease.

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LESSON 2: ANTIBODIES

Think Critically!
1. Why is innate immune response necessary?
- It is necessary to activate the adaptive immune response.
2. How long would it take for a person to get better from an illness?
- It should take about 3-4 days for a person to “get better” from an illness, meaning fever
and other symptoms of inflammation should disappear after 3-4 days. At day 3-4 of infection,
the adaptive immune response is fully activated and is able to effectively control, combat,
and eliminate the pathogen.

REVIEW
1. The adaptive immune response has two aspects: the __________________________ and
_____________________________ response.

2. The humoral response is due to the production of antibodies by ______________________.

I. B cells are white blood cells that develop and mature in the bone marrow.

II. B cells are activated when they encounter antigen in the lymph nodes.

III. Activated B cells produce ____________________, proteins that recognize and bind to
specific parts of the pathogen, called ___________________. Each B cell produces only one
____________________ which recognizes only one kind of antigen (specificity).

Antibody vs. Antigen

Antibody - a protein produced by our immune system to specifically bind a target.

Usually, these targets are parts of pathogens.

Antigen is a substance/ part of pathogen that generate an immune response. Usually

this response leads to the production of a specific “antibody” for the given target.

Five major types of Antibody:

A. IgM is the first antibody produced. It coats the pathogen and promotes endocytosis by
macrophages.

B. IgG is a major antibody produced. It activates the other parts of the immune response and
leads to neutralization and destruction of pathogen.

C. IgA is the important antibody for the mucosal immune response. It prevents pathogens from
crossing the epithelium and entering the blood stream.

D. IgE activates mast cells and leads to the production of histamine, which is why it is also
associated with allergic reactions.

E. IgD- Expressed on the surface of mature B cells, works with IgM in B cell development.

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LESSON 3: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

I. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

A. ENDOCRINE GLAND = a gland that secretes hormones directly into the

bloodstream; a ductless gland.

B. Exocrine gland = a gland that secretes substances into ducts which then leave the
body (i.e. sweat/sebaceous glands) or into an internal space or lumen (i.e. digestive
glands). Exocrine glands are not part of the endocrine system!

C. HORMONE = a very powerful substance secreted by an endocrine gland into the

bloodstream, that affects the function of another cell or "target cell".

II. HORMONES
General Characteristics:
1. needed in very small amounts (potent);
2. produce long-lasting effects in the cells they target;
3. regulate metabolic processes (maintain homeostasis);
4. are regulated by negative-feedback mechanisms;
5. may be steroid (produced from cholesterol = fat-soluble) or non-steroid
(water-soluble).
a. A steroid hormone passes easily through the target cell membrane;
b. A non-steroid hormone requires a receptor on the target cell
membrane to allow the hormone to enter the target cell

III. ENDOCRINE GLANDS

They include the following glands:
1. hypothalamus; 6. thymus;
2. pituitary; 7. adrenals;
3. pineal gland; 8. pancreas;
4. thyroid; 9 . testes.
5. parathyroids; 10. Ovaries

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CONTROL OF HORMONAL SECRETIONS
First of all, the HYPOTHALAMUS secretes "releasing hormones" that target the anterior pituitary
gland.

1. Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

- located at the base of the brain
Two parts:
A. anterior lobe (adrenohypophysis)- glandular nature
-anterior pituitary gland (hangs from the base of the brain)

Hormones:
1. Human Growth Hormone (HGH)- somatotropin
a. controls growth of the body;
b. targets the bone, muscle and adipose tissue.

2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)- thyrotropin

a. controls the secretion of hormones by the thyroid gland;
b. targets thyroid gland.

3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)- adrenocorticotropin

a. controls the secretion of hormones by the adrenal cortex;
b. targets the outer portion of the adrenal gland (cortex).

4. Prolactin (PRL)- lactogenic/ luteotropin (LTH)

a. stimulates the production of milk by the mammary glands;
b. targets the mammary glands.

5. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

a. response depends upon sex:
- In females, FSH stimulates maturation of an ovarian follicle and ovum;
- In males, FSH stimulates the maturation of sperm in the testes;
b. A gonadotropin = targets the primary sex organs (ovary & testis).

6. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

a. response depends upon sex:
- In females, LH causes ovulation;
- In males, LH causes secretion of testosterone.
b. A gonadotropin; targets ovaries & testes.

B. posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)- derived from the nervous system

- Posterior pituitary gland
1. is located behind the anterior pituitary gland;
2. is continuous with nerve fibers (supraopticohypophyseal tract) of the
hypothalamus;
3. does not actually produce hormones (they are produced by the
hypothalamus), but stores them until it is stimulated to release them

Two Hormones:
a. Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)- vasopressin
- targets the kidney tubules (DCT);
- causes the kidney tubules to reabsorb water back into the bloodstream, and therefore
controls water balance and blood pressure.

b. Oxytocin (OT)
- targets uterine smooth muscle and breasts;
- causes uterine muscle contraction and milk production

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2. THYROID GLAND
- small gland inside the neck, located in front of the (trachea)
-The thyroid hormones control your metabolism, which is the body's ability to break down food
and store it as energy and the ability to break down food into waste products with a release
of energy in the process.

Thyroid Hormones:
a. Thyroxin (T4) & Tri-iodothyronine (T3)
- both increase the rate at which cells release energy from carbohydrates

b.Calcitonin – regulates the blood concentration of calcium

3. PARATHYROID GLAND
1. consist of 4 small glands;
2. located posterior to thyroid gland;
3. produce a hormone called Parathyroid Hormone (PTH):
a. release is stimulated by a decrease in blood calcium levels;
b. PTH targets bone cells (activates osteoclasts) and kidney cells (causes kidney
tubules to reabsorb more calcium);
c. Therefore, causes an increase in blood calcium and phosphate levels to
normal.
4. PTH and calcitonin together maintain the homeostasis of Ca++ in the blood.

4. ADRENAL GLANDS
- located superior to kidneys
- each gland is composed of an inner portion which is called the adrenal medulla and an
outer portion, the adrenal cortex.

Two hormones secreted by adrenal medulla:

a. Epinephrine- important in emergency situations since it reinforces and prolongs the

activities of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

b. Norepinephrine- does not affect carbohydrate metabolism but does cause

widespread peripheral vasoconstriction resulting in sympathetic peripheral resistance and
increase both the diastolic and systolic blood pressures.

Two hormones secreted by adrenal cortex:

a. Aldosterone – a mineralocorticoid helps kidneys conserve sodium and excrete

potassium, maintaining blood pressure

b. Cortisol – a glucocorticoid; keeps blood glucose levels stable, stress hormone

5. The PANCREAS
- a large gland behind your stomach that helps the body to maintain healthy blood sugar
(glucose) levels.
-Contains islands of cells called the Islets of Langerhans which secrete glucagon and insulin

Two Hormones:
a. Glucagon – stimulates the liver to break down glycogen, raises blood sugar
concentration
- produced by alpha cells
b. Insulin – decreases blood sugar concentrations, affects the uptake of glucose by cells
- produced by beta cells

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6. THYMUS GLAND
1. is located in the mediastinum region behind sternum;
2. produces a hormone called thymosin that affects the maturation of
lymphocytes (T-cells);
3. plays an important role in lymphatic system and immunity; decreases in size as we age

7. PINEAL GLAND
1. attached to the thalamus of the brain stem;
2. secretes a hormone called melatonin:
a. production is stimulated by daylight (circadian rhythm); affects moods, emotions,
etc.

8. The OVARIES
1. An ovarian follicle (and ovum) start to mature each month following puberty under the
influence of FSH.
a. The developing follicle secretes estrogen:
-develops and maintains female secondary sexual characteristics;
-targets: hair follicles; mammary glands/ breasts; adipose tissue
2. LH causes the follicle to rupture and release the ovum (ovulation); the follicle becomes the
corpus luteum.
a. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone:
- prepares the uterus for implantation of the zygote

9. The TESTES
1. FSH causes the production of sperm.
2. LH causes the production of testosterone:
a. develops and maintains male secondary sexual characteristics;
* targets: hair follicles; muscle, bone; larynx

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CHAPTER 2: GENETICS

Genetics before Mendel

Farmers for thousands of years had been breeding plants and animals to produce offspring that
show a set of desired traits. They were guided by experience and by a tradition of caring for
livestock and crops passed on from generations to generations.

Formal theories about inheritance before Mendel were attributed mainly to Aristotle and
Hippocrates. Aristotle believed the characteristics of a man are encoded in semen. For woman,
they are encoded in blood. Heredity is carried primarily by the father’s semen. If the development
of the embryo will proceed correctly, the offspring would be a boy and would closely resemble the
father. Any deviation from this development would produce a girl and closely resemble the mother.

For common folks in general, the dominant understanding of heredity is about mixing, a sharing
of traits. If the father has black eyes and the mother brown, their offspring would display a set of
eyes whose color is a mix of black and brown pigments. Even today, many people understand
heredity in terms of mixing or blending, so that offspring would show both parental traits in differing
proportions of dominance.

Mendelian Idea of Heredity

Mendel's proposition about heredity is contrary to traditional notion of blending of traits. Instead,
he believed that traits are passed on as discrete units of inheritance. A specific parental trait is either
passed on and is manifested physically, or it is passed on but is prevented from manifesting itself.
This phenomenon is called dominant gene or recessive gene.

For any given trait (example, color of eyes), a person inherits one gene from each parent so that
a person has a pair of two genes. For example, one gene could be for black eyes and the other
for brown. The alternate forms of the gene are called alleles. If the two alleles are identical
(example, both genes are for black eyes), the person is said to be homozygous in relation to color
of eyes. If they are different, the person is heterozygous.

Based on his studies of plants, Mendel believed traits are controlled by a single gene, although
modern genetic studies reveal traits are controlled by many. In addition, the expression of traits is
not dependent on genes only; it is also affected by environmental influences.

The terms one meets when studying genetics for the first time could be confusing. Those that
often confuse students are about homologous chromosomes, homozygous alleles, and
heterozygous alleles. Homologous chromosomes are pairs of chromosomes which are similar in
length, gene location and centromere. So overall, we expect them to display the same shape. But
homologous chromosomes could carry homozygous alleles or heterozygous alleles.

For example, a homologous pair of chromosomes might carry the same alleles for hair color.
Suppose the alleles are both for black hair then, we are sure the organism will grow black hair. The
organism is said to be homozygous in relation to the gene for hair color. However, it is also possible

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a pair of homologous chromosomes might carry different alleles for hair color. One allele could be
for black hair, the other is for blonde. In this case, the organism is heterozygous in relation to hair
color. What hair color will be physically manifested in the organism depends on which allele is
dominant or which is recessive. Offspring which are homozygous are sometimes referred to as pure.
Those which are heterozygous is called hybrid.

Dominant Allele versus Recessive Allele

A pair of chromosomes might carry heterozygous alleles for a particular trait. Suppose, for
example, we cross pollinated two roses: one is red, the other white. We expect their offspring to
carry the gene for each color. If the offspring which comes out is a red rose, the gene for red color
is the dominant allele, and the gene for white is recessive. Such flowers and other heterozygous
organisms are sometimes referred to as carriers of both genes or simply carriers.

As a matter of convention, we use CAPITAL LETTERS to denote dominant alleles and small letters
for recessive alleles.

For example, we have the allele for height which will be represented by CAPITAL letter T and small
letter t.
T is the dominant allele which represents tall.
t is the recessive allele which represent short/dwarf.

When combined, it will result to:

Genotype Phenotype
TT (homozygous tall) Tall
Tt (heterozygous tall) Tall
tt (dwarf) Short/dwarf

Genotype versus Phenotype

Genotype refers to the combination of alleles at the gene level. Phenotype, on the other hand,
is the physical manifestation of this combination. In other words, phenotype is the trait which we
can directly observe about an organism. With genotype, we may have to study many generations
of the organism to make intelligent guesses about its genotype, or better yet, we must perform DNA
analysis to establish it.

Now, before we will talk about MONOHYBRID AND DIHYBRID CROSSES, let me just refresh your minds
about punnett square that you have learned in your junior high education. However, I don’t
encourage you to use this in our exercises.

Punnett Square

A Punnett square is a tabular summary that can help us predict outcomes of breeding
experiments. From this table, we can make intelligent guesses about resulting genotypes, their
probabilities of occurring, and their phenotypes as well. This method was devised by Reginald C.
Punnett, a British geneticist who co-founded Journal of Genetics in 1910.

We must stress that the manifestation of phenotypes can be influenced by environmental

factors, polygenetic history, and other genes in the organism. But setting these issues aside, Punnett
squares are a mathematical and intuitive approach to make intelligent guesses of outcomes. It is
also a helpful guide to analyze genetic history of organisms.

Sample picture showing a cross between Aa x Aa:

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Before moving on to Mendelian Laws of Inheritance and Types of Crosses, let’s review these terms
below.

Vocabularies:
1. Gene a unit of heredity; a section of DNA sequence encoding a single protein
2. Genome the entire set of genes in an organism
3. Alleles alternative form of a gene at same position on pair of homologous chromosomes that
affect the same trait
4. homologous chromosomes chromosomes having the same structural features and patterns
of genes (But genes may or may not be of the same alleles)
5. locus a fixed position on a strand of DNA where a gene or one of its alleles is located
6. dominant allele masks or suppresses the expression of an alternate (recessive) allele; it is
always expressed as long as it is present
7. recessive allele it is masked by a dominant allele; it can only be expressed when the dominant
allele is absent
8. genotype genetic makeup of an organism
9. phenotype the physical appearance of an organism

Two terms in genotypes:

a. homozygous- members of the same pair of alleles are the same
e.g. TT, tt
b. heterozygous- members of the same pair of alleles are different

e.g. Tt (heterozygous tall)

In addition, you also need to know what happens during meiosis. Take note that meiosis is a type of
cell division that occurs in sex cells or gametes. In meiosis, one mother cell will produce 4 daughter
cells.

READ ME!
Meiosis and Mendel’s laws

Chromosome behavior during meiosis is the cellular basis for the Law of Segregation and the law of
Independent Assortment. Mendel's hereditary factors, genes, are located on chromosomes. Each
gamete randomly receives one member of each homologous pair of chromosomes, ensuring
segregation of alleles and also providing for independent assortment of unlinked genes.

After reading what’s in the box above, study the information below.

Given the different pairs of alleles found in mother cells, take note of the different kinds of gametes that
will be produced.

Mother cell Daughter cells Types of

gametes (#)
1 kind
AA A A A A

2 kinds
Aa A A a a

2 kinds
AABb AB AB Ab Ab
Aa
2 kinds
Aabb Ab ab Ab ab

2 kinds
AABbCC ABC AbC ABC AbC

4 kinds
AaBb AB Ab aB ab

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Now, STUDY BELOW THE MENDELIAN LAWS OF INHERITANCE.

MENDELIAN LAWS OF INHERITANCE

A. Law of Independent Segregation

- This law states that allele pairs separate or segregate during gamete formation.
e.g.

AA A A A A

B. Law of Independent Assortment

- This law states that the segregation of a pair of allele is independent from the segregation of
another pair of allele/s.
- The allele a gamete receives from one gene does not influence the allele received for another
gene.
e.g.

AaBb  AB Ab aB ab

*The segregation of a pair of allele (Aa) will not influence the segregation of another pair of allele (Bb).
These two pairs of alleles separate independently.

Moving on, let’s learn about the TYPES OF CROSSES.

TYPES OF CROSSES

A. Monohybrid Cross- It is a genetic cross involving a single pair of allele.

Example, let’s take a look at the cross between a homozygous tall (TT) pea plant and short (tt) pea
plant.

Male plant x female plant

P (parental genotypes) TT x tt
G (gamete types) T t
F1 (first filial generation) Tt
Phenotype of F1 Tall
GR (genotypic ratio) 1/1 Tt or 100% Tt
PR (phenotypic ratio) 1/1 tall or 100% tall

TRY TO USE A PUNNETT SQUARE IF YOU WILL HAVE THE SAME RESULT.

Example 2: What will be the probability of having dwarf offspring if you cross two heterozygous tall pea
plants?

P: Tt x Tt
G: T, t T, t
Combine the gametes…
F1: TT Tt tT tt
Phenotypes of F1: tall, tall, tall, dwarf
GR: ¼ TT or 25% TT
2/4 Tt or 50% Tt
¼ tt or 25% tt

PR: ¾ tall (because you will add ¼ + 2/4) or 75% tall

¼ dwarf or 25% dwarf

Therefore, there is 25% probability of having dwarf offspring from the cross.

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Example 3: Find the genotypic ratio and phenotypic ratio of the possible offsprings when both
homozygous tall parents mate. Take note again that tall is the dominant trait.

P: TT x TT
G: T T
F1: TT
Phenotype of F1: Tall
GR: 1/1 TT or 100% TT
PR: 1/1 tall or 100% tall

Example 4: If we cross a heterozygous tall plant to a dwarf plant, what is the probability of having
homozygous tall offspring?

P: Tt x tt
G: T, t t
Combine the gametes…
F1: Tt tt
Phenotypes of F1: tall, dwarf
GR: ½ Tt or 50% Tt
½ tt or 50% tt
PR: ½ tall or 50% tall
½ dwarf or 50% dwarf

Therefore, looking at the genotypic ratio, there is 0% probability that there will be homozygous tall
offspring.

Example 5: Complete the cross below showing the gamete types, phenotypes of F 1, and the
genotype and phenotypic ratio of the offspring.

P: TT (homozygous tall male) x Tt (heterozygous tall female)

G: T T, t
F1: TT Tt
Phenotypes of F1: Tall
GR: ½ TT or 50% TT
½ Tt or 50% Tt
PR: 2/2 tall (because you add ½ + 1/2 ) or 100% tall

B. Dihybrid Cross- It is a genetic cross involving two pairs of alleles.

Example 1: A homozygous tall and with homozygous round seed pea plant is crossed with
dwarf and with wrinkled seed pea plant. What is the probability to have tall, round offspring?
Tall and round are the dominant traits while dwarf and wrinkled (seed) are the recessive traits,
To represent the alleles:

T- Tall R- round seed

t- dwarf r- wrinkled seed
Solution:
P: TTRR x ttrr
G: TR tr
F1: TtRr
Phenotype of F1: tall, round
GR: 1/1 TtRr or 100% TtRr
PR: 1/1 tall, round or 100% tall, round

Thus, there is 100% probability that offspring will be tall and have round seeds.

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 Example 2: What is the probability of having dwarf with round seeds offspring if we cross a
heterozygous tall and with heterozygous round seed male pea plant to another heterozygous tall
and with heterozygous round seed female pea plant.

P: TtRr x TtRr
G: There will be 4 types of gametes that will produced from each parent.
TR TR
Tr Tr
tR tR
tr tr

F1: Using the Punnett square:

(This is a long cut way, but for the sake of comparing later, I will show it to you in the table below.)

TR Tr tR tr
TR TTRR TTTr TtRR TtRr
Tr TTrR TTrr TtrR Ttrr
tR tTRR tTRr ttRR ttRr
tr tTrR tTrr ttrR ttrr

Take note, Tt and tT are the same. Likewise, Rr and rR.

To guide you in getting the Phenotypic ratio (PR), lets look at the phenotypes
of each genotype.

GR: 1/16 TTRR tall, round

4/16 TtRr tall round
1/16 ttRR dwarf, round
2/16 TTRr tall, round
1/16 TTrr tall, wrinkled
2/16 ttRr dwarf, round
2/16 TtRR tall, round
2/16 Ttrr tall, wrinkled
1/16 ttrr dwarf, wrinkled
16/16

PR: 9/16 tall, round (because you add 1/16 + 4/16 + 2/16 + 2/16)
3/16 dwarf, round (because you add 1/16 + 2/16)
3/16 tall, wrinkled (because you add 1/16 + 2/16)
1/16 dwarf, wrinkled

 Therefore, 3 out of 16 offspring will be dwarf and will have round seeds.

Now, if you notice, the phenotypic ratio is 9:3:3:1. This is always true for Mendelian genetics if you
are crossing 2 pairs of alleles (dihybrid cross) that are both heterozygous. While in monohybrid cross,
crossing heterozygous pair of alleles will always give a ratio of 3:1. The next module I will be giving is
about modifications of Mendelian genetics wherein not all cross will give a phenotypic ratio of 3:1
(monohybrid cross) and 9:3:3:1 for dihybrid cross.

To continue with, let’s try the other way in solving the genotypic ratio and phenotypic ratio of the
possible offspring by using the result of its monohybrid crosses.

P: TtRr x TtRr
G: TR, Tr, TR, Tr
tR, tr tR, tr

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IF WE TRY TO LOOK AT THE MONOHYBRID CROSSES FOR EACH PAIR OF ALLELE, IT WILL BE:
Tt x Tt Rr x Rr

Wherein, the GR for each cross is:

¼ TT ¼ RR
2/4 Tt 2/4 Rr
¼ tt ¼ rr

And the PR is:

¾ tall ¾ round
¼ dwarf ¼ wrinkled

USING THE ABOVE NUMBERS, WE CAN SOLVE FOR THE GR by means of multiplication.

GR: ¼ TT x ¼ RR = 1/16 TTRR

2/4 Tt x 2/4 Rr = 4/16 TtRr
¼ tt x ¼ RR = 1/16 ttRR
¼ TT x 2/4 Rr = 2/16 TTRr
¼ TT x ¼ rr = 1/16 TTrr
¼ tt x 2/4 Rr = 2/16 ttRr
2/4 Tt x ¼ RR = 2/16 TtRR
2/4 Tt x ¼ rr = 2/16 Ttrr
¼ tt x ¼ rr = 1/16 ttrr

Now for the PR….

PR: ¾ tall x ¾ round = 9/16 tall, round

¾ tall x ¼ wrinkled = 3/16 tall, wrinkled
¼ dwarf x ¾ round = 3/16 dwarf, round
¼ dwarf x ¼ wrinkled = 1/16 dwarf, wrinkled

If you use this easier way of solving for the GR and the PR or the probability or frequency of having
such kind of offspring, you need to be familiar with the monohybrid cross results. Using a Punnett
square will consume your time and it be more confusing especially if you are dealing with many
pairs of alleles.

Example 3: Solve for the GR and the PR of the possible offspring if you cross a homozygous tall and
with heterozygous round seed male plant to a dwarf and with also a heterozygous round seed
female plant.

P: TTRr x ttRr
G: TR, Tr tR, tr

Again, if we look at the monohybrid crosses for each pair of allele, we have:

TT x tt Rr x Rr

Wherein the GR will be,

1/1 Tt ¼ RR
2/4 Rr
¼ rr

And the PR will be,

1/1 tall ¾ round

¼ wrinkled

Let us use the above monohybrid results to get the Genotypic ratio (GR) and PR…
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 GR:
1/1 Tt x ¼ RR = ¼ TtRR
1/1 Tt x 2/4 Rr = 2/4 TtRr
1/1 Tt x ¼ rr = ¼ Ttrr

PR:
1/1 tall x ¾ round = ¾ tall, round
1/1 tall x ¼ wrinkled = ¼ tall, wrinkled

Now try to look, if you are going to use the Punnett square, you will be making a lot of boxes and
then count the offspring afterwards, it will be a waste of time.

Example 4: What is the probability of having a tall with wrinkled seed offspring if we cross a
heterozygous tall with wrinkled seed male plant to female plant that is both heterozygous for the
two traits?

P: Ttrr x TtRr

If you already memorize the results of the different monohybrid crosses, then it’s easier for you to
just get the probability of the offspring being asked in the problem. There is no need for you to
include all the GR and the PR of all the possible offspring.

What is asked? Probability of having tall with wrinkled seed offspring

Using the monohybrid crosses, Tt x Tt will give ¾ tall offspring while rr x Rr will yield ½ wrinkled.
Therefore, multiplying ¾ tall x ½ wrinkled will result to 3/8 tall, wrinkled offspring.
 Thus, there will be 3 out of 8 offspring that will be tall with wrinkled seed.

Example 5: Using the cross in example number 4, what is the probability of having homozygous tall
with homozygous round seed offspring?

P: Ttrr x TtRr

By looking at the monohybrid cross of each pair of allele, Tt x Tt, it will give ¼ TT. However, if we
look at cross between rr x Rr, it will not give a homozygous round offspring so it will be 0/2. Multiplying
¼ TT x 0/2 RR will result to 0. Therefore, there is 0% probability to have offspring that is homozygous tall
with homozygous round seed.

THAT IS WHY, IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO MASTER THE MONOHYBRID CROSSES FIRST.

Moving on. Let us try the trihybrid cross. As the name implies, it involves 3 pairs of alleles. Study the
example below and ask questions for any clarifications.

C. Trihybrid cross

Given the following alleles:

T- tall R- round seed G- green pod
t- dwarf r- wrinkled seed g- yellow pod

Find the GR and the PR of the possible offspring of the parental cross below.

A heterozygous tall with heterozygous round seed and homozygous green pod male pea plant
is crossed with heterozygous tall with wrinkled seed and heterozygous green pod female pea plant.

P: TtRrGG x TtrrGg
G: TRG TrG
TrG Trg
tRG trG
trG trg

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If we use Punnett square, it will be like this.
TrG Trg trG trg
TRG TTRrGG
TrG TTrrGG
tRG tTRrGG
trG TtrrGG

SEE, It’s a very long process so it’s up to you to finish it as a way of practice.

Using the other way,…

Look at the gametes and see all the possible combinations. Then go back to the monohybrid crosses
of each pair of allele.
(Just to show you, it will be like Tt x Tt, Rr x rr, GG x Gg).

Tt x Tt will result to : Rr x rr will give: GG x Gg

¼ TT ½ Rr ½ GG
2/4 Tt ½ rr ½ Gg
¼ tt

GR:
TTRrGG ¼ TT x ½ Rr x ½ GG = 1/16 TTRrGG
TTrrGG  ¼ TT x ½ rr x ½ GG = 1/16 TTrrGG
TtRrGG  2/4 Tt x ½ Rr x ½ GG = 2/16 TtRrGG

NOW, continue to find the probability of the other offspring.

TtrrGG 
TTRrGg 
TTrrGg 
TtRrGg 
TtrrGg 
ttRrGG 
ttrrGG 
ttRrGg 
ttrrGg 

See to it that the total will be equal to 16.

For the PR, consider the result of the monohybrid crosses below.

Tt x Tt will result to : Rr x rr will give: GG x Gg

¾ tall ½ round 2/2 green (since GG and Gg are both green)
¼ dwarf ½ wrinkled

PR:
¾ tall x ½ round x 2/2 green = 6/16 tall, round, green
¾ tall x ½ wrinkled x 2/2 green = 6/16 tall, wrinkled, green
¼ dwarf x ½ round x 2/2 green = 2/16 dwarf, round, green
¼ dwarf x ½ wrinkled x 2/2 green = 2/16 dwarf, wrinkled, green
16/16

As you can see, no offspring will have yellow pod. So for example, in the same cross, the problem is
asking you what will be the probability of having tall, wrinkled and yellow pod pea plant. Then the
answer will be zero probability.

¾ tall x ½ wrinkled x 0/2 yellow = 0/16 tall, wrinkled, yellow

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C. Learning Activity (Laboratory)
(Please refer to the MLO.)

D. Assessment
(Please refer to the MLO.)

References:

teachtogether.com
REYES, JUAN APOLINARIO C. and MARCO APOLINARIO C. REYES. 2019. Biology 2: Explore Life.
Unlimited Books. Library Services and Publishing Incorporated.
KLUG, W.S., et. al. 2017. Essentials of Genetics. 9th edition. Pearson Education Limited. Harlow,
England.

MAXSON, L.R. and C.H. DAUGHERTY. 1989. Genetics: A Human Perspective. W.m. C. Brown Publishers.

REYES, J. A and M. A. REYES. 2019. Biology 2. Unlimited Books Library Services and Publishing Inc. Manila,
Philippines.

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