STUDY QUESTIONS 5 (SQ 5)

1. Explain how the gastric secretion of HCL and pepsin is regulated during the cephalic,
gastric and intestinal phases.
Cephalic phase – (reflex phase) relatively brief which takes place before food enters the
stomach. The smell, taste, sight, or thought of food triggers this phase. The impulses from
receptors in the taste buds or the nose are relayed to the brain, which returns signals that
increase gastric secretion to prepare the stomach for digestion. This enhanced secretion is a
conditioned reflex which occurs only if you like or want a particular food. Depression and loss
of appetite can suppress the cephalic reflex.
Gastric phase – lasts 3 to 4 hours and is set in motion by local neural and hormonal
mechanisms triggered by the entry of food into the stomach. When the food reaches the
stomach, it creates distention that activates the stretch receptors. This stimulates
parasympathetic neurons to release acetylcholine, which then provokes increased secretion of
gastric juice. Partially digested proteins, caffeine, and rising pH stimulate the release of gastrin
from enteroendocrine G cells, which in turn induces parietal cells to increase their production
of HCl, which is needed to create an acidic environment for the conversion of pepsinogen to
pepsin, and protein digestion. Additionally, the release of gastrin activates vigorous smooth
muscle contractions. However, it should be noted that the stomach does have a natural means
of avoiding excessive acid secretion and potential heartburn. Whenever pH levels drop too
low, cells in the stomach react by suspending HCl secretion and increasing mucous secretions.
Intestinal phase – has both excitatory and inhibitory elements with the duodenum playing a
major role in regulating the stomach and its emptying. When partially digested food fills the
duodenum, intestinal mucosal cells release a hormone called intestinal (enteric) gastrin, which
further excites gastric juice secretion. This stimulatory activity is brief, however, because when
the intestine distends with chyme, the enterogastric reflex inhibits secretion. One of the effects
of this reflex is to close the pyloric sphincter, which blocks additional chyme from entering the
duodenum.

2. Describe how pancreatic enzymes become activated in the lumen of the small intestine.
The pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct at the sphincter of Oddi, where both flow
into the duodenum. The enzymes are normally secreted in an inactive form and are activated
only when they reach the digestive tract. The activation cascade is initiated by Enterokinase,
an enzyme solely secreted by the cells of the duodenal small intestine mucosa which face the
intestinal lumen.

3. Explain the functions of bicarbonate in the pancreatic juice.

The bicarbonate assists in neutralizing the low pH of the chyme coming from the stomach,
while the enzymes assist in the breakdown of the proteins, lipids and carbohydrates for further
processing and absorption in the intestines.
4. Describe the mechanisms that protect the gastric mucosa from self-digestion and some
proposed reasons for the development of peptic ulcer in the stomach.
The mucosal barrier which includes a thick coating of bicarbonate-rich mucus; the mucus
is physically protective, and bicarbonate neutralizes gastric acid, protects the
stomach from self-digestion. Stomach ulcers occur when the layer that protects
the stomach lining from stomach acid breaks down, which allows the stomach lining to
become damaged. The most common causes of peptic ulcers are infection with the bacterium
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) and long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others) and naproxen sodium (Aleve).

5. Describe what happens to the following molecules from the time they are first take in at
the mouth, to when the component parts are finally absorbed into the bloodstream of the
small intestine: protein, carbohydrate molecule, and lipid molecule.
Protein Digestion
Carbohydrate Digestion
The mechanical and chemical digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth. Chewing,
also known as mastication, crumbles the carbohydrate foods into smaller and smaller pieces.
The salivary glands in the oral cavity secrete saliva that coats the food particles. Saliva contains
the enzyme, salivary amylase. This enzyme breaks the bonds between the monomeric sugar
units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and starches. The salivary amylase breaks
down amylose and amylopectin into smaller chains of glucose, called dextrins and maltose.
When carbohydrates reach the stomach no further chemical breakdown occurs because the
amylase enzyme does not function in the acidic conditions of the stomach. But mechanical
breakdown is ongoing—the strong peristaltic contractions of the stomach mix the
carbohydrates into the more uniform mixture of chyme.
The chyme is gradually expelled into the upper part of the small intestine. Upon entry of
the chyme into the small intestine, the pancreas releases pancreatic juice through a duct. This
pancreatic juice contains the enzyme, pancreatic amylase, which starts again the breakdown of
dextrins into shorter and shorter carbohydrate chains. Additionally, enzymes are secreted by
the intestinal cells that line the villi. These enzymes, known collectively as disaccharidase, are
sucrase, maltase, and lactase. Sucrase breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose molecules.
Maltase breaks the bond between the two glucose units of maltose, and lactase breaks the bond
between galactose and glucose. Once carbohydrates are chemically broken down into single
sugar units they are then transported into the inside of intestinal cells.
 Lipid Digestion

The Digestive System – Human Nutrition [DEPRECATED]. (n.d.). Retrieved November 4, 2020,
from http://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/humannutrition/chapter/the-digestive-system-2/

6. Explain how jaundice is produced when the person has liver disease.
Jaundice is caused by excess bilirubin, which is formed when hemoglobin (the part of red
blood cells that carries oxygen) is broken down as part of the normal process of recycling old
or damaged red blood cells. Normally, the bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted into
the digestive tract. Bilirubin can build up in the blood and cause jaundice in the presence of
certain kinds of liver damage (particularly from drinking too much alcohol or from viral
hepatitis), blocked bile ducts, or something that causes the red blood cells to break down faster
than normal (hemolysis).