Student’s Name: ZANTUA, JULIE AMOR D.

Course/Section: HNF 225 UV

Title: STUDY QUESTIONS (SQ) 3

Anatomy and Physiology of the CVS, Hemostasis, and Hemodynamics

1. What are the risk factors in the development of atherosclerosis?

Certain traits, conditions, or habits may raise your risk for atherosclerosis such as high LDL
cholesterol and low HDL cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking, insulin resistance, diabetes,
overweight or obesity, lack of physical activity, unhealthy diet, older age, and family history of
early heart disease.
2. What are antioxidants? How can antioxidants prevent the formation of atherosclerosis?
Antioxidants, sometimes called “free-radical scavengers” are molecules that is capable of
“neutralizing” the oxidation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) before they react with cellular
biomolecules and change their structure or function which cause damage to cells. Due to the factor
that ROS and the generation of oxidized LDL are leading contributors to the progression of
atherosclerosis, dietary supplements and antioxidants with low adverse effects may well represent
a good therapeutic strategy to prevent the progression of the disease. Natural and synthetic
antioxidants facilitate atherosclerosis treatment through a variety of mechanisms, including the
inhibition of LDL oxidation, the reduction of generated reactive oxygen species, the inhibition of
cytokine secretion, the prevention of atherosclerotic plaque formation and platelet aggregation, the
prevention of mononuclear cell infiltration, the improvement of endothelial dysfunction and
vasodilation, the promotion of NO bioavailability, the modulation of the expression of adhesion
molecules such as VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 on endothelial cells, and the suppression of foam cell
formation.
3. How does atherosclerosis lead to heart attack or stroke?
Atherosclerosis is the buildup of fatty substances such as cholesterol, cellular waste products,
calcium and other substances in the inner lining of an artery. They cause the formation of blood
clots that can block blood flow or break off and travel to another part of the body. If a clot blocks
a blood vessel that feeds the heart, it causes a heart attack. If it blocks a blood vessel that feeds the
brain, it causes a stroke. If blood supply to the arms or legs is reduced or blocked, it can cause
difficulty walking and eventually gangrene.
4. What are triglycerides? What are the sources of triglycerides?
Triglycerides are fats consisting of 3 fatty acids covalently bonded to a glycerol molecule. The
exogenous pathway starts with the intestinal absorption of triglycerides and cholesterol from
dietary sources. Its end result is the transfer of triglycerides to adipose and muscle tissue and of
cholesterol to the liver. While the endogenous pathway is when the liver constantly synthesizes
triglycerides by utilizing as substrates free fatty acids and carbohydrates; these endogenous
triglycerides are secreted into the circulation in the core of very-low-density lipoprotein particles
(VLDL).
5. Knowing the bad effects of cholesterol, should cholesterol be totally eliminated in the body?
Yes or No. Please explain your answer.
No, although cholesterol production is measured in the blood, it's found in every cell in the
body and vital to health and well-being. It is a waxy, whitish-yellow fat and a crucial building
block in cell membranes. Cholesterol also is needed to make vitamin D, hormones (including
testosterone and estrogen), and fat-dissolving bile acids.
6. What controls the fate of lipoproteins?
Lipoproteins are specifically targeted to cells by distinct apolipoproteins on their surface that
bind to specific receptors. Low density lipoprotein (LDL) contains the highest level of cholesterol.
LDL receptors in peripheral tissues bind LDL, triggering its endocytosis, lysosomal targeting and
hydrolysis. When cells have abundant cholesterol, LDL receptor synthesis is inhibited by the sterol
regulatory element binding proteins (SREBP) pathway.
7. Differentiate the functions of saturated from unsaturated fats. Why are unsaturated fats
preferred over saturated fats?
Dietary fat, in the form of saturated and unsaturated fats is a source of essential fatty
acids, which the body cannot make itself. Fat also helps the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins such
as vitamin A, vitamin D and vitamin E. Unsaturated fats help lower a person's levels of LDL
cholesterol, reduce inflammation, and build stronger cell membranes in the body which in turn can
decrease risk of heart disease and may also help decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes.
8. How does high Low- Density Lipoproteins (LDL) contribute to the formation of
atherosclerosis?
How does a high level of High- Density cholesterol (HDL) prevent it?
In the early stages of atherosclerosis, LDL that has entered the artery wall attracts and is
engulfed by important immune system cells called macrophages that ingest, or
"eat," LDL particles. LDL-laden macrophages become foam cells that promote inflammation and
further the development of atherosclerotic plaques. High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
oppose atherosclerosis directly, by removing cholesterol from foam cells, by inhibiting the
oxidation of LDLs, and by limiting the inflammatory processes that underlie atherosclerosis.
9. Explain how can a high sodium diet potentially cause hypertension.
Increased salt consumption may provoke water retention, thus leading to a condition of high
flow in arterial vessels which stiffens and narrows the blood vessels. Blood and oxygen flow to
key organs decreases and so the heart tries harder to pump blood throughout the body, which
further increases blood pressure. Moreover, a high-salt diet suppresses angiotensin II level trough
physiological blood pressure level control mechanisms.
10. Explain how stress release prevents or decreases high blood pressure.
 The body produces a surge of hormones when in a stressful situation. These hormones
temporarily increase the blood pressure by causing the heart to beat faster and blood vessels to
narrow. Stress management techniques can lead to healthy behavior changes including those that
reduce the blood pressure.

STUDY QUESTIONS 3.1 (SQ 3.1)

1. How do the various components of the CVS differ from each other in terms of anatomy and
physiology?
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, which is the muscular pumping device, a
closed system of blood vessels which are elastic, muscular tubes called arteries, veins,
and capillaries, and the blood, a fluid that contains the oxygen and nutrients the body needs and
carries the wastes which need to be removed.
2. How do these parts/components work in synchrony with each other? Will one be able to
function without the other? Why?
The cardiovascular system can be thought of as the transport system of the body. The heart
pumps blood around the body, the blood vessels are tubes which carry blood, and blood which is
pumped by the heart around the blood vessels passes again and again through the various
"circulations" of the body. All of these components are essential in carrying fresh oxygen from
the lungs and nutrients to the body's tissues, also takes the body's waste products, including carbon
dioxide, away from the tissues that is necessary to sustain life and promote the health of all parts
of the body.
3. How does food and nutrition affect the proper growth and development of each component of
the CVS?
Development and growth of the body are directly concerned with nutrition and diet. The lack
of balance diet has adverse effect on the overall structural and functional capacity of the body. It
can affect the weight, hormones, and the health of organs, including your heart. Cardiovascular
diseases can refer to different heart or blood vessel problem associated with atherosclerosis and
hypertension. Food-related risk factors include obesity, high blood pressure, uncontrolled diabetes
and a diet high in saturated fats.
STUDY QUESTIONS 3.2 (SQ 3.2)
1. How do you differentiate in simple terms the various mechanisms of blood flow through the
heart, brain, liver, and the lungs?
Cerebral circulation is the movement of blood through the network of blood vessels supplying
the brain, providing oxygen and nutrients. Pulmonary circulation in the lungs is responsible for
removing carbon dioxide from and replacing oxygen in deoxygenated blood. The heart pumps
oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The hepatic portal system is
the system of veins comprising which functions to supply the liver with metabolites and ensures
that ingested substances are processed in the liver before reaching the systemic circulation, limiting
the damage ingested toxins may cause.

2. Compare the efficiency of blood flow through the skeletal muscles and skin.
More blood is directed to the skeletal muscles, brain, or digestive system when they are active.
The skeletal muscles of the legs are particularly important skeletal muscle pumps as they prevent
pooling of the blood in the feet and calves due to gravity. Return of blood to the heart, especially
from the legs, is facilitated by the skeletal muscle pump. Deep-lying veins are compressed by
skeletal muscle, forcing blood through the circulatory system back to the heart. Blood flow to the
skin can be reduced or increased to aid with thermoregulation. When vasoconstricted, blood flow
through the skin is reduced, so less core heat is lost. With restricted blood flow, the skin appears
paler. When vasodilated, blood flow through the skin is increased, meaning more core heat can be
lost through radiation. With increased blood flow, the skin appears red.

3. Why do you think it is important to understand the concepts of vasodilation and

vasoconstriction relative to food and nutrition as well as health of the CVS?
Blood flow is regulated by vasoconstriction or vasodilation of smooth muscle fibers in the
walls of blood vessels, typically arterioles. This regulation can be systemic, affecting the whole of
the circulatory system, or localized to specific tissues or organs. Vasoconstriction is important for
minimizing acute blood loss in the event of hemorrhage as well as retaining body heat and
regulating mean arterial pressure. Vasodilation increases blood flow by reducing vascular
resistance. Therefore, dilation of arterial blood vessels (mainly arterioles) causes a decrease in
blood pressure.
STUDY QUESTIONS 3.3 (SQ 3.3)
1. How does atherosclerosis lead to heart attack or stroke?
Atherosclerosis is the buildup of fatty substances such as cholesterol, cellular waste products,
calcium and other substances in the inner lining of an artery. They cause the formation of blood
clots that can block blood flow or break off and travel to another part of the body. If a clot blocks
a blood vessel that feeds the heart, it causes a heart attack. If it blocks a blood vessel that feeds the
brain, it causes a stroke. If blood supply to the arms or legs is reduced or blocked, it can cause
difficulty walking and eventually gangrene.

2. Knowing the bad effects of cholesterol, should cholesterol be totally eliminated in the body?
Yes or No? Please explain your answer.
No, although cholesterol production is measured in the blood, it's found in every cell in the
body and vital to health and well-being. It is a waxy, whitish-yellow fat and a crucial building
block in cell membranes. Cholesterol also is needed to make vitamin D, hormones (including
testosterone and estrogen), and fat-dissolving bile acids.
3. Why are unsaturated fats preferred over saturated fats in the context of CVS concepts you have
learned?
Unsaturated fats help lower a person's levels of LDL cholesterol, reduce inflammation, and
build stronger cell membranes in the body which in turn can decrease risk of heart disease and may
also help decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes.
4. What are triglycerides, their endogenous and exogenous sources? How are they related to
lipoproteins? What controls the fate of lipoproteins, triglycerides and cholesterol?
Triglycerides are fats consisting of 3 fatty acids covalently bonded to a glycerol molecule. The
exogenous pathway starts with the intestinal absorption of triglycerides and cholesterol from
dietary sources. Its end result is the transfer of triglycerides to adipose and muscle tissue and of
cholesterol to the liver. While the endogenous pathway is when the liver constantly synthesizes
triglycerides by utilizing as substrates free fatty acids and carbohydrates; these endogenous
triglycerides are secreted into the circulation in the core of very-low-density lipoprotein particles
(VLDL).
Cholesterol and triglycerides, being nonpolar lipid substances (insoluble in water), need to be
transported in the plasma associated with various lipoprotein particles. Triglycerides store unused
calories and provide body with energy while cholesterol is used to build cells and certain
hormones.
Lipoproteins are specifically targeted to cells by distinct apolipoproteins on their surface that
bind to specific receptors. Low density lipoprotein (LDL) contains the highest level of cholesterol.
LDL receptors in peripheral tissues bind LDL, triggering its endocytosis, lysosomal targeting and
hydrolysis. When cells have abundant cholesterol, LDL receptor synthesis is inhibited by the sterol
regulatory element binding proteins (SREBP) pathway.
5. How can a high sodium diet potentially cause hypertension?
Increased salt consumption may provoke water retention, thus leading to a condition of high
flow in arterial vessels which stiffens and narrows the blood vessels. Blood and oxygen flow to
key organs decreases and so the heart tries harder to pump blood throughout the body, which
further increases blood pressure. Moreover, a high-salt diet suppresses angiotensin II level trough
physiological blood pressure level control mechanisms.
6. How does high level of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) contribute to the formation of
atherosclerosis and how does a high level of high-density cholesterol (HDL) prevent it?
In the early stages of atherosclerosis, LDL that has entered the artery wall attracts and is
engulfed by important immune system cells called macrophages that ingest, or
"eat," LDL particles. LDL-laden macrophages become foam cells that promote inflammation and
further the development of atherosclerotic plaques. High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
oppose atherosclerosis directly, by removing cholesterol from foam cells, by inhibiting the
oxidation of LDLs, and by limiting the inflammatory processes that underlie atherosclerosis.
7. Explain how stress release prevents or decreases high blood pressure.
The body produces a surge of hormones when in a stressful situation. These hormones
temporarily increase the blood pressure by causing the heart to beat faster and blood vessels to
narrow. Stress management techniques can lead to healthy behavior changes including those that
reduce the blood pressure.