Biology Notes Blood and Circulation

Differences between artery vein and capillary:

 Biology Notes Blood and Circulation

Structure and function of RBC: Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, are the
most common type of blood cell in the human body. They are responsible for carrying
oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and transporting carbon dioxide from the
tissues back to the lungs to be exhaled.

Structure: Red blood cells are small and flexible, with a biconcave shape that provides a
large surface area for gas exchange. They do not have a nucleus or other organelles,
allowing more space for hemoglobin, the protein that binds to oxygen and carries it in
the blood. Hemoglobin gives red blood cells their red color.

Function: The primary function of red blood cells is to transport oxygen and carbon
dioxide. Oxygen binds to the hemoglobin in red blood cells as blood passes through the
lungs, and the oxygenated blood is then transported to the body's tissues. Carbon
dioxide is released from the tissues into the blood and binds to the hemoglobin in red
blood cells, which transport it back to the lungs to be exhaled.

Red blood cells are constantly produced in the bone marrow and have a lifespan of
about 120 days. They are removed from circulation by the spleen and liver, where they
are broken down and their components are recycled or excreted.

Abnormalities in red blood cell count, shape, or function can cause various medical
conditions, including anemia, sickle cell disease, and thalassemia. Treatment for these
conditions may include blood transfusions, medications, or bone marrow transplant.

Functions of Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that plays a
crucial role in the body's immune system. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B
cells and T cells. Here are some of the functions of lymphocytes:

1. Defense against infection: Lymphocytes play a key role in defending the body against
infections caused by viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens. They can recognize and
attack foreign substances in the body, such as viruses and bacteria, to prevent them
from causing harm.
2. Production of antibodies: B cells are responsible for producing antibodies, which are
proteins that can recognize and bind to specific antigens, such as those found on the
surface of bacteria or viruses. Once bound to an antigen, antibodies can mark the
antigen for destruction by other immune cells.
3. Activation of T cells: T cells play a key role in activating and coordinating the immune
response. They can recognize and respond to specific antigens and help to recruit other
immune cells to attack infected or cancerous cells.
4. Memory of past infections: Once the body has been exposed to a specific pathogen,
lymphocytes can remember the pathogen and respond more quickly and effectively to
future infections with the same pathogen.
5. Control of autoimmune diseases: Lymphocytes play a role in regulating the immune
system and preventing it from attacking the body's own cells and tissues. Dysfunction of
 Biology Notes Blood and Circulation

lymphocytes can lead to autoimmune diseases, where the immune system mistakenly
attacks the body's own cells.

Overall, lymphocytes play a critical role in protecting the body from infections and
diseases, as well as maintaining immune system balance.

Functions of phagocytes: Phagocytes are a type of white blood cell that plays a
crucial role in the body's immune system. They specialize in engulfing and destroying
foreign particles such as bacteria, viruses, and cellular debris. Here are some of the
functions of phagocytes:

1. Elimination of pathogens: Phagocytes recognize, engulf, and destroy pathogens such

as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. They use special receptors on their cell surfaces to
identify foreign particles and then internalize them.
2. Clearance of dead cells and debris: Phagocytes also play an important role in removing
dead cells and cellular debris from the body. They can recognize and eliminate cells
that are no longer functional, such as those that have been damaged by injury or
disease.
3. Activation of the immune response: Phagocytes can produce and release cytokines,
which are signaling molecules that help to activate and coordinate the immune
response. These cytokines can stimulate the production of more phagocytes and other
immune cells, as well as promote inflammation and tissue repair.
4. Antigen presentation: Phagocytes can present antigens, small pieces of pathogens or
other foreign particles, to other immune cells such as T cells. This presentation helps to
activate the adaptive immune response, which can provide long-term protection against
specific pathogens.

Overall, phagocytes play a critical role in the body's immune response by recognizing,
engulfing, and destroying foreign particles, as well as activating and coordinating other
immune cells.
CVD: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) refers to a group of conditions that affect the heart
and blood vessels. It is one of the leading causes of death worldwide, with risk factors
including smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, obesity, diabetes, physical
inactivity, and family history.

Functions of Blood Plasma: Blood plasma is a yellowish liquid component of blood

that makes up about 55% of the total blood volume. It is composed of water, proteins,
electrolytes, hormones, and nutrients. Some of the important functions of blood plasma
include:

1. Transport of Nutrients and Waste Products: Blood plasma is responsible for transporting
nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, and lipids, from the digestive system to the
cells of the body. It also transports waste products, such as urea and carbon dioxide,
from the cells to the organs of elimination.
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2. Maintenance of Blood Pressure: Blood plasma plays an important role in maintaining

blood pressure by regulating the volume and distribution of fluid in the body. This is
achieved through the balance of water and electrolytes in the plasma.
3. Clotting: Blood plasma contains clotting factors, which are essential for blood clotting.
These clotting factors help to prevent excessive bleeding when a blood vessel is
damaged.
4. Immunity: Blood plasma contains immunoglobulins (antibodies), which are proteins that
help the body to fight infections by recognizing and neutralizing pathogens.
5. pH Regulation: Blood plasma helps to regulate the pH of the body by maintaining the
balance between acids and bases.
6. Hormone Transport: Blood plasma helps to transport hormones from the endocrine
glands to their target organs and tissues.

Overall, blood plasma plays a vital role in maintaining the health and functioning of the
body.

Function of platelets: Platelets helps in blood clotting to occur.

Transportation of carbon dioxide in plasma: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is transported in

blood plasma in three different forms: dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, and as
bicarbonate ion (HCO3-).

1. Dissolved CO2: A small amount of CO2 is dissolved in plasma. This dissolved CO2 is
transported from the tissues to the lungs, where it is eliminated through breathing.
2. CO2 bound to Hemoglobin: A small portion of CO2 binds to hemoglobin in the red blood
cells, forming carbaminohemoglobin. This form of CO 2 transport accounts for about 10-
20% of the total CO2 transport in the blood.
3. Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-): Most of the CO2 in the blood is transported in the form of
bicarbonate ion (HCO3-). In this process, CO2 diffuses into red blood cells and combines
with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic anhydrase enzyme then converts
carbonic acid into bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and hydrogen ion (H+). The bicarbonate ion
is transported in the plasma, while the hydrogen ion binds to hemoglobin or is
transported back to the lungs to be eliminated as CO 2 through breathing.

In summary, the majority of CO2 in the blood is transported as bicarbonate ion (HCO 3-)
in plasma, while a small amount is dissolved in plasma and bound to hemoglobin in the
red blood cells.

Some common types of CVD include:

1. Coronary artery disease (CAD): This occurs when the blood vessels that supply the
heart with oxygen and nutrients become narrowed or blocked, leading to chest pain
(angina), shortness of breath, and heart attack.
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2. Stroke: This occurs when blood flow to the brain is disrupted, either by a blood clot
(ischemic stroke) or bleeding in the brain (hemorrhagic stroke). Symptoms may include
sudden weakness or numbness in the face or limbs, difficulty speaking or understanding
speech, and loss of vision.
3. Heart failure: This occurs when the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the
body's needs, leading to fatigue, shortness of breath, and fluid buildup in the legs and
lungs.

Prevention and treatment of CVD typically involve lifestyle changes such as regular
physical activity, healthy diet, and smoking cessation, as well as medications to manage
blood pressure, cholesterol, and blood sugar levels. In some cases, procedures such as
angioplasty or bypass surgery may be needed to restore blood flow to the heart or other
parts of the body.

Arteriosclerosis is a condition in which the arteries become thickened and hardened,

leading to reduced blood flow to the organs and tissues of the body. There are different
types of arteriosclerosis: atherosclerosis, and arteriolosclerosis.

1. Atherosclerosis: This is the most common form of arteriosclerosis, and occurs when
fatty deposits (plaque) build up in the inner lining of the arteries, causing them to
become narrowed and stiff. This can restrict blood flow to the heart, brain, and other
organs, increasing the risk of heart attack, stroke, and other complications.
2. Arteriolosclerosis: This involves thickening and narrowing of the small arteries and
arterioles, which can lead to organ damage and hypertension (high blood pressure).

Risk factors for arteriosclerosis include smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol,
diabetes, obesity, and a family history of the condition. Treatment may involve lifestyle
changes such as diet and exercise, medications to manage blood pressure and
cholesterol, and procedures such as angioplasty or bypass surgery to restore blood flow
in the affected arteries.