Data Communication &

Computer Networks (DCCN)

IT-360
Transmission Medium II

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Data and Signals - Analog & Digital
• To be transmitted:
“Data must be transformed to electromagnetic
signals”
• Analog Data refers to “information that is continuous”
• Digital Data refers to “information that has discrete
states”
• Examples:
• Analog Clock-gives information in continuous form.
• Digital clock-will change suddenly from 08:05 to
8:06

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Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals

• Both analog and digital signals can take one of two

forms:
1. Periodic
2. Non-Periodic (Aperiodic)
• A periodic signal completes a pattern within a
measurable time frame, called a period, and repeats
that’s pattern over subsequent identical periods.
• The completion of a full pattern in called a cycle.
• A Non-periodic signal changes without exhibiting a
pattern or cycle that repeats over time.
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Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals

• Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or

non-periodic.
• In Data Communication, we commonly use
• periodic analog signals (because they need less
bandwidth) and
• non-periodic digital signals (because they can
represent variation in data).

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Transmission Impairment

• Signals travel through transmission media, which

are not perfect.
• The imperfection causes signal impairment.
• This means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of
the medium. What is sent is not what is received.
Three causes of impairment are:
1.Attenuation
2.Distortion
3.Noise
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Attenuation

• Attenuation means a loss of energy.

• When a signal travels through a medium, it loses
some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of
the medium.
• Some of the electrical energy in the signal is
converted to heat.

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Attenuation

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Distortion
• Distortion means that the signal changes its form
or shape.
• Distortion, any change in a signal that alters the
basic waveform or the relationship between
various frequency components; it is usually a
degradation of the signal.

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Noise
• Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of
noise, such as:
1. Thermal noise is generated as a result
of thermal agitation of the charge carriers which are
typically electrons within an electrical conductor.
This thermal noise actually occurs regardless of the
applied voltage because the charge carriers vibrate as
a result of the temperature.
2. Induced noise is the noise generated in a circuit by a
varying magnetic or electrostatic field produced by
another circuit.
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Noise

3. Crosstalk noise refers to unintentional coupling

of activity between two or. more signals.
The crosstalk noise is caused by the capacitive
coupling between neighbouring signals on the
die.
4. Impulse noise is a category of
(acoustic) noise that includes unwanted, almost
instantaneous sharp sounds, typically caused by
electromagnetic interference, scratches on disks,
gunfire, explosions, and synchronization issues
in digital audio.
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Noise

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Bandwidth

• Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and

lower frequencies in a continuous band of frequencies.
It is typically measured in hertz, and depending on
context.

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Bandwidth

• Bandwidth refers to the measurement of data that is

transferred between two points within a set amount of
time.
• Typically expressed in bits, megabits, or gigabits per
second.
• Bandwidth is shared among devices connected to the
same network; this means activities like streaming
video content or downloading large files can use a
large amount of bandwidth and slow down
connections for other devices on the network.

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Bandwidth vs Speed

• Although bandwidth and speed are closely related

and often used interchangeably, there are some key
differences to highlight between the two concepts:
• Bandwidth describes the volume of data that can be
transferred at a given time.
• Speed describes the length of time it takes for data
to be transferred.
• Together, bandwidth and speed create a
network’s throughput.

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Transmission medium

• In data communications the definition of the

information and the transmission medium is
specific.
• The transmission medium is usually free space,
metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable.
• The information is usually a signal that is the result
of a conversion of data from another form.

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Classes of transmission media

• In telecommunications, transmission media can be

divided into two broad categories: guided and
unguided.
• Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• Unguided medium is free space.

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Classes of transmission media

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Guided Media

• A signal traveling along guided media is directed

and contained by the physical limits of the medium
• Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)
conductors that accept and transport signals in the
form of electric current.
• Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports
signals in the form of light.

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Twisted-pair cable

• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally

copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together.

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Twisted-pair cable

• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the

receiver, and the other is used only as a ground
reference.
• The receiver uses the difference between the two.
• In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of
the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may
affect both wires and create unwanted signals.

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Twisted-pair cable

• If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these

unwanted signals is not the same in both wires
because they are at different locations relative to the
noise or crosstalk sources (e,g., one is closer and the
other is farther).
• This results in a difference at the receiver. By
twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained.

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Twisted-pair cable

• For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer

to the noise source and the other is farther; in the
next twist, the reverse is true.
• Twisting makes it probable that both wires are
equally affected by external influences (noise or
crosstalk).
• This means that the receiver, which calculates the
difference between the two, receives no unwanted
signals.

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Twisted-pair cable

• The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out.

• So, the number of twists per unit of length (e.g.,
inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable.

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Unshielded vs Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

• The most common twisted-pair cable used in

communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-
pair (UTP).
• IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair
cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP).

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Unshielded vs Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

• STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering

that encases each pair of insulated conductors.
• Although metal casing improves the quality of cable
by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it
is bulkier and more expensive.

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Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cable

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Categories of unshielded twisted-pair
cables
Category Bandwidth Data Rate Digital/Analog Use

1 very low < 100 kbps Analog Telephone

2 < 2 MHz 2 Mbps Analog/digital T-1 lines

3 16 MHz 10 Mbps Digital LANs

4 20 MHz 20 Mbps Digital LANs

5 100 MHz 100 Mbps Digital LANs

6 (draft) 200 MHz 200 Mbps Digital LANs

7 (draft) 600 MHz 600 Mbps Digital LANs

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UTP connector

• The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ

stands for registered jack).
• The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the
connector can be inserted in only one way.

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UTP performance

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