PSY 9 STUDY NOTES

module 1: Introduction to I/O Psychology 

industrial-organizational psychology 
• a branch of psychology that applies the principles of psychology to the workplace 
• purpose is “to enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and the organizations
they work in, by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior”

how is I/O psychology different from business field and from other branches of psychology?
• application of psychological principles in the work setting 
• it examines factors that affect the people in an organization as opposed to the broader
aspects of running an organization
• I/O psychologists are not clinical psychologists in an industry, and they do not conduct
therapy for workers
• I/O psychologists are trained to use empirical data and statistics rather than intuition to make
decisions 
• science-practitioner model: I/O psychologists act as scientists when they conduct research
and as practitioners when they work with actual organizations 

major fields of I/O psychology 

industrial approach 
• focuses on determining the competencies needed to perform a job, staffing the organization
with employees who have those competencies, and increasing those competencies through
training 
a. determines competencies 
b. recruits and hires employees 
c. conducts training 

organizational approach 
• creates an organizational structure and culture that will motivate employees to perform well,
give them the necessary information to do their jobs, and provide working conditions that
are safe and result in an enjoyable and satisfying work/life environment 

personnel psychology 
• the field of study that concentrates on the selection and evaluation of employees 
a. analyzing jobs 
b. recruiting applicants 
c. selecting employees 
d. determining salary levels 
e. training employees 
f. evaluating employee performance 

organizational psychology 
• the field of study that investigates the behavior of employees within the context of an
organization 
a. leadership 
b. job satisfaction
c. employee motivation
d. organizational communication
e. conflict management 
f. organizational change 
g. group processes within an organization

human factors/ergonomics 
• a field of study concentrating on the interaction between humans and machines 
a. workplace design 
b. human-machine interaction
c. ergonomics
d. physical fatigue and stress 

brief history of I/O psychology 

1903 
Walter Dill Scott 
• the Theory of Advertising; applied psychology to business 

1910 
Hugo Munsterberg 
• Psychology and Industrial Efficiency: published in 1913 

1911 
Walter Dill Scott 
• Increasing Human Efficiency in Business

World war 1 
• I/O psychologists were employed to screen and place recruits in appropriate positions in the
military 
• psychological testing was utilized 
a. army alpha - intelligence test for soldiers who can read
b. army beta - intelligence tests for soldiers who cannot read 

John B. Watson 
• developed perceptual and motor tests for potential pilots 

Henry Gantt and other psychologists 

• responsible for increasing the efficiency with which cargo ships were built, repaired, and
loaded 

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 

• improve prdubtiving and reduce fatigue by studying the motions used by workers 

Hawthorne studies 
• a series of studies, conducted at the Western Electric plant in Hawthorne, Illinois, that have
come to represent any change in behavior when people react to a change in the environment 

Hawthorne effect 
• when employees change their behavior due solely to the fact that they are receiving attention
or are being observed 

1960s 
• characterized by the passage of several major pieces of civil rights legislation
1970s 
• great strides in the understanding of many organizational psychology issues that involved
employee satisfaction and motivation

2000s
• rapid advances in technology changing demographic makeup of the workforce 
• global economy 

employment of I/O psychologists

1. collies and universities 
2. consulting firms 
3. private sector 
4. public sector 

research in I/O psychology

why conduct research?

1. answering questions and making decisions 
• saving organizations from more costs 
2. we encounter research everyday
3. common sense is often wrong 

what to consider?
1. what to research 
2. literature review 
3. location of the study 
4. research method
5. subject samples 
6. running the study 
7. statistical analysis

what to research? 

hypothesis 
• an educated prediction about the answer to the research question

theory 
• a systematic set of assumptions regarding the cause and nature of behavior 

literature reviews 

journals 
• a written collection of articles describing the methods and results of new research 

trade magazines 
• a collection of articles for those “in the biz,” about related professional topics, seldom
directly reporting the methods and results of new research 

magazines 
• an unscientific collection of articles about a wide range of topics 

location of the study

 1. laboratory research
• disadvantages:
•  (a) external validity - the extent to which results can be expected to hold true outside the
specific setting in which they were obtained 
• (b) generalizability - like external validity, the extent to which research results hold true
outside the specific setting in which they were obtained 

2. field research
•  natural setting
• disadvantages: 
• (a) control over extraneous variables
• (b) need for informed consent 

informed consent 
• the formal process by which subjects give permission to be included in a study 

institutional review boards 

• a committee designed to ensure the ethical treatment of research subjects

the research method to be used

1. experiments 
• cause-and-effect relationships 
• the independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter

2. quasi-experiments 
• research method in which the experimenter either does not manipulate the independent
variable or in which subjects are not randomly assigned to conditions 

3. archival research 
• research that involves the use of previously collected data 

4. surveys 
• using people of their opinion on certain topics

5. meta-analysis 
• a statistical method of reaching conclusions based on previous research

 effect size
 - a statistics that indicates the amount of change caused by an experimental manipulation 

mean effect size

 - a statistic that is the average of the effect sizes for all studies included in the analysis 

correlation coefficients 
• a statistic, resulting from performing a correlation, that indicates the magnitude and
direction of a relationship

difference score (d)

• a type of effect size used in meta-analysis that indicates how many standard deviations
separate the mean score for the experimental group from the control group
practical significance 
• the extent to which the results of a study have actual impact on human behavior 

subject samples

• size
• compositions 
• method of selecting the subjects who will serve as the sample 

random sample 
• a sample in which every member of the relevant population had an equal chance of being
chosen to participate in the study 

convenience sample 
• a nonrandom research sample that is used because it is easily available 

random assignment 
• the random, unbiased assignment of subjects in a research same to the various experimental
and control conditions 

running the study 

debriefed 
• informing the subject in an experiment about the purpose of the study in which he or she
was a participant and providing any other relevant information

statistical analysis 

correlation
• a statistical procedure used to measure the relationship between 2 variables 

intervening variable 
• a third variable that can often explain the relationship between two other variables 

ethics in industrial/organizational psychology

ethical dilemmas 
• ambiguous situations that require a personal judgment of what is right or wrong 

type A dilemma 
• there is a high level of uncertainty as to what is right or wrong, there appears to be no best
solution, and there are both positive and negative consequences to a decision

type B dilemma 
• rationalizing dilemmas 
• the difference between right and wrong is much clearer than in a type A dilemma 
• usually, individuals know what is right but choose the solution that is most advantageous to
themselves 
_____________ ________________________________________________

module 2: job analysis / job evaluation

job analysis 
•  it is the systematic study of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job and the
knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform it 

importance of job analysis: 

1. writing job descriptions 
2. employee section 
3. training 
4. personpower planning - refers to work mobility / possible work promotion
5. performance appraisal 
6. job classification - refers to classifying jobs into groups based on similarities in requirements
and duties 
7. job evaluation - refers to determining the monetary worth of a job 
8. job design - refers to determining the optimal way in which a job should be performed
9. compliance with legal guidelines 
10. organizational analysis 

Peter principle 
• the idea that organizations tend to promote good employees until they reach the level at
which they are not competent — in other words, the highest level of incompetence 

writing a good job description

• it is a relatively short summary of a job; about 2-5 pages in length 

1. job title 
• describes the nature of the job 
• assists in employee selection and recruitment 
• affects perceptions of job worth and status 
• affects clarity of resumes 

2. brief summary 
• briefly describe the nature and purpose of the job
• useful for recruitment advertising 
• should be written in an easy to understand style 
• jargon and abbreviations should not be used 

3. work activities 
• organize by dimensions 
• similar activities 
• similar KSAOs 
• temporal order 
• task statements 
 4. tools and equipment used 

5. job context 
• the environment in which the employee works
• work schedule 
• degree of supervision
• ergonomic information 

6. work performance 
• describes how performance is evaluated and what work standards are expected of the
employee

7. compensation information 
• compensable factors to determine salary 
• pay/salary grade 

8. job competencies 
• job specifications - a relatively dated term that refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities
needed to successfully perform a job. “competencies" is the more common term used today
• competencies - the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) needed to
perform a job 

preparing for a job analysis

who will conduct?

• trained individual in the HR department 
• job incumbents or supervisors 
• consultants 
• I/O psychology graduate student 

how often should a job description be updated?

• when a job changes significantly

job crafting 
• a process in which employees unofficially change their job duties to better fit their interests
and skills 

which employees should participate?

choices:
• all employees 
• random sample 
• representative sample 
• convenience sample
potential differences: 
• job competence 
• race 
• gender 
• education level 
• personality 
• viewpoint 

what types of information should be obtained?

 • formal (ex. secretary typing letters or filing memos) or (ex. secretary making coffee or
picking up the boss’s children) informal 
• levels of specificity - specific or general 

conducting a job analysis

step 1: identify tasks performed 

• gathering existing information 
• interviewing subject-matter experts (SMEs)
• observing incumbents 
• job participation 

subject-matter experts (SMEs)

• sources such as supervisors and incumbents who are knowledgable about a job 

job analyst
• the person conducting the job analysis 

SME conference 
• a group job analysis interview consisting subject-matter experts 

Ammerman technique 
• a job analysis method in which a group of job experts identifies the objectives and standards
to be met by the ideal worker 

observations 
• a job analysis method in which the job analyst watches job incumbents perform their jobs

job participation 
• a job analysis method in which the job analyst actually performs the job being analyzed 

step 2: write task statements 

• required elements to a task statement: (a) action - what is done  (b) object - to which the
action is done 
• characteristics of well-written task statements:
1. one action and one object 
2. appropriate reading level
3. the statement should make sense by itself 
4. all statements should be written in the same tense 
5. should include the tools and equipment used to complete the task
6. task statements should not be competences 
7. task statements should not be policies

task inventory 
• a questionnaire containing a list of tasks each of which the job incumbent rates on a series of
scales such as importance and time spent 

step 3: rate task statements 

• tasks can be rated on a variety of scales, only 3 are necessary: frequency and importance 

task analysis 
• the process of identifying the tasks for which employees need to be trained 
step 4: determine essential KSAOs
• knowledge - a body of information needed to perform a task 
• skill - the proficiency to perform a certain task
• ability - a basic capacity for performing a wide range of different tasks, acquiring
knowledge, or developing a skill 
• other characteristics - personal factors such as personality, willingness, interest, and
motivation and such tangible factors as licenses, degrees, and years of experience

step 5: selecting tests to tap KSAOs

• determine the best methods to tap KSAOs needed at the time of hire 

using other job analysis methods 

1. methods providing general information about worker activities 

position analysis questionnaire (PAQ)

• McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham (1972)
• 194 items 
• 6 main dimensions: information input, mental processes, work output, relationships with
other persons, job context, and other job-related variables 
• inexpensive and takes relatively little time to use 
• standardized and reliable 
• not for all year levels; hard to read

job structure profile (JSP)

• Patrick and Moore (1985)
• revised version of PAQ
• designed to be used more by the job analyst than by the job incumbent 

job elements inventory (JEI)

• Cornelius and Hakel (1978)
• another alternative to PAQ
• 153 items 
• easier to read

functional job analysis (FJA)

• Fine (1955)
• rates the extent to which a job incumbent is involved with functions in the categories of
data, people, and things

2. methods providing information about tools and equipments 

job components inventory (JCI)

• Banks, Jackson, Stafford, and Warr (1983)
• concentrates on worker requirements for performing a job rather than on specific tasks
• more than 400 questions 
• 5 major categories: tools and equipment, perceptual and physical requirements,
mathematical requirements, communication requirements, and decision making and
responsibility 
• reliable 
 3. methods providing information about the work environment 

AET 
• arbeitswissenschaftliches Erhebungsverfahrenzur Tatigkeitsanalyse
• aka “Ergonomic job analysis procedure”
• developed in Germany; Rohmert and Landau (1983)
• concerned with the relationship between the worker and work objects 
• 216 items 
• standardized 

4. methods providing information about competencies 

occupational information network (O*net)

• used by the federal government that has replaced the Dictionary of Occupational Titles
(DOT)
• 4 levels: economic, organizational, occupational, and individual

critical incident technique (CIT)

• uses written reports of good and bad employee behavior 

threshold traits analysis (TTA)

• Lopez, Kesselman, Lopez (1981)
• 33 items 
• 5 trait categories: physical, mental, learned, motivational, and social
• short and reliable, can correctly identify important traits 
• not available commercially 

fleishman job analysis survey (F-JAS)

• jobs are rated on the basis of the abilities needed to perform them
• easy to use, acceptable levels of reliability, and is supported by research 
• advantages over TTA is that it is more detailed, is commercially available, available in
several languages, and cam be completed online 

job adaptability inventory (JAI)

• taps the extent to which a job involves 8 types of adaptability 
• 132 items 

personality-related positions requirements form (PPRF)

• helps determine the personality requirements for a job 
• 107 items 
• 12 personality dimensions (Big 5)
• reliable and shows promise 

job evaluation
• the process of determining the monetary worth of a job 

1. determining internal pay equity 

• involves comparing jobs within an organization to ensure that the people in jobs worth the
most money are paid accordingly 

step 1: determining compensable job factors 

compensable factors - differentiate the relative worth of jobs 
a. level of responsibility 
b. physical demands 
c. mental demands 
d. educational requirements 
e. training and experience requirements 
f. working conditions 

step 2: determining the levels for each compensable factors 

• education
• responsibility 
• physical demands

step 3: determining the factor weights 

2. determining external pay equity 

• compares the job to the external market / other organizations
• it is important if an organization is to attract and retain employees 

salary surveys
• a questionnaire sent to other organizations to see how much they are paying their employees
in positions similar to those in the organization sending the survey 

direct compensation 
• the amount of money paid to an employee (does not count benefits, time off, and so forth)

comparable worth 
• the idea that jobs requiring the same levels of skill and responsibility should be paid the
same regardless of supply and demand

___________________________________________________________

module 3: employee recruitment and selection

employee recruitment 

recruitment 
• the process of attracting employees to an organization 

external recruitment 
• recruiting employees from outside the organization

internal recruitment 
• recruiting employees already employed by the organization
media advertisements 

1. newspaper ads 

respond by calling
• recruitment ads in which applicants are instructed to call rather than apply in person or send
resumes 

apply-in-person ads 
• recruitment ads that instruct applicants to apply in person rather than to call or send resumes

send-resume ads 
• recruitment ads in which applicants are instructed to send their resume to the company
rather than call or apply in person

blind box
• recruitment ads that instruct applicants to send their resume to a box at the newspaper;
neither the name nor the address of the company is provided 

2. electronic media 

3. point-of-purchase methods 

recruiters

1. campus recruiters 

virtual job fair 

• a job fair held on campus in which students can “tour” a company online, ask questions or
recruiters, and electronically send resumes

2. outside recruiters
• private employment agencies 
• public employment agencies 
• executive search firms - headhunters; employment agencies that specialize in placing
applicants in high-paying jobs 

employment agencies and search firms

employment agencies
•  an organization that specializes in finding jobs for applicants and finding applicants for
organizations looking for employees 

executive search firms 

• headhunters

public employment agencies 

• an employment service operated by a state or local government, designed to match
applicants with job openings

employee referrals
 • a method of recruitment in which a current employee refers a friend or family member for a
job

direct mail
• a method of recruitment in which an organization sends out mass mailings of information
about job openings to potential applicants

internet 

1. employer-based websites 
• an organization lists available job openings and provides infuriation about itself and the
minimum requirements needed to apply to a particular job 
2. job boards 
• a private company whose website lists job openings for hundred or thousands of
organizations and resumes for millions of applicants 
3. social media
4. job fairs 
• several employees are available at one location so that many applicants can obtain
information at one time 

special recruit populations

• increasing applicant diversity 

• nontraditional populations
• recruiting “passive” applicants 
• evaluating the effectiveness of recruitment strategies 

cost per applicant 

• the amount of money spent on a recruitment campaign divided by the number of people that
subsequently apply for jobs as a result of the recruitment campaign 

cost per qualified applicant 

• the amount of money spent on  a recruitment campaign divided by the number of qualified
people that subsequently apply for jobs as a result of the recruitment campaign 

realistic job previews (RJP)

• a method of recruitment in which job applicants are told both the positive and the negative
aspects of a job 

expectation-lowering procedure (ELP)

• a form of RJP that lowers an applicant’s expectations about the various aspects of the job 

employment interviews

types of interviews 
1. structure 

structured interviews 
• interviews in which questions are based on a job analysis, every applicant is asked the same
questions, and there is a standardized scoring system so that identical answers are given
identical scores 
unstructured interview 
• an interview in which applicants are not asked the same questions and in which there is no
standard scoring system to score applicant answers

2. style 
• one-on-one interviews 
• serial interviews 
• return interviews 
• panel interviews 
• group interviews

3. medium 
• face-to-face interviews 
• telephone interviews 
• videoconference interviews
• written interviews

advantages of structured interviews

• more valid 
• adds predictive power (called incremental validity) to the use of cognitive ability tests
• viewed more favorable by the courts

problems with unstructured interviews

• poor intuitive ability 
• lack of job relatedness
• interviewer-interviewee similarity 
• interviewee appearance 

primacy effect
• the fact that information presented early in an interview carries more weight than
information presented later 

contrast effect 
• when the performance of one applicant affects the performance of the next applicant 

negative-information bias 
• the fact that negative information receives more weight in an employment decision than
does positive information

nonverbal communication
• factors such as eye contact and posture that are not associated with actual words spoken 

creating a structured interview

• determining the KSAOs to tap in the interview

• creating interview questions 

6 types of interview questions:

1. clarifier 
• a type of structured interview question that clarifies information on the resume or
application
 2. disqualifier
• a type of structured interview question in which a wrong answer will disqualify the applicant
from further consideration

3. skill-level determinator 
• a type of structured interview question designed to tap an applicant’s knowledge or skill

4. future-focused question
• situational questions
• a type of structured interview question in which applicants are given a situation and asked
how they would handle it 

5. past-focused questions 
• patterned-behavior description interview (PBDI)
• a type of structured interview question that taps an applicant’s experience

6. organizational fit questions 

• a type of structured interview question that taps how well an applicant’s personality and
values will fit with the organizational culture 

• creating a scoring key for interview answers

1. right/wrong approach 
2. typical-answer approach 
• compares an applicant’s answer with benchmark answers

benchmark answers 
• standard answers to interview questions, the quality of which has been agreed on by job
experts 

3. key-issue approach 
• provides points for each part of an answer that matches the scoring key 

job search skills

successfully surviving the interview process

• scheduling the interview 
• before the interview 
a. learn about the company 
b. dress neatly and professionally 
• during the interview 
a. nonverbal behaviors
b. desired verbal behaviors
• after the interview 
a. write a brief letter or email thanking the interviewer for her time 

writing cover letters

cover letter
• a letter that accompanies a resume or job application
• never be longer than 1 page
 • contains a salutation, 4 basic paragraphs, and a closing signature

tips about cover letters:

• avoid sounding desperate and don’t beg 
• avoid grammar and spelling errors
• avoid officious words or phrases
• don’t discuss personal circumstances
• if possible, tailor your letter to each company 
• don’t write your cover letter on the stationery of your current employer

writing a resume

resume 
• a formal summary of an applicant’s professional and educational background 
• can be viewed in one of two ways: as a history of your life or as an advertisement of your
skills 

characteristics of effective resumes:

1. attractive and easy to read
2. should not contain typing, spelling, grammatical, or factual mistakes
3. should make the applicant look as qualified as possible — without lying 

types of resumes

1. chronological resumes
• jobs are listed in order from most to least recent 

2. functional resume 
• jobs are grouped by function rather than listed in order by date 

3. psychological resume 
• takes advantage of psychological principles pertaining to memory organization and
impression formatting 

averaging versus adding model

• a model proposed by Anderson that postulates that our impressions are based more on the
average value of each impression than on the sum of the values for each impression

_______________________________________________________________

module 4: employee performance evaluation

step 1: determine the reason for evaluating employee performance 

forced-choice rating scale 

 • a method of performance appraisal in which a supervisor is given several behaviors and is
forced to choose which of them is most typical of the employee 

1. providing employee training and feedback 

performance appraisal review 

• a meeting between a supervisor and a subordinate for the purpose of discussing performance
appraisal results

2. determining salary increases 

3. making promotion decisions 

peter principle 
• the idea that organizations tend to promote good employees until they wreathe level at
which they are not competent — in other words, their highest level of incompetence 

4. making termination decisions 

5. conducting personnel research 

step 2: identify environmental and cultural limitations 

step 3: determine who will evaluate performance 

360-degree feedback
• a performance appraisal system in which feedback is obtained from multiple sources such as
supervisors, subordinates, and peers 

multiple-source feedback
• a performance appraisal strategy in which an employee receives feedback from sources
other than just his or her supervisor 

1. supervisors
2. peers 
3. subordinates (also called upward feedback)
4. customers 
5. self-appraissal

step 4: select the best appraisal methods to accomplish your goals

decision 1: focus on the appraisal dimensions 

• trait-focused performance dimensions
• competency-focused performance dimensions (KSAOs)
• task-focused performance dimensions 
• goal-focused performance dimensions

contextual performance 
• the effort an employee makes to get along with peers, improve the organization, and perform
tasks that are needed but are not necessarily an official part of the employee’s job
description
decision 2: should dimensions be weighted?

decision 3: use of employee comparisons, objective measures, or ratings

employee comparisons 

rank order 
• a method of performance appraisal in which employees are ranked from best to worst 

paired comparisons 
• a form of ranking in which a group of employees to be ranked are compared one pair at a
time 

forced distribution method 

• a performance appraisal method in which a predetermined percentage of employees are
placed into a number of performance categories 

objective measures 

quantity of work 
• a type of objective criterion used to measure job performance by counting the number of
relevant job behaviors that occur 

quality of work 
• a type of objective criterion used to measure job performance by comparing a hob behavior
with a standard 
• usually measured in terms of error (deviation from a standard of quality)

attendance 
• can be separated into 3 distinct criteria: absenteeism, tardiness, and tenure 

safety 

ratings of performance 

graphic rating scale 

• a method of performance appraisal that involves rating employee performance on an interval
or ratio scale 

behavioral checklists 
• consists of a list of behaviors, expectations, or results for each dimension 
• this list is used to force the supervisor to concentrate on the relevant behaviors that fall
under a dimension

result-focused statements 
• concentrate on what an employee accomplished as a result of what she did

contamination
• the condition in which a criterion score is affected by things other than those under the
control of the employee 

employees can be rated in 3 ways:

 1. comparison with other employees
2. frequency of desired behaviors 
3. extent to which organizational expectations are met 

step 5: train raters

frame-of-reference training
• a method of training in which the rater is provided with job-related information, a chance to
practice ratings, examples of ratings made by experts, and the rationale behind the expert
ratings 

step 6: observe and document performance

critical incidents 
• a method of performance appraisal in which the supervisor records employee behaviors that
were observed on the job and rates the employee on the basis of that record 

importance of documentation:
1. forces a supervisor to focus on employee behaviors rather than trains and provides
behavioral examples to use when reviewing performance ratings with employees 
2. helps supervisors recall behaviors when they are evaluating performance 
3. provides examples to use when reviewing performance ratings with employees 
4. helps an organization defend against legal action taken against it by an employee who was
terminated or denied a raise or promotion

employee performance record 

• a standardized use of the critical-incident technique developed at General Motors 
• Flanagan and Burns (1955)

step 7: evaluate performance

• obtaining and reviewing objective data 

• reading critical-incident logs 
• completing the rating form 

distribution errors 
• rating errors in which a rater will use only a certain part of a rating scale when evaluating
employee performance 

leniency error 
• a type of error in which a rater consistently gives all employees high ratings, regardless of
their actual levels of performance 

central tendency error 

• a type of rating error in which a rater consistently rates all employees in the middle of the
scale, regardless of their actual levels of performance 

strictness error
• a type of rating error in which a rater consistently gives all employees low ratings,
regardless of their actual levels of performance 

halo errors
 • occurs when a rater allows either a single attributable or an overall impression of an
individual to affect the ratings that she makes on each relevant job dimension

proximity errors 
• occur when a rating made on one dimension affects the rating made on the dimension that
immediately follows it on the rating scale 

contrast errors 
• the performance rating one person receives can be influenced by the performance of a
previously evaluated person 

assimilation 
• a type of rating error in which raters base their rating of an employee during one rating
period on the ratings the rater gave during a previous period 

sampling problems 
• recent effect - recent behaviors are given more weight in the performance evaluation that
occurred during the first few months of the evaluation period 
• infrequent observation - the idea that supervisors do not see most of an employee’s behavior 

cognitive procession of observed behavior 

• observation of behavior 
• emotional state 
• bias

step 8: communicate appraisal results to employees

prior to the interview 

• allocating time 
• scheduling the interview 
• preparing for the interview 

during the interview 

the supervisor should communicate the following:
• the role of performance appraisal 
• how the performance appraisal was conducted
• how the evaluation process was accomplished 
• the expectation that the appraisal interview will be interactive 
• the goal of understanding and improving performance 

feedback sandwich 
• positive feedback, negative feedback, and finishing with more positive feedback

fundamental attribution error 

• tendency to attribute others’ failure or poor performance to personal rather than situational
factors

step 9: terminate employees

employment-at-will doctrine 
• the opinion of courts in most states that employers have the right to hire and fire an
employee at will and without any specific case
 • some limitations:
a. state law 
b. provisions of federal or state law 
c. contracts 
d. implied contracts 
e. covenants of good faith and fair dealing 

employment-at-will-statements 
• statements in employment applications and company manuals reaffirming an organization’s
right to hire and fire at will

legal reasons for terminating employees

• probationary period 
• violation of company rules
1. a rule against a particular behavior must actually exist 
2. company must prove that the employee knew the rule 
3. the ability of the employer to prove that an employee actually violated the rule (proof)
4. the extent to which the rule has been equally enforced 
5. the extent to which the punishment fits the crime 

progressive discipline 
• providing employees with punishments if increasing severity, as needed, in order to change
behavior 

• inability to perform
• reduction in force (layoff)

the termination meeting 

prior to the meeting 

• ensure that the legal process has been followed 
• determine how much help, if any, the organization wants to offer the employee 
• schedule an appropriate place and time for the meeting to occur 

during the meeting

• get to the point 
• rationally state the reasons for the decision, express gratitude for the employee’s efforts (if
sincere), and offer what ever assistance the organization intends to provide 

after the meeting  

• be honest with the other employees about what happened
• avoid negative statement about the terminated employee’s character 

step 10: monitor the legality and fairness of the appraisal system

_____________________________________________________________
module 5: training and development

training 
• a planned effort by an organization to facilitate the learning of job-related behavior on the
part of its employees 

determining training needs 

needs analysis 
• the process of determining the training needs of an organization

three types of needs analysis conducted:

1. organizational analysis 
• the process of determining the organizational factors that will either facilitate or inhibit
training effectiveness 

2. task analysis 

3. person analysis 
• the process of identifying the employees who need training and determining the area in
which each individual employee needs to be trained 

performance appraisal scores

• a rating representing some aspect of an employee’s work performance 

surveys 
• questionnaires asking employees about the areas in which they feel they need training 

interviews 

skill test 
• a test that measures an employee’s level of some job-related skill

knowledge test 
• a test that measures the level of an employee’s knowledge about a job-related topic 

critical incidents

establishing goals and objectives

training goals and objectives should concretely state the following:

• what learners are expected to do 
• the conditions under which they are expected to do it 
• the level at which they are expected to do it 

choosing the best training method

 • using lectures to provide knowledge
• using case studies to apply knowledge 

case study 
• a training technique in which employees, usually in a group, are presented with a real or
hypothetical workplace problem and are asked to propose the best solution 

living case
• a case study based on a real situation rather than a hypothetical one 

• using simulation exercises to practice new skills 

simulation 
• an exercise designed to place an applicant in a situation that is similar to the one that will be
encountered on the job 

• practicing interpersonal skills through role-play 

role-play 
• a training technique in which employees act out stimulated roles 

• increasing interpersonal skills through behavior modeling 

behavior modeling 
• a training technique in which employees observe correct behavior, practice that behavior,
and the receive feedback about their performance 

motivation employees to attend training

• relate the training to an employee’s immediate job 

• make the training interesting 
• increase employee buy-in 
• provide incentives 
• provide food 
• reduce the stress associated with attending 

delivering the training program

conducting classroom training 

who will conduct the training?

• in house trainers 
• external trainers

where will the training be held?

• on site 
• off site 

how long should the training be?

• distributed learning 

massed practice 
 • concentrating learning into a short period of time 

preparing for the classroom training 

 
adjusting for the audience 
• characteristics of the audience 
• ability level of the audience 

delivering the training program

• introducing the trainer and the training session
• using icebreakers and energizers
• delivering the presentation

conduct training through distance learning 

asynchronous technologies 
• distance learning programs in which employees can complete the training at their own pace
and at a time of their choosing 

synchronous technologies 
• distance learning programs that require employees to complete the training at the same time
and at the same pace although they may be in different physical locations 

interactive video
• a training technique in which an employee is presented with a videotaped situation and is
asked to respond to the situation and then receives feedback based on the response 

programmed instruction 
• a training method in which employees learn information at their own pace 

webinars 
• web seminar 
• an interactive training method in which training is transmitted over the internet 

webcast 
• a non interactive training method in which the trainer transmits training information over the
internet 

blog 
• a website in which the host regularly posts commentaries on a topic that readers can respond
to 

wiki 
• a collection of web pages in which users can create web pages on a topic and readers can
freely edit those pages 

listserv 
• a program that automatically distributes e-mail messages to a group of people who have a
common interest 

conducting on the job training

OJT 
• informal training by experienced peers and supervisors that occurs on the job and during job
tasks 

learning by modeling others 

modeling 
• social learning 
• learning through watching and imitating behavior of others

learning through job rotation 

job rotation
• a system in which employees are given the opportunity to perform several different job in an
organization

cross training
• teaching employees how to perform tasks traditionally performed by other employees

learning through apprentice training 

apprentice training 
• a training program, usually found in the craft and building trades, in which employees
combine formal coursework with formal on the job training 

learning through coaching and mentoring 

pass-through programs
• a formal method of coaching in which excellent employees spend a period of time in the
training department learning training techniques and training employees 

mentor 
• an experienced employee who advises and looks out for a new employee 

motivating employees to learn during training 

providing incentives for learning 

skill-based pay 
• compensating an employee who participates in a training program designed to increase a
particular job-related skill
1. vertical skill plans - for skill in a single job 
2. horizontal skill plans - focus on skills across multiple jobs
3. depth skill plans - reward employees for learning specialized skills 
4. basic skill plans - focus on such basic skills such as Math and English

feedback 
• providing employees with specific information about how well they are performing a task or
series of tasks 

negative feedback 
 • telling employees what they are doing incorrectly in order to improve their performance of a
task 

ensuring transfer of training 

transfer of training 
• the extent to which behavior learned in training will be performed on the job 

• use realistic training programs 

• have opportunities to practice work-related behavior during the training 

overlearning 
• practicing a task even after it has been mastered in order to retain learning 

• provide employees with the opportunity to apply their training 

• ensure management is supportive of the training 
• have employees set goals 

evaluation of training results 

• research designs for evaluation

pretest 
• a measure of job performance or knowledge taken before the implementation of a training
program 

posttest 
— a measure of job performance or knowledge taken after a training program has been completed 

solomon four-groups design 

• an extensive method of evaluating the effectiveness of training with the use of pretests,
posttests, and control groups 

evaluation criteria 
1. content validity 
2. employee reactions 
• a method of evaluating training in which employees are asked their opinions of a training
program
3. employee learning 
• evaluating the effectiveness of a training program by measuring how much employees
learned from it 
4. application of training 
• measurement of the effectiveness of training by determining the extern to which employees
apply the material taught in a training program 
5. business impact 
• a method of evaluating the effectiveness of training by determining whether the goals of the
training were met 
6. return on investment (ROI) 
• the amount of money an organization makes after subtracting the cost of training or other
interventions 
____________________________________________________________________

module 6: employee motivation

motivation
• the force that drives an employee to perform well 

employees will be motivated if: 

• they have a personality that predisposes them to be motivated 
• their expectations have been met 
• the job and organization are consistent with their values 
• the employees have been given achievable goals 
• the employees receive feedback on their goal attainment 
• the organization rewards them for achieving their goals 
• the employees perceive they are being treated fairly 
• their coworkers demonstrate a high level of motivation 

is an employee predisposed to being motivated? 

1. personality 

organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs)

• behaviors that are not part of an employee’s job but which make the organization a better
place to work 

2. self -esteem 
• the extent to which a person views him or herself as a valuable and worthy individual

consistency theory 
• employees will be motivated to perform at levels consistent with their levels of self-esteem 

increasing self-esteem 
• self-esteem workshops 
• experience with success 

self-fulfilling prophecy
• the idea that people behave in ways consistent with their self-image 

Galatea effect 
• when high self-expectations result in higher levels of performance 

• supervisor behavior 

Pygmalion effect
• the idea that if people believe that something is true, they will act in a manner consistent
with that belief 

golem effect
• when negative expectations of an individual cause a decrease in the individual’s
performance 
intrinsic motivation
• work motivation in the absence of such external factors as pay, promotion, and coworkers 

extrinsic motivation
• work motivation that arises from such nonpersonal factors as pay, coworkers, and
opportunities for advancement 

need for achievement 

• according to trait theory, the extent to which a person desires to be successful 

need for affiliation 

• the extent to which a person desires to be around other people 

need for power 

• according the trait theory, the extent to which a person desires to be in control of other
people 

are employees effectively involved in self-regulating behavior?

self-regulation 
• a theory that employees can be motivated by monitoring their own progress towards the goal
they set and adjusting their behavior to reach those goals 

self-regulation process
1. choose their goals and set levels for each goals 
2. plan how to accomplish goals 
3. take action to accomplish goals 
4. evaluate progress

have the employee’s expectations been met?

realistic job preview (RJP)

• a method of recruitment in which job applicants are told both the positive and the negative
aspects of a job 

job characteristics theory 

• Hackman and Oldham 
• certain characteristics of a job will make the job more or less satisfying, depending on the
particular needs of the worker 

needs-based theories 

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs 

1. basic biological needs 
2. safety needs 
3. social needs 
4. ego needs
5. self-actualization needs 

Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory 

 • needs are not ranked; these may operate altogether at once to elicit motivation to satisfy
them 
E = existence 
R = relatedness 
G = growth 

Frederich Herzberg’s two factor theory 

• two, and not five, basic needs: hygiene and motivator needs 
• hygiene - decrease dissatisfaction but does not necessarily result in motivation and
satisfaction 
• motivator - elicits expenditure of effort and increase satisfaction 

Douglas McClelland’s Acquired needs theory 

• needs are not innate but rather acquired/learned
• every individual prioritized needs differently 
1. need for achievement 
2. need for power 
3. need for affiliate 

process-based theories 

B.F. Skinner reinforcement theory 

• behavior depends on: stimulus, response, and reward 
• reward increases the likelihood for a response to a particular stimulus to be repeated 

John Stacy Adam’a equity theory 

• individuals view their world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes 

premack principle 
• different things reinforce different people 
• we can get people to engage in behaviors they don’t like by reinforcing them with the
opportunity to engage in behaviors they like better 

financial incentive plans 

individual incentive plans 

• pay for performance (produce) - earning at risk; employees are paid on the basis of how
much they individually produce 
• merit pay (scores) - employees receive pay bonuses based on performance appraisal scores

organizational incentive plans 

• profit sharing 

• gainsharing - employees are paid a bonus based on improvements in group

productivity 

• stock options - employees are given the option of buying stocks in the future at the
price of the stock when the options were granted 

organizational justice theory 

• if employees perceive that they are being treated fairly, they will be more likely to
be satisfied with their jobs and motivated to do well