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Introduction of solar collectors and energy and exergy analysis of a heliostat

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 The 3rd International Conference and Exhibition on Solar Energy
___________________________________________________
Basic introduction of solar collectors and energy and exergy analysis of a heliostat plant
Soroush Dabiri1, Mohammad Fazel Rahimi2
1
M.Sc. of energy systems, University of Tehran; soroosh.dabiri@ut.ac.ir
2
B.Sc. of mechanical engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology; mfr999@yahoo.com
Abstract
Since greenhouse effect due to intemperance of fossil
fuel consumption, is the reason of global warming,
attempts have been made for substitution of solar energy
for coal, oil and natural gas in last decades. There are
different approaches to benefit the sun energy and
convert it to thermal and electrical energy such as
photovoltaic (PV) Panels, solar thermal collectors,
Concentrating Solar Plant (CSP), solar cookers, etc.
In this regard which is mainly about solar collectors
the aim is to introduce different types of solar collector
systems such as solar heliostats collectors, solar parabolic
plant and solar dishes; then as a specimen the energy and
exergy of a heliostat collector with a molten salt cavity
receiver would be investigated. Finally some ways would
be introduced to optimize the performance of the plant by
calculating the energy and exergy loss of the cycle.
Keywords: solar collectors, heliostat, power tower
plant, exergy analysis, cavity receiver.
Introduction
In this regard solar collectors are categorized into two
main types: a) stationary collectors and b) sun tracking
collectors, in the following of the introduction of the
collectors, these main types would be declared clearly.
Stationary collectors are fixed in their position and do
not track the sun. Three types of collectors are explained
in this category:
 Flat plate collector (FPC)
 Stationary compound parabolic collector (CPC)
 Evacuated tube collector (ETC)
Sun tracking collectors as the name of these types,
trace the sun during the day to collect more energy
compared to stationary type. In this article four main
types of sun tracking collectors would be described.
 Parabolic through collector
 Linear Fresnel reflector
 Parabolic dish reflector
 Heliostat field collector
A review over solar collectors
 Flat-plate collectors:
The performance of a flat-plate collector is not so
complicated, it is just based on radiation passing a
transparent layer and then set on an absorber layer that
absorbs the sun energy as heat energy. The absorbed heat
is then transferred to a kind of medium fluid that could
be water, water plus antifreeze additive, or air in the tubes
to increase its temperature for direct thermal use. The
1
ICESE-2016
5-6 September, 2016, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
underside of the absorber plate and inside of the housing
are well insulated to reduce conduction losses. The liquid
tubes are connected at both ends by large diameter header
tubes.
The transparent layer in the first order is used to
prevent loss of reflect of the sun, because it doesn’t cross
the long wave lights. Also the transparent layer reduce
convection losses from the absorber plate through the
restraint of the stagnant air layer between the absorber
plate and the glass. A view of flat-plate collector is
illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1: An example of flat plate collector (FPC)
As this collector is fixed in its position and don’t track
the sun it must be facing south in the northern hemisphere
and north in the southern. The optimum tilt angle of the
collector is depended on the latitude of the location with
angle variations of 10–15 degrees [1]. Different
prototypes of transparently insulated Flat-Plate Collector
have been built and tested in the last decade. Low cost
and high temperature resistant transparent insulating (TI)
materials have been developed so that the
commercialization of these collectors becomes feasible.
 Compound parabolic collectors
Compound parabolic collectors are designed by Winston
[2]. These kind of collectors have the ability to absorb
virtually all the light emitted to the mouth of them. These
collectors are able to accept a large proportion of diffuse
radiation incident on their apertures and concentrate it
without tracking the sun [3]. Schematic diagram of the
collectors are illustrated in Figure 2.
These collector similar to flat-plate collectors should
be fixed in a specific angle called acceptance angle based
on its position, although some kinds of compound
parabolic collector can track the sun light. For stationary
CPC collectors mounted in this mode the minimum
acceptance angle is equal to 47 degrees. This angle
covers the declination of the sun from summer to winter
solstices. However for designing a compound parabolic
collector there are so many theoretical and numerical
calculations and analysis [4].
Figure 2: diagram of a compound parabolic collector
(CPC)
 Evacuated tube collectors (ETC)
Since the flat-plate collectors don’t have a good
performance in cloudy and cold weather due to the
condensation of moisture on surface of the plate,
evacuated heat pipe collectors where invented. These
solar collectors consist of a heat pipe inside a vacuum-
sealed tube, as shown in Figure 3. The vacuum envelope
reduces convection and conduction losses, so the
collectors can operate to higher temperatures than flat-
plate collectors. The pipe, which is a sealed copper pipe,
is then attached to a black copper fin that fills the tube
(absorber plate) protruding from the top of each tube is a
metal tip attached to the sealed pipe (condenser). The
heat pipe contains a small amount of fluid such as
methanol that undergoes an evaporating-condensing
cycle. In this cycle, solar heat evaporates the liquid, and
the vapor travels to the heat sink region where it
condenses and releases its latent heat. The condensed
fluid return back to the solar collector and the process is
repeated.
Figure 3: An example of evacuated tube collector (ETC)
When these tubes are mounted, the metal tips up, into
a heat exchanger (manifold) as shown in Figure 3. Water,
or glycol, flows through the manifold and picks up the
heat from the tubes. The heated liquid circulates through
another heat exchanger and gives off its heat to a process
or to water that is stored in a solar storage tank [5].
2 ICESE2016, 5-6September, 2016
 Parabolic through collectors
Parabolic through can effectively produce heat up to
temperatures about 400 C. this collector is contained of a
parabolic mirror and a metal black tube covered with a
glass tube to reduce heat losses. This tube is extended
along the focal line of the mirror. Figure 4 is showing this
kind of solar collector.
Figure 4: Diagram of a parabolic trough collector
When the parabola is pointed towards the sun,
parallel rays incident on the reflector are reflected onto
the receiver tube. It is sufficient to use a single axis
tracking of the sun such as conventional long collector
modules produced. The collector can be orientated in an
east–west direction, tracking the sun from north to south,
or orientated in a north–south direction and tracking the
sun from east to west. The collectors in south-north
direction during the year collect more energy but the
collectors in west-east direction are better just in
summers.
The biggest application of this type of system is the
Southern California power plants, known as solar
electric generating systems (SEGS) which have a total
installed capacity of 354 MW [6].
Figure 5: A photo of Shiraz parabolic plant in Iran
For tracking the sun there are two major systems. The
first one is based on motors controlled electronically
through sensors, which detect the magnitude of the solar
illumination and the second one is based on computer
controlled motors with feedback control provided from
sensors measuring the solar flux on the receiver [7].
Figure 5 displays a parabolic sun tracking collector
which is located in Shiraz in the south of Iran as the first
Iranian solar collector plant [8].
 Linear Fresnel reflector
This kind of collectors was designed by Giorgio Francia.
He developed this system at Genoa, Italy in the 60s.
Fresnel reflector is illustrated in the Figure 6.
Figure 6: Diagram of a linear Fresnel collector
The greatest advantage of this type of system is that
it utilizes flat or elastically curved reflectors which are
cheaper compared to parabolic glass reflectors.
Additionally, this type is mounted close to the ground,
causing minimizing the structural requirements. Linear
Fresnel collector is based on many mirrors focusing
gleams of light to the receiver tube which is surrounded
by secondary reflector. There are different designs of this
kind of collector. In the basic design there is just one
absorber tube, but there are new designs which hold on
two or more tubes [9].
 Parabolic dish reflector
Parabolic dish reflector, known as distributed-receiver
system, tracks the sun in two axes during the day and
focus the sunlight irradiated to the dish to a focal point.
Figure 7 is illustrating a dish collector.
Figure 7: A parabolic dish reflector
3 ICESE2016, 5-6September, 2016
The dish structure must follow the sun to reflect the
beam to the thermal receiver. The receiver absorbs the
radiant solar energy, converting it into thermal energy in
a circulating fluid. The thermal energy can then either be
converted into electricity using an engine-generator
coupled directly to the receiver, or it can be transported
through pipes to a central power-conversion system.
These collectors can exceed the temperature about
1500 degrees centigrade and they are the most efficient
of all collector systems. They typically have a
concentration ratio (the averaged radiant flux over the
dish area, divided by the insolation incident on the
receiver aperture) in the range of 600–2000, and thus are
highly efficient at thermal-energy absorption and power
conversion systems [10].
 Heliostat field collector
This kind of solar power plants are the main topic of this
regard. Heliostats are slightly concave tracking mirrors
locating around a tower which there is a receiver on its
head. Figure 8 is showing a schematic view of heliostat
field collector [11].
Figure 8 Diagram of a heliostat power plant known as
tower power
In this plant large amounts of solar energy would be
concentrated into the cavity of a receiver to be sent to a
steam-generator to produce steam at high temperature
and pressure. The heat energy absorbed by the receiver is
transferred to a circulating fluid that can be stored and
later used to produce power during the night. The
concentration ratios of this type of collector is between
300 and 1500 [12]. These kind of plants use the area from
50 to 150 𝑚2 and sometimes they utilize thermal storage
systems. In some cases hybrid plants are made which use
both solar and fossil energy in the thermal storage
system.
The average solar flux entered in the receiver has
values between 200 and 1000 kW/m2. This high flux
makes it work at about high temperatures of more than
1500 C. Cycles used for a heliostat plant are usually
Rankine and Brayton cycles which the latter are utilized
for higher temperatures [13].
Related to location of the plant, the heliostats can
locate around the receiver tower in a circle or just locate
in north of the tower (in the northern hemisphere) or just
in south of it (in the southern hemisphere).
The heat-transfer fluid may either be water or steam,
liquid sodium, molten nitrate salt (sodium nitrate or
potassium nitrate), or air in advanced systems. The
thermal-storage medium fluid should be oil mixed with
crushed rock, molten nitrate salt, liquid sodium, or The second step occurs inside of the receiver. The
ceramic bricks in advanced systems. The early tower shape of the receiver is illustrated in the Figure 10. This
powers known as Solar One plants used steam as the is a cavity receiver which utilize molten salt as the
medium for heat transfer which presented several medium for heat transfer.
problems such as storage and continuous turbine
operation [14]. To overcome these problems, Solar One
was upgraded to Solar Two, which used molten salt and
even air as the medium fluid. Figure 9 displays a real
tower power collector which is called as Solar Two in the
Mojave Desert [15],[16].

Figure 10: Shape of the receiver located on the top of the

tower

The heat delivered to the receiver is divided into two

parts. A part would be absorbed by the medium fluid and
the other part would be lost. The latter is in term of
Figure 9: A photo of a heliostat plant in Mojave Desert, convective, conductive, reflective and emissive loss of
California heat [18].

Thermal analysis of a heliostat plant 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟,𝑎𝑏𝑠 + 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (4)

The calculations for energy and exergy analysis of the
plant would be presented in the next paragraphs. Before 𝑋̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 𝑋̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟,𝑎𝑏𝑠 + 𝑋̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (5)
that the assumptions would be declared:
 There is a Rankine Cycle integrated to the tower
plant These terms would be introduced in Equations (6), (7)
 The type of receiver on the head of tower is a cavity and (8).
𝑇0 (6)
receiver 𝑋̇ = 𝑄̇
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ∗ (1 − )
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
 Medium fluid is a molten salt which is a mixture of 𝑇∗
𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟,𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 ∗ (ℎ𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡,𝑜 − ℎ𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡,𝑖 ) (7)
NaNO3 by 60 percent and KNO3 by 40 percent.
 There are four kinds of heat losses in the receiver; 𝑋̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟,𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 ∗ (𝑥𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡,𝑜 − 𝑥𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡,𝑖 ) + 𝑋̇𝐷 (8)
emissive, reflective, forced and natural convective
heat losses. The conductive heat loss is too small and
is neglected. It is necessary to calculate the temperature of the receiver
 Reflective factor and emissive factor does not surface (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 ) to obtain the energy and exergy loss of
change with the receiver surface temperature. the receiver. This is calculated by Equation (9):
At the first step the sun rays fall down over the mirror 𝑇𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡,𝑖 +𝑇𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡,𝑜
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 − ( )
surface and will be reflected to the top the tower which 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑜
2
𝑑0 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓
the receiver is located [17]. The energy and exergy + ∗ ln⁡( )
𝑑𝑖 ∗ℎ𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 2𝑘𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑖
balance is:
(9)
𝑄̇ = 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 + 𝑄̇0 (1)

𝑋̇ = 𝑋̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 + 𝑋̇0 (2) Also 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 would be calculated separately:

Which 𝑋̇ is the total exergy inserted into the heliostat Emissive heat loss:
field by sun, resulted from the Equation (3). There is emissive heat loss between receiver mouth and
𝑇 receiver surface which is calculated based on Equation
𝑋̇ = 𝑄̇ ∗ (1 − 0∗) (3)
𝑇 (10).
∗ 4
While 𝑇 is the equal sun temperature about 4500 K 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑒𝑚 = 𝜀𝑒𝑞 ∗ 𝜎 ∗ (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 − 𝑇04 ) ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 ∗ 𝐹𝑟
(10)
The second step shows the thermal calculations of energy
and exergy inside of the receiver. Respectively, the 𝜀𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 (11)
𝜀𝑒𝑞 =
energy and exergy delivered to the receiver is shown by 𝜀𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 − (1 − 𝜀𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 ) ∗ 𝐹𝑟
Q̇ and Ẋ in the Equations (4) and (5).

4 ICESE2016, 5-6September, 2016

In the Equation (10) and (11) Fr is the view factor, which
is defined as the receiver surface area divided by mouth
𝐴
area (𝐹𝑟 = 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ ). And 𝜎 is the Stephan Boltzmann
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓
factor which equals 5.67 ∗ 10−8 ⁡(𝑊⁄𝑚2 ∗ 𝐾 4 ). Also 𝜀𝑒𝑞 is
the emissivity of the receiver inner body.
Reflective heat loss:
The heat reflected to the surrounding is resulted by this
Equation (12). While 𝜌 is the reflection ratio.
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 ∗ 𝐹𝑟 ∗ 𝜌 (12)
Convective heat loss:
Usually, convective heat loss was consisted of a large
part of the total heat loss and it included both the natural
and forced convective heat loss. Forced and natural heat
loss would be calculated separately:
Forced connective heat loss
Forced convective heat loss is assumed as forced
convection from a flat plate, at the size of the receiver
mouth, and has an average temperature of the receiver
surface.
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑓𝑐,𝑐𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑓𝑐 ∗ (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 − 𝑇0 ) ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ
(13)
Where ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑓𝑐 is the forced convctive factor and is
obtained from Nusselt number:
1⁄ (14)
0.8 3
𝑁𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑓𝑐 = 0.0287 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖 ∗ 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖
In the Equation (14) the Reynolds number (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖 ) and
Prantdl number (𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖 ) are concluded of
thermodynamic formulas, based on reference
temperature (𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖 ) which is equal to 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖 =
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 +𝑇0
and the reference length is the height of the
2
receiver aperture as shown in the Figure 10.
Natural connective heat loss:
The natural convection cavity was quite similar to the flat
plate. The natural convective heat loss and natural
convective heat transfer coefficient were given by
Equations (15) and (16), respectively:
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑛𝑡,𝑐𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑡 ∗ (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 − 𝑇0 ) ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 (15)
ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑡 = 0.81 ∗ (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 − 𝑇0 )0.426
Total heat loss
As written in assumptions the conductive heat loss is
negligible; therefore the total heat loss is equal to:
𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑒𝑚 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑓𝑐,𝑐𝑛𝑣 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑛𝑐,𝑐𝑛𝑣
Steam generator and power cycle:
The third section occurs in the steam generator which is
a kind of heat exchanger. Rankine cycle is assumed that
is utilized for the power generation [19], [20]. The
Equations (18) and (19) are used for calculating the
energy and exergy balance of the steam-generator:
𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑄̇𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 ∗ (ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚,𝑜 − ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚,𝑖 )
(18)
𝑋̇𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑋̇𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑏𝑠 + 𝑋̇𝑑𝑒𝑠 (19)
It is easy to calculate 𝑋̇𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑏𝑠 as the exergy absorbed by
the power water from the molten salt. So the Equation
(20) shows the total exergy absorbed inside the receiver
𝑋̇𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 ∗ (𝑥𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚,𝑜 − 𝑥𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚,𝑖 ) + 𝑋̇𝑑𝑒𝑠 (20)
After that the heated molten salt would be sent to heat
exchanger or steam generator to transfer its energy to the
water in the Rankine cycle. Figure 11 displays the total
view of the tower power and the power cycle.
Figure 11: total shcematic view of a tower power plant
using Rankine cycle
Inside the various parts of the power cycle the overall
energy and exergy equations would be, respectively:
𝑄̇𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑊̇𝑛𝑒𝑡 + 𝑄̇𝑝𝑠,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (21)
𝑋̇𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑊̇𝑛𝑒𝑡 + 𝑋̇𝑝𝑠,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑋̇𝑝𝑠,𝑑𝑒𝑠 (22)
In the Equations (21) and (22) Q̇ st,abs and Ẋ st,abs are the
energy and exergy absorbed by the medium water for
power generation, respectively. Also Q̇ ps,loss and Ẋ ps,loss
are the total energy loss and exergy loss during the
transfer of heat inside the integrated power cycle and
Ẋ ps,des is the total exergy destruction in different steps of
the cycle, which is calculated based on entropy
generation in all components of the cycle.
(16)
Results and Discussion
According to the last part of the article, in the different
components of the plants the most controllable parts
would be described below:
The first step is the heliostat field and the results of a
study shows that increase in heliostat field area and solar
(17)
flux concludes higher power generation. The energy and
exergy efficiencies of the overall system are also found
to be increasing with increase in heliostat field area and
solar flux [12]. However there are some studies for cost
reduction of heliostat field which try to gain the optimum
area for different designs [21].
The second step occurs in the receiver which in this
regard a cavity receiver with molten salt medium was
probed. When the mouth area increased, the receiver
5 ICESE2016, 5-6September, 2016
surface temperature decreased, and the convective,
reflective, and conductive heat loss increased. Also
increase in number of tubes inside the cavity and the type
of coatings optimizes the efficiency of the receiver.
Based on Equation (12) the view factor should be
decreased to prevent reflective heat loss. When the
number tubes inside the cavity increased, the influence of
tube diameter becomes more important. A smaller tube
diameter raised the receiver efficiency and the lowers
receiver surface temperature. Thus, a smaller tube
diameter yielded a safer receiver. Therefore,
optimization is necessary for choosing the number of
tubes in the receiver and tube diameter [20].
The other steps occurs in the steam generator and
power cycle which the ways of optimizing efficiency is
the same as other types of usual plants. The main way is
to decrease the exergy destruction and exergy loss of the
various elements.
Conclusion
This article introduced the various kinds of solar
collectors which were constructed experimentally and
commercially. Then energy and exergy of a heliostat
plant known as power tower was calculated and the ways
of energy and exergy loss were described.
The formulas written in this regard show that increase in
area of the heliostat field increase the total efficiency
while the area of the receiver mouth should be decreased
to avoid heat loss. Also for construction of the receiver,
number of tubes and their diameters should be optimized.
There are several companies focusing their efforts on
solar tower powers to experiment on the various steps of
designing and constructing of this type of plants in
different countries such as US, Spain, Iran etc. However
most of the efforts in this case still remained in
experimental phase and these plants is not utilized
commercially.
Beside of power generation, other applications could
be devised for these plants such as producing hydrogen
at a large scale with no harmful greenhouse effect as
compared to conventional steam methane reforming
methods. Also hybrid integrated of heliostat plants which
utilize fossil, etc. fuel for thermal storage could be
designed and built.
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6 ICESE2016, 5-6September, 2016
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