What is an OP-AMP ?

It is a very high-gain, high-rin directly-coupled negative-feedback amplifier which

can amplify signals having frequency ranging from 0 Hz to a little beyond 1 MHz.
OP-AMP Symbol

An ideal OP-AMP has the following characteristics :

1. its open-loop gain Av is infinite i.e., Aν = − ∞
2. its input resistance Ri (measured between inverting and non-inverting terminals)
is infinite i.e., Ri = ∞ ohm
3. its output resistance R0 (seen looking back into output terminals) is zero i.e., R0 =
0Ω
4. it has infinite bandwidth i.e., it has flat frequency response from dc to infinity.
1. infinte input resistance means that input current i = 0 as indicated in Fig. 68.3. It
means that an ideal OP-AMP is a voltage-controlled device.
2. R0 = 0 means that v0 is not dependent on the load resistance connected across the
output.
3. though for an ideal OP-AMP Av = ∞, for an actual one, it is extremely high i.e., about
106. However, it does not mean that 1 V signal will be amplified to 106 V at the output.
Actually, the maximum value of output voltage is limited by the basis supply voltage,
typically ± 15 V. With Av = 106 and v0 = 15 V2 the maximum value of input voltage is
limited to 15/106 = 15 μV. Though 1 μV in the OP-AMP, can certainly become 1 V.
OP-AMP Applications
1. as scalar or linear (i.e., small-signal) constant-gain amplifier both
inverting and non-inverting,
2. as unity follower, 3. Adder or Summer
4. Subtractor 5. Integrator
6. Differentiator 7. Comparator.
Linear Amplifier
(a) Inverting Amplifier or Negative Scale.
 Unity Follower
It provides a gain of unity without any phase reversal.

preventing load resistance RL from

loading down the input source. It is due to the fact that its Ri = ∞ and R0 = 0.
Adder to Summer
The adder circuit provides an output voltage proportional to or equal to the algebraic
sum of two or more input voltages each multiplied by a constant gain factor.
Subtractor
The function of a subtractor is to provide an output proportional to or equal to the
difference of two input signals.
According to Superposition Theorem (Art.
2.17) ν0 = ν0′ + ν0″
where ν0′ is the output produced by ν1 and
ν0″ is that produced by ν2.
Integrator
The function of an integrator is to provide an output voltage which is proportional to the
integral of the input voltage.
Voltage To Current Converter Using Op Amp
Instrumentation Amplifier
 v1 − v2 v1 − v2
vo1 − vo 2 = R2 + v1 − v2 + R2
R1 R1
 R2 R2 
= (v1 − v2 ) + 1 + 
 R1 R1 
 2 R2 
= (v1 − v2 )1 + 
 R1 
• The inverting amplifier produces
 R4 
voi = −vo1  
 R3 
• The non-inverting amplifier produces
 R4   R4 
von = vo 2   1 + 
 R3 + R4   R3 
 R4   R4   R4 
vout = voi + von = vo 2   1 +  − vo1  
 R3 + R4   R3   R3 
 R4   R3 R4   R4 
= vo 2    +  − vo1  
 R3 + R4   R3 R3   R3 
  R4   R3 + R4   R4 
vout = vo 2    − vo1  
 R3 + R4   R3   R3 
 R4   R4   R4 
= vo 2   − vo1   = (vo 2 − vo1 ) 
 R3   R3   R3 
 R2   R4   R2   R4 
= −(v1 − v2 )1 +    = (v2 − v1 )1 +   
 R1   R3   R1   R3 
For R2=R3=R4,

 R2 
vout = (v2 − v1 )1 + 
 R1 
Quite often, R1 is a variable resistor that is used
to set the gain and is denoted as Rg.
Requirements of a Good Instrumentation Amplifier
Finite, Accurate and Stable Gain:
Easier Gain Adjustment
High Input Impedance
Low Output Impedance
High CMRR: The output from the transducer usually
contains common mode signals, when transmitted over
long wires. A good instrumentation amplifier must amplify
only the differential input, completely rejecting common
mode inputs. Thus, the CMRR of the instrumentation
amplifier must be ideally infinite.
Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier: VDiff = Vb – Va = 0
Temperature Controller: Vb = RB(Vdc)/(RB+RC)

Va = RA(Vdc)/(RA+RT+ ΔR)

VDiff = {RB(Vdc)/(RB+RC)} – {RA(Vdc)/(RA+RT+ ΔR)}

RA = RB = RC = RT = R

VDiff = {R(Vdc)/(2R)} – {R(Vdc)/(2R+ ΔR)}

VDiff = {RVdc[2R+ΔR] – R.Vdc.2R}/ 2R(2R+ΔR)

VDiff = R.Vdc[2R+ΔR-2R]/{2R(2R+ΔR)}

VDiff = ΔR(Vdc)/{2(2R+ΔR)}

VO = (R3/R2)Vd
Vo = (R3/R2) [ΔR(Vdc)/{2(2R+ΔR)}]

As the change in resistance ΔR << 2R, Vo can be

written as,
Vo = (R3/R2)[ΔR/4R](Vdc)
Temperature Indicator:
The circuit shown for temperature controller can also be used as a
temperature indicator. The resistive bridge is kept balanced for a particular
reference temperature when Vo = 0V. The temperature indicating meter is
calibrated to reference temperature, corresponding to this reference condition.
As temperature changes, the amplifier output also changes. The gain of the
amplifier can be appropriately set to indicate the desired range of
temperature.

Light Intensity Meter:

The same circuit can be used to detect variations in the intensity of light, by
replacing the thermistor by a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR). The bridge is set
to a balanced condition in darkness. When light falls on the LDR, its resistance
changes and unbalances the bridge. This causes the amplifier to produce a
finite output, which in turn drives the meter.
Passive Low Pass RC Filters
Low Pass Filter is a filter which will pass only low frequency signals and attenuate high
frequency signals. It allows signals only from 0Hz to cut off frequency ‘fc’. This cut off
frequency value will depends on the value of the components used in the circuit.
Generally these filters are preferable below 100 kHz. The cut off frequency is also called
as break frequency or turn over frequency.

fC = 1/(2πRC)
Passive High Pass Filter
High Pass filter allows the frequencies which are higher than the cut off frequency ‘fc’ and
blocks the lower frequency signals. The value of the cut off frequency depends on the
component values chosen for the circuit design. These high pass filters have many
applications at high frequency ranges of 10 MHz.

Frequency Response of high pass filter

fC = 1/(2πRC)
Active low pass filter circuit

Gain of the amplifier= Amax ={1 + (R2/R3)}

Voltage gain = V_out⁄V_in = A_max⁄ √(1+〖f/f_c 〗^2 )

Where
Amax = Gain of the pass band = 1 + R2⁄R3
f = operational frequency.
fc = Cut-off frequency.
Vout = Output voltage.
Vin= Input voltage.

Cut-off frequency means the point where the response drops -3 dB or 70.7% from the
pass band. Transition region means the area where falloff occurs.
Active High Pass Filter
Voltage Gain Of An Active High Pass Filter
Voltage Gain Av = Amax (f/fc) / √{1 + (f/fc)²}
Wheref = operating frequency
fc = cut-off frequency
Amax = pass band gain of the filter = 1 + (R3/R2)
Active wide Band Pass Filter

The higher cut-off frequency fH and lower cut-off frequency fL are

calculated using the first order low pass and high pass filter cut-off
frequency equations.

A Band Pass Filter is a circuit which allows only particular band of frequencies to
pass through it. This Pass band is mainly between the cut-off frequencies and they
are fL and fH. Where fL is the lower cut-off frequency and fH is higher cut-off
frequency. The centre frequency is denoted by ‘fC’ and it is also called as resonant
frequency or peak frequency.
Voltage Gain for High Pass filter:
| Vout / Vin | = [Amax1 * (f/fL)] / √[1+(f/fL)²]

Voltage Gain for Low pass filter:

| Vout / Vin | = Amax2 / √[1+(f/fH)²]

Amax = Amax1 * Amax2 The voltage gain expression for band pass filter is
given as:
| Vout / Vin | = [Amax * (f/fL)] / √{[1+(f/fL)²][1+(f/fH)²]}
Narrow Band Pass Filter
If the value of quality factor is greater than ten then the pass band is narrow and
bandwidth of the pass band is also less. This band pass filter is called as Narrow Band
Pass Filter. It uses only one active component (op-amp) rather than two and this op-
amp is in inverting configuration. In this filter the gain of the op-amp is maximum at
centre frequency fc.
The voltage gain of the above filter circuit is AV = – R2 / R1
The cut-off frequencies of the filter circuit are
fC1 = 1 / (2πR1C1) and fC2 = 1 / (2πR2C2)
 Wide Band Stop Filter

can block or at least severely attenuate a band

of frequencies within these two cut-off
frequency points
Single Op-amp Twin-T Notch Filter (or) Narrow band stop

fc = 1 / (2πRC)
Voltage-to-Current Signal Conversion
In instrumentation circuitry, DC signals are
often used as analog representations of
physical measurements such as temperature,
pressure, flow, weight, and motion. Most
commonly, DC current signals are used in
preference to DC voltage signals, because
current signals are exactly equal in magnitude
throughout the series circuit loop carrying
current from the source (measuring device) to
the load (indicator, recorder, or controller),
whereas voltage signals in a parallel circuit may
vary from one end to the other due to resistive
wire losses. Furthermore, current-sensing
instruments typically have low impedances
(while voltage-sensing instruments have high
impedances), which gives current-sensing
instruments greater electrical noise immunity.
The attenuators are designed to change the magnitude of the input signal as seen at input
stage, while introducing constant impedance on all ranges of the attenuator input.

Attenuators (Uncompensated ) :- as found in Fig. ( circuit diagram )it gives a resistive divider
attenuator connected to an amplifier with a 10 pf input capacitance. If the input impedance
of the amplifier is high, the input impedance of the attenuator is relatively constant.

the RC time constant and frequency response of the amplifier are based
mostly on the setting of the attenuator, which an unfavorable feature
Basic and Simple Compensated Attenuator

The capacitive voltage dividers enhance the HF response of the attenuator. This
combination of capacitive and combination of resistive voltage dividers is known as a
compensated attenuator.
Data acquisition is the process by which physical phenomena from the real world are
transformed into electrical signals that are measured and converted into a digital
format for processing, analysis, and storage by a computer.
The basic elements of a data acquisition
system, as shown in the functional diagram of
Figure 1.1, are as follows:
• Sensors and transducers
• Field wiring
• Signal conditioning
• Data acquisition hardware
• PC (operating system)
• Data acquisition software
Transducers and sensors
Transducers and sensors provide the actual interface between the real world and the data
acquisition system by converting physical phenomena into electrical signals.
Transducers available can perform almost any physical measurement and provide a
corresponding electrical output. For example, thermocouples, resistive temperature detectors
(RTDs), thermistors, and IC sensors convert temperature into an analog signal,
while strain gauges and pressure transducers measure force and pressure respectively, while
other types of transducers are available to measure linear and angular displacement,
velocity and acceleration, light, chemical properties (e.g. CO concentration, pH), voltages,
currents, resistances or pulses.
Field wiring and communications cabling
Field wiring represents the physical connection from the transducers and sensors to the
signal conditioning hardware and/or data acquisition hardware. When the signal
conditioning and/or data acquisition hardware is remotely located from the PC, then the
field wiring provides the physical link between these hardware elements and the host
computer. If this physical link is an RS-232 or RS-485 communications interface, then
this component of the field wiring is often referred to as communications cabling.
Since field wiring and communications cabling often physically represents the largest
component of the total system, it is most susceptible to the effects of external noise,
especially in harsh industrial environments. The correct earthing and shielding of field
wires and communications cabling is of paramount importance in reducing the effects of
noise. This passive component of the data acquisition and control system is often overlooked
as an important integral component, resulting in an otherwise reliable system
becoming inaccurate or unreliable due to incorrect wiring techniques.
Signal conditioning
Electrical signals generated by transducers often need to be converted to a form
acceptable to the data acquisition hardware, particularly the A/D converter which converts
the signal data to the required digital format. In addition, many transducers require
some form of excitation or bridge completion for proper and accurate operation.
The principal tasks performed by signal conditioning are:
• Filtering
• Amplification
• Linearization
• Isolation
• Excitation
Filtering
In noisy environments, it is very difficult for very small signals received from sensors such as
thermocouples and strain gauges (in the order of mV), Where the noise is of the same or greater
order of magnitude than the required signal, the noise must first be filtered out. Signal
conditioning equipment often contains low pass filters designed to eliminate high frequency
noise that can lead to inaccurate data.

Amplification
Having filtered the required input signal, it must be amplified to increase the resolution. The
maximum resolution is obtained by amplifying the input signal so that the maximum voltage
swing of the input signal equals the input range of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC),
contained within the data acquisition hardware.
Placing the amplifier as close to the sensor as physically possible reduces the effects of noise on
the signal lines between the transducer and the data acquisition hardware.

Linearization
Many transducers, such as thermocouples, display a non-linear relationship to the physical
quantity they are required to measure. The method of linearizing these input signals varies
between signal conditioning products. For example, in the case of thermocouples, some
products match the signal conditioning hardware to the type of thermocouple, providing
hardware to amplify and linearize the signal at the same time. A cheaper, easier, and more
flexible method is provided by signal conditioning products that perform the linearization of the
input signal using software.
Isolation
Signal conditioning equipment can also be used to provide isolation of transducer signals
from the computer where there is a possibility that high voltage transients may occur
within the system being monitored, either due to electrostatic discharge or electrical
failure. Isolation protects expensive computer equipment from damage and computer operators
from injury.

Excitation
Signal conditioning products also provide excitation for some transducers. For example:
strain gauges, thermistors and RTDs, require external voltage or current excitation
signals.

Data acquisition hardware

Data acquisition and control (DAQ) hardware can be defined as that component of a
complete data acquisition and control system, which performs any of the following functions:
• The input, processing and conversion to digital format, using ADCs, of analog
signal data measured from a system or process – the data is then transferred to
a computer for display, storage and analysis
• The input of digital signals, which contain information from a system or
process
Data acquisition software
Data acquisition hardware does not work without software, because it is the software running
on the computer that transforms the system into a complete data acquisition, analysis,
display, and control system.
Application software runs on the computer under an operating system that may be
single-tasking (like DOS) or multitasking (like Windows, Unix, OS2), allowing more
than one application to run simultaneously.
The application software can be a full screen interactive panel, a dedicated input/output
control program, a data logger, a communications handler, or a combination of all of
these.
There are two options available, with regard to the software required, to program any
system hardware:
• Utilize low-level driver software, usually provided with the hardware, to
develop a software application for the specific tasks required
• Utilize off-the-shelf application software – this can be application software,
provided with the hardware itself, which performs all the tasks required for a
particular application; alternatively, third party packages such as LabVIEW
and Labtech Notebook provide a graphical interface for programming the
tasks required of a particular item of hardware, as well as providing tools to
analyze and display the data acquired