Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation (Eceg 4155) : Abrha T

Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation (ECEg 4155)
Abrha T.
-BSc. in Electrical and Computer Engineering (Industrial Control Engineering)
-MSc. in Control and Instrumentation Engineering
?
University of Gondar
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
abrhadbu@gmail.com
abrhaeitm@gmail.com
Chapter One: Basics of Measurement and Instrumentation
xBasics of Measurement and Instrumentation
 Measurement Standards  Transducer Vs Sensor
 Purpose of measurement  Errors in measurement
 General structure of measurement system  Statistical Analysis of Experimental Data
 Performance characteristics of measurement systems
 Static characteristics of instruments  Dynamic characteristics of instruments
 Measurement uncertainty  Zero order instrument
 Limiting error  First order instrument
 Precision/repeatability/reproducibility  Second order instrument
 Bias  Hysteresis  Identification of the dynamics of an element
 Range or span  Sensitivity
 Dead space  Drift
 Exercises
 Threshold  Resolution
 Assignments
 Non-linearity  Reliability
05/26/2021 ECEg4155 : ch-1- |Year IV semester I |Control and Communucation stream | Abrha
2
Introduction
Measurement Standards
There are two types of standards; basic or fundamental standards and
derived standards.
The International System of Units (SI) comprises seven base units, which
are listed and defined in Table 1 below.
All other physical quantities can be derived from these base units and are
called derived standards.
05/26/2021 ECEg4155 : ch-1- |Year IV semester I |Control and Power stream | Abrha T. 3
Introduction
 Measurement Standards ---- cont’d
Introduction
 Measurement Standards ---- cont’d
Measurement standards are devices that represent the SI standard unit in a

measurement. (For example, one might use a Zener diode together with a reference
amplifier and a power source to supply a known voltage to calibrate a digital voltmeter.
This could serve as a measurement standard for voltage and be used as a reference in a
measurement.)
[Q1.1] Why we are bothering about such standards?
Measurement is the process of gathering information from the physical world and
comparing this information with agreed standards.
Measurement is carried out with instruments that are designed and manufactured to
Introduction
 Purpose of measurement
Process: a system which generates information; Examples are a chemical reactor, a jet
fighter, a gas platform, a submarine, a car, a human heart, and a weather system. A car
generates displacement, velocity and acceleration variables, and a chemical reactor
generates temperature, pressure and composition variables.
Observer: a person who needs this information from the process; This could be the car
driver, the plant operator or the nurse.
[Q1.2] What could be the role of measurement then?
Introduction
 Purpose of measurement ---- cont’d
The purpose of the measurement system is to link the observer to the process, as shown
in Figure 1.1.
Figure -1- Purpose of measurement system.
[Q1.3] what a measurement process consists of?
Introduction
In general, measurement process consists three main parts.

 Process machine or system being measured
 Measurement system and the
 Observer
Here, the input for the measurement system is the actual value of the variable under
measurement and the output is the measured value.
Introduction
In general, measurement process consists three main parts.

 Process machine or system being measured
 Measurement system and the
 Observer
Here, the input for the measurement system is the actual value of the variable under
measurement and the output is the measured value.
Introduction
 General structure of measurement system
As shown in Figure 1.2, it is possible to identify four types of elements, although in a given
system one type of element may be missing or may occur more than once.
Figure 1.2: General structure of measurement system
Introduction
 Sensing elements
Sensing elements are in direct contact with the process and gives an output which
depends in some way on the variable to be measured.
Examples are:
 Thermocouple where millivolts e.m.f depends on temperature;
 Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain;
 Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flowrate
 If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in contact with the
process is termed the primary sensing element, the others secondary sensing elements.
Introduction
 Signal conditioning elements
Signal conditioning elements takes the output of the sensing elements and converts it into
a form more suitable for further processing, usually a d.c voltage, d.c current or frequency
signal.
Examples are:
 Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change;
 Amplifire which amplifies millivolts to volts;
 Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency voltage.
Introduction
 Signal processing elements
This takes the output of the signal conditioning element and converts it into a form more
suitable for presentation.
Examples are:
 ADC which converts a voltage into a digital form for input to a computer;
 A microcontroller which calculates the measured value of the variable from the incoming
digital data.
Introduction
 Data presentation elements
This presents the measured value in a form which can be easily recognized by the
observer.
Examples are:
 A simple pointer-scale indicator;
 Chart recorder;
 Alphanumeric display;
 Visual display unit.
Introduction
 Measurement system typical examples
A weight measurement system given below incorporates all the elements mentioned
above.
Figure 1.3: Typical example of measurement system: weight measurement system

Introduction
 Measurement system typical examples
A weight measurement system given below incorporates all the elements mentioned
above.
Figure 1.3: Typical example of measurement system: weight measurement system

Introduction
 Measurement system typical examples ---- cont’d
Figure 1.4: Other example of measurement system

Introduction
 Transducer Vs Sensor
The word ‘transducer’ is commonly used in connection with measurement and

instrumentation.
It is a manufactured package which gives an output voltage (usually) corresponding to an
input variable such as pressure or acceleration.
Therefore such a transducer may incorporate both sensing and signal conditioning
elements.
 For example a weight transducer would incorporate the first four elements shown in
figure above.
Introduction
 Transducer Vs Sensor ---- cont’d

Transducer
Figure 1.5: Sensor Vs Transducer
Measurement errors
 Errors in measurement
In order to understand the concept of errors in measurement, we should know the two
terms that defines the error.
 True Value: It is not possible to determine the true value of quantity by experiment
means.
 True value may be defined as the average value of an infinite number of measured values
when average deviation due to various contributing factor will approach to zero.
 Measured Value: It may be defined as the approximated value of true value.
 It can be found out by taking means of several measured readings during an experiment,
by applying suitable approximations on physical conditions.
[Q1.4] what is measurement error?
Measurement errors

 Errors in measurement ---- cont’d
Now we are in a position to define static error.

Static error is defined as the difference of the measured value and the true value of the
quantity.
Mathematically we can write an expression of error as,
It may be noted that the absolute value of error cannot be determined as due to the fact
that the true value of quantity cannot be determined accurately.
Let us consider few terms related to errors.
Measurement errors

 Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors
The concept of guarantee errors can better clear if we study this kind of error by
considering one example. Suppose there is a manufacturer who manufacture an ammeter,
now he should promises that the error in the ammeter he is selling not greater the limit he
sets.
This limit of error is known as limiting errors or guarantee error.
 Relative Error or Fractional Error
It is defined as the ratio of the error and the specified magnitude of the quantity.
Mathematically we write as,
Measurement errors
 Types of Errors
 Basically there are three types of errors on the basis; they may arise from the source.
 Gross Errors
 This category of errors includes all the human mistakes while observing, reading and
recording.
 Mistakes in calculating the errors also come under this category.
 For example while taking the reading from the meter of the instrument he/she may read
21 as 31.
 Gross errors can be avoided by using two suitable measures and they are written below:
Measurement errors
 Gross error reduction techniques
(i) A proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data.

 Also calculation of error should be done accurately.
(ii) By increasing the number of experimenters we can reduce the gross errors.
 If each experimenter takes different reading at different points, then by taking average of
more readings we can reduce the gross errors.
Measurement errors
 Systematic Errors
 In order to understand these kinds of errors, let us categorize the systematic errors as
(i) Instrumental Errors

 These errors may be due to wrong construction, calibration of the measuring
instruments.
 These types of error may be arises due to friction or may be due to hysteresis.
 These types of errors also include the loading effect and misuse of the instruments.
 Misuse of the instruments results in the failure to adjust the zero of instruments.
 In order to minimize the instrumental errors in measurement various correction factors

must be applied and in extreme condition instrument must be re-calibrated carefully.
Measurement errors
 Systematic Errors ---- cont’d
(ii) Environmental Errors
 This type of error arises due to conditions external to instrument.
 External condition includes temperature, pressure, humidity or it may include external
magnetic field.
 Following are the steps that one must follow in order to minimize the environmental
errors:
A. Try to maintain the temperature and humidity of the laboratory constant by making
some arrangements.
B. Ensure that there should not be any external magnetic or electrostatic field around the
instrument.
Measurement errors
 Random Errors
 After calculating all systematic errors, it is found that still some errors in measurement
are left.
 These errors are known as random errors.
 Some of the reasons of the appearance of these errors are known but still some reasons
are unknown.
 Hence we cannot fully eliminate these kinds of error.
Statistical Analysis of Experimental Data
Arithmetic Mean: When a set of readings of an instrument is taken, the individual
readings will vary somewhat from each other, and the experimenter is usually concerned
with the mean of all the readings.
 If each reading is denoted by xi and there are n readings, the arithmetic mean is given by
 [Q1.5] What does the average of the

absolute value of the deviations is
zero mean?
Performance Characteristics
A knowledge of the performance characteristics of an instrument is essential

for selecting the most suitable instrument for specific measuring jobs
The performance characteristics may be broadly divided into two groups,

namely:
Static characteristics:- the performance criteria for the measurement of

quantities that remain constant, or vary only quite slowly.
Dynamic characteristics:-the relationship between the system input and

output when the measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly.
Static Characteristics
Static characteristics of an instruments are

concerned only with steady state readings. This
includes:-
• Accuracy • Dead space
• Tolerance • Threshold
•
• Precision/repeatability/repro Linearity
ducibility • Sensitivity
• Bias • Reliability
• Range or Span • Resolution
• Accuracy

The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of the
instrument is to the correct value.
In practice, it is more usual to quote the inaccuracy figure rather than the accuracy figure
for an instrument.
Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be wrong, and is often quoted as a
percentage of the full-scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument.
for example, a pressure gauge of range 0–10 bar has a quoted inaccuracy of 1.0% f.s. (1%
of full-scale reading), then the maximum error to be expected in any reading is 0.1 bar.
This means that when the instrument is reading 1.0 bar, the possible error is 10% of this
value.
For this reason, it is an important system design rule that instruments are chosen such
that their range is appropriate to the spread of values being measured, in order that the
best possible accuracy is maintained in instrument readings.
Tolerance
Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the
maximum error that is to be expected in some value
Precision/repeatability/reproducibility
Precision is a term that describes an instrument’s degree of freedom
from random errors.
If a large number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a high
precision instrument, then the spread of readings will be very small.
 Precision is often, though incorrectly, confused with accuracy.
High precision does not imply anything about measurement accuracy.
 A high precision instrument may have a low accuracy.
Comparison of
accuracy and precision
Q: what can make a

measurement device to
be precise but
inaccurate?
Precision/repeatability/reproducibility
The terms repeatability and reproducibility mean approximately the
same but are applied in different contexts as given below.
 Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the
same input is applied repetitively over a short period of time, with
the same measurement conditions, same instrument and observer,
same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout.
Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the
same input when there are changes in the method of measurement,
observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of use and
time of measurement.
• Bias
Constant error which occurs during the measurement of an
instrument. This error is usually rectified through calibration.
Range or Span
The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum
and maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is
designed to measure.
Input range and input span
Input range and input span
Dead space
Dead space:- is defined as the range of input reading when there is
no change in output (unresponsive system)
Threshold
If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from
zero, the input will have to reach a certain minimum level
before the change in the instrument output reading is of a
large enough magnitude to be detectable.
This minimum level of input is known as the threshold of
the instrument.
Q: define threshold in relation with dead band.

• Sensitivity
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in
instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured
changes by a given amount.
Static sensitivity
Reliability
Reliability is the probability that a device will adequately perform
(as specified) for a period of time under specified operating
conditions.
Some sensors are required for safety or product quality, and
therefore, they should be very reliable.
Statistical Characteristics of Instruments
 Environmental effects
 In general, the output O depends not only on the signal input I but on
environmental inputs such as ambient temperature, atmospheric
pressure, relative humidity, supply voltage, etc.
 Thus if adequately represents the behavior of
the element under ‘standard’ environnemental conditions, e.g.
 20 °C ambient temperature
 1000 millibars atmospheric pressure
 50% RH and
 10 V supply voltage
 then the equation must be modified to take account of deviations in
environmental conditions from ‘standard’.
• Environmental effects --- CONT’D


There are two main types of environmental input.
Modifying input :-causes the linear sensitivity of an element to change.
 K is the sensitivity at standard conditions when = 0.
If the input is changed from the standard value, then IM is the deviation from standard
conditions, i.e. (new value –standard value).
The sensitivity changes from K to K + , whereis the change in sensitivity for unit change in .
Interfering input :- causes the straight line intercept or zero bias to change.
a is the zero bias at standard conditions when = 0.
If the input is changed from the standard value, then is the deviation from standard
conditions, i.e. (new value –standard value).
The zero bias changes from a to a + , where is the change in zero bias for unit change in.
 Environmental effects --- CONT’D
 The equation is then modified as
Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments
In any linear, time-invariant measuring system, the following general relation
can be written between input and output for time (t) > 0:
Where qi is the measured quantity, q0 is the output reading and a0 . . . an, b0 . . .

bm are constants.
If we limit consideration to that of step changes in the measured quantity
only, then equation (1) reduces to:
Further simplification can be made by taking certain special cases of

equation (2), which collectively apply to nearly all measurement systems.
Zero order instruments
If all the coefficients a1 . . . an other than a0 in equation (2) are assumed zero,
then:
where K is a constant known as the instrument sensitivity as defined earlier.

Any instrument that behaves according to equation (3) is said to be of zero
order type.
Following a step change in the measured quantity at time t, the instrument
output moves immediately to a new value at the same time instant t, as
shown in Figure below.
A potentiometer, which measures motion, is a good example of such an
instrument, where the output voltage changes instantaneously as the slider is
displaced along the potentiometer track.
• First order instruments
If all the coefficients a2 . . . an except for a0 and a1 are assumed zero in
equation (2) then:
Any instrument that behaves according to equation (4) is known as a first
order instrument. If d/dt is replaced by the D operator in equation (4), we
get:
Defining K= b0/a0 as the static sensitivity and =a1/a0 as the time constant of
the system, equation (5) becomes:
If equation (6) is solved analytically, the output quantity q0 in response to a

step change in qi at time t varies with time in the manner shown in Figure
below.
First order instruments
Second order instruments
If all coefficients a3 . . . an other than a0, a1 and a2 in equation (2) are
assumed zero, then we get:
This is the standard equation for a second order system and any instrument
whose response can be described by it is known as a second order
instrument.
• Second order
instruments
If equation (9) is solved
analytically, the shape of
the step response
obtained depends on the
value of the damping ratio
parameter .
In order to identify the transfer function of G(s) of an element, standard input
signals like unit step, unit ramp and sinusoidal input signals are used.
Step response of first order measurement element
Home works
Examine the step response of seconder order element having a unity
static gain.
Analyze the dynamic characteristics of zero order, first order and
second order elements using MATLAB Simulink
Reading assignment
Laplace transformation
Noise in measurement and their reduction methods

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Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation (ECEg 4155)

 Measurement Standards ---- cont’d

 Measurement Standards ---- cont’d

Measurement standards are devices that represent the SI standard unit in a

 Purpose of measurement ---- cont’d

Figure -1- Purpose of measurement system.

[Q1.3] what a measurement process consists of?

 Purpose of measurement ---- cont’d

In general, measurement process consists three main parts.

 Purpose of measurement ---- cont’d

In general, measurement process consists three main parts.

 General structure of measurement system

Figure 1.2: General structure of measurement system

 Signal conditioning elements

 Signal processing elements

 Data presentation elements

 Measurement system typical examples

Figure 1.3: Typical example of measurement system: weight measurement system

 Measurement system typical examples

Figure 1.3: Typical example of measurement system: weight measurement system

 Measurement system typical examples ---- cont’d

Figure 1.4: Other example of measurement system

The word ‘transducer’ is commonly used in connection with measurement and

 Transducer Vs Sensor ---- cont’d

Figure 1.5: Sensor Vs Transducer

Now we are in a position to define static error.

 Gross error reduction techniques

(i) A proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data.

(i) Instrumental Errors

 In order to minimize the instrumental errors in measurement various correction factors

 [Q1.5] What does the average of the

A knowledge of the performance characteristics of an instrument is essential

The performance characteristics may be broadly divided into two groups,

Static characteristics:- the performance criteria for the measurement of

Dynamic characteristics:-the relationship between the system input and

Static characteristics of an instruments are

Q: what can make a

Q: define threshold in relation with dead band.

• Environmental effects --- CONT’D

Where qi is the measured quantity, q0 is the output reading and a0 . . . an, b0 . . .

Further simplification can be made by taking certain special cases of

where K is a constant known as the instrument sensitivity as defined earlier.

If equation (6) is solved analytically, the output quantity q0 in response to a

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