Chapter 1 PPT 1

Electrical Measurement & Instrumentation
Course Code: ECEG 4155
Pre-requisite: Introduction to Control Engineering,

Introduction to communication and Computer Arch.
Chr.hrs: 5 ECTS. (2+3)
Year: IV All streams
Semester: I
Program: ECE Regular
2018/19
Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|
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ECEG 4155|ch-1
CHAPTER ONE
1. General Principles of Instrumentation Engineering
(Electrical Measurements & Measurement Systems)
Outlines:
Introduction
Standards of measurement
Electrical measuring devices
Measurement system
Performance characteristics
Static characteristics
Dynamic characteristics
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1.1. Introduction
Instrumentation:
 Is the art of science of measurement and control.
 Is an applied science that deals with analysis and design
of systems for measurement purposes such as;
 Quantify or expressing a variable numerically,
Determine the value (magnitude) of some particular
phenomena,
Indicate record,
Register, signal, or perform some operation on the value
it has determined.
Measurement:- The process of quantifying input quantity.

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Common Information( Measured Variables)
 We then define the observer as a person who needs this
information from the process. This could be the car driver,
the plant operator or the nurse. The purpose of the
measurement system is to link the observer to the process, as
shown in Figure 1.1. Here the observer is presented with a
number which is the current value of the information variable.

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1.2. Standards of Measurement
 Instrumentation engineering is a multidisciplinary subject; it
takes input quantity or variables from various disciplines such
as Electrical, Electronics, Mechanical, Chemical, Hydraulic,
and Medical etc.
 These variables or physical quantities are described in
magnitude and unit. There are different types of units used,
among the common ones are:
1. FPS system(foot, pound, second)
2. CGS system(centimeter, gram, second)
3. MKS system(meter, kilogram, second)
4. Rationalized MKSA system (meter, kilogram, second
,ampere)
 Broadly units are classified as fundamental units (unit’s
fundamental to most other units these units) and derived units.
 The SI system of units has ECEGseven
4155|ch-1 units called as fundamental
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Quantity SI unit Symbol
1 Length Meter m
2 Mass Kilogram Kg
3 Current Ampere A
4 Time Second sec
5 Luminous intensity Candela cd
6 Temperature Kelvin K
7 Amount of substance (matter) Mole mol

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 Measurement, the process of quantifying a variable, is made by
comparing the unknown quantity with a predefined standard.
 Standard: the physical representation of the unit of
measurement.
 The role of standards is to achieve uniform, consistent and
repeatable measurements throughout the world.
 Standards are available for some of the derived units besides all
the fundamentals units. E.g. F= m.a=m.v/t= [Kg.m/sec2]
 Basically Standards are classified in to four;
1. International,
2. Primary,
3. Secondary, &
4. Working standards.

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1. International Standards:
 Are devices designed and constructed to the
specification of an international forum.
 represent certain units of measurement to the closest
possible accuracy that production and measurement
technology allow.
 are periodically checked and evaluated by absolute
measurements in terms of the fundamental units.
2. Primary Standards:
 are material standard preserved under most careful
conditions.
 are not used for directly for measurements but are
used once in 10 or 20 years for calibrating secondary
standards. Representation a corresponding values. Ex:
 International Prototype meter, Imperial standard yard
(unit of linear measured
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& Instrumenation|
ECEG 4155|ch-1
8
3. Secondary standards:
 Are the basic reference standards used in the industrial measurement
laboratories.
 Are kept at a number of places under great supervision and serve as

reference for working standards.
 Also acts as safeguard against the loss or destruction of primary standards.
4. Working standards:
 are similar in design to primary, & secondary standards.
 But being less in cost and are made of low grade materials, they are used for
general applications in laboratory instruments. Example : national standards
(nationally accepted), material standards (gold, diamond).
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1.3. Electrical measuring devices
 Used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit of
measurement or standard quantity.
 Many electrical measuring devices, some of them are;
1. DC Ammeter:
 always connected in series with a ckt branch.
 measures the c/t flowing in the ckt.
 real ammeters would possess some internal resistance.
 But, ideal not.

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Extension of Ammeter Range:
 Measurement of large current requires a shunt external
resistor to connect with the meter movement.
 So only fraction of the total c/t will passes through the meter.
 Ex: If PMMC (permanent magnet moving coil) meter have

internal resistance of 10Ω and full scale range of 2mA.
Assume we wish to increase the meter range to 1A. Rsh = ?
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Direct DC Ammeter Method (Ayrton Shunt):
 Current range of DC ammeter can be further extended
by a number of shunts selected by a range switch;
 such ammeter is called a multi-range ammeter.

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Indirect D.C Ammeter Method:
Ex: Design a multi-range ammeter by using direct method to give the

following ranges 10mA, 100mA, 1A, 10A, and 100A. If d’Arsonval
meter have internal resistance of 10Ω and full scale current of 1mA.
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2. D.C Voltmeter:
 always connect in parallel with the element being measured,
 measures the voltage between the points across which its’
connected.
 Mostly employ PMMC (permanent magnet moving coil)
meter with series resistor.
 The series resistance should be much larger than the
impedance of the circuit being measured,
 and they are usually much larger than Rm.

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Ex: We have a micro ammeter and we wish to adapted it so as to

measure 1volt full scale, the meter has internal resistance of
100Ω and IFSD of 100μA. Rs= ?
Rs= Vrange/Im –Rm

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Extension of Voltmeter Range:
 Voltage range of Dc voltmeter can be further extended by a
number of series resistance selected by a range switch.
 such a voltmeter is called multi- range voltmeter.
a. Direct DC Voltmeter Method: In this method each series
resistance of multi-range voltmeter is connected directly
with PMMC meter to give the desired range.

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b. Indirect DC Voltmeter Method:
Ex: Design DC voltmeter by using direct method with

d’Arsonval meter of 100Ω and full scale deflection of
100μA to give the following ranges: 10mV, 1V, and 100V.

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1.4. Measurement System
Purpose: Monitoring & Controlling of processes and
operations, and experimental engineering analysis.
1. Monitoring of process and operations: refers to
knowing or understanding the process or operation
by measuring the variables of the process but don’t
take any action in the control sense of setting these
variables to desired point.
 Example: Thermometer used by the weather bureau is
used to provide information of the environment by
providing the atmospheric temperature. Its purpose is to
measure and indicate the weather variables and not to take
a control action, such as to set these variables to desired
ones.

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1.4. Measurement system
2. Control of process or operations: refers to attain the variable
of interest set as desired point. Thus, understanding of the
process variable or operation is required through appropriate
measurement and then a control action will be taken to let the
output keep track of set point.
 Example: Feed back control shown below is an automatic controller
that is used to control a system or process in such a way that the output
(O) is usually the set point(S) or keep track of the set point(S).

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3. Experimental engineering analysis: Another important
purpose of instrumentation is the desire of measurement for
experimental engineering analysis for design, development
and research that relies on laboratory testing of one kind for
the purpose of validating engineering design, collecting data
for future analysis etc.
The measurement system consists of four basic elements or
blocks. Figure 1.3

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1. Input: also called true value/real input/measurand, is a physical
quantity or phenomena which is to be measured. It is real physical
quantity or variable from electrical, mechanical, chemical,
hydraulic, Medical, geographical etc such as; temperature, flow,
speed etc.
2. Sensing element: The true value is sensed or detected by sensing
element. Sensor detects change of input and gives an output which
depends in some way on the variable to be measured.
 Ex:
 Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on
temperature.
 Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical
strain.

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Cont.…

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• If there is more than one sensing element in a system,
the element in contact with the measurand is termed the
primary sensing element (sensor), the others secondary
sensing elements (transducer).
• Sensor: senses a physical quantity and converts it into
an analogue quantity which can be measured
electrically such as voltage, current, capacitance,
inductance and ohmic resistance. The output needs to
be manipulated, interfaced and calibrated by the system
designer. EX: motion sensor which send out some kind
of energy like ultrasonic waves, microwaves or light
beams and sense when the energy flow is interrupted by
something entering its lane.
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Transducer:
 Device that is connected to sensor(s)
 Converts the measured quantities into standard analog electrical
signal such as;
0 to10 VDC,
-10 to +10 VDC,
4 to20 mA,
0 to20 mA, etc.
 The output can be used directly by the system designer.
 Thus a sensor is a transducer but a transducer doesn’t necessarily
mean sensor.
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Cont..
Often the sensing element is also called
transducer.
Literally transducer is any device that converts one
form of energy to another. Specifically it converts
one type of physical quantity, such as temperature,
strain, pressure, or light, into another signal
(preferably electrical).

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Cont..
 Transducers have become convenient, economical,
and highly efficient in operation by converting
the various physical quantities into related
electrical values because such electrical values can
readily be used for measuring, amplifying,
transmitting, or controlling purposes. In its applied
usage, the term transducer refers to devices of a
rather specialized nature.
 The majority either converts electrical energy to
mechanical displacement and/or convert some non-
electrical physical quantity (such temperature,
pressure, etc) to an electrical signal such as voltage
or resistance.
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3. Signal conditioning element: This takes the output of the
sensing element and converts it into a form more suitable for
further processing.
 Ex: Amplifier which amplifies millivolt to volts.
4. Signal processing element: This takes the output of the
conditioning element and converts it into a form more suitable
for presentation.
 Ex: Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a
voltage into a digital form for input to a computer.
5. Data presentation element: This presents the measured value in
a form which can be easily recognized by the observer.
Ex: Simple pointer–scale indicator.

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Cont..
 Analog indication by means of pointers (deflection
pointers)
 Digital indication using displays (LCD, LED)
 Graphically using cathode ray oscilloscopes(CRO)
 Recording the variation of signal as function of time

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1.5. Performance Characteristics
The most important step in designing instrumentation
system is the selection of sensor/transducer.
 Thus knowledge of the performance characteristic of
the sensor/transducer is essential for proper choice of
the transducer. Based on the responses of
sensor/transducer to inputs is which are either
constant or varying with time rapidly, the Performance
characteristic of sensor or transducer is broadly
classified in to
 Static and Dynamic characteristic.

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Cont.…
1. Static characteristics: are a set of performance criteria that
gives a meaningful description of the quality of
measurement while the measured quantity is either
constant or varying slowly.
 It can be; systematic (those which can be exactly
quantified by mathematical or graphical means) or
statistic (by the vary nature of random errors, the
uncertainty associated with any measurement can’t be
predetermined).
2. Dynamic characteristics: describe the quality of
measurement when the measured quantities vary rapidly
with time.

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1.5.1. Static characteristics
1) Systematic characteristics: The important systematic
characteristic of a sensor/transducer are;
Range: The input /output ranges are specified by a minimum
and maximum value.
Span: the maximum variation in input or output.
 Input/output span=Imax/Omax - Imin/Omin
Sensitivity: rate of change of output wrt input i.e. S=∆O/∆I
Linearity: relation between the input and output. An element
is said to be linear if corresponding values of I and O lie on a
straight line.
 O(I) = KI+a, k is the Slope, a is the intercept, w is ideal.

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1.5.1. Static Characteristics
Non-linearity: measure of the deviation of actual response from
the ideal straight line behavior.
Non-linearity N(I)=difference between actual and ideal straight-
line behavior, i.e.
 N(I ) = O(I) − (KI + a) or
 O(I) = KI + a + N(I)
Non-linearity is often quantified in terms of the maximum non-linearity ;
expressed as a percentage of full-scale deflection (f.s.d.), i.e. as a
percentage of span.

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Threshold: the minimum value of input that can be detected by
the sensing element.
Resolution: the largest change in I that can occur without any

corresponding change in O.

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Cont.…
Usually the mathematical model for non linear
transducer is given by
O(I)=𝑎0 + 𝑎1 I + 𝑎2 I 2 +……𝑎𝑚 I m
Example: Thermocouple
E(T)=38.74+ 3.319*10−2 T 2 +2.071*10−4 T 3 + ⋯
 Non linearity behavior makes analysis & design
for measurement and control purposes difficult.

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Hysteresis: For a given value of I, the output O may be
different depending on whether I is increasing or decreasing,
the difference b/n these two values of O is called hysteresis.
 Hysteresis H(I) = O(I)I↓ − O(I)I ↑
Again hysteresis is usually quantified in terms of the maximum
hysteresis expressed as a percentage of f.s.d., i.e. span. Thus:
Maximum hysteresis as a percentage of f.s.d.

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2) Statistical characteristics: includes;
Accuracy: a measure of how close the output reading of the
instrument is to the correct value.
Precision: the degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured. High precision does not imply anything about
measurement accuracy.
Errors in measurement
 The degree to which a measurement conforms to the expected
value is expressed in terms of error of the measurement.
 Error in measurement (e) is defined as the algebraic difference b/n
the true value of the variable and the measured value.
 The measured values are enclosed in the error bands, representing
the precision of measurement.

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Error may be expressed either as absolute error or as a
percent of error.
It is frequently more desirable to express measurements

in terms of relative accuracy;
 If a measurement is accurate it must also be precise, that is,

accuracy implies precision. The reverse, however, is not
necessary true.
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Cont.…
 The precision of a measurement is a quantitative, or numerical,
indication of the closeness with which a repeated set of measurement
of the same variable agree with the average of the set of measurements.
Precision can be expressed in a mathematical sense, or quantitatively, as
𝑋𝑛−𝑋𝑛 −
 Precision = 1- .
𝑋𝑛 −
Where: Xn = the value of nth measurement. 𝑋𝑛 − = the average of the set

of n measurements.
 The accuracy and precision of measurement depend not only on
the quality of the measuring instrument but also on the person using
the instrument.

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Errors are generally categorized into three;
i. Gross error: These errors are generally human
errors using the instruments such as misreading
instrument, incorrect adjustment , improper
application of instrument, computation errors.
ii. Systematic errors: due to short comings of the
instrument and changes in external conditions
affecting the measurement. Can be;
 instruments,
 environmental effects, or
 observational errors.
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Instruments errors: due to changes in the proprieties of the
components used in instrument such as;
 friction in the bearing of the meter movement,
 incorrect spring tension,
 improper calibration, or
 faulty instruments.
Environmental errors: due to the environmental conditions
such as;
 temperatures,
 Pressure,
 Humidity etc.
Observational errors: errors introduced by the observer.

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iii. Random errors: caused by unknown and unpredictable changes in
the experiment.
 Ex: electronic noise in the circuit of an electrical instrument.
Limiting error: the maximum deviation in the reading specified by its

manufacturer.
 Ex: the accuracy of a thermometer to measure 0-1500 oC can be

given as + 1%. The limiting error is thus +15C. If the
thermometer reads 600 Oc, the maximum deviation is +15 Oc
and in percentage it becomes +2.5% (i.e. +1.50C/600C x100).

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Cont.…
 Consider problem computing a quantity ∞ from n independent
measurement Ui
∞= f(Ui)= (U1 , U2 , … Un ) …eqn 1.1.
where i=1 … n
 The limiting errors of Ui‘s (± ∆Ui ) lead to an error of ± ∆∞ in
the computed value of ∞.
∞ ± ∆∞ = f(Ui ± ∆U1 ,U2 ± ∆ U2 …,Un ±∆Un)
Expanding equation 1.1 using Taylor series, we get

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Cont..
In actual practice, the limiting errors ∆U1,
∆U2, etc. are get small quantities and hence
higher powers of ∆U are neglible and becomes
The absolute error is given by

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Example 1
 The power dissipated in a resistor of 50 ± 1Ω is
computed by measuring the current passing through
the result or using the formula P = I 2 R. The ammeter
used has an accuracy of ±1% and its full scale reading
is 5A or 5A±1%. Calculate the limiting error in the
computed value of power, when the ammeter read 3A.
Solution
 The computed power is given by P = I 2 R =450 watt
But The limiting error for ammeter is 0.05A and
resistor is 1Ω, thus the overall limiting error in
computed value can be calculated as

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Cont..
The percentage error in computed value of

∆ 24
power is: ×100= ×100= 5.333%
𝑃 450

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1.5.2. Dynamic characteristics
 The response of an instrument to continuously changing
input(time varying input).
 Dynamic behavior (performance) of a transducer is described by

its mathematical model.
 The general differential equation describing the dynamic

behavior is given by;
Where;
 n is the order of the differential equation,
 x(t) is input, and y(t) is the output

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1.5.2. Dynamic Characteristics
 Real signals are either a function of time or frequency.
i. Time response
a. Zero order transducer: The input–output relationship is
given by;
Taking the Laplace transform;
 It is clearly seen that the input-output relationship is

expressed using static sensitivity i.e. constant. Hence,
the zero order transducer represent ideal dynamic
performance.

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b. First order transducer: I-O relationship is;
Taking Laplace transform;
 From the transfer function, the first order transducer is

described by two parameters; static sensitivity and time
constant.

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• Ex: consider 1st order system with step input;

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 The output is not exact as the input, rather it is an exponential
growth elapsing some time to reach the final or steady state,
which is dependent on the value of the time constant.
 Thus, the time constant describes the speed of response; its

magnitude determines the speed at which the output reaches the
steady state i.e.
 As its value decreases, the output reaches the steady state

quickly
 As its value increases the response become sluggish.

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c. 2nd order transducer: I-O relationship ;

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d. Higher order transducers:
 In practice many transducers have higher order dynamics
which can be described by a higher order d.E. for engineering
purpose analysis;
 They can be represented by either first order or second order

d.E. with certain linearizing assumptions.
 However when accurate analysis is required the higher order it

can be taken and solved.

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ii. Frequency response of transducers
 Steady state output of a transducer when it is
excited with sinusoidal input.
 Can be obtained from the transfer function by replacing the S=
jw.
 Represented with the help of two plots namely;
 Amplitude ratio (i.e. ratio of output to input) Vs frequency ,
&
 Phase angle shift Vs frequency.

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Cont..
Thank You.!!

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Electrical Measurement & Instrumentation

Course Code: ECEG 4155

Pre-requisite: Introduction to Control Engineering,

Chr.hrs: 5 ECTS. (2+3)

Year: IV All streams

Program: ECE Regular

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

4 Time Second sec

5 Luminous intensity Candela cd

7 Amount of substance (matter) Mole mol

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

 Are kept at a number of places under great supervision and serve as

 Also acts as safeguard against the loss or destruction of primary standards.

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

 Ex: If PMMC (permanent magnet moving coil) meter have

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Ex: Design a multi-range ammeter by using direct method to give the

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Ex: We have a micro ammeter and we wish to adapted it so as to

Rs= Vrange/Im –Rm

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Ex: Design DC voltmeter by using direct method with

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

 Digital indication using displays (LCD, LED)

 Graphically using cathode ray oscilloscopes(CRO)

 Recording the variation of signal as function of time

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Resolution: the largest change in I that can occur without any

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Maximum hysteresis as a percentage of f.s.d.

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

It is frequently more desirable to express measurements

 If a measurement is accurate it must also be precise, that is,

Where: Xn = the value of nth measurement. 𝑋𝑛 − = the average of the set

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

 Ex: electronic noise in the circuit of an electrical instrument.

Limiting error: the maximum deviation in the reading specified by its

 Ex: the accuracy of a thermometer to measure 0-1500 oC can be

and in percentage it becomes +2.5% (i.e. +1.50C/600C x100).

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

The absolute error is given by

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|

The percentage error in computed value of

Electrical Measurement & Instrumenation|