Chapter Five

Chapter Five: Sensing Elements
Measurement
System
05/26/2021 ECEg4155 : ch-5- |Year IV semester I |Control and Power stream | Abrha T. 1
Introduction
Introduction
Fig. General structure of measurement system

 A measurement system consists of four types of element:
 Sensing element
 signal conditioning element
 Signal processing element and
 Data presentation elements
 The sensing element is the first element in the measurement system
 It is in contact with, and draws energy from, the process or system being measured.
 The input to this element is the true value of the measured variable; the output of the
element depends on this value.
Introduction
 Sensing elements are classified according to whether the output signal is electrical,
mechanical, thermal or optical.
 Elements with an electrical output are further divided into passive and active.
 Passive devices such as resistive, capacitive and inductive elements require an external
power supply in order to give a voltage or current output signal;
 Active devices, e.g. electromagnetic and thermoelectric elements, need no external power
supply.
Passive sensing elements
Resistive
 Potentiometers for displacement measurement Capacitive Inductive
 Thermometer and thermistor  Capacitive displacement sensor  Inductive displacement sensor
for temperature measurement  Capacitive level sensor sensor  LVDT displacement sensor
 Strain gauge  Capacitive pressure sensor  Synchros
 Resistive gas sensor
Active sensing elements
 Piezoelectric sensor
 Thermocouple
Resistive sensing elements
Potentiometers for linear and angular displacement measurement
 Figure 5.1 shows potentiometers for the
measurement of (a) linear (rectilinear)
and (b) angular (rotary) displacement.
 They consist of a former with a
cylindrical cross-section which is either
a straight cylinder or an arc of a circle.
 Resistive material is then placed on the
former so that the resistance per unit
length is constant (the usual case).
 This means that resistance is
proportional to the distance d travelled
by the wiper between A and B.
Potentiometers for linear and angular displacement measurement --------cont’d
From Figure 5.1(a), the ratio of open circuit voltage ETh to supply voltage VS is given by:
Power Rating of Potentiometers
 The choice of a potentiometer for a given application involves four main parameters:
 Maximum travel
Depends on range of displacement to be measured, e.g. 0 to 5 cm, 0 to 300°.
 Supply voltage
Set by required output range, e.g. for a range of 0 to 5 V d.c., we need VS = 5 V d.c.
 Resistance
For a given load , choose to be sufficiently small compared with RL so that maximum non-
linearity is acceptable.
 Power rating
should be greater than actual power produced in .
Types of Potentiometers; Wire wound, cermet, hot moulded carbon, carbon film, thin metal film
 In wire wound potentiometers the resistive track, of total length or consists of n discrete turns
of wire. The resistance between A and B therefore increases in a series of steps for a smooth
continuous increase in displacement d or θ. The corresponding resolution error is therefore /n, /n
or (100/n)% . A typical family of rectilinear precision potentiometers covers displacement spans
from 12 to 2500 mm, non-linearity from ±0.2% and resolution from 0.008% with resistance
values of 40 Ω/mm.
 In conductive plastic film potentiometers the track is continuous so that there is zero
resolution error and less chance of contact wear than wire wound; the temperature coefficient of
resistance is, however, higher. A family of rectilinear precision potentiometers covers
displacement spans from 25 to 250 mm, non-linearities to ±0.04% and resistance values from 500
Ω to 80 kΩ.
 The most modern development is the hybrid track potentiometer, which is manufactured by
depositing a conductive film on a precision wire wound track and incorporates the best features of
both typ
 Advantages
 They are inexpensive.
 They are simple to operate
 They are very useful for measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
 Their electrical efficiency is very high and they provide sufficient output to permit control
operations without further amplification.
 It should be understood that while the frequency response of wire wound potentiometers
is limited, the other types of potentiometers are free from this problem.
 In wire wound potentiometers the resolution is limited while in Cermet and metal film
potentiometers, the resolution is infinite.
 The disadvantages are:
 The chief disadvantage of using a linear potentiometer is that they require a large force to
move their sliding contacts (wipers).
 Sensitive to noise
Thermometer for temperature measurement
The resistance of a conductor or semiconductor material changes when its temperature is
changed. This property is utilized for measurement of temperature.
 The resistance of most metals increases reasonably linearly with temperature in the
range −100 to +800 °C.
 The general relationship between the resistance of a metal element and temperature T °C
is a power series of the form:
Thermometer for temperature measurement ----------cont’d
 The requirements of a conductor material to be used in thermometers are:
 The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature should be as large as
possible.
 The resistance of the materials should have a continuous and stable relationship with
temperature.
 Figure 5.3(a) below shows the variation in the ratio RT /R0 with temperature for the
metals platinum, copper and nickel.
 Although relatively expensive, platinum is usually chosen for industrial resistance
thermometers; cheaper metals, notably nickel and copper, are used for less demanding
applications.
 Platinum is preferred because it is chemically inert, has linear and repeatable
resistance/temperature characteristics, and can be used over a wide temperature range
(−200 to +800 °C) and in many types of environments.
Thermometer for temperature measurement ----------cont’d
Thermistor for temperature measurement ----------cont’d
 Resistive temperature elements made from semiconductor materials are often referred
to as thermistors.
 The most commonly used type is prepared from oxides of the iron group of transition
metal elements such as chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt and nickel.
 The resistance of these elements decreases with temperature – in other words there is a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) – in a highly non-linear way.
 Figure 5.4 below shows typical thermistor resistance–temperature characteristics which
can be described by the relationship:
Thermistor for temperature measurement ----------cont’d
 Applications of Thermistors
measurement of
 Temperature
 Power at high frequencies,
 Thermal conductivity,
 Level
 Flow and pressure of liquids
 Composition of gases
 Vacuum measuremems
Strain gauge for strain measurement
Before discussing strain gauges we must first briefly explain the concepts of stress, strain,
elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
 Stress is defined by force/area, thus,
 The positive sign indicating a tensile stress which tends to increase the length of the
body and,
 The negative sign indicating a compressive stress which tends to reduce the length of
the body.
Strain gauge for strain measurement ----------cont’d
 The effect of the applied stress is to produce a strain in the body which is defined by (change
in length)/(original unstressed length). Thus,
 Again the positive sign indicates a tensile strain and The negative sign indicates a
compressive stress
 In both cases the strain is longitudinal, i.e. along the direction of the applied stress.
 The relationship between strain and stress is linear for a given body over a certain range of
values;
 The slope of the straight line is termed the elastic modulus of the body:
Returning to Figure 5.4(a) we note that the increase in length of the body is accompanied
by a decrease in cross-sectional area, i.e. a reduction in width and thickness. Thus the
longitudinal tensile strain is accompanied by a transverse compressive strain, and
 In Figure 5.4(b) the longitudinal compressive strain is accompanied by a transverse
tensile strain.
 The relation between longitudinal strain and accompanying transverse strain is:
 where ν is called Poisson’s ratio, which has a value between 0.25 and 0.4 for most
materials.
A strain gauge is a metal or semiconductor element whose resistance changes when
under strain. We can derive the relationship between changes in resistance and strain by
considering the factors which influence the resistance of the element.
 The resistance of an element of length , cross-sectional area and resistivity (Figure 5.5)
is given by:
In general with strain gauges can change if the element is strained, so that
the change in resistance is given by:
 We now define the gauge factor G of a strain gauge by the ratio (fractional change in
resistance)/(strain), i.e.
 For most metals ν ≈ 0.3,

and the term (1/e)
(Δρ/ρ) representing
strain-induced changes
in resistivity
(piezoresistive effect)
is small (around 0.4), so
that the overall gauge
factor G is around 2.0.
Example 1: A resistance wire strain gauge uses a soft iron wire of small diameter. The gauge
factor is +4.2. Neglecting the Piezo-resistive effects, calculate the Poisson’s ratio.
Capacitive sensing elements
Parallel plate capacitor
 The simplest capacitor or condenser consists of two parallel metal plates separated by a
dielectric or insulating material. The capacitance of this parallel plate capacitor is given
by:
Capacitive displacement sensors – Variable separation method
 From [5.14] we see that

C can be changed by changing either d, A or ;
 Figure 5.7 shows capacitive displacement sensors using variable separation methods.
 If the displacement x causes the plate separation to increase to d + x

the capacitance of the sensor is:
 Thus, there is a non-linear relation between C and x.
Capacitive displacement sensors – Variable area method
 In the variable area type, the displacement x causes the overlap area to decrease by
ΔA = wx, where w is the width of the plates, giving:
Capacitive displacement sensors – Variable dielectric method
In the variable dielectric type, the displacement x changes the amount of dielectric
material inserted between the plates.
 The total capacitance of the sensor is the sum of two capacitances, one with area and
dielectric constant , and one with area and dielectric constant , i.e.
Capacitive displacement sensors – Differential type
 The variable separation displacement sensor has the disadvantage of being nonlinear
(eqn. [5.15]).
 This problem is overcome by using the three-plate differential or push-pull displacement
sensor shown in Figure 5.10.
 This consists of a plate M moving between two fixed
plates F1 and F2;
 if x is the displacement of M from the centre line AB, then
the capacitances C1 and C2 formed by MF1 and MF2
respectively are:
 The relations between C1, C2 and x are still non-linear, but when C1 and C2 are
incorporated into a.c. deflection bridge, the overall relationship between bridge
output voltage and x is linear
Capacitive level sensors
 Figure 5.11 is a level sensor consisting of two concentric metal
cylinders.
 The space between the cylinders contains liquid to the height h
of the liquid in the vessel. If the liquid is non-conducting
(electrical conductivity less than 0.1 μmho cm−3), it forms a
suitable dielectric and the total capacitance of the sensor is the
sum of liquid and air capacitances.
 The capacitance/unit length of two coaxial cylinders, radii b
and a (b > a), separated by a dielectric ε is b/a) .
 Assuming the dielectric constant of air is unity, the capacitance
of the level sensor is given by:
Capacitive pressure sensors
 A commonly used capacitive pressure sensor is
shown in Figure 5.12.
 Here one plate is a fixed metal disc, the other is
a flexible flat circular diaphragm, clamped
around its circumference;
 The dielectric material is air (ε ≈ 1).
 The diaphragm is an elastic sensing element
which is bent into a curve by the applied
pressure P.
Capacitive pressure sensors ---------cont’d
 The deflection y at any radius r is given by:
 The deformation of the diaphragm means that the average

separation of the plates is reduced.
 The resulting increase in capacitance ΔC is given by:
where
d is the initial separation of the plates and
the capacitance at zero pressure.
Capacitive humidity sensors
 Figure 5.13 is a thin-film capacitive humidity sensor.
 The dielectric is a polymer which has the ability to absorb water molecules;
 The resulting change in dielectric constant and therefore capacitance is proportional to
the percentage relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere.
Inductive sensing elements
 The variable inductance type transducers work upon one of the following principles.
 Variation of self inductance
 Variation of mutual inductance and
 Production of eddy current
 Inductive Transducers Working on Principle of Variation of Self

Inductance/reluctance
 The self inductance of a coil is given by:
[5.21]
Where: N-is the number of turns

-is reluctance of the magnetic circuit
Inductive sensing elements based on principle of variation of self-
inductance/reluctance --------cont’d
 The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is given by:
Where: -length of the magnetic path in m

-effective permittivity of the medium in and around the coil
- the cross-sectional area of the magnetic path in
 Substituting this in equation (5.21), we have
Now definng a geometric configuration , then
, Where G iscalled geometric formfactor

Inductive displacement sensor
 Inductive transducer are mainly used for the measurement of displacement.
 The displacement to be measured is arranged to cause variation in any of three variables
 Number of turns ,
 Geometric configuration,
 Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits,
 For example, let us consider the case of a general inductive transducer.
 The inductive transducer has N turns and a reluctance
 When a current i is passed through it, the flux is
[5.23]
 Differentiating equation (5.23) with respect to time, we get
Inductive displacement sensor -------cont’d

 In practice we can generally arrange that one term of the right hand side in the expression
for predominates over the other.
 For example, if the current varies very rapidly, perhaps a million times per second, the
first term on right side of equation (5.24) very large as compared with the second term.
 The relation ship thus reduces to:
 The emf induced in the coil is given:
 Also the self inductance is given by
 Therefore, the output of an inductive transducer can be in the form of either a change in
voltage or a change in inductance.
Transducers working on principle of change in self inductance with change in number of turns
 The output may be caused by a change in the number of turns. Figures 5.14(a) and (b)
show the transducers used for measurement of linear and angular displacements
respectively.
 In both cases, as the number of

turns are changed, the self
inductance and the output
voltage also changes.
Transducers working on principle of change in self inductance with change in permeability
 Figure 5.15 shows an inductive transducer
which works on the principle of the variation
of permeability causing a change in self
inductance.
 The iron core is surrounded by a winding.
 If the iron core is inside the winding, its
permeability is increased, and so is the
inductance.
 When the iron core is moved out of the
winding, the permeability decreases, resulting
in a reduction of the self inductance of the coil.
 This transducer can be used for measuring
displacement.
Variable reluctance type transducers
 A variable reluctance type transducers consists of
a coil wound on a ferromagnetic core.
 The displacement which is to be measured is applied
to a ferromagnetic target.
 The target does not have any physical contact with
the core on which it is mounted.
 The core and the target are separated by an air gap,
as shown in Fig. 5.16 below
 The reluctance of the magnetic path is determined by the size of the air gap.
 The inductance of the coil depends upon the reluctance of the magnetic circuits.
Variable reluctance type transducers -------cont’d
 The self inductance of the coil is given by
 The reluctance of the iron part is negligible compared to that of the air gap.

 Therefore
 But reluctance of the air gap is given by
Where lg = length of the air gap  Hence
Ag = area of the flux path through air  i.e. the self inductance of the coil
μo = permeability is inversely proportional to the
length of the air gap.
 Rg is proportional to lg, as μo and Ag are constants.
Transducers working on principle of change in mutual inductance, The LVDT
 A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is
an absolute measuring device that converts linear
displacement into an electrical signal through the
principle of mutual induction
 The main components of an LVDT are a
transformer and a core.
 The transformer consists of three coils
 a primary and two secondaries (S1 and S2) —
wound on a hollow form, which is typically made
of glass-reinforced polymer.
 The coils are arranged such that the primary coil is
located between the two secondary coils, which are
symmetrical and wound in series but in opposite
directions (referred to as series-opposed winding).
LVDT ---- cont’d
 The basic construction is as shown in Fig. 5.8.
 The transformer consists of a single primary
winding P1 and two secondary windings S1 and
S2 wound on a hollow cylindrical former.
 The secondary windings have an equal number of
turns and are identically placed on either side of
the primary windings.
 The primary winding is connected to an ac source.

 An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow
former and therefore affects the magnetic coupling
between the primary and the two secondaries.
LVDT ---- cont’d
 A movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefore affects
the magnetic coupling between the primary and the two secondaries.
 The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft iron core.
 In practice, the core is made up of a nickel-iron alloy which is slotted longitudinally to
reduce eddy current losses.
 When the core is in its normal (null) position, equal voltages are induced in the two
secondary windings.
 The output voltage of secondary, s1, is Es1 and that of secondary, S2, is Es2.
 In order to convert the outputs into a single voltage signal, the two secondaries S1 and S2
are connected ln series opposition as shown in Fig. 5.19 below.
LVDT ---- cont’d
 Hence the output voltage of the

transducer is the difference of
the two voltages.
 Therefore the differential
output voltage
 Eo=Es1-Es2.
LVDT ---- cont’d
 The series-opposed winding of the secondary coils means that when the core is at the
center of the transformer (equidistant between the two secondary coils), the induced
voltages have equal amplitude but are out of phase by 180 degrees.
 Thus, the induced voltages cancel each other, and the output voltage is zero. (This is often
referred to as the null point.)
LVDT ---- cont’d
 When the core moves to one side — toward S1 for example — the secondary coil on that
side becomes more strongly coupled to the core, causing the induced voltage (E1) of that
secondary to be higher than the induced voltage (E2) of the opposite secondary (S2).
 The differential voltage output (E1 – E2) determines the amount of movement.
 The induced voltage (E1) of the first secondary coil is in-phase with the primary voltage,
indicating the direction of movement.
LVDT ---- cont’d
 Conversely, when the core moves to the other side of the transformer, the induced voltage
(E2) of that secondary coil is out of phase with the primary voltage, indicating movement
in the opposite direction.
 The output voltage in this case is Eo = Es2— Es1 and is in phase with Es2.
LVDT ---- cont’d
 When the core is at 0, which is the central zero
or null position. Therefore, Es1 = Es2, and Eo = 0.
 When the core is moved to the left, Es1 is more
than Es2 and Eo is positive. This movement
represents a positive value and therefore the
phase angle, is Φ = 0°.
 When the core is moved to the right t, Es2 is
greater than Es1 and hence Eo is negative.
 Therefore, S2 the output voltage is 180° out of
phase with the voltage which is obtained
when the core is moved to the left.
 The characteristics are linear from 0 — A and
0 — B, but after that they become non-linear.
LVDT ---- cont’d
Advantages of Linear Variable Differential Transducer
 Linearity: The output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for displacements
up to 5 mm (a non-linearity of 0.05% is available in commercial LVDTs).
 They have good resolution
 High output: It gives a high output (therefore there is frequently no need for
intermediate amplification devices).
 High sensitivity: The transducer possesses a sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm.
 Ruggedness: These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of vibration and shock.
 Less friction: There are no sliding contacts.
 Low hysteresis: This transducer has a low hysteresis, hence repeatability is excellent
under all conditions.
 Low power consumption
LVDT ---- cont’d
Disadvantages of Linear Variable Differential Transducer
 Large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.
 They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields (but shielding is possible).
 The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac signals, or a demodulator
network must be used if a dc output is required.
 Temperature also affects the transducer.
Transducers working on principle of change in mutual inductance, The Synchros
 A synchro is an angular position transducer.
 Internally, most synchro’s are similar in construction.
 They have a rotor with one or three windings capable of revolving inside a fixed stator.
 The primary winding is a single phase winding wound on a rotor made of laminations.
 The stator has a 3-phase winding with the windings of the 3-phase displaced by 120°.
 Synchro systems consists of two or more interconnected synchros.
 They are grouped or connected together according to the purpose to be used.
 Torque type of Selsyn consists of two rotors with a single winding and a stator with 3
windings distributed 120° apart.
 a synchro transmitter,
 a synchro receiver
 The two units are connected as shown in Fig. 5.22 below.
Synchros---------cont’d
 Initially winding S2 of the stator of

transmitter is positioned for maximum
coupling with rotor winding.
 Suppose its voltage is V.
 The coupling between s1 and S3 of the
stator and primary (rotor) winding is a
cosine function.
 Therefore the effective voltages in these
windings proportional to or they are V/ 2
each.
 So as long as the rotor is in this position,
no current will flow between the windings.
 When the rotor of the transmitter is moved to a new position, the voltage balance is disturbed .
 Assuming that the rotor of the transmitter is
moved through 30° as shown in Fig. 5.23, the
stator winding voltages of the transmitter
will be changed to 0,√3/2 V and √3/2 V
respectively.
 Hence, a voltage imbalance occurs between
the stator windings of the transmitter and
receiver.
 This voltage imbalance between the windings
causes current to flow between the windings
producing a torque that tends to rotate the
rotor of the receiver to a new position where
the voltage balance is again restored.
 This balance is restored only if the receiver

turns through the same angle as the
transmitter and also the direction of rotation
is the same as that of the transmitter.
 Hence a Synchro can be used to determine
the magnitude and direction of angular
displacement.
Piezoelectric Transducers
 If a force is applied to any crystal, then the crystal atoms are displaced slightly from their
normal positions in the lattice.
 This displacement x is proportional to the applied force F and is given by:
 The stiffness k of the crystal is large, typically .
 In a piezoelectric crystal, this deformation of the crystal lattice results in the crystal
acquiring a net charge q, proportional to x, i.e.
, From (5.29) and (5.30), we have:
,Direct piezoelectric effect
where is the charge sensitivity to force.

Piezoelectric Transducers -----cont’d
 A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain
surfaces of a crystal if the dimeo5ions of the crystal are changed . by the application of a
mechanical force.
 This potential is produced by the displacement of charges.
 The effect is reversible, i.e., conversely, if a varying

potential is applied to the proper axis of the
crystal, it will change the dimensions of the crystal
thereby deforming it.
 This effect is known as piezoelectric effect.
 The word piezoelectric means the electricity produces by
the pressure.
 The Quartz is the examples of the natural piezoelectric
crystals
 Definition: The Piezoelectric transducer is an electroacoustic transducer used
for conversion of pressure or mechanical stress into an alternating electrical force.
 It is used for measuring the physical quantity like force, pressure, stress, etc., which is
directly not possible to measure.
 The piezo transducer converts the physical quantity into an electrical voltage which is
easily measured by analogue and digital meter.
 The piezoelectric transducer uses the piezoelectric material which has a special property,
i.e. the material induces voltage when the pressure or stress applied to it.
 The material which shows such property is known as the electro-resistive element.
 The piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive.
 A tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity while a compressive force produces a
voltage of opposite polarity.
 The magnitude and the polarity of the induced surface charges are proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the applied forces.
 From equation (5.31), we have:
 Modes of operation of the piezo-electric crystal
 The piezo-electric effect can be made to respond to (or cause) mechanical deformations
of the material in many different modes.
 The modes can be :
 thickness expansion
 transverse expansion
 thickness shear, and
 face shear.
 The modes are shown below:
 Modes of operation of the piezo-electric crystal
Equivalent Circuit of Pitzo-electric Transducer  The charge generator can be
 The basic equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric
replaced by an equivalent
transducer is shown in Fig below.
voltage source having a voltage
 The source is a charge generator.
of in series with a capacitance,
 The value of the charge is Q=dF.
Ccr, and resistance, Rcr, as shown
 The charge generated is across the capacitance,
in the Fig.
Cp, of the crystal and its leakage resistance Rp.
 The value of resistance Rcr is

very large. It is of the order of
0·1 x 1012
 Properties of Piezo Electric-Crystal
 The piezoelectric material has high stability.
 It is available in various shapes and sizes.
 The piezoelectric material has output insensitive to temperature and humidity.
 the ability to be formed into most desirable shapes (usable components).
 Uses of Piezoelectric Crystal
 The piezoelectric material has high stability and hence it is used for stabilizing the
electronic oscillator (quartz crystal)
 The ultrasonic generators use the piezoelectric material. This generator is used in SONAR
for underwater detection and in industrials apparatus for cleaning.
 They are used in microphones and speakers for converting the electric signal into sound.
 The piezoelectric material is used in electric lighter.
 In measurement of quantities such as surface roughness, accelerometers and vibration
pickups
Piezoelectric Transducers solved examples -----cont’d
Hall device for magnetic field measurement
Hall Effect
 When a piece of metal or semiconductor is placed in
magnetic field, more precisely in transverse magnetic
field, and direct current is allowed to pass through it,
then the electric field gets developed across the edges of
metal or semiconductor specimen.
 This phenomenon is called Hall Effect.
 The magnitude of the emf depends upon the current,

flux density and a property of conductor called "Hall
Effect Coefficient“
 Hall effect· elements are extensively used in magnetic

measurements.
Hall device for magnetic field measurement
 Current is passed through leads I and 2 of the Hall strip.
 The output leads are at the same potential when there is no transverse magnetic field
passing through the strip.
 When there is a magnetic flux through the strip, a voltage appears between output leads.
 This voltage is proportional to the current and the field strength.
Reading Assignments
 Optical sensors
 Encoders

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Chapter Five: Sensing Elements

Fig. General structure of measurement system

Power Rating of Potentiometers

 For most metals ν ≈ 0.3,

 From [5.14] we see that

 If the displacement x causes the plate separation to increase to d + x

 Thus, there is a non-linear relation between C and x.

 The deformation of the diaphragm means that the average

 Inductive Transducers Working on Principle of Variation of Self

Where: N-is the number of turns

Where: -length of the magnetic path in m

Now definng a geometric configuration , then

, Where G iscalled geometric formfactor

 Also the self inductance is given by

 In both cases, as the number of

 The reluctance of the iron part is negligible compared to that of the air gap.

 The primary winding is connected to an ac source.

 Hence the output voltage of the

 Initially winding S2 of the stator of

 This balance is restored only if the receiver

 The stiffness k of the crystal is large, typically .

where is the charge sensitivity to force.

 The effect is reversible, i.e., conversely, if a varying

 The modes can be :

 The modes are shown below:

 The value of resistance Rcr is

 The magnitude of the emf depends upon the current,

 Hall effect· elements are extensively used in magnetic

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