Basic Electronics

Introduction
• Electronics derived from electron
mechanics(study of electron under different
conditions of externally applied fields)
• Standard definition of electronics by institution of
radio engineers as follows “field of science and
engineering which deals with electron devices
and their utilization”
• electron devices – devices where current flow is
due to controlled flow of charge carriers through
a gas, or vacuum or a semiconductor.
• Field dealing with controlled flow of electrons
 automobile
HEV
Electronic Modules-coupled systems
fuel control
Sensors robotics
Actuators
Control
MECHATRONICS
 Industrial Automation
Automatic control
CNC—computer numerical control
Quality, productivity, accuracy , safety
Artificial Intelligence
Machine Learning
Internet of Things
Internet of things describes the network of physical objects—"things" or
objects—that are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies
for the purpose of connecting and exchanging data with other devices and
systems over the Internet.
Industry 4.0
cyber-physical systems, the Internet of things and cloud computing.
 Industry 4.0 creates what has been called a “smart factory”.
Basics
 Sinusoids
Representation
y=sin(θ)
x=cos(θ)
Θ= 𝟂*t

frequency= no.of cycles per second of an AC

wave f=1/T
Angular frequency,𝟂=2π*f
SINUSOIDS

V(t)=Vmsin(θ
)

cycle-one complete set of positive and negative values

of alternating quantity.

Time period-time taken to complete one cycle by an

alternating quantity.

maximum value or amplitude is the peak value obtained

by AC wave in a cycle.
 Electronic components

Electronic component

PASSIVE COMPONENT ACTIVE COMPONENTS

EG: RESISTORS, CAPACITORS, EG: TUBE DEVICES AND

INDUCTORS SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
 PASSIVE COMPONENTS
• Components that are not capable of
processing electrical signals
• Cannot increase the power of any signals
applied to electronic circuit and also cause
power to be lost
• Eg: resistors, capacitors and Inductors
What are Passive components?
Passive components cannot control electric current utilizing a second electrical signal.
Some important passive components are capacitors, resistors, inductors,
and transformers.
Passive components do not require energy to operate.
Unlike the Active component, they are unable to augment the signal power and also
cannot amplify it. There are majorly two types of passive components namely.
 
Lossy or Dissipative: These cannot absorb power from an external circuit. Resistors
are an example of lossy passive components.
 
Lossless: These do not have any input or output net level flow. A few examples of
lossless components are inductors, transformers
What are Active Components?
Active components are devices that can amplify an electric
signal and produce power.   An active component functions
as an alternating current circuit in devices. This helps the
device to augment power and voltage. This component can
execute its operations because it is powered by a source of
electricity. All active components necessitate some source of
energy which commonly is extracted from a DC circuit.
 
 Differences
1)  Source of energy – Active components require an extra source of energy. In the case of passive
components, no extra source of energy is required for their operation. A resistor works on its own without
the need for a specific voltage.
 
2)  Energy: Active components produce energy in the form of voltage or current but passive components are
those devices that store energy, like a capacitor, stores its energy in form of electric field and an inductor
stores its energy in form of a magnetic field.
 
3)  Linearity: Passive components are linear and active components are non-linear. Meaning in a passive
component like a resistor, the voltage drop across will be linear to its resistance value according to Ohms
Law. While in a transistor or other active components the output will have an amplification factor that will
not be linear.
 
4)  Power gain: Active components are capable of providing power gain whereas in the case of passive
components the ability to amplify power is not present.
 
5)  Controlling the current: Active component as the name implies can easily control the flow of the current.
The same task cannot be done by a passive component.
 
6)  External source: Active components as seen earlier require an extra source to control and maintain its
operations but in the case of passive components, there is no requirement of an external source
Symbol of Resistor
 Resistors(Ω)
• Resistor resists or opposes the flow of current through
it
• measured in ohms
• Resistance of a materials depend on two factors –
dimensions(length) and the resistivity of material (ᵨ)
ᵨ
• R= L/A
• Resistance of material is directly proportional to length
and resistivity and inversly proportional to Area of
cross section
 Specifications of Resistors
• 1) resistance value
• 2) tolerance
• 3) wattage rating
• 4)Operating temperature
• 5)DC Working voltage
• Resistance value – value of resistor expressed
in ohm. Resistance value is either written in its
body or indicated by color coding
• Tolerance of a resistor is percentage deviation
from rated value
• Wattage rating or power rating – maximum
power that the resistor can dissipate safely.
Size of the resistor gives an indication of
wattage rating
• Temperature Coefficient
– Resistance of materials will change with temp
– Temp Coefficient indicates rates at which
resistance of the resistor change with
temperature effect
– Positive temp Coefficient
• Copper, silver, tungsten
– Negative temp Coefficient
• Carbon, germanium
– Zero Temp Coefficient
• Manganin, constantan
• Voltage Coefficient of Resistance (αv)
– Value of the resistors will slight change with
applied voltage across it
• Voltage rating(Vmax)
– Maximum voltage that can be applied to a resistor
without any damage
To find the value of Resistor
Colour coding of Resistors
• Colours printed on resistors are shown in
figure
• Colours are read from left to right
• First colour indicates first digit
• Second colour indicates second digit
• Third colour indicates multiplier or number of
zeros to be added after the first two digits
• Fourth colour represent tolerance value
 Example
• Colour codes- Red, Red, Brown , Gold has a
resistance value?

• Colour codes- Yellow, Violet, Green has a

resistance value?
• (220 +5%) Ω
• 47x105+2% = 4700kΩ +2%
 Ohm’s Law

the potential difference between the ends of the

conductor is directly proportional to current
flowing through the conductor, if physical
conditions remain same
V α I V=I*R
 Series circuit-voltage divider
Current is same. I
Applied voltage across series circuit is V,.
IR1 + IR2 +IR3+... =V = I(R1 +R2 +R3+..) =I*Req
voltage across element k is Vk

V
Voltage divider
 Parallel circuit-Current divider
In a parallel circuit, voltage is same across each branch
current through one branch can be found by this rule.
Total current into parallel circuit is I,
I=V/R1 + V/R2+ V/R3+.... =V/Req
Current in branch k is Ik

I=V/R =V*G
Current divider
 Fixed resistors
• Fixed resistors specific value which cannot be
changed after manufacturing
• They are made of metals, composite materials
etc
• Three types
• Carbon composition Resistors
• Wire-wound resistors
• Film resistors
• Wire-wound resistors
• Low ohmic range and high wattage ratings
• Made by winding resistance wire on to an insulating former
such as ceramic
• Resistance wire – Nichrome(nickel-Chromium), copper Nickel
alloy and alloys of nickel and silver
• Specifications
– Resistance range 1Ω to 150Ω
– Tolerance +-5%
– max temp -550 to 2750c
– Wattage rating 3 to 200W
– Vmax= 500v
• Applications –
– Power control circuits and power supplies
Wire wound
 Carbon composition Resistors
• Made of finely divided carbon mixed with powdered
insulating material or binding material (silica or resin)
to a doughy paste in a suitable proportion to get
different value of resistance
• Specification
– Wattage rating 1/8W to 2W
– Vmax= 150 v to 500v
– Applications – high frequency AC circuits,labs
– Small size and low cost
 Film resistors
• There are two types of film resistors
– Carbon film resistor – carbon film
– Wattage rating 1/4W to 2W
– Applications – radio amplifiers, AF circuits
 carbon film resistor
Manufactured by depositing a thin Film of resistivity material on a ceramic rod.
Carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to
create a long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the
resistivity of amorphous carbon, can provide a wide range of resistance
values. Compared to carbon composition they feature low noise.
Stable against temperature and humidity
expensive
 Metal film resistor
• Metal film Resistors – film of metallic alloys such as
Nickel chromium on to a glass or ceramic base
• Thick and thin film.
• Low temperature coefficient.
• Precision resistors
– Application – measuring equipment temp, indicators
 Variable resistors
• Resistors whose resistance can be changed to
any value between 0 and certain maximum
value
• Carbon potentiometers
• Wire-wound potentiometers
• rheostats
 Carbon potentiometer
• Carbon composition variable resistor
• Mixture of carbon, resin and clay are made on
a plastic base and deposited on to bakelite
substrate in the form of a segmented circle
called annular ring
• A movable contact(which can slide on plastic
base, a shaft with suitable base plate are fixed
• The two ends of the carbon track are solder
lugs connected to terminals
• The movable contact is rotated by shaft
attached to it so that it make contacts at
different points on the carbon track to get
different value of resistance
• The whole assembly is enclosed in a metal
cover
• Specification
– Resistance – 20ohm to 22 M Ohm
– Tolerance - +-20%
– Wattage rating – 1/2w to 2 ½ w
• Applications
• Volume control in audio equipments,
brightness and contrast control in tv etc
 Wire wound potentiometer
• Wire wound variable resistor
• Made by using nichrome or other resistance
wire
• Wound on a former of insulating materials
such as synthetic resin, bonded sheet, paper
etc
• In case of high power potentiometer the
former is made up of aluminium with oxide
coating
• Specification
– Resistance ==10ohm to 100k Ohm
– Tolerance = +-10%
– Wattage rating = 1w to 4w
• Applications
• Used as potential divider in several
equipments such as television receivers and
analog computers
 Rheostats
• High power variable resistors
• The former is made of ceramic or steel of
hexagonal or round shape is used
• The former is coated with various enamel
• The resistance wire of nickel copper is wound
over the former
• Silicon cement is used to secure the wire
permanently to the ceramic body
• The sliding contact can move along a line
which gives linear variation in resistance
• The ends of the wire and movable contact are
connected to three lug type terminals
• Specification
– Resistance ==1ohm to 10k Ohm
– Tolerance = +-10%
– Wattage rating = 10w to 100w
• Applications
• Used to control voltage and current in AC and
DC circuits, such as temperature control, light
dimmer, motor speed control etc
 Preset

Variation is not done frequently

Once setting is made, it is left undisturbed.
It has a metallic wiper that can be moved with screw driver.
 Capacitors
• Passive component
• It has the ability to store charge (electrical
energy) and release them whenever necessary
• Capacitor consists of two parallel conducting
plates separating by an insulating material is
known as dielectric
• Capacitance is a measure of a capacitor’s
ability to store charge
• The value of capacitor is expressed in farads
• Commercially available capacitors are small in
value of micro or pico farads
Symbol of Capacitor
Charging and discharging of capacitors
• Capacitor is connected to battery of voltage V
through a switch S.
• Since switch is opened no current flows
• When switch S is closed positive terminal of
battery attract electrons leaving positive charge
on the upper plate
• The negative terminal of battery repel electron
and lower plate of capacitor becomes negative
•
• This make one plate -vely charged and other
+vely charged
• When capacitor voltage = applied voltage V no
further charging takes place.
• Since dielectric cannot conduct, the charge on
the capacitor remains even after voltage
source is removed
Charging of capacitor
Discharging of capacitor
 Classification of capacitors
• Fixed Capacitors : are those for which value of
capacitor cannot be changed
• It is further classified into several types
depend upon on the dielectric
– Mica Capacitors
– Paper capacitors
– Ceramic capacitor
– Electrolytic capacitors
• Paper capacitors:
– Made by rolling a sheet of paper between two
metal foils
– The foil and paper are then rolled in the form of a
cylinder
– Wire leads are attached to foil sheets that come
out at both end
– Capacitance = .0005mf to 2 mf
– Voltage ratings = upto 2000
– Used in both ac and dc circuits
Foil type
 Film capacitor
plastic film capacitors are non-polarized capacitors with an insulating plastic film as
the dielectric. The dielectric films are drawn to a thin layer, provided with metallic
electrodes and wound into a cylindrical winding. The electrodes of film capacitors
may be metallized aluminum or zinc, applied on one or both sides of the plastic
film, resulting in metallized film capacitors or a separate metallic foil overlying the
film, called film/foil capacitors.
Metallized film capacitors offer self-healing properties. Dielectric breakdowns or
shorts between the electrodes do not destroy the component. The metallized
construction makes it possible to produce wound capacitors with larger
capacitance values (up to 100 µF and larger) in smaller cases than within film/foil
construction.
• Mica capacitors
– Constructed from plates of aluminium foil separated by
sheets of mica
– By connecting alternate foils , two sets of metal plates are
formed to which separate terminals are connected
– The complete unit is enclosed in moulded ceramic case
with terminals coming at both end
– Several varieties of mica are used in capacitor
manufacturing
– Capacitance = 50pf to .2 pf
– Voltage rating = 200v to 1000v

– Used in filtering coupling, tuning, high voltage applications

Mica capacitor
 Ceramic capacitors
• Consists of ceramic as dielectric
• Made in many shape and size
• Tubular
• Disc etc
• A ceramic is coated on two sides with metals,
such as copper or silver to act as a two plates
• Lead wire is also attached to each plate
• The entire unit is coated with plastic and marked
with capacitance value
Ceramic capacitor
 Numerical coding for Ceramic Capacitors
For 3 digit’s capacitor code, the first two digits
are the capacitance value in pF and the third
digit is a multiplier factor of first two digits to
calculate the final capacitance value of the
capacitor.
a capacitor with code ‘104’.
As first two digits are 10 and the 3rd digit is 4, so
multiplier factor is 10000, the total
capacitance value in pF is as follows:
10*10000 = 100000 pF =0.1 microfarad
• Capacitance value = 3pf to 2mf
• Voltage rating =3v to 6000v
• Used in frequency tuning, high frequency
filtering
 Polyester capacitor
• Constructed using two metal foils separated
by a polyester material
• These are encased in glass or ceramic
containters
 Electrolytic Capacitor
• Consist of two electrodes and electrolyte
• Electrolytic capacitors have a metallic anode covered with an
oxidized layer used as dielectric. The second electrode is a non-
solid (wet) or solid electrolyte. Electrolytic capacitors are polarized.
Three families are available, categorized according to their
dielectric.
•  relatively high permittivity of the oxide layer gives these capacitors
very high capacitance per unit volume compared with film- or
ceramic capacitors.
• When DC voltage is applied thin oxide film is deposited on positive
electrode
• Oxide film acts as insulator
• Capacitance value:1 micro farad to 10,000pico farad
• In polarized form one electrode is treated as
positive and other as negative
Electrolytic Capacitor
Electrolytic Capacitor
Electrolytic Capacitor

Symbol
 Supercapacitors

•Supercapacitors have the highest capacitance density

because of their special charge storage principles.
•They have the highest available capacitance values
per unit volume and the greatest energy density of all
capacitors. They support up to 12,000 farads/1.2 volt,
•they use electrostatic double-layer
capacitance and electrochemical pseudocapacitance]
both of which contribute to the total capacitance
 Specification of capacitor
• Capacitance value :usually expressed in
micro,nano,picofarad
• Working voltage : maximum voltage at which
capacitor can operate
• Tolerance of a capacitor is percentage
deviation from rated value 100uF ..10%
• Temperature coefficient : change in
capacitance due to temperature
• ESR
• Leakage current
 Specification of
capacitor
Leakage current
The dielectric used inside the capacitor to
separate the conductive plates is not a perfect
insulator resulting in a very small current
flowing or “leaking” through the dielectric
 Specification of capacitor

 Equivalent Series Resistance or ESR, of a capacitor is the

AC impedance of the capacitor when used at high
frequencies and includes the resistance of the
dielectric material, the DC resistance of the terminal
leads, the DC resistance of the connections to the
dielectric and the capacitor plate resistance.
As ESR defines the energy losses of the “equivalent”
series resistance of a capacitor it must therefore
determine the capacitor’s overall I2R heating losses
especially when used in power and switching circuits.
 Variable Capacitor
• Air gang capacitor
• Trimmer or Padder capacitor
• In air gang capacitor dielectric is air.
• Group of capacitor ganged together and
capacitance can be varied
• Used in boardcast receiver and in signal
generator to vary frequency
 Trimmer
• Consist of two metal plates separated by mica
• Capacitance can be varied by varying the
distance between plates
• C proportional A/d
• Used as tuner in TV and radio receiver
• Padder similar in construction but larger in
size and higher in capacitance value
 Gang capacitors
A movable array of plates(rotor) is made to
move on a fixed set of plates(stator)
Plates in each set are electrically joined by rods.
Used in radio receivers to tune radio
frequencies.
 Inductors

• When current flows through a wire that has

been coiled it generates a magnetic field.
• This magnetic field reacts so as to oppose any
change in current
• This reaction of magnetic field trying to keep
the current flowing at a steady rate is known
as inductance.
• The force it develops is called induced emf
 Inductance
• It is the property of a coil which opposes
changes in current by means of energy stored
in magnetic field
• Current carrying conductor has a magnetic
field or flux
• If current is constant flux is also constant
• When current changes flux also changes
• This change in flux induces a voltage
• Electronic component which opposes the
change of current in circuit is called inductor
• Unit is Henry
 Self inductance
• Self inductance is defined as the induction of a
voltage in a current-carrying conductor when
the current in it is changing
• V α di/dt
• V=L. di/dt
• di/dt=rate of change of current
• V=induced voltage
• L=inductance of coil
Inductor
 Mutual inductance
• Two coils are placed so close that change in
magnetic flux in one coil produces magnetic
flux in the other coil
• Here two coils are said to be mutually coupled
to each other
• Such coils have an inductance called mutual
inductance
Mutual inductance
Mutually coupled coils
 Types of inductor
• Chokes are divided into two broad classes –
audio frequency chokes (AFC), used to block 
audio and power line frequencies while
allowing DC to pass
• Radio frequency chokes (RFC), used to block 
radio frequencies while allowing audio and DC
to pass
 Specification of inductor
• Inductor value-expressed in mH,μH,nH
• Current rating-maximum current which can be
applied to the inductor
• Tolerance –percentage deviation from quoted
value
• Temperature coefficient
 Transformer

• Consists of two coils having same core

• Coil to which supply is connected is called
primary coil and coil to which load is
connected is secondary coil
• When an AC is applied to primary an emf is
induced in secondary
Transformer
• Types
• Step up transformer-secondary voltage
greater than primary voltage
• Step down transformer-secondary voltage
lesser than primary
• Auto transformer-is a transformer with only
one winding
•  In an autotransformer, portions of the same
winding act as both the primary and
secondary sides of the transformer.
• The winding has at least three taps where
electrical connections are made.
• Advantages are smaller lighter and cheaper
• Does not provide electrical isolation
• Autotransformers are often used to step up or
step down voltages
• for example. providing 110 or 120V (with taps)
from 230V input
• Pulse transformer
• In usual transformers, the operating signal is
sinusoidal in nature. whereas, in pulse
transformers, the operating signal is a series
of square or rectangular pulses.

• Traditional transformers are used to transfer

electric powers from one circuit to another,
but pulse transformers are used to transmit
pulses from one circuit to another.
Pulse Transformer
 Toroidal transformer
• Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-
shaped core, which, depending on operating
frequency, is made from a long strip of 
silicon steel  wound into a coil
Toroidal Transformer
 Intermediate Frequency
Transformer
• Consists of two windings placed on a fibre or
ceramic with iron core
• Both primary and secondary are tuned to
operating frequency
• Used in TV receivers
Intermediate Frequency
Transformer
 Application of transformer
• Used for impedance matching
• Used to isolate two circuits electrically
• Used to increase or decrease alternating
voltage
• Used in rectifier
• Used in voltage regulators, voltage
stabilizers,power supplies
AC secondary distribution