Electrically controlled office equipment

Electrical parts
1. Parameter
-Voltage
-Resistance
-Current
1. Voltage:-is a source of power or energy. Current
There are two types:-
Ac voltage and Dc voltage
Ac voltage:-fluctuate through time.
:-obtained from eep 220vac and from generator out put
:-has frequency variation.
:-they are non polarized:-has two lines, phase and neutral lines
:-symbolized by v~
DC voltage:-constant though time
:-obtained from battery source and by converting ac to dc.
:-has frequency zero
:-they are polarized
:-has one directional current flow with ground
:-symbolized by v~.
2. Current:-is the flow of electrons through time.
:-symbolized by I.
Charge
•Symbol: (q)
•Unit: Coulomb (C)
–The fundamental electric quantity is charge.
–Atoms are composed of charge carrying particles: electrons and protons, and neutral particles,
neutrons.
–The smallest amount of charge that exists is carried by an electron and a proton.
–Charge in an electron: qe = -1.602x10-19 C
–Charge in a proton: qp = 1.602x10-19 C Charge
:- I= Q/t. Q is charge or number of electrons, and t is time
:- current and resistance has inverse relation with time.
:-SI unit is Ampere or A
:-measure in mili Ampare, micro Ampare
There are two types of current
A. Ac or alternative current:-has the same characteristics to ac voltage but the difference is
symbolization A~.
B. Dc or direct current :-has the same characteristics to dc voltage but the difference is
symbolized by A

3. Resistance:-is the opposition to current flow.

:-Si unit is ohm or Ω.
:-resistor is a material or component which is used limit the amount of
current.
:-has an invers relation with current.

➡ “Since R=ρL/A, the greater the cross-sectional area, the smaller the
resistance, but the greater the length the higher the resistance
Laws of Resistance
The Resistance ‘R’ offered by a conductor depends upon the following factors
(1) It varies directly as its length (L)
(2) It varies inversely as the cross section (a) of the conductor.
(3) It depends upon the nature of the material
(4) It also depends upon the temperature of the material.
Let us assume R=ρL / a where ρ(Rho) is a constant represents the nature of the
material and is known as specific resistance or resistivity of a material.
:-Ohms law:-states that V=I*R, V= I x R, I=V/ R and R=V/ I
1. Current varies directly with applied voltage
A change in the voltage applied to a circuit will cause the current flowing in the circuit to
change. If the resistance is constant, the current change will follow the pattern of the voltage
change. Doubling the potential difference doubles the current.
2. Current varies inversely with resistance.
Changing the resistance in a circuit will also cause a change in current flow. if the voltage
applied to a circuit is held constant, and the resistance in the circuit is increased. With more
opposition to current flow in the circuit, the circuit current will decrease. On the other hand, if
the resistance is decreased the amount of current flow in the circuit will be increased.
3. The slop of Voltage vs. Current graph is resistance
*the higher the voltage, the larger the current
*the higher the resistance the lower the current
*Wires are zero ohm resistors
Sense that they exhibit no resistance to current flow. Since the wires are perfect,
Ohms law tells us that:
• the voltage at any point on the same wire is the same
• the voltage between any two points on the same wire is zero.
Summary
-Voltage:-is drop of energy
-Current:-is the flow of electrons.
-Resistance:-opposition to current flow.

2. Measuring Instruments
There are two types:-
A. Anlage:-used to measure manually adjusted and has low accuracy.
Example of Anlage instruments are wrist watch and crop balance.
B. Digital:-used to measure digitally setted and has high accuracy.
Examples of digital instruments are Gold balance and Digital multimeter

Digital Multimeter
-has the following parameters
A. Continuity test() :-is used to measure a material has current flow or not. And
has three Results
1.short(000) :-the measured material has low resistance. Has also bip sound
2.Read:-the measured material has high resistance. Has no bip sound.
3.Open(1) :-the measured material has infinite resistance or input and out put
has disconnection. Has no reading and bip sound.
 *Don’t measure hot test on continuity test (only measure cold test which don’t
have power source).
B. Ohmic test:-isused to measure opposition to current flow of the material. Has
the following scales
K:-kllo=1000
M:-Mega=100,000
*Measure hot or cold test
C. Voltage test:-is used to measure drop of energy of material.
*To measure voltage use only hot test.
*cannot measure scale Ac to measure dc source materials and vice versa.
D. Farad test :-is used to measure capacitor charge storage. Have the following
scales
: µF=10–6F Microfarad and
: pF=10–12F Nano farad
*Measure hot or cold test
E. Ampare test:-to measure flow of electrons through time limit.
*Measure only hot test
*cannot measure Ac scale to measure Dc measurement and vice versa
G. Proove Connectors
Red proof is positive and Black proof is negative
*VΩ(+) and com (-) :- to measure continuity test, ohmic test and voltage test.
*CX or mA(+) and com(-) :-to measure capacitance value of capacitor
*10A (+) and com(-) :-to measure Ampare test.
DMM is a measuring instrument
• An ammeter measures current
• A voltmeter measures the potential difference (voltage) between two points
• An ohmmeter measures resistance
• A multimeter combines these functions, and possibly some additional ones as well, in to a single
instrument
Voltmeter
– Parallel connection
• Ammeter
– Series connection
• Ohmmeter
– Without any power supplied
• Adjust range (start from highest limit if you don’t know)

1. Break the circuit so that the ammeter can be connected in series

2. The voltmeter is connected in parallel between two points of circuit
3. An ohmmeter does not function with a circuit connected to a power supply

3. Electronic components :- are electronic materials found in all electronic

equipments. There are two types :-
 *Passive and
*Active
3.1 Passive:-is operate by no making energy conversion.
There are three types -Resistor, Capacitor, and Inductor
3.2 Active:-is operate by making energy conversion
There are two types:-Diode and Transistors.
3.1 Passive components
3.1.1Resistor:-components which resist the flow of electrical current within a
closed circuit

:-is a component used to limit the amount of current.

:-SI unit is ohm.

:-symbolized by R

Types of resistor:-there are two types:-

Fixed values and variable value
-Fixed value: - has constant resistance values.
-Variable value:- has variable resistance value one example is potentio meter
which is used to adjust volume, heat, voltage, screen, focus, light intensity...
A. Fuse:-is used to protect over current and symbolized by
There are two types glass type and cartridge type
Test- continuity test(ct) -Short √, open ×.
 C. Ntc(Negative temperature coefficient) :-is a temperature dependant resistor and
which has inverse relation to temrature and which is used as protective
component.

Th

-Ct-short (>000) √,short(000)×, open×.

C. VDR(Voltage dependent resistor) or Mov(Metal oxide varistor) :-is used to protect the input
over voltage which is greater than 250vac.The resistance decreases when the voltage
increases and which ha non linear resistance, voltage dependent.
Symbolized by

vz
 -Ct-open √, short or read×.

D. Wire wound :-is made by winding the metal wire around a metal core, metal wire used as
resistance element and metal core is used as the non conductive material. A nichrome or
manganin is commonly used as the metal wires; because of they provide high resistance to
the electric current and operates at the high temperature. Most commonly used core
materials include plastic, fibreglass, or ceramic.

E. Thermal switch:-found in fixing unit of laser printer, copiers and faxes which is used to
protect over heat.

-Ct-short √, open×.
F. Heat element:-found in fixing Unit of laser printer, copiers and faxes which is used to
release heat (180c).
 -Ct-short or read √, Open×.
G. Lamp:-halogen lamp, pcl lamp, scanner lamp, ccfl
-Ct-short √, open×
H. Carbon film:-is colour band or colour code Band .The thickness and width of the carbon
film determines the resistance (the thicker the carbon film, the lower the resistance.

* If the resistor has four bands

Resistor color code values
1st band = 1st number
2nd band = 2nd number
3rd band = # of zeros / multiplier
4th band = tolerance

Resistor value =AB.10^c plus or minus tol%(ohm)

The following table shows the value of each color used in the bands:
Colours Values Multiplier Tolerance Black 0 1
Brown 1 10 1%
Red 2 100 2%
Orange 3 1000
Yellow 4 10,000
Green 5 100,000
Blue 6 1000,000
Violet 7 10,000,000
Gray 8 100,000,000
White 9 1000,000,000
Gold _ 0.1 5%
Silver _ 0.01 10%
*By studying this table, you can see how this code works. For example, if a resistor is marked
with orange, blue, brown, and gold bands, its nominal resistance value is 360 ohms with a
tolerance of 65 percent. If a resistor is marked with red, orange, violet, black, and brown, its
nominal resistance value is 237 ohms with a tolerance of 61 percent.
-Ohmic tests:- approximate value √, less than approximate value×.
H. Power or Chalk resistor:-is made from carbon film resistors which have end band Gold or
silver and have high powerrating.

There are two types-J type and K type.

Gold =J=5℅,
silver = K=10,℅
Ohmic test -approximate value √,less than approximate value.
I. Surface mounted:-is used to remove surge current.

Ohmic test-read approximate written value √, less than approximate value ×.

J. Fusable:-resistors which have low resistance of carbon film which have gold or silver at
the middle bands.
Ct:-short √, open×.
-Comic test-low resistance reading √,if no reading×.
K. Ldr (light dependent resistor)
 -Ct-short or reading√, open×.
Variable resistors(potentio meter) :-

As the dial/wiper turns, electricity must go through more or less of the resistive strip. In series,
the change in resistance means a change in voltage. So as you turn the dial/wiper, you get a
change in voltage.

Variable resistor (Rehostate) :-is use to adjust input voltage 110 and 220,toner,and light
intensity.
 For circuits requiring a resistance that can be adjusted while it remains
connected in the circuit (for eg: volume control on radio, contrast adjuster,
lamp intensity adjuster), variable resistors are required. They usually have 3
lead two fixed and one movable.

3.1.2 Capacitor:-is a charge storage component used to charge electric

charges. Si unit is Farad(F).The basic function of a capacitor is to store
energy. Common usage include local energy storage, voltage spike
protection, and complex signal filtering.

:- Symbolized by c
A capacitor is formed from two conducting plates separated by a thin
insulating layer.If a current i flows, positive change, q, will accumulate on the upper plate. To
preserve charge neutrality, a balancing negative charge
will be present on the lower plate.

Parallel-Plate Capacitor
Consider two metallic plates of equal area A separated by a distance d, as shown in Figure
below. The top plate carries a charge +Q while the bottom plate carries a charge –Q. The
charging of the plates can be accomplished by means of a battery which produces a potential
difference.
 The electric field between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor
:-The total capacitor when capacitors are in series Ct=1/C1+C2+C3.....Cn
and when in parallel Ct=C1+C2+C3....Cn.
Types of Capacitors
There are all sorts of capacitor types. When deciding which to use, there are
several factors to consider:

● Size
● Maximum voltage
● Leakage current
● Equivalent series resistance (ESR)
● Tolerance
:-Calculating Capacitance
C= εr A/4πd
εr - the relative permittivity of the dielectric material
A - The area the plates overlap
d - The distance between the plates
:- Charge Stored on Each Plate
Q = CV
Q - Charge stored on each plate
C - Capacitance
V - applied voltage
Material Dielectric constant K

Dielectric Constants of Some Materials

Silica glass 3.8
Beeswax 2.7 – 3.0
Paper 3.7
Barium Titanate 100 – 1250
Mica. 5.4
Ethanol 24
Water 80
Strontium titanate 310
Bakelite 4.9
Air 1.00059
Vacuum 1.0

Capacitive Reactance, XC
• Capacitive reactance (Xc) is the opposition to
Sinusoidal current, expressed in ohms
• The rate of change of voltage is directly related to
Frequency.
• As the frequency increases, the rate of change of
Voltage increases, and thus current (i) increases

• An increase in i means that there is less opposition to current (XC is less).

•Xc is inversely proportional to i and to frequency f,Xc=1/2πfc
:-Capacitance
● the measure of a Capacitor's ability to store an electrical charge .
● Measured in Farads
● Capacitance is one Farad when one Coulomb is stored on the plates by one
Volt.

There are two types:-

Fixed types:--has constant capacitance value, there are two types which are
electrolytic and non electrolytic.
A. Variable value:-has variable capacitance values, example is Gang
capacitor which is used for tuning frequency or band.
-Electrolytic:-they have posetive and negative polarities.
:- The shorter terminal goes on the negative side.
:-The stripe is on the negative terminal side of
the capacitor.
:-The board is marked for positive or negative
:-Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors
● Have a LOT of capacitance in a relatively small volume.
● Common for ranges between 1µF and 1mF.
● Has high maximum voltage ratings.
● Really well suited for high-voltage applications.
● We used the aluminium electrolytic capacitors in our bread boarding.
● Electrolytic caps are usually polarized. and have two pins, a positive one
called an anode, and a negative one called a cathode.
● Notorious for leakage. They allow small amounts of current to run through
the dielectric from one terminal to the other.
● Makes electrolytic caps less-than-ideal for energy storage.

:-they are used to filter DC voltages (by blocking Ac voltages which pass
through it).
:-to replace electrolytic capacitors use specification of 20% of capacitance
value, greater or equal to voltage.
-Farad test:-approximate value √, greater than half of value √, less than half
value×.
-voltage test-Measure only DC scale on hot test 3/2 of input Ac voltage.
-Non electrolytic: - they have no polarity posetive and negative.
:-they are used to filter Ac voltages (to block DC voltages to pass).
-to replace non electrolytic capacitors the same voltages and the same
capacitance values.
 -Types of non electrolytic capacitors

*Mica:-is used to filter Ac voltage (blocking of Dc voltages that means remove like hash, spark
and heat) the charge storage can be done by using different types of capacitors. Mica capacitors
are one of them.

Mica capacitors are the stable, reliable and high precision capacitors. These capacitors are
available from low voltages to high voltages. The capacitance values of the mica
capacitors ranging from 20 pF to 10 µF.

Mica capacitors are mostly used in the applications where high accuracy and low capacitance
change over the time is desired. These capacitors can work efficiently at high frequencies.

*Ceramic
● The most commonly used and produced capacitor
● The name comes from the material from which their dielectric is made.
● Small size both physically and capacitance wise.
● Don’t normally go up to 10µF even.
● Has lower ESR and leakage currents than electrolytic caps. Cheapest type.
ceramic capacitor is a fixed-value capacitor where the ceramic material acts as the dielectric.
It is constructed of two or more alternating layers of ceramic and a metal layer acting as
the electrodes. The composition of the ceramic material defines the electrical behaviour and
therefore applications. Ceramic capacitors are divided into two application classes:
H. Class 1 ceramic 0 offer high stability and low losses for resonant circuit applications.
I. Class 2 ceramic capacitors offer high volumetric efficiency for buffer, by-pass, and coupling
applications.
*Paper sheet:- is used to filter Ac voltage and is made by taking two or more aluminum sheets
and placing a paper sheet between them. The paper placed between the aluminum sheets acts as
dielectric and the aluminum sheets acts as electrodes
 *Disktype:-is used to filter Ac voltages.

Ceramic disc capacitors  are made by coating a ceramic disc with silver contacts on both sides
as shown above illustrates. Ceramic disc capacitors have a capacitance value about 10pF to
100μF with a wide variety of voltage ratings, between 16V to 15 KV and more. In order to gain
higher capacitances, these devices can be made from multiple layers. The MLCCs  are made
with Para electric and Ferro electric materials mix and alternatively layered with metal
contacts. After completion of the layering process, the device is brought to a high temperature
and the mixture is sintered, resulting in a ceramic material of desired properties. Finally, the
resulting capacitor basically consists of many smaller capacitors connected in parallel, this
leads to increase in capacitance.
The MLCCs consist of more than 500 layers, with the minimum layer thickness of approximately
0.5 microns. As technology progresses, the thickness of the layer decreases and capacitance
increases in the same volume.

Ceramic capacitor dielectrics vary from one manufacturer to another, but common compounds
include titanium dioxide, Strontium Titanate, and Barium Titanate.

Based on the working temperature range, temperature drift, tolerance different ceramic
capacitor classes is defined.

Ceramic disc capacitors have a capacitance value about10pF to 100μF with a wide variety of
voltage ratings, between 16V to 15
KV and more.
 -Ct-open both sides √, Read or short×.
3.1.3 Inductor:-is a coil used to remove variation of current.

:-Schematic or circuit symbols are the following

Inductance
Is A current generated in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic field. This effect is called INDUCTANCE and is given the symbol L. It is
measured in units called the henry (H) named after the American Physicist Joseph Henry (1797-
1878)
Factors Affecting Inductance.
The amount of inductance in an inductor is dependant on:
* The number of turns of wire in the inductor.
* The material of the core.
* The shape and size of the core.
* The shape, size and arrangement of the wire making up the coils.
-There are two types:-
*Fixed vales:-they have constant inductance values.
*Variable values:-they have variable inductance values.

Application of Fixed values

Color band inductors four bands

And five bands

*Counter:-is made from Inductor which is used to count number of copies on

copiers.
*Clutch:-there are two types of clutch on copiers Registration clutch and pick
up clutch.
*Solinoid :-is used to pick the paper once there are seven types which are
casset Solinoid, multifeeder Solinoid, duplex Solinoid, ADF(Automatic data
feeder) Solinoid, Stepples Solinoid, sorter Solinoid.
-Fan:-is a coil used to cool parts of office machines like fixing units and
cartridges.
-Relay(circuit breaker) :-is a coil used to break circuit, normally on and off.
* Solinoid, clutch, counter ,relay and fan
:-ct-short or reading √, open×.
-Generator:-is a device used to convert chemical energy to mechanical and
also change to electrical energy.
-Transformers:-is a device made from inductor.
:-is used to step up or step down voltages.
:-symbolized by

Primary Secondary

:-Which have primary and secondary sections.

:-if secondary number of coil is increase voltage secondary and if secondary
coil is decrease the voltage is decrease, so the number of turn of secondary
coil is direct relationships.
:-if secondary number of coil is increase current flow is decrease and if
number of coil decrease current flow is increase, so current is inverse
relationship.
:-there are three types center taped, chopper, and pulse transformers.
:-chopper transformers are step up and step down voltages.
-Ct-every primary and secondary terminal must be open √, if it is short or
read×.
-Ct-If one reading on every primary to primary terminals and reading
shouldn’t have every secondary to secondary terminals and vice versa √,if
there is reading on both sections×.
 3.2 Active components
3.2.1 Diodes:-is one directional component.

:-made from element of silicon and germanium which have semi conductivity
property
:-current flow if the diode is forward biased and current is not flow if the
diode is reverse biased.
:-symbolized by anod + _cathode
:- A diode is a one way valve (or gate) for electricity. It is a component with an
asymmetrical transfer characteristic. A diode has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction,
and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other direction, and also Diodes will protect your
electronics
:- Transistors
• Transistors are the heart of modern electronics (replaced vacuum tubes)
Voltage and current amplifier circuits high frequency switching (computers)
Impedance matching low power small size, can pack thousands of transistors
in mm2
• Bipolar transistors have 3 leads: emitter, base, collector Bipolar transistors
are two diodes back to back and come in two forms: NPN and PNP
Arrow is always on the emitter and is in the direction of positive current flow
N material has excess negative charge (electrons).P material has excess
positive material (holes).
• Some simple rules for getting transistors to work
1) For NPN (PNP) collector must be more positive (negative) in voltage than
emitter.
2) Base-emitter and base-collector are like diodes: NPN and PNP For silicon
transistors, VBE ª 0.6-0.7V when transistor is on.
• What do we use diodes for?
protect circuits by limiting the voltage (clipping and clamping)turn AC into
DC (voltage rectifier)voltage multipliers (e.g. double input voltage)non-linear
 mixing of two voltages (e.g. amplitude modulation)positive current flow diode
conducts when

V anode>V cathode
• Diodes (and transistors) are non-linear device: V ≠ IR!
Diode is forward biased when V anode>V cathode.
Diode conducts current strongly Voltage drop across diode is (almost)
independent of diode current Effective resistance (impedance) of diode is
small
Diode is reverse biased when

V anode<V cathode.
Diode conducts current very weakly (typically < mA) Diode current is
(almost) independent of voltage, until breakdown
Effective resistance (impedance) of diode is very large.
Effective resistance of forward biased diode (V > 0) diode.
• What's a diode made out of? Semiconductors!
The energy levels of a semiconductor can be modified so that a material (e.g. silicon or
germanium) that is Normally an insulator will conduct electricity. Energy level structure of a
semiconductor is quit complicated, requires a quantum
• How do we turn a semiconductor into a conductor? Dope it!
Doping is a process where impurities are added to the semiconductor to lower its resistivity
Silicon has 4 electrons in its valence level
We add atoms which have a different number of valence shell electrons
3 or 5 to a piece of silicon.
Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony have 5 valence electrons Boron, Aluminium, Indium have 3
valence electrons
• N type silicon: Adding atoms which have 5 valence electrons makes the silicon more negative.
The majority carriers are the excess electrons.
• P type silicon: Adding atoms which have 3 valence electrons makes the silicon more positive.
The majority carriers are "holes". A hole is the lack of an electron in the
valence shell.
• How do we make a diode?
Put a piece of N type silicon next to a piece of P type silicon.
• Unbiased diode P depletion zone
silicon boron, silicon+ arsenic
very small leakage current + mobile hole
mobile electron fixed ionized doner atom
fixed ionized acceptor atom.
• Forward biased diode
P N depletion zone very small barrier due to depletion region very small
large current can flow forward Current
• Reveres biased diode
P N depletion zone very large barrier due to depletion region very large small
leakage current.
-There are five types:-
3.2.2 Power diode:-is used to convert AC voltage to DC voltage (Rectification).

Diodes will protect your electronics.

 -if four power diodes are compined to form bridge rectifier diode.
-ct-power diode :-read on forward bias(300-800) and open on revers bias √,
any short×, reading on both sides×, open on both sides×.
-ct-bridge rectifier :-three readings and one open √, if any short×, if there are
1readings and 3 opens×, if all are readings×, and if all are opens×.
3.2.3 Zener diode:-is used to convert fluctuated in put voltage to constant out voltages
(Regulation).
-Ct-Reading on forward bias and open on rivers bias√, any short×, open
both sides×, reading both sides×.
3.2.4 Laser diode:-is used to convert data in the form of laser beam on laser machines and used
to write and read data on optical systems. In HP machines if it is defected we absorb an error of
52, and 51.x and also 100 and 110 on canon machines, and in optical systems no disk, insert
disk and disk selections are the problems.
3.2.5 Light emitting diode:-is used to convert electrical energy to light energy.
For circuits requiring a resistance that can be adjusted while it remains connected in the circuit
(for eg: volume control on radio), variable resistors are required. They usually have 3 lead two
fixed and one movable
Applications: LED have a lot of applications. Following are few examples.
• Devices, medical applications, clothing, toys
• Remote Controls (TVs, VCRs)
• Lighting
• Indicators and signs
• Optoisolators and optocouplers
• Swimming pool lighting
-ct-Read forward bias and open on reverse bias√, any short×, read both sides×, open both
sides×.
3.2.5 Photo diode:-is used to convert light energy to electrical energy.
-ct:-open both forward and revers biased √, shot any sides×.
Photo interrupter:- is a sensor used to sense by intervention of infra red light.
3.2.6 Transistors:-is made from two diodes.
:- A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power
They are
:-SEMICONDUCTORS
:-Metals and insulators
:-Conduction in metal
Metals are filled with electrons. Many of these, typically one or two per atom in the metal, are
free to move about throughout the metal. When an electric field is applied, the electrons move in
the direction opposite the field. Since they are negatively charged, this corresponds to a positive
current in the direction opposite the motion, that is, in the direction of the electric field.
:-Insulators
Insulators also have many electrons in them, but the electrons cannot move.
Some of them are trapped in individual atoms and can't get away from them. Others are
nominally free to move about but are locked in place by "gridlock." There are so many electrons
that there is no place for an electron to move to, so it stays put even in an electric field.
• Transistors are the heart of modern electronics (replaced vacuum tubes) voltage and current
amplifier circuits, high frequency switching (computers),Impedance matching low power Small
size ,can pack thousands of transistors in mm2.
• In this class we will only consider bipolar transistors.
Bipolar transistors have 3 leads: emitter, base, collector
Bipolar transistors are two diodes back to back and come in two forms: NPN
and PNP Arrow is always on the emitter and is in the direction of positive
current flow N material has excess negative charge (electrons) P material has
excess positive material (holes).
• Some simple rules for getting transistors to work
1) For NPN (PNP) collector must be more positive (negative) in voltage than
emitter.
2) Base-emitter and base-collector are like diodes and PNP For silicon
transistors, VBE ª 0.6-0.7 V when transistor is on.
 Types of transistors:-
A. Str(switching transistor) :-is used to switch or frequency generation
15,625hz. Has a sign of K
22,23,24,25,26,27,29,31,35,37,39,40,60,68...these numbers are the first
and second digits
B. Scholtky or regulator transistor:- is used to regulate dc out put voltages.
C. Triac transistor:-is found on low voltage power supply which is used to
adjust fixing optimum temperature 180 degree centigrade. Has sign of
T,TM, AB, BC, or M.
D. Error amplifier:- to send error signal to power supply
-Ct:-two readings and one open √, any short×, two opens and one
reading×, all are opens×, all are readings×.
Integrated circuit
An integrated circuit (IC) is a set of transistors that is the controller or ‘brain’ of an electronic
circuit. An input is received, an output is sent out. Modern microprocessor ICs can have billions
of transistors per square inch!

What an IC can do for us?

Billions of electronically controlled on/off switches (transistors) is how the microprocessor in a
digital computer ‘thinks’ and functions. A computer has a wide range of tasks to perform. But
other ICs can complete simpler, discrete jobs. For example, an IC can take a voltage input and
output commands to a motor.

IC Terminology: Op-amp
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a set of transistors inside the integrated circuit. They often
are the components doing the mathematical operations.
4. Power supply:-is found in all electronic equipments.
There are two types:-
4.1 linear regulated:- is found only CD player and radio receiver.
4.2 switch mode: - is found in all electronic components except CD player and receiver.
4.2 SMPS (switch mode power supply):-has two sections primary and secondary sections. On
the primary section has operation of protection, filtration AC, and DC, Switching, and feedback,
on secondary section Regulation, and DC filtration.
Schematic diagram of SMPS
Flow of smps
:-protectionAc filtrationRectificationDc filtrationSwitchingRegulationFeedback

Typical SMPS Block Diagram

 Problems of smps
-on timed off-check component-Main filter electrolytic cap, power diodes.
-Power dead -check components (Main fuse, vdr, ntc, mica cap, inductor,
electrolytic cap, power diodes (bridge rectifier), Str, opto coupler ic, error
amp and pwm.
-Slow system -check comp (power diodes, electrolytic cap).
-on timed off-check comp (electrolytic cap)
-fuse frequently dead and on immediately of -check comp (str, carbon film,
disk type and surface mounted)
-Delivery jam and off-check comp(Regulator transistor, secondary
electrolytic caps, and inductors).
-Error 50.2 for HP machines, and error001 for canon machines -check-
triac, fixing fuse, and opto coupler ic.

Soldering and Disordering

Tools
There are three types:-
-soldering iron (60watt)
-sucker and
-lead (0.8-1.5) mm square

Components
There are two types:-

1. Polarized:-components which have posetive and negative polarities

(polarity dependent).
-Electrolytic capacitor
-Diodes
-Transistors
-Transformer
2. Non polarized:-components which have no polarity of posetive and
negative polarities (non polarity dependent).
-Non electrolytic capacitors-mica, ceramic, paper sheet and disk type.
-Resistors
-Inductors
Relative permittivity of common substances

The table below gives the relative permittivity of a number of common substances.

RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY OF
COMMON SUBSTANCES

SUBSTANCE RELATIVE
PERMITTIVITY

Calcium titanate 150

FR4 PCB material 4.8 typically

Glass 5 - 10

Mica 5.6 - 8.0

Paper 3.85

Polyethylene) 2.25

Polyimide 2.25

Polypropylene 2.2 - 2.36

 RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY OF
COMMON SUBSTANCES

SUBSTANCE RELATIVE
PERMITTIVITY

Porcelain (ceramic) 4.5 - 6.7

PTFE (Teflon) 2.1

Rubber 2.0 - 2.3

Silicon 11.68

Silicon dioxide 3.9

Strontium titanate 200

   

Air 0°C 1.000594

Air 20°C 1.000528

Carbon monoxide 1.000634

25°C

Carbon dioxide 25°C 1.000904

Hydrogen 0°C 1.000265

Helium 25°C 1.000067

Nitrogen 25°C 1.000538

Sulphur dioxide 22°C 1.00818

The values given above are what may be termed the "static" values of permittivity. They are true
for steady state or low frequencies. It is found that the permittivity of a material usually
decreases with increasing frequency. It also falls with increasing temperature. These factors are
normally taken into account when designing a capacitor for electronics applications.

When the design of a capacitor is undertaken the characteristics of the dielectric form one of the
main decisions about the capacitor. Some materials have a very stable dielectric constant and can
be used in high stability capacitors, whereas other dielectric materials enable very high levels of
volumetric capacitance to be achieved, i.e. high levels of capacitance in a small volume.
Normally there is a balance as no single dielectric has ideal characteristics for everything
 Rewirable Fuses. ...
 Cartridge type Fuses. ...
 ID-type Cartridge Fuse. ...
Link Type Fuse. ...