This gauge consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulating

medium such as air and can be strained depending on the way a

spring flexure element moves.
The un-bonded strain gauges are usually connected in a bridge circuit.
With no load applied to strain gauges, the bridge is balanced. When the
external load is applied, the .resistance of strain gauges change causing an
unbalance of the bridge circuit which results in an output voltage. This
voltage is proportional to the strain. A displacement of the order of 50 μm
may be detected with these strain gauges.
Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauges

The grid of fine wire is cemented to a carrier (base) which may be thin sheet of paper or
to a very thin Bakelite sheet or to a sheet of Teflon. The wire is covered on top with a
sheet of thin material so that it is not damaged mechanically. The spreading of the wire
permits a uniform distribution of stress. The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material
to the structure under study. This permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to wires.

DESIRABLE CHARATERISTICS
(i) The strain gauge should have high value of
gauge factor Gt.
(ii) The resistance of the strain gauge should be
as high as-possible since, this minimizes the
effects of undesirable variations of resistance
in the measurement circuit.
(iii) The strain gauges should have al low
resisitive temperature co-efficient.
(iv) The strain gauge should not have any
hysterisis errect~ in its response.
( v it should have linear characteristics
(vi their frequency response should be good.
Foil Strain Gauges
The strain is sensed with the help of metal foils. Foil gauges have a much greater dissipation
capacity and better bonding as compared with wire wound gauges on account of their
greater surface area for the same volume.
❖ For this reason they can be used for higher operating temperature range.

The advantage of foil type strain gauges is that they can be

fabricated economically on a mass scale. The resistance Foil
Base elements are vacuum coated with ceramic film and are
deposited on a plastic backing which provides insulation,
and facilitates perfect bonding.
Semi-conductor Strain Gauges. It has been explained above in order to have a
high
sensitivity, a .high value. of gauge factor is desirable. A high gauge factor
means a relatively higher change in resistance which can be easily measured
with a good degree of accuracy. Semiconductor strain gauges are used where a
very high gauge factor and a small envelope are required. The resistance of the
semi-conductors changes with change in applied strain. the semi-conductor
strain gauges depend for their action upon piezoresistlve effect i.e. the Change
in the resistance due to Change in sensitivity.
semiconducting materials such as silicon and germanium are used as resistive
materials for semi-conductor strain gauges. A typical strain gauge consists of a
strain sensitive crystal material and leads that are sandwiched in a protective
matrix. The production of these gauges employs conventional semiconductor
technology using semiconducting wafers or filaments which have a thickness
of 0·05 mm and bond mg them on a suitable insulating substrates, such as
tellon. Gold leads are generally employed for making the contacts. These
strain gauges can be fabricated along with integrated circuit (IC) operational
amplifiers which can act as pressure sensitive transducers.
Advantages :
➢ they have a high gauge factor of about± 130. This allows measurement of very
small strains of the order of 0·01 micro-strain.
➢ Hysteresis less than 0'05%.
➢ Fatigue life is in excess of 10 x 106 operations and the frequency response
is up to 1012 Hz
➢ can be very small ranging from 0'7 to 7 mm in length

Disadvantages:
➢ very sensitive to changes in temperature.
➢ Linearity of the semi-conductor strain gauges is poor
➢ are more expensive and difficult to attach
 Resistance Thermometers
The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed.
This property is utilized for measurement of temperature.
The variation of resistance R with temperature T can be represented by the
following relationship for most of the metals as :

The requirements of a conductor material

to be used in these thermometers are :
(i) the change in resistance of material
per unit change in temperature should
be as large as possible.
(ii) The resistance of the materials should
have a continuous and stable
relationship with temperature.
 Thermistors
Thermistors is the contraction Of term
"thermal Resistors". They are essentially semi-
conductors which behave as resistors with a
high negative temperature co-efficient of
resistance. In some cases the resistance of a
thermistor at room temperature may decrease
as much as 5 per cent for each I °C
rise in temperature. This high sensitivity to
temperature changes make the thermistors
extremely useful for precision temperature
measurements, control and compensation.
Thermistors are composed of sintered Thermistors are widely used in such
mixture of metallic oxides such as applications especially in the temperature
manganese, nickel cobalt, copper, iron range of -60'C to +I5C. The resistance of
and uranium, in the form of beads, rods thermistors ranges from 0·5 ohm to 0·75 M
or discs. ohm.
Applications of Thermistors
measurement of temperature, power at high frequencies, thermal conductivity, level, flow
and pressure of liquids, composition of gases, Vacuum measurements,
Variable Inductance Type Transducers

The variable inductance type of transducers

work, generally. upon one of the following
three principles :
(i)Variation of self-inductance,
(ii) Variation of mutual inductance and
(iii) Production of eddy current.
Inductive Transducers Working on Principle of Variation of Self Inductance
 Transducers working on principle of change in self inductance
with number of turns.
The output may be caused by change N number of turns. Fig. 25 26 shows the
transducers used for measurement of linear and angular displacements respectively.
Fig, 25'26 (a) shows an air cored coil for measurement of linear displacement while
Fi~. 25'26 (b) an iron cored coil used for measurement of angular displacement.
change in self inductance with change in permeability.

The iron core -is surrounded by a winding. If the iron core is inside the winding its
inductance is high but when the iron core is moved out of the winding, the
permeability of the flux path decreases resulting in reduction of self-inductance of
the coil. This transducer can conveniently be used for measurement of
displacement.
Variable Reluctance Type Transducers
A variable reluctance type of transducer consists of a coil which is wound on a Ferro
magnetic core. The displacement, which is the measurand, is applied to a ferromagnetic
target as shown. The target does not make a physical contact with a core on which the coil
is mounted. The core and the target are separated by the air gap.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
The most widely used inductive transducer which translate the linear motion into electrical
signal is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT).
The transformer consists of a single primary winding P1 and two secondary windings S1 and
S2 wound on a cylindrical former. The secondary windings have equal number of turns and
are identically placed on either side of the primary windings. The primary winding is
connected to an alternating current source. A movable soft iron pore is placed 'inside the
former. The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft iron
core. When. the core is in its normal (NULL) position equal voltages are induced in two
secondary windings.
The output voltage of secondary, s1, is Es1 and that of secondary, S2, is Es2. In
order to convert the outputs into a single voltage signal, the two secondaries S1 and S2 are
connected ln series opposition as shown in Fig.
Now if the core is moved to the left of the NULL position, more flux links with winding
S1 and less with winding S2. Accordingly output voltage E1 of the secondary winding S1 is
more than E2, the output voltage of winding S2. The magnitude of output voltage is, thus
E1- E2 and the output voltage is in phase with E1.
By comparing the magnitude and phase of the output (differential) voltage with that of the
source, the. amount and direction of the movement of the core and hence of displacement
may be determined. Advantages of LVDTs
1. Linearity of 0.05% available
2. resolution as fine as l x 10-3 mm.
3. High output no need to amplify
4. possesses a high sensitivity as high as 40
V/mm
5. Highly rugged
6. Less friction, hysteresis, power consumption

Disadvantages
Affected by stray magnetic fields, vibrations
and temperature.
Output is only AC signal.
Synchro's
A synchro is an angular position transducer. The primary winding is a single phase winding
wound on a rotor made of laminations. The stator has a three-phase winding. consists of two
(i) a synchro transmitter,
(ii) (ii) a synchro receiver.
The two units are connected as
shown in Fig. 25' 43. Initially
winding S2 of the stator of
transmitter is positioned for
maximum coupling with rotor
winding. Suppose its
voltage is V. The coupling between
s1 and S3 of the stator and primary
(rotor) winding is a cosine function.
Therefore the effective voltages in
these windings proportional to cos
60" or they are V/ 2 each. So as long
as the rotor is in this position, no
current will flow between the
windings.
When the rotor of the transmitter is moved to a new position, the voltage balance is
disturbed. If the rotor is moved through 30‘ the stator winding voltages of the transmitter
will be changed to 0, 3/2 V and 3/2 V respectively. Thus there is a voltage imbalance
between the stator windings of the transmitter and the receiver. This voltage imbalance
between the windings makes currents to flow between the windings producing
a torque that tends to rotate the rotor of the receiver to a position where the voltage
balance is again restored. This balance is restored only if the receiver turns through the
same angle as the transmitter and also the direction of rotation is the same as that of the
transmitter. Thus a synchro can be used to determine the magnitude and the direction of an
angular displacement.
 Capacitive Transducers

Transducers Using Change in Area of Plates.

Transducers Using Change in Distance Between Plates.
One is a fixed plate and the displacement to be measured is applied to the other plate
which is movable. Since, the capacitance, C, varies inversely as the distance d, between
the plates the response of this transducer is not linear and as shown in Fig.

linearity can be closely approximated by keeping

the change in the distance small or by having a
medium of high dielectric constant in the space
between the two plates.
The displacement of these diaphragms varies the
capacitance of this capacitive transducer. This type of a
transducer forms a pressure gauge which works very
satisfactorily. The disadvantage of this type of
'transducer is that it has high temperature coefficient

Rotational displacement can be measured with

an arrangement shown in Fig. 25·51. As the
rotor plates of the capacitor are displaced in
the counter clockwise direction the
capacitance increases.
The change in the capacitance is a measure of
the angular displacement. This capacitive
transducer can be effectively used for
measurement of torque.
Differential Arrangement.
A linear characteristic can be achieved by using a differential arrangement

Let the capacitance of these capacitors be C1

and C2 respectively, when the plate M is
midway between the two fixed plates, under
this condition the capacitances C1 and C2 are
equal.
Variation of Dielectric Constant for
Measurement of Displacement.
Variation of Dielectric Constant for
Measurement of Liquid Level
The electrodes are two concentric
cylinders and the non-conducting
liquid acts as the dielectric. At the
lower end of the outer cylinder
there are holes which allow
passage of liquid.
 Piezoelectric Transducers
A piezoelectric material is one in which an
electric potential appears across certain
surfaces of ·a crystal if the dimensions of the
crystal are changed . by the application of a
mechanical force. This potential is produced by
the displacement of charges. The effect is
reversible, i.e., conversely, if a varying potential
is applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it
will change the dimensions of the crystal
thereby deforming it. This effect is known as
piezoelectric effect.

The piezo-electric effect can be made to respond to (or cause) mechanical deformations of
the material in many different modes. The modes can be : thickness expansion, transverse
expansion, thickness shear, and face shear.
The piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive. A ·tensile force produces a voltage of one
polarity while a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite polarity
 Uses of Piezoelectric Materials and Transducers
The desirable properties expected out of a piezo-electric material are, stability, high
output, insensitivity to temperature variations, insensitivity to variations is humidity and also
the ability to be formed into a usable component. quartz is commonly used for stabilizing the
electronic oscillators.
measurement of quantities such as surface roughness, accelerometers and vibration pickups.
used in industrial cleansing apparatus and also in· underwater detection system known
as sonar.
Equivalent Circuit of Piezo-electric Transducer.
The basic equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric transducer is shown in Fig. 25'64 (a). The source is
a charge generator. The value of the charge is Q=d*F. The charge generated is across the
capacitance Ccr of the crystal and its leakage resistance Rcr.

The charge generator can be replaced

by an equivalent voltage source
having a voltage of

in series with a capacitance, Ccr, and

resistance, Rcr, as shown in Fig. 25‘64
(a).
The value of resistance Rcr is very large. It is of the order of 0·1 x 1012 and thus the equivalent
circuit of the transducer is reduced to a voltage source of voltage Eo in series with a series
capacitance cp, as shown in Fig. 25'64 (b).
 Hall Effect.
If a strip of conducting material carries current in the presence of a trans
verse magnetic field as shown in Fig below, an emf is produced between two edges of
conductor. The magnitude of the voltage depends upon the current, flux density and a
property of conductor called "Hall Effect Coefficient"

❖ Hall effect elements are extensively used

in magnetic measurements.

Hall Effect sensors.

➢ They can operate as switches of high
frequency
➢ They cost less than electromechanical
switches
➢ They are free from contact bounce
problem(No hysteresis)
Measurement of Flux Density using Hall Effect

Current is passed through lends I and 2 of the Hall strip.

The output leads are at the slime potential when there is
no transverse magnetic field passing through the strip.
When there is a magnetic flux through the strip, a voltage
appears between output leads. This voltage is
proportional to the current and the field strength.
OPTICAL TRANSDUCER:- A photoelectric device is a piece of apparatus which
allows the flow of current only when light falls on the device. Also the magnitude of the
current varies- with the intensity of light and hence these devices can be used for
photometric measurements.
The different photo-electric devices are : . ·
(i) Photo emissive cells ; (ii) Photo conductive cells ; (iii) Photo voltaic cells.

Photo emissive cells

for a constant impressed voltage, the current is
proportional to the luminous intensity or
luminous flux provided same wavelengths
are used. The micro-ammeter used in Fig may
be directly calibrated in terms of luminous
intensity of flux.

The current through the tube depends upon

the following factors :
(i) the intensity of light, (ii) The colour of
wavelength of light,
and (ill) the voltage impressed between
cathode and anode.
Photomultiplier:- Extremely low levels of luminous intensity can be measured or detected
by means of a photomultiplier tubes which utilize many successive stages or secondary
emission -to boost up the output currents from its initial very low value.
When light strikes a photo sensitive
cathode, it emits electrons. The liberated
electrons are accelerated by a voltage E1
and are focused on to the next electrode,
D1, called Dynode. These electrons striking
upon the dynode cause the emission of
secondary electrons

The dynodes are so shaped and placed that the electrons always move in the proper
direction and are accelerated sufficiently between dynodes to cause secondary emission
at each surface.
The process done at dynode D1 is repeated at subsequent dynodes D2, Da,... . The final
electrode in the series is an anode A which collects all the electrons. The electrode a is at
a positive potential and the anode current la is measured.
Let the number of electrons formed by secondary emission for each primary electron be
g.
Therefore, the gain of each stage is : gain= g. ·
If there are 'n' dynodes, the-total amplification: An=g*n .
Photoconductive Transducers
In a semi-conductor an energy gap exists between conduction electrons and valence
electrons. In a semi-conductor photoconductive transducer, a photon is absorbed and
thereby excites an electron from valence band to conduction band. As electrons are
excited from valence band to conduction band, the resistance decreases, making the
resistance an inverse function of radiation intensity.
Photoconductive Cells When the cell is kept in darkness, its
resistance is called dark resistance.
The dark resistance may be as high
as 10 X 1012 n. If the cell is
illuminated its resistance decreases.
The resistance depends on the
physical character of the
photoconductive layer as well as on
the dimensions of the cell and its
geometric configuration. The current
depends upon the d.c. voltage
applied. The current is of the order
of mA.
Photodiodes
The photodiode is reverse biased. The reverse biased saturation current is dependent
upon the intensity of the incident light.

The photodiode is very useful for applications

where the space is restricted. The
photocurrent versus light relationship is linear
over a wide range.
 Photovoltaic Cell
The cell is a giant diode, constructing a p-n junction between appropriately doped
semiconductors. Photons striking the cell pass through the thin p-doped upper layer and are
absorbed by electrons in the lower n-layer, causing formation of' conduction electrons and
holes. The depletion zone potential of the p-n junction then separates these conduction
holes and electrons causing a difference of potential to develop across the junction .

These characteristics show that the current is a function of the cell incident luminous flux
The photovoltaic cells can operate satisfactorily in the temperature range of -100 to 125'C
The temperature changes have little effect on short-circuit current but affect the open
circuit voltage considerably.
Optical Encoder
These transducers convert the input physical phenomenon into an electrical output
which is in the form of pulses.
Since the binary system uses only two symbols -0 and 1, it can be easily represented by
two different types of systems using optical methods or using electrical methods; The
digital transducers using optical methods are called optical Encoders while those using
electrical methods are ca}led Resistive Electrical Encoders.
A sector (Fig. 25'70) may be
designed with a pattern of
opaque and translucent areas. A
photo electric sensor and a light
source is placed on the two
sides of the sector. The
displacement is applied to the
sector and therefore changes
the amount of light falling on
Advantages and Disadvantages. the photo electric sensor. The
True digital readout, No mechanical contact is pattern of illuminated sensor
involved and so no problems of wear and then carries the information as
alignment. But the lights burn out to the location of the sector.
Resistive Digital encoders. There is another way in which this pattern (Fig. ·
25"70) may
Used. The shaded areas are made of conducting material and the Unshaded areas Of
insulating material .Sliding contacts are used which make contacts. The circuits of
sliding contacts, which come in' contact with conducting areas are completed and the
circuits of the others which make contacts with insulated areas are not completed.
Thus the encoder gives a digital readout which is an indication of the position of the
device and hence this encoder determines the displacement.

Advantages and Disadvantages

➢ Inexpensive,(advantage)
➢ Can be made to any degree of desired accuracy, quite adequate for
slow systems.(advantage)
➢ Wear of contactors and maintenance of the contacts(disadvantage)
Shaft Encoder.
A shaft encoder is a digital device used for
measurement of angular position. The
encoder shown has four tracks (bits) and is divided
into conducting and insulating portions, with the
smallest increment being 0.01 mm As the scale moves
under the brushes, the respective lamp circuits are
made or broken so that the numbers shown on the
readout lamps is at every instant equal to one
hundredth of a mm.
For angular displacements, the pattern is
simply deformed so that the length of the scale
becomes the circumference of a circle on a flat
disc. The brushes are then placed
along a radial line on the disc Fig shows the
disc.