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lnu«tuetton to W.ktU\9
1 An Essential Skill _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ l
Wl>ereWelclinQ/sUs8d• Dew/opmentotw eldlnQProcesses • Points to Remember 7
WelclinQProcesses • OccupalionaiOpporltrltiesln Welci1i;l Questions for study and Discussion _ _ 7
2 Welding Safety _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 9
.Job919Solety •Sote~t0pel01ion • PeoonotProtectlv& Points to Remember 27
EQ<.t:meo~ · ,._..dousSltJ61aloeConloln8ts · CUimgSaf<>ly ·
c>.yocel}'1en9welclinQSaf<>ty • AtcWelclinQSote ty • Pr!Mlnlt1glias
Questio ns for stud y and D.ISCuss1 on _ _ 28
4 CAW-Equipment _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 47
OXygen fa welding . Acel)'l9neForWetcilg • SoleHordngot Points to Remember fff
~ • Welc*lgADpaatus • Olt>ef Wek*lgGases Questions for Study and Discussion __ fff
8 SMAW-Equipment _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 89
Eledrical Pnnc/p/eS • Weting Mac/line Output • COnstant-current Points to Remember 103
We/dlhg Machines • Sialic PowerSoutces • Engine-Driven Power
Sources • Weldi1g Machine Ratings • We/dng EQ<.ipmenl • Shop Questions for Study and Discussion _ 103
Equbment • Personal Proteclfve Eqllipment
1 2 SMAW-Fiat P o s i t i o n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 133
Points to Remember _ 139
We«1 A::l!$9$ • Root Alss • nte.mediale WeiCIAlss • eo-Alss• .Jotlls
Weldedi1Ra1Posltiot> • ~Jolnl$ • T·Jo/nl$ • Buff Jolnl$ • Comet
Exercises _ 140
Jolnls • &sfoctlg • SMAWRaiPosltiot> Problen ~ Questions for Study and Discussion _ 146
16GTAW-Equipment - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - 163
=Tungsten Arc Weldilg • GTAWCvrrent Selection • Constont· Points to Remember _ 176
CvtrentWeld.'ngMachines • lllverterWe!dingMochines • GlAW
Equipment • G lAWFIRerMetOIS Questions tor Study and Discussion _ 176
1 7 GTAW-Procedures - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - 177
GTAw Considerations • Joint Preporolfon • Weld 8ocldng • GTAW Points to Remember _ 185
Procedt.tre1 • Stcsrtirtg the Arc • Hottzonlal Weldilg Procedure •
VertiCal 'Neldi1g Procedufe • Overhead Weldilg Procedure • Hot Exercises _ 185
Wue V.~ • Puls6dGTAW(GTAW.P)
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 190
1 8 GTAW-Applications - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 191
Aturnficm • sta/rllessSt&el • CepperOfldCopperAloy • M<:>gne$iUm • Points to Remember _ 196
CottxlnStool
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 196
sec tio n . fiVe
G• Meted Af~ Wetdif\9 (GMAW)
1 9 GMAW-Equipment - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - 197
Gas Me/0/Atc Welding • GMAW Current Selection • GMAW We/Oing Points to Remember 211
Machines • GMAWEq!AiJment • GMAWWeldilgW/fe
Questions for Study and Discussion _212
2 0 GMAW-Procedures _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ 213
Joint Preparation . WeldBocking • GMAW5etllpProce<Jutes • Metot Points to Remember _ 224
TronsftN Modes • GMAWWelciDisccntfnuities
Exercises 225
Questions for Study and Discussion _230
2 1 GMAW-Applications - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - 231
Corbof>Stooi · Alumino.m • stolnJesssteet• Cepper Points to Remember _ 237
Questions for Study and Discussion _237
sec rio n .six
Othet WetdinQ Pl~eU~$
24 Surfacing------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - 265
SUrfoclng • WeorTypes • SUrfoclngMethods • We/(1ing • GTAWond Points to Remember _ 281
GMAWOverloys • PAWWek!Overloys • SAW Weld Overlays •
SurfocePreporollor> • WeldOverloyF/uerMetO/s • Thermo/Spraying Questions for Study and Discussion _ 281
319
Points to Remember _336
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 336
337
Points to Remember _ 362
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 362
363
Points to Remember _ 373
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 373
3 3 Metallography - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - 449
Points to Remember _463
tviO~&.ca•oiOib• · OJtttigandRour;fi~ · M<xnltlgax:J
ll'!eGmca>g . Rour;fiax:JFhdPolst1tlg . Elchngax:JExicrrtlo1ion .
Mm~&.a.'inotiou • Moctootr:to-.gax:JfJ«:rrW>t:tffo •U{pfrQ Questions for Study and Discussion _464
A p p e n d i x - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 661
Glossary 687
Index 709
CD-ROM Contents
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~ - --- ---- --- ------ - -
Welding Skills, J'd Edition, is the product of an extensive revision effort ro address all aspects of the
weld ing trade and the latest we lding technology. Now in full color, th is comprehensive text has been
completely updated and expanded to cont inue the trad ition of an industry- leading instructional tool. A
new contemporary design, derailed illustrations. descriptive photographs, and concise text enhance the
learn ing process. Step-by-step exen:ises, currenl AWS terrniuology, key points, ami informative factoius
supplement essential content throughout the rext.
The Third Edir ion bui lds on lhe quality of previous edit ions and offers valuable new content contributed
by Bert J. Moniz. Having over 37 years of experience in metallurgy and many facets of welding, Mr.
Moniz currently serves as Materials Engineering Consullanr with the DuPont Company. In his current
position, he is involved with selecting materials for constructiou, fabricarion. and failure analysis world-
wide. He has !aught related courses, authored books, and written and presented several papers. His hands-
on knowledge and expertise are reflected throughou t the text and in the developmcnl of new chapters
covering:
Repair Welding
Metallography
Weld Discontinu ities
Metal ldenri fication
Weldabi lity of Common Metals
Distortion Control
Materials and Fabrication Standards and Codes
The text begins with an introduction to the welding process and welding in industry. Throughout the text
an emphasis is placed on fundamen ra l principles of welding processes, equipment, welder performance
qualification, and weld evaluario11 and test ing . The text a lso covers the latest technology in welding
metallurgy, metal weldability, d istortion control, robotics, aud marerial standards and codes. Chapters in
the rex t have been organized into eight sections to progressively enhance knowledge and skills. Safety
procedures and potential heal th and safety hazards arc covered in context with appropriare cautions and
wm·nings. The Appendix conrains reference marerial pertinenr to the welding trade, and the Glossary
provides definitions of welding terms introduced in the text.
The Welding Skills, 3"' Edition CD-ROM in the back of the book is a self-study aid designed to augment
content inc luded in I he rext. The CD-ROM inc I udes a Quick QuizTM for each section of the text. an
Illustrated Glossary, Media Clips, Welding Resou rces, and related welding re ference material. Informa-
tion about using the CD-ROM is included on the last page of the book.
Welding Skills, 3n1 Edition, is one of several high-quality training products available from American Tech-
nica l Pub lishers, Inc. To obtain information about related training products, visit the American Tech web
site at www.go2atp.com.
The Publisher
section . 0 ne Introduction to Welding
Welding is an efficient, dependable, flexible, and economical means of fabrication. Welding is widely
used in industry as a principal means of fabricating and repairing metal products. Welding can lower
production costs by simplifying design and eliminating costly pauems and machining operations. Weld-
ing ctm also be used in repair operations and adding new meta/to worn parts.
There are many opporlllnities for IVelders trained in welding techniques. materials, designs. and
appliccuions.
WHERE WELDING IS USED and jigs and fixtures: and in the con-
struction of boilers, furnaces. and rai l-
We/dh1g is the coa lescence or joining
way cars. We lding is a lso common ly
together of metals, with or without rc
used in the manufacture of products
Ii ller metal, using heat, allCllor pressure.
for househo ld use, such as te levi sion
Bonding of metals during welding oc-
sets, refrigerators. storage cabinets. and
curs through localized me lting or mi-
di shwashers. Cons truction off bridges
crostructural changes at the in terface
and s hips a lso comm o nl y requires
between the meta ls. Welding is used
we lding.
thr oughou t industry in building con-
struction. aircraft m<mufacluring, and for
automobile production. See Figure 1- I. 0 Nearly twQ·third.r fl/ltllwelders work intire
Welding is used extensively for the C()nSiru,·Jimr, trt.mSparJatiOu eq.u ipmellt,
fal>ricllletl mew/ fJI'Oducts. nwchinery. and
manu facture and repair of farm equip- moror velticlt and t!quipmellf indrlSiries.
ment. mining and refinery equipment.
Welding in Industry
FigUte 1-1
2 ~ Welding Skills
Welding Processes Because of its flexibility and mo-
Figure 1·2 bility. oxyacetylene welding is used in
all metalworking industries, but is most
commonly used for maintenance and
repair work.
Arc Welding
Arc welding (AW) is a group of welding
processes that produce coa lescence of
metals by heating them with an electric
arc. The arc is struck between a weld-
ing electrode and tbe base metaL The
OXYFUEL WELDING (OFW) weld ing e lectrode is a component of
the welding circuit that terminates at
the arc. The joint area is shielded from
the atmosphere until it is cool enough
HEAT FOR to prevent the absorption of harmful im-
WELDING
PRODUCED BY purities from the atmosphere.
ELECTRIC ARC
AW is the most common method of
welding metals. AW processes include
sh ielded metal arc welding (SMAW).
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), gas SMAW electrodes um
metal arc welding (GMAW), Jlux cored
arc weld ing (FCAW), submerged arc
welding (SAW). and plasma arc weld-
I be modified to allow
for wider appli<.YtlioJJ
of SMA W 1>•vcesses.
ing (PAW).
Shielded Metal Arc Welding. Shielded
metal arc we lding (SMAW) is an arc
welding process in which the arc is
shielded by the decomposition of the
elecu·ode coating. The electrode is con-
ARC WELDING (AW) s umed into the weld while providing
heat from an elecu·ic arc. Variations in
composition of the electrode coating
HEAT FOR WELDING
PRODUCED BY RESISTANCE TO a llow diffe rent applications of the
OF ELECTRICITY SMAW process.
Common app lications of SMAW
ELECTRODES
are in the fabrication of machinery and
structural steel for bu ildings and
bridges. SMAW is considered ideal for
making storage and pressure vessels
as well as for production-line products
using standa rd commercial metals.
SMAW is also used in repair work and
in weldiog large structures.
RESISTANCE WELDING (RW) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding. Gas lung-
sren an: welding (GTAW) is an arc welding
Figure 1-2. \Veli/ing pff.NXSS#:S ore (:(»tunOtlly t:-l(lssijicd as process in which a shielding gas protects
Q.l){uel v.:eJdlng, arc weMing. (UI(/ ll!Sistmwe weldi11g. the arc between a nonconsumable (does
An Essemial Skill ~ 3
not become pan of the weld) tungsten high-quality weld metal with fast depo-
electrode and the weld area. GTAW uses sition rates. The weld surface is smooth
a nonconsumable llmgsten electrode and with no spatter. SAW is automated and
a shielding gas, usually helium or argon. most often used to join thick me tals re-
for welding. The GTAW process can be quiring deep penetration, such as in
used to weld using filler metal, or with- heavy steel plate fabrication.
out Iiiler metal to form an autogenous Plasma Arc Welding. Plasma arc
weld. GTAW is widely used for joining welding (PAW) is an arc welding pro-
thin-wall tubing and depositing the root cess that uses a constricted arc between
pass in pipe j oints. GTAW produces a a nonconsumable tungsten electrode
very high-qual ity weldment. and the weld pool (transferred arc), or
Gas Metal Arc Welding. Gas mew/ arc between the electrode and constricting
welding (GMAW) is an arc welding pro- nozzle (non-transferred arc). Trans -
cess that uses an arc between a cominu- ferred arc PAW produces a deep, nar-
ous wire electrode and the weld pool. row, uniform weld zone and is suitable
Argon is used as a shielding gas for non- for almost any metal.
ferrous metals such as alum inu m, and Transferred arc PAW is used for
carbon dioxide/carbon dioxide mixtures weld ing high-strengt h, thin metal.
(such as 75/25, 9812) with argon are Non-transferred arc PAW is typically
FCAW uses a tulm· used for therma l spraying.
lt1r t;l~ctrode h'ith used as a shield ing gas for steels. The
flux m us core. GMAW p rocess uses a continuously fed
consumable wire, e liminating the need Resistance Welding
to stop and change electrodes. This has
Resistance welding ( RW) is a group
increased the popularity of GMAW in
of welding processes in which weld-
manufacturing.
ing occurs from the heat obtai ned by
Flux Cored Arc Welding. Flux cored resistance to the flow of cu rrent
arc welding (FCAW) is an arc weld ing through the metals joined. A resistance
process that uses a tubular electrode we ld in g machine fu ses metals to-
with flux in its core. FCAW produces gether by heat and pressure. RW is
fast, clean welds with excellent ap- used to make localized (spot) or con-
pearance and high deposition rates, tinuous (seam) joints. An advantage
and the process can be automated. of resistance welding is its adaptabil-
Like GMAW, the primary benef it ity to rapid fusion of seams.
of FCAW over SMAW is the higher RW uses special fixtures and au-
productivity rate possible with the tomatic handlin g equ ipmen t for the
continuous- feed system, which also mass production of automob ile bod-
results in lower production cos ts. ies, electrical equipment, hardware. or
FCAW is commonly used to weld car- other domestic goods. RW can be used
bon, low-alloy and stainless steels, and for joining almost all steels, sta inl ess
cast iron. Typical app lications include steels. aluminum alloys. and some
field and shop fabrications. dissimi lar metals.
4 ~ Welding Skills
persons employed as welders. Over half
of these work in industries that manu-
facture durable goods such as transpor-
tation equipment, mach inery. and
household products. Many others work
for constl'tlction fums and repair shops.
A growing number of welders are re-
quired to operate automated <tlld robotic
welding machines.
Employment Outlook
Opportunities for those who desire to
17w needfurcerrified
become welders differ by occupational we/(/ers cominues to
specialty. A healthy economy and a ~row iu the welding
need to replace experienced workers ilulustl)t
6 ~ IVeldiug Skills
I. The combustion of a mixture of acetylene and oxygen produces a name that is suitable for
welding and cutting.
2. The primary duty of a welder using oxyfuel welding is to control and direct heat onto the edges
of the metal to be joined.
3. SMAW electrodes can be modified to allow for wider application of SMAW processes.
4. FCAW uses a tubular electrode with flux in its core.
5. Tile need for certil1ed welders continues to grow in the welding industry.
6. The American Welding Society (AWS) maintains a national registry of certified welders to
assist employers in finding employees that have attained a particular sk ill level.
f1~1Jif'ii[•]~~11•l;Jiill•flm1~1·J·]~MJl'iit•]~-
An Essemial Skill ~ 7
8 0 1\'l'ltlill!( Skills
Eve1y year, thousands of welders stiffer injuries as a result of accidems that occur because proper safety
precautions are not followed at the j ob site. Accidents occur because of indifference to regulations. lack of
informal ion, or carelessness. Any injwy can be painful and can incapacirate a person. or lead ro permanenr
disability or death.
Safety precawions are effective in reducing rhe occurrence of accidems ar the job site. Safety means using
common sense and ln•oiding serious accidems; and it has to be observed constamly. Eswblished safery
pmctices should be followed at all times. If good safery practices are consistemly followed, an awareness
of proper behavior is established thar usually prevenrs mistakes.
9
Reporting Accidents of how minor they may be. A small scratch
According to the Bureau of Labor Statis- might lead to a serious infection, or a minute
tics, approximately 26,000 welders per year particle lodged in d1e eye could result in a
are injured on the job site. Welders are ex- serious eye injury. Prompt attention to any
posed to health risks every day: !he ultra- injury usually minimizes the seriousness
violet rays of !he welding arc can injure of !he injury. See Figure 2-2.
the eyes or the skin; some gases produced Any job site where physical work is
by welding may be toxic and if breathed perfonned should have <m established ac-
in may affect !he lungs; and welding or cident reporting procedure. Since !his re-
cutting near tlammab le materia ls, or porting procedure is in the best interest of
welding o n containers that have held the worker, it is irresponsible to ignore it or
combustible materials, poses a fire risk. rry to avoid reporting an accident Instead,
While precautions must be taken to workers should become fully informed
prevent ir~uries, accidents do happen. All abom what should be done and !hen lake
accidents should be reported, regardless immediate action if ;m accident occurs.
Fl!'!lbe S!:IIU!
lt f'!A~
ACCIDENT REPORT OF INJURY
_.,._
!il: F"n1M~
0 PanTJMO 0 ModieN Tionemot~e
INJURED
PERSON
0"""'--
TIME OF
ACCIDENT
_2.__-·--
DATE OF
ACCIDENT
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~====~~~----r----PLACEOF
ACCIDENT
........
IO. ~~~~~ '---Pt• 0 Hr
gMIIOial.......,.hO!n - -
tJc:,•P~bO:l.
=-- CAUSE OF
ACCIDENT
TYPE OF ...,.,_,_
ACCIDENT
CIRCUMSTANCES
IMMEDIATE
SUPERVISOR
FiJ!ure Z.2. A1t act:idt!nt ,.tporl !on11 nwsl be filled 0111 to accurlilely reflecz zhe t'\'ellts of tm acddcm. lisr injuri~·. a1td derail job ltaz.anls tlrat
mt1y neecl mrenrio,.
10 @o Welding Skills
confined space include having a stand- \VIrt>n working i11 u
Work Behavior
by person available, guarding openings. cmrfinetl.~fXlCt, h11 \"l'
Occasionally, workers may engage in us ing adequate ventilat ion. and per- II Slllllt/-by f1USOII
what might appear to be harmless forming oxygen content checks. tWtJilable w en.mre tl
,wfe en~~irotmlf!JI,
pranks. However, there arc many re- Welding and culling operations per-
corded incidents where a prank ended formed in confined spaces create spe-
in serious injury. Any form of horseplay cific safety hov.ards. For instance, a leak
in a shop is dangerous and can lead to in welding equipment can displace life-
an accident. Most work areas are rea- s upporting oxygen levels. Sec Appen-
sonably safe if proper work precautions dix. Some gases. sucb <IS argon. cannot
are taken, but no one is safe if good work be detected by smell and in confined or
attitudes are ignored. low-ventilated areas build to tollic lev-
els. Welding, tlame cutting, or allied pro-
SAFE EQUIPMENT OPERATION cesses should never be started until
safety precautions are addressed. Weld-
Welding equipment should not be used ing safety procedures are developed to
unless exact operatin g ins truc ti o ns avoid hazards that might be present
have been received a nd understood. from welding operations. 1l1cse include
Manufacturer recommendations should hazards of welding products, fumes and
be followed at all times. Attempting to gases. electric shock. noise. heat. bums. A WARNING
operate a piece of equipment without and radiation. ll1e welder must be sat- Any weldil\g cquipmenl
instruction may not on ly damage the isfied that the confined space entry pro- malfunction' ,hall be
repor1cd to the supcn•isor.
equipment, it could result in a serious cedure and paperwork are satisfactory.
injury. If not, the welder has the right to refuse
Opera10rs of eq uipmen t should to perform the work until remed ial ac-
wear appropriate personal protective tions arc taken.
equipme nt , properly mainta in the A permit is rcqujrcd when a con-
equipment they are operating, and use fined space contains atmosphe ric haz-
the safety features of the equipment. ards that h:lve the potential to cause
All welding equipment is safe to op- serious physical harm to a weJdcr. Sec
erate providing it is used in the proper Appendix. A permit-required coufi/letl
manner. Malfunctioning welding equ ip- space is a confined space with one or
ment s hould be repaired by a trained more of the following characteri stics:
service technician. It contains or has the potential to
contain a hazardous atmosphere.
Confined Spaces • It contains a material that has th e
potential to engulf tbe entrant.
A confined space pem1it is necessary • It has an internal configuration
when repair welding is carried out in such that the an e ntrant could be
specific physical si tuations. A co/1- trapped or asphyxiated by inwardly
Jiued space is a workspace that h~s converging walls or by a noor that
any of the following features: I) 11 1S slopes downward and tapers to a
large enough and so configured that smaller cross section.
a person can bodily en ter it and per- • The confined space contains any
form assigned work, 2) it has limited other recognized seri ous safety or
or restricted means for entry or exit, health hazard.
or 3) it is not des igned for continuous
occupancy.
Examples of co nfin ed spaces in - 0
Confined spaet permits are iss.,ed for a
.'flecific fltriotl of time. Work mltSt b~
clude tanks, sitos, storage bins, hoppers. complelttl in the t11loted time or tiii<'W pennrt
vaults. pits. and trenches. Specific safety nuut be obtain~d.
precautions required when working in a
Welding Safety ~ II
Under any or all of these conditions An exhaust system is necessary to
a permit system is required in which keep tox ic gases below the prescribed
worker enu·y into the confi ned space is health limits in areas where much weld-
regulated. The employer must develop ing is performed. An adequate exhaust
procedures for preparing and issuing system is especially necessary when
permits to enter, work inside, and re- welding or culling zinc, brass. bronze,
tum the confined space to service at the lead. cadmium, or beryllium. This in-
end of the job. Permit-required confined cludes galvanized steel <mel metal paimed
spaces require assessment of emry pro- with lead-based paint. Fumes from these
cedures in compliance with OSHA stan- materials are toxic and hazardous. Even
dards prior to entry. when venti lation is provided, a respira-
A non-permit confined space is a tor should be used when metals that give
A WARNING confined space that does not contain, off toxic fumes are to be welded. Near
Cvcn with proper vcntila· or have the potential to contain, any the work area. toxic fumes may be
lion. a rcspiml<lr should be hazards capable of causing death or breathed in before they can be extracted
used when nlclals th:u give
off toxic rurncs ~-·rc wcltled. serious physical harm. Conditions can by the ventilation system. See Figure 2-4.
change as tasks such as welding occur.
Ventilation
Welding should only be performed in
well-ventilated areas. There must be suf-
ficient movement of ai r to prevent an
accumulation of toxic fumes or, possi-
bly, a deficiency of oxygen. All wind
or air movement (ventilation) should be
across the body, not from in front or
from behind. Front- and rear-di rected
air movement causes wind tunnels (roll-
ing) in front of the body and into the Sc<lb tnwn M••>if<d •ri..
respiratory traer. Adequate ventilation Figure 2-4. A respimtar s hould be U/()1''11 when
wt:ltNn~: memls tltlU t>n>tlucr to:rk fum~s.
becomes extremely critical in confined
spaces where d<mgerous fumes, smoke, PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
and dust are likely to collect. When EQUIPMENT
working in a shop, the installed venti-
lation system is usual ly not adequate to Personal Protective Equipment is a de-
vent the toxic fumes generated by weld- vice worn by welders to prevent injury.
ing. Additional ventilation is required, All personal protective equipmem must
by the use of either a respirator, fans, or meet requirements specified in OSHA
an exhaust system. See Figure 2-3. 29 CFR and other app licable safety
standards. All welding and cutting op-
Figure 2-3. A 1.:emi/(Jtion sy:riMI erations generate sparks and/or ultra-
is rt•quirelllt> remo v~ wxic fitmi!S.
violet and infrared rays. Sparks may
smoke•, wul Ju.tt cau,ft!il IJy
wehling. lead to serious burns. and ultraviolet
and infra red rays are extremely dan-
gerous to the eyes and skin. A welder
must be aware of poss ible dangers to
the body during any welding or cutting
operation and learn the safe practices
for personal welfare. Suitable eye pro-
tection, clothing, and ear protection cu·e
necessary. See Figure 2-5.
L2 @: Welding Skills
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Atomic
Nuclei Gamma Rays
30 fm
Accelerators
X-rayTubes
X rays
Atomic
Electrons
Lasers 300nm
Electric
RAYS Arcs
GENERATED
IN WElDING 800nm
PROCESS Hot Solids 30 ~tm
Infrared
Molecules
---------
Magnetron 3cm
Microwaves
Klystron
------------
Television
Electric 3m
FM Radio
Currents
300m
AM Radio
Longwave 30km
Radio
Nf'drnllatt./nc
f1gure 2-5. 111~my,t J.!tiiUcllt!d b;; wdding "" Jurrmful In W()rl\ers. A weldt•r slwu/(1 always wear suimblt persmwl t'mtl't'tll·e etluipmt•ttl w pmtcct
aguirt,rt lite u/mn•iulel and i11[ran•tl rll)W gem:>mu:tl durillK wc.•lding.
Welding St~fery @o l3
Eye Protection Cutting and weldi ng opera tio ns
When welding. ab'"'O)'S produce sparks and hot slag lhat can
Wt'ar safety glasses Eye protection is essential for welders.
witlt apprmted jilll'r Radiation produced by welding and be projected from lhe welding surface
plates. culling may be harmful to lhe welder. toward the welder. Proper protection
Radiant energy may be ion izing must be used to prevent injury to the
(s uc h as X-ray s) o r non-ioni z ing eye. Eye protectio n is ava ilable with
(such as ultravi ole t, visible. or in- prescription lenses for welders who
frared light). Rad iation can burn the normally wear g lasses. Some welders
ski n and damage the eyes. The effects may prefer to have prescription lenses
depend o n the radiant e nergy wave- on the safety glasses because wearing
length and intensity. and exten t o f glasses, safety g lasses. and a helmet
exposure. may be unwieldy.
Most arc welding and torch cutti ng
processes produce non-ionizing radia- Helmets. We lders also wear protective
tion such that eye protection is neces- welding he lmets with spec ial fi lte r
sary. A welding arc should only be plates or filler glasses to protect against
viewed through fi lter plates that meet inj ury and exposure to ultraviolet and
the requi rements of the American Na- infrared rays. He lmet designs allow
tional Standards In stitute (ANS I), botb hands to be used for welding.
Z87. I. Practice for Occupational and Helmets are made to fit over the head,
Educational Eye and Face Protection. attach to hard hats. or be held by hand.
Welders should always be alert for re- An adj ustable headband inside the
flecti ons from welding arcs. Passersby helmet provides a comfortable fit. The
can be protected by welding screens, he lme t may be sw ung up whe n not
CUJtains. or remaining an adequate dis- welding. The band-helrl helmet is userl
tance from lhe job. by observers. See Figu re 2-6.
Welding Helmets
Figure 2·6
Figure 2·6. A wcldi11g Jrcdmtl prtJII,cls lire wt'lder from infrllrcd lmd u/tr{lvio/(1{ rfl)'.f and ltm spotk.f.
14 ~ Welding Skills
Welding helmets should be in good Safety Glasses and Goggles. A weld-
ing helmet does not provide total pro- FOr most arc "rldm11
condition since openings or cracks can opuouons. a 110
allow arc light through. A cover plate tection to a welder. so safety glasse~ sllaik sltollld lx UJ«i
should be placed on the outside of the and/or goggles should be worn at all For or\'(lc·tt.\1t'llt'
times when welding. During shielded cLI/Jmg. a 115 shod•
filter plate to protect it from weld conl>e llst•d.
spaller. The filter p late should be metal arc welding, a Lh in crust (slag)
made of tempered glass so that it will fonns on the deposited bead. This slag
not shauer if hit by flying objects. must be removed from the weld. When
Filter plates are marked showing the removing the slag. tiny particles may
manufacturer, the sbade number, and be deflected upward. Because of
the letter H indicating they have been stresses that build up in the weld. slag
treated for impaet resbtance.
may occa~ionally pop off the weld.
These particles can cause ~erious eye
HelmetS may have fixed or adjustable
injury unless proper eye protection is
lenses. Auto-darkening lenses darken in
worn. Sec Figure 2-7.
less than a hundred-mi llionth of a second
when arc light strikes the filter. Figure 2·7. Stt}t!lv gltn<rt·f or
Colored lenses should be examined Safety Glosses and Goggles gd~glu shuu/J ulwu~·s bf.' _..ftrn
Figure 2· 7 during K'ffllm~ In f1Tnrnt damt1R~
and replaced if cracked. Lenses come to the ~·ts rcs.ullm~ fmm d~jln:tnl
in different shades. depending on the ,,01:.
welding to be done. For oAyacetylene
cutting operations. a #5 shade may be
used. For arc welding at 75 A (amps) to
200 A. # 10 shades or higher should be
used. In general. for welding operations.
the recommended shades. based on
welding current are as follows:
• Shade 10- 75 A to 200 A s:taar-'' 1 w.-·(~"'
\\'1-/ditrg Str/1'1)' ~ 15
material. Pant c uffs or clothing with Coveral ls or work c lothes
open pockets that can catch and re- shou ld be heavy enough to preven t
tai n molten metal or sparks shou ld infra red and ultraviole t rays f rom
not be worn. Work boots, leather leg- penetrating to the skjn. Cufls on panL~
gings, and fire-resistant g loves should should be turned down or e li min ated
be worn . Pant legs shou ld be worn over and pockets removed to prevent mol-
the outside of the boots. Helmets and ten metal from catching in the clothes.
hand shields that prov ide protection Sleeves and collars should be kept
for the face. neck. and ears should be buttoned. See Figure 2-8.
worn, as well as a protective head cov-
/1J addition ta ap· Gloves. Gloves should be worn to pro-
e ri ng. Approved work cloth es. a
pmt·ed work dmhe.,·. tect the hands from ultraviolet rays and
lu:t"')'·duty welding headcap. welding helmet. work boots.
spattering hot metal. Gloves are also
requires n ll'lllhtr and gloves are required for all li ght-
jarkel or apron am/ useful when picking up metal~ that have
duty welding and cutting operations.
/e(JJIIer gatllllll't·/)1><' been welded. The red hot color of metal
glcwes. In addition , heavy-duty we lding re-
fades and metal returns to its original
quires a leather jacket or leather apron
gray color quick ly: however. metal re-
and leather gauntlet-type gloves.
mains hot for some Li me after welding
Work Clothing. Work clothes wom by and can not be identified as hot simply
welders should be made of natura l by looking at it. Gloves should be worn
materials such as leather. wool. or cot- at all times when working with metal
ton as these materia ls have a higher that may be hot to prevent the hands
resistance to burning. Synthetic mate- from being burned.
rials such as polyester shou ld never be Several types of g loves are ava il -
worn, as they melt and bum easi Iy, and able for welding. Leather work gloves
can cause severe inj ury to a welder. and gauntlet-type gloves both prov ide
Proper Clothing
Figure 2-8
HELMET
r LEATHER
/ SLEEVES
ON JACKET
, f-"'" LEATHER
GAUNTLET·
TYPE
GLOVES
F'igure z...s. 7'hl' prttJit!r pmtt!ctiw: durlring it uq;,irt'tl tv prtl'ent injury or bunrs during welt/mg.
16 ~ Welding Skills
protection. Gloves should be nexible Work Boo ts. Work boots must be
enough to permit proper hand move- approved safety shoes or boots made Nn·tr ptm·r '"'~<I<
or m.tru tn·rrO'n$:t'"
ment, yet nor so thin as to allow the of leather or other approved material. orga.rc.\Ji,ult•n. Ga.r
hear 10 pcnernlle easily. Sec Figure 2-9. with a reinforced or steel toe to prcvc111 can lr11L under
impact injuries. Metatarsa l (in!.tep) clothin,t: arul ,ffllrt "
Leather Jackets and Aprons. A leather fire.
jacket or apron is recommended when protec tion shou ld also be worn to
welding. as spauer might cause injury. preven t s lag material or sparks from
A leather apron offers the best dropping into the shoes. Street shoe~
protection from hot \pauer. In must never been worn. regardlcs\ of Lhe
situation~ where there may not be an
material from which they are made.
excessive amount of metal spa11cr.
suitable coveralls (tire-retardam) may Ear Protection
be worn to protect the clothing. Some we lding operations, such us
chipping, peening. air carbon arc goug-
~
ing, and plasma arc cu lling. produce Eor pmtct·tiau \lumld
be u·om wlw11 h·tld·
high levels of noise. Engine-driven §J_ iug tllr trn·\\in•
tlf
generator\ can also be noisy. Exce~ n()IU t:t-nrrmnl h_,.
Gloves sive noise affects hearing capability. wdtlin.tt t·wt trflru
Ftgure 2·9 lrroriug.
h may be a temporary loss from which
the ear~ recover if removed from the
noise source. However, if a person i'
exposed to thi~ same noise for long pe-
riods of rime. the hearing loss may be-
come permanent. The time required to
develop permanent hearing loss de-
pends on various factors. Ear plug~ or
car muffs must be used when engi-
neering contr<>l~ (such as shielding)
are not cffccti ve in reducing exces-
WORK sive noise.
Ear plug> and e.'lf muffs arc supplied
by the employer in siruatiom where
workers arc exposed to extreme noi,c.
Earplug.\ arc a device insencd into the
ear canal to reduce Lhe level of noi\c
reaching the eardrum. Earplugs ;arc
made of moldable rubber. foam, or pla~
tic. Ear muj}:1· are a device worn over
the cars to reduce the level of noise
reaching the eardrum. Sec Figure 2-10.
Safe noise levels and levels ar which
hearing protection is required arc in-
dicated by regulations developed by
the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and OS HA. Ear protection de-
vices ;arc rated for noise reduction to
GAUNTLET-TYPE maintain permissible noise levels. A
noise reduction rating number (NRR)
tlgurt 2..9. Alwa,·~ "'·~ar Klm·n ~hrn '14tldinR wul
.~lfllf( tn prolnt th~ /uJnJ.s frm" ulucn·wl~l rou is a number Lhat indicates the noi\e
.. ..J V"fltlt'r: level reduction in decibels (dB) .
Welding Sa[l'lv ~ 17
Figure 2- lO. Ear protutiPn
shnuld he ust!ti/<Jr "''"'ling np·
Ear Protection
t!rotiow:. suclr as cllippiug. ~~n · Figure 2· 10
ing. t'tlrbon urr air gnugf11g, ant!
plasma af'C' cmtmg, that producr
Mglt lt!vt'ls of noiu.
SOUND LEVELS
-;·~ .~;- .... -~-:-',.,
. . ~.
. .·
.· . .'.1~.··
,·, ,•·•.,,,,,. ,_·;;--·;1.''1
'', :,~_-.,_ -~~.1!',-.. !5~1- .._-~ .:,.....
;1';,~~ "t'"' ;:·" -· • : • ,.,r, .. ~:-.
:~.~ .. ~· 'r • '.;.._ •!••o ,~ .... !~ '}~ ~.!. ~1'~!:.; ~ ,:~h}l~t...J!i
\,~ ~ --~~t.,.l
~l~~!·lr~:.::l':: :~~·L)rl :>-<. 1 ~.
.. 1 -; •• • · ' .._
Figun. 2-11. Enr prmectimt rttlut-'t'.f 1/r~ dui~ll~~-(1/ 10 k'ltich 1h~ ~11rdroms ut~ t-.qwst·d. rt!tluciiJg lht! clumu of damage to tht! \mrker'.s hr11rbrg.
used depends upon the substance pre- clea ning tbe container are available,
viously held in the container. The wa- including the hot chemical solution.
ter method of c leaning is used when steam, mechanical c lean ing. or chemi-
the substance is known to be readily cal cleaning methods. Occasionally.
soluble in water. The residue can be combinations of al.l methods of c lean-
removed by completely filling the con- ing must be used prio r 10 welding or
lainer with water and draining several cutting. Care must be taken to protect
times. When the substance originally personnel and to prevent hazardou s
held in the contai ner is not read ily reactions when combining cleaning
soluble in water. additional methods of methods.
Welding Sl~(ety ~ 19
Hot Chemical Solution Method. The As a final precaution after c leaning. a
hot chemicai solution me thod uses container should be vented and filled
trisodium phosphate {a strong wash- with water before welding or cutting.
ing powder) or a commercial ca us- The con tainer should be arranged so
tic cleaning compound dissolved in that the container can be kept filled
A WARNING hot water. Tbe cleaning agents a re to within a few inches of the point
A .::Qntuu-.cr 1ha1 h~ held mix ed with hot water and added tO
unknown \Ub:.t.mc:e.\ bhoufd
where the welding or cu ttin g is to
never be dtantd nnd the container to be c leaned . The con- take place. but not intctfere with weld-
welded bccau$e unknown tain er is tben fi lied with water and ing. See Figure 2-12. When welding
:;ofccy hnl'..-af\J'; .:1rc 10\'0ivcd.
stirred until the chemicals have been or culling on containers. observe the
cleaned from the container. follow ing safety precautiOn$;
• Vent the container 10 allow for the.
Steam Method. The steam method for
release of air pressure or sterun dur-
cleaning containers uses low-pressure
ing welding.
sieam and a hOt soda or soda a.~h to re-
• Use a spark-resistive tool to remove
move substances. The cleaning agents
heavy sludge or scale when scrap·
are added to the container and the
ing or hammering.
container is fi lled w ith live steam and
• Never usc oxygen to venti late a
stirred w1til tbe chemicals bavc bee n
comai ner as it may stan a fire or
removed from the container.
cause an explosion.
Mechanical Cleaning Method. The
mechanical cleani ng method is gener-
ally us:ed when scaly. dry. or insoluble
residues have been left on tbe surface
of the container. Mechanical cleaning
may be performed by scraping, sand
or g rin blasting, high-pressure warer
washing. brushing, filling the container
one-quaner full of clean dry sand and
rolling it on the floor, or any method in
which t1lc con taminant can sa fely be
dis lodged. During mechan ical clean -
ing, the container should be grounded
to minimize the poss ibility of stati c
charge buildup and spark cbarges.
~"~~~(
INFORMATION
Springfield
Chemical Products
170t Hillman Stroot
I~
--- A£00XU -.£A
'fllfls.14Ull.-n-11;n
ll:ll
il'il
..,,,~
m~·
CHRONIC HEALTH
} HAZARDS
1cUoo I - ~
...........
IIOI1IlQJ10I
PRODUCT {
INFORMATION 5:- REACTIVITY
} HAZARDS
CHEMICAL {
NAME/CASE
NUMBER OF SPILL, LEAK. AND
HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL
INGREDIENTS } PROCEDURES
PHYSICAL {
CHARACTERISTICS
PRECAUTIONS AND
PERSONAL
PROTECTIVE
FIRE/EXPLOSION { EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
HAZARDS AND
FIRE FIGHTING
PROCEDURES
HANDLING AND
STORAGE
HEALTH HAZAROS
AND FIRST AID ) PRECAUTIONS
PROCEDURES
DISCLAIMER
} STATEMENT
Figlll"t 2,.13. Au MSDS is prm•itfrd with all rhemir11l t..'QJUOillerS us~d in ;ndustry. Befon• wddirlf.: suclr nllltlmll'TS, th~ MSDS 11Ut.\l ~ ,.,trrk<>d
to tnsllre tlwt drtmirtll:t Iron• bt'len f"'Of1erly remdw•ilfmm tit~ crmtm'm:r.
22 ~ Welding Skills
mechanized production spot welding
machine. ManufactUJ;er recommen-
dations should be followed for the
equipment used. See Figure 2-14.
Electric shock can be fatal. Live
electrical parts sh.ou ld not be
touched, and manufacturer instruc-
tions and all recommended safety
practices must be followed. Faulty
insulation. improper grounding. and
incorrect operation and ma intenance
of e lectrical equipment a re typ ica l
sources of danger from electric shock.
Use only welding machines that meet
recognized national standards, such
as those identified by the National
Electrical Manufacturers Association
1'11Lr""~'\~ ludtmrirs, /,_,_.
(NEMA), NEMA EW-1, Electric Arc Proper workpt'ece connectiotM' to complete a weldi11g cin:uit pre••eut electric shock
Welding Power Sources. (lnd persorwl injury.
Welding Safety ~ 23
All electrical equipment and the High open circuit voltages should
workpiece should be grounded. The be avoided. When several welders are
workpiece lead must not be used as working with arcs of different polar-
a ground and is used on ly to com- ity, or when a number of AC machines
plete the weldi ng circuit. The correct are being used, the open circuit volt-
size leads for the welding application ages can be addirive and increase the
shou ld be used. Sustai ned overload- severity of the shock hazard.
ing causes failure of the welding leads Electrode leads and workpiece
and results in electric shock or fire haz- leads should not be coiled around
ard. AU electrical connections should welding machines or the welder.
be tight. c lean, dry, and in good con- Electrode holders should not be hung
i•u·ulated
Alwli)'S liSt' dition. Poor connections can overheat where they can accidentally come
electrotle Jwldcrs
and melt, or produce dangerous arcs into contact wi th the other side of the
wlreu wehliJ'8 with
SM1\ W to prei'CIII and sparks. Water, grease, or din must circuit. Electrodes should be removed
elect rh:· shock ami not be al lowed to accumulate on plugs, from the electrode holder when not in
injury.
sockets. or e lect rical un its. use. Power cables coming into a weld-
Only insu lated electrode holders ing machine should not come into con-
shou ld be used for SMAW. Semiauto- tact with welding leads. The welding
matic welding guns for continuous wire machine must be kept dry and if it
processes should use low-voltage con- should become wet it must be dried
trol switches so that high voltage is not properly by electrical maintenance per-
brought into the electrode holder in the sonnel. Ln addition. the work area must
welder's hands. I n ful ly automatic be kept dry. Welders should never work
equipment, higher voltages are per- in water or damp areas because water
milled because they are inaccessible reduces a welder's resistance and in-
to lhe operator during t he normal creases potential electrical hazards. The
welding sequence. welder should :stand on a board or in-
sulated platform. The following safety
rules are common to most arc welding
operations:
• Install welding equipment accord-
ing to provisions of the National
Electrical Code~.
• Use we ld ing mach ines eq uipped
with a power disconnect switch lo-
cated at or .ncar the machine so the
power can 'be shut off quickly.
• Ensure th:at the work area is
grounded. Do not ground to pipe-
lines carrying gases or flammable
liquids.
• Use proper safety guards when us-
ing press-type weld ing machines.
• Use s uitable spark shields around
equipment when flash welding.
• Turn OFF the welding machine,
pull the power disconnect switch.
remove the electrode, and hang the
Welders who fol/()w all safety requirements ensure a safer work envirrmmelll for
electrode holder in its designated
themselve.f 011d 01hers iu the work area. place when welding is completed.
24 0 Welding Skills
• In spect we lding cab les for cuts. Comb ustible materia ls shou ld be A CAUTION
nicks, or abrasions. removed from the work area, o r the
Comhu.~lible malCrio.ls
Do not pick up pieces of metal that location of the work must be at least 111U"I be located ill least 35'
have just been welded or heated. 35' away from combustible materials. aw3y rrom any arc:J where
welding is 10 ~ done.
• Do not make repairs to weld ing lf neither is possible, combus tibl es
equipment unless power to the ma- shou ld be protected with a cover of
chine is OFF. The high voltage of fire-resistant materials. A fire extin-
arc welding machines can cause se- guisher s hould be kep t near cutti ng
vere, even fatal injuries. and welding operations at all times. If
Do not change polarity when the the risk of fire is great, fire watchers
machine is under load. The ma- should be available. If possible. the
chine should be id led and the cir- work area should be enclosed with por-
c uit open; o the rwi se. an arc may table. fire-resistant screens. Welding or
occur, burning the contact su rface culling should not be done where dan-
of the switch and severely burning gerously reactive or flammable gases
the welder. arc present.
• Do not overload welding leads or
operate a machine with poor con-
nections. Operat ing with cu rrents 6 Exf>losion.jire. '"other health /wzards
beyond the rated cable capacity result if welding or cuuing is
IIIli)'
peiformed 011 comainers that llre not
causes overheating. free of hazardous .wbsttmces. No
Neatly arrange the we lding leads cmuainer slumld bt~ presumetl 10 be
mtd secure the proper connections. clemr or .wife. Comainers COli be made
stifefor weltling om/ culling pro~'ided the
Do not we;d on hollow (cored) cast- necessmy stt'ps ond safety precawio11S
ings unless they have been properly (Ire followed.
vcntcrl; nn ex plosion m~y occur.
PREVENTING FIRES
Welding operations expose welders to
heat, sparks, and name. Precautions
should be taken to ensure that the job
site is safe and that adequate fire pre-
vention strategies are in place.
Fire may be produced by molten
metal, sparks, s lag. and hot work s ur-
faces. Sparks may cause fire or explo-
sio n if precautionary meas ures are
not used. Sparks can pass through or
become lodged in c rac ks. clothing.
pipe holes. and other small openings
in floors and partitions. Typical in-
door comb ustib le ma terials are
floors. partitions, roofs, and bui !d-
in g co nte.nt s. Indoor com bustib le
materials may consist of wood . pa-
per, clot hing. plastics, and chemical
and flammab le li quids and gases. Ex-
!ofllln l:lf'>"fnl' Mt•ru.fi.HT.-.r•'".f\ (.',~
amples of outside combustible male- Weltling shops shoultl be equipped with a fire extinguislrer thai is /n(.'atetl near the
rials are dry leaves, grass, and brush. work nrea for easy <ICce.rs iJJ ('ase offire.
Welding Safety ~ 25
The National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) c lassities fires into
five types: A, 13, C, D, and K. The
classifications a re based on the
combustible material and tl1e type of
extinguisher required to put out the
fire. Extinguisher c lassifications can
also be idemified by color and shape.
•Wood • Water
See Figure 2-15.
A • Paper
• Rubber
·Plastic
• Cloth
• Dry chemicals
Class A
A Class A fire may be caused by most
combustible materials, such as wood,
paper, rubber, plastic, and clotlb. Class
A fires are tlle most common type of
• Aammable • Dry chemicals fire. A Class A fire ext inguisher is
liquids • Foam identified by tllc color green inside a
• Grease • Carbon dioxide triangle shape. Class A fires c;m be ex-
• Gases tinguished with water or dry chemicals.
Carbon dioxide, sodi um, and potas-
sium bicarbonate chemicals should not
be used on a Class A fire.
Class B
A Class B fire is caused by llammable
• Electrical Non-conducting
liquids, gases, or grease. A Class B fire
•
agent such as:
• Dry chemicals
exti nguisher is identified by the color
• Carbon dioxide red inside a square. Class B fires can
be extinguished with dry chem icals.
Foam and carbon diox ide extinguish-
ers may also be used.
Class C
• Combustible • Extinguisher A Class C fire is an e lectrical fire. A
metals particular to Class C fire extinguisher is identified
*
•Magnesium type of metal by the color blue ins ide a circle. Elec-
• ntanium trical fires require a non-conducting
• Zirconium
agent, sucb as carbon dioxide or dry
• Sodium
chemicals, to extinguish them. Foam
extingu ishers or water should never be
used on an electrical fire.
Class D
• Commercial • Wet chemicals
cooking • Dry chemicals A Class D fire is cau...:;ed by combustible
grease
K metals, such as magnesium. titanium, or
sodium. A Class D tire extinguisher is
identified by the color yellow inside a
star. Cl:1~s D fires ca nnot be extin-
guished with a common A, B, or C ex-
Fi~tu re 2.--JS. Fire cxtit~gui#t~rs are t'lassijiNI u.t A. 8, C. D. imd K. tingui sher; the chem icals in com mon
26 ~ Welding Skills
extinguishers can intensify the fire, and th e cartridge operated. A fire
rather than put it out. Dry powder ex- extinguisher labeled ABC is composed
tinguishers are available that are made of dry chemicals and is capable of
specifically for metal hazards. extingu.ishing cla~s A, B, and C fires. A
fire extinguisher labeled either A. B, or
Class K C can only extinguish the fire for which
A class K fire is caused by grease in it is labeled. Using an improper fire
commercial cooking equipment. Class exti.nguisher can have an adverse effect
K fi re extinguishers coat the fire with on a fire, making the lire worse rather
wet or dry chemicals. than ex tingui shing it.
Common dry chemical extinguishers Welders must be particularly aware
should be available in ca~e spark.s from of the fire hazards involved in the
welding set other marerials on tire. The metals they are welding and ensure that
two basic types of dry chemica l the proper type(s) of ext inguisher are
extinguishers are the stored-pressure available.
J. Weekly sa fe ty meetings <tre a conveni ent way for employers to discuss relevant job
s ite safety issues and concerns.
2. When working in a confined space. have a stand-by person available to e nsure a
safe environment.
3. When welding. always wear safety glasses with approved filter plates.
4. For most arc welding operat ions, a # I 0 shade should be used. For oxyacety lene
cutt ing, a #5 shade can be used.
5. In addition to approved work c lothes, beavy-duty welding requires a leather jacket
or apron and leather gauntlet-type g loves.
6. Never place jackets or shirts over oxygen or gas cy linders. Gas can leak under
clothing and start a fire.
7. Ear protection should be worn when weld ing as the excessive noise generated by
welding can affect hearing.
8. Material safety data sheeiS include data about every hazardous component comprising
I % or more of a material"s content.
9. Always use insulated e lectrode holders when welding with SMAW to prevent electric
shock and injury.
28 ~ Welding Skills
Engineers and designers consider allfac/ors in the design of a weld joint to eiLI'ure safety and efficienC)t These
factors include load requirements of the weld; the adaptability of the joint fin· the product being designed or
welded: the accessibility of the weld; the type of load on the weld; the intended function of the structure;
governing codes and specifications; and economic considerations such as the cost of preparing the joim.
Weldedjoims are used in virwally eve1y indusuy. In the building indusuy. welds are used to join structural
elemems such as columns. trusses, girders, and other stmctural components.
PASS
Figure: 3-l. When l11ying o bc>t1J. C(lch fXISS builtJs 011 tit~ prel'ious pass. TIJt' mm·emtnl of tit~ wt'lding lre(ll stmrce t'r~ote.t dptJies liS 111~ bt>atl
i.'f tlcpruittu/.
29
creates ripples as the weld bead is de- The weld toe is the point where the
posited. A ripple is the shape within weld metal meets the intersection of
the deposited bead caused by the move- the base metal and the weld face. The
ment of the welding heat source. toes are the points where the base metal
A craTer is a depression in the base and weld metal meet. 11te weld face is
metal that is made by the welding beat the exposed surface of the weld.
sou rce at the termination of the weld bou nded by the weld toes on the side
bead. Joint penetration is the depth of on wh ich weld ing was done. The face
the weld metal from the weld face into may be either concave or con~cx. The
the joint. l11e joint penetration measure- weld root is the area where filler metal
ment does not include the weld rein· intersects the base me1al and extends
forcement measurement. See Figure 3-2. the furthest into the weld joint
The actual throat is the shortest dis-
FU!ure 3--2. A crmtr is 11 depr~s
·'·imr mtule in 1/r~ bo.'U! mcllll by
L<m<.:c: from llo~ fat.:c: uf a li Uc:t wc:lu tu
1lr~ weldl".r; b t"t~l s ourt'l'. Join/ the weld root after welding. The effec-
p~murmion is tlr~ d~pth of the
tive throat is the minimum distance,
cr<.ll~r witllin rlrt' base mdal.
minus convexity, between the weld
face and the weld root. A weld leg is
the distance from the joint root to the
weld toe. The weld leg is the size of a
+-
DIRECTION OF fillet weld made in lap or T-joints. See
BASE
WELDING
Figure 3-4.
Filler metal is metal deposited in a
welded, brazed, or soldered joint dur-
Weld reinforcement is the amount of
ing the welding process. Fusion weld-
weld metal in excess of that required to
ing is welding that uses fusion of the
fill the joint. Root reinforcemem is rein-
base metal or base metal and filler
forcement on the side opposite the one
metal to make a weld. Fusion weld-
on wltich welding took place. Face re-
inforcement is reinforcemen t on the ing is the most common method of
same side as the weld ing. j oin ing metals.
The root face is the portion of the Welding progression concerns the
groove face wirhin the joint root. The addition of filler metal in a weld joint
root opening is the distance between root and beyond. A joint root is the por-
joint members at the root of the weld tion of a weld joint where joim mem-
1
11Je mot pass is the
initial weld plu'S tlrllt before weld ing. The roo1 open ing must bers are the closest to each other. A joint
prOl1ides complete be accurate so that excess welding is root may be either a point. a line, or an
penetration tluvugh
the rhicJ..nc~~ of the nol necessary. Weld witith is the dis- area. A roor bead is a weld bead that
joim member. tance from toe to toe across the face extends into or includes part or all of
of the weld. See Figure 3-3. the joint root. A IVOI pass is the initial
l:.._ ROOT
REINFORCEMENT
ROOT FACE
weld pass that provides complete pene- how stresses are to be applied during
tration through the thickness of the service, and whether tension, bend ing,
joint member. or torsion is a factor, must be considered
Several weld beads (multiple-pass in joint design. Joinl design requirements
weld) may be required to complete a vary depend ing on whether the load is
weld. A multiple- pass weld conta ins static, cyclic, or variable. Joints are also
two or more weld beads. designed for economy or accessibility
during construclion and inspection.
WELD JOINTS The five basic weld joints used are the
bun, T, lap, corner, and edge joints. See
A weld joinr is the physical configura-
Figure 3-6.
tion at the juncmre of the workpieces
to be welded. Weld joints must be cor- 0 When designing weld joints for
rect] y designed and have adequate root building~~
consideration IIWS I be given
IO the effects of trtm.fverse shr;nkage.
openings to suppo1t the 'loads transferred
which occurs in ~·upport columns as a
from one workpiece to another through building is constmcred. Shrinkage can
the welds. See Figure 3-5. The follow- occumulnte if unoccowuetl for il1 the
ing are some basic considemtions in the weld designs.
selection of any weld joint:
• whether the load will encounter
tension, compression, bending,
fat\gue, or impact stresses
• bow the load is to be applied to the
joint, i.e., whether the load is a stalic,
impact, cyclic, or variable load
the displacement of the load in
relation to tbe joint
the direction from which the load is
to be applied to the joint
the cost of preparing the joint
Weld joint design is based on the
strength of the joint, safety requirements, 11rr J.lmyJ(tJ £/et=trir Cil!WJWul)'
and the service conditions under which Professional weltlers Ill/lSI lu~t~e tm wuierstmuling o.fweMing tennhrology, processes.
the joint must perform. Additionally, ond specificmions.
MOTION
DISPLACEMENT
TRANSVERSE
LOAD
DIRECTION
Figun J..S. UHJt"r.' .shtmltl lir fumiliaf' ~' itlr how lood~ will impact wdtlt!d joitlls 11m/ with tlte rrquinmen/3 fur mt1king tile J1mprr joint !rel«lil'tL
BUTT
CORNER
LAP
T EDGE
32 ~ Welding Skills
Butt Joints Single-V Butt Joints. A single-V butt
joint is used on metal from %" to %"
A bull joint is a weld joint in which
two workpie.ces are set approximately thick. Preparation for a single-V butt
level to each other and are positioned join t is costly because a specia l
edge-to-edge. ln a butt joint, the weld beveling ope~ration and more f ill er
material are required than for a square
is made bet ween the edge surfaces of
bull joint. A si ngle- V buu joint is
the two sections to be fused. The joim
may be either square or grooved. Butt strong in static loading but. like the
joints include square, single bevel, square bull joint, is not particularly
sing le- V, double- V, single-U, and suitable when subject to fatigue or
double- U butt joints. See Figure 3-7. impact loads at the weld rooL
Bull joims are common ly used in fab- Double-V Butt Joints. A double- V
ricating vessels and subassemblies and butt joint is suitable for all load
for repair operations. conditions. The double- V is often
Square Uut!l Joints . The square bull specified for stock that is beavier than
joint is intended primarily for materi- metal used for a si nglc-V. Heavy Square huff joints
slwulll be used witlt
als that are 3/is" thi ck or less. Square metals that usc a double-V joint arc
materiols ~t>n thick
bull joints require full and complete typically %" thick or greater. For tJr less.
fusion for optimum strength. For sub- maximum weld strength, penetration
merged arc welding, materials up to must be complete on both sides.
%" thick wi1h a minimum gap of Va" The cost of preparing a double- V
can be welded. The square bull joint is joint is higher than the single- V. but
reasonably strong in static tension but usually less filler material is requ ired
is not recommended when the joint is because a narrower groove angle can
to be subj ected to fati gue or impact be used. To keep the joint symmetrical
loads, especially <It low temperatu res. and warpage of the joint to a
Preparation for a square butt joint re- minimum. the weld bead must be
quires matching only the edges of the alternated . The welding should be
A tloubfe· V burrjoim
workpieces. Square bull joints are an done first on one s ide and tben the is .,11illlblefar"lf /(Xu/
other, with the welder alternating sides ctmditiun~'f.
inexpens ive weld joint option.
until the groove is filled.
Single Bevel Butt J o ints . A single
bevel butt joint is a partial penetrat- Single-U Butt Joints . A single-U bull
ing sing le bevel groove weld. It is joint meets all ordinary load conditions
welded from one side and is gener- and is used for work requiring high-
ally used on metals no more than quality welds. The single-U works well
112" thick. on applications joining workpieces 'h"
SINGLE-V DOUBLE·V
StNGLE·U DOUBLE-U
SQUARE
SINGLE-J OOUBLE-J
planes. A lap joint is one of the stwn- metal sections exposed to general ser-
gest joi nts avai lable, despite the lower vice loads. Common corner joints are
uni t strength of the filler metal. Lap flush, half-open, and fu ll -open. See
joints arc commonly welded on both Figure 3- 10.
sides. An overlap greater than th ree
Figure 3·10. Comer joifll$ ore
times the thickness of the thi n nest Corner Joints genually u,retl only where sew•re
workpiece is recommended. T\vo ba- Figure 3- 10 /(mds tu·e '"'' etJCQmlfere(/.
sic lap joints are single fillet and double
liUet lap joints. See Figure 3-9.
lap Joints
Figure 3 -9
FLUSH
SINGLE FILLET
HALF-OPEN
DOUBLE FILLET
.....-
01" beveled.
--~
WELD TYPES
A we ld type is the cross-se ct io na l
shape of the weld after filler met al is
added to the joint. The weld type dif-
f:SAH W.'ldi1lX (Iud CUI/inK P""lu ct,
fers from the weld joint in that the weld
71Je weld type used must be designed for the particularjoint to be welded and the load type indic ates the way in which fill er
requirements ofthe weld. metal is added while the weld joint is
the configuration of the join t members.
The weld type used is determined by
the we ld joint des ign and de pends on
Edge Joints
the load requirements of the weld. To
An edge join t is a weld joint form ed maximize weld streng th and econo my,
when the edge s of two or more paral - the following basic rules are observed:
lel o r nearly parall el members arc • Minimize edge preparation. Minimiz-
joined. The edge j oint is suitab le for ing edge preparation reduces cutting
plates 114" thick or less and can sus- and machining costs.
tain o nly light loads. Edge joints can • Provide weld access. Allow for access
be co mbined with butt joints or corner to the weld by we lding machin ery.
joints and the edges can be squared or The welding equipment available for
beveled. See Figure 3-1 1. An edge joint the job must be considered.
is commonly used to join support struc- • Minimize filler metal. M inimiz ing
tures and short len gth s of st ruc tural filler meta l reduces costs .
36 ~ Weidilll! Skills
Reduce excess heat. Reducing the on the effective throat of the weld. H
amount of excess heat app li ed to the load requ ires an e ffective throat of
the weld a rea duri ng welding o/s" or larger, a groove weld should be
mini rnizes metallurgical changes of used, poss ibly in combin ation with a
the base metal and Iiller metal. fillet weld to provide the required size.
Minimize the number of weld s.
Minimizing the number of welds Groove Welds
reduces the filler meta l required. A groove weld is a weld made in the
Additional ly, distortion of joint groove between the two workpieces to
rnem bers from hca t app Iication is be j oi ned . A groove weld may be
reduced. squa re groove, single-groove, or
• Size the weld for the thinnest joint double-groove. A square groove weld
member. The size of the weld is economical, but its use is lim ited by
shou ld not exceed the strength of the thickness of the joint and the ser-
the thinnest joint member. vice load. A groove weld is adaptable
Joint design se lection uses root for a variety of joints, most commonly
open ings and groove openings that re- the butt joint. The groove weld shou ld
quire the least amount of weld metal use th e smal lest root opening and Cl'oove welds are
very adaptable for t1
yet still provide accessibility to the joint. g roove angle poss ib le for the job to w1riery of joims. bm
Joint design selection is also in11uenced provide a sound weld using the least theil' use is limiTetl by
by the type of metal to be welded, the amount o f filler metal. thl' thickness o.f the
With a suita ble opening and back- material.
location of the joint in the weldment,
and the required performance of the ing strip, square groove weld joints up
weld. Weld joints and types are selected to 1/.o" thick can be made by SMAW.
for specitic applications. Square groove weld joints up to %"
Weld types include fillet weld, thic k can be made with GMAW,
groove weld, plug or s lot weld , sur- FCAW, and SAW. The root of a square
facing weld, stud weld., spot and seam groove weld shou ld not be under ten -
weld, projection weld. and back weld. sion when the weld is bent under load.
See Figu re 3- 12. Single-groove and doub le -groove
welds a re normally used for th ick
Fillet Welds joints. A single-groove weld is a groove
weld that is made from one side on Iy.
A filler weld is a weld of approximately Single-groove welds include s ingle-
triangular cross section that joins two square-groove, sing le-beve l-groove,
surfaces at approx imately right angles. sing le- V-groove, s i ngle-J-groove,
Fillet welds may be used for lap, T, or s i ngle-U-groove. single- fla re-bevel-
comer joints. Fillet welds are the most g roove, and sin gle-flare- V-groove.
commonly used weld type and are pre- A double-groove weld is a groove weld
ferred over groove welds because they that is made from both sides.
are easier to prepare and are less ex- Double-groove welds include double-
pensive to complete. Fillet welds may square-groove. double-bevel-groove,
be made from one s ide (single fillet double-V-groove, double-J - groove
weld) or both sides (double ~iller weld). with backing, doublc - U-groove ,
Fillet weld s ize is specified by the double-llare-bevel-groove, and double-
lengths of the legs of the largest right flare -Y-groove. The edge of each
triangle that may be inscribed with in workpiece must be prepared to provide
the Iiller weld cross section. accessibi lity for welding and to ensure
Fill et welds are commonly used the desired soundness and s trength .
when load stresses are low and the re- The selection of a single-groove weld
qui red effective throat is less than %". over a double-groove weld is princi-
The strength of the fillet weld is based pally dictated by cost.
Joi111 Desig11 & Welding Term.r ~ 37
WELD TYPES AND JOINTS
.
' ..
- :
' .
FILLET -
!
11
I
I
2b -
9
SQUARE·
GROOVE ! 0 l -
6 [][] 9J
BEVEL-
GROOVE
l Q !
!
~
I
!
6 OJ 9J
V-GROOVE ! 0 l - -
rYJ 9J
U-GROOVE l \J r - -
LiJ 9
J-GROOVE l Q l !
Cl
I
I
6 rn 9J
FLARE-BEVEL-
GROOVE !
"9 l ! ~ ~ rn 9J
- -
00 ~
FLARE-V-
GROOVE
! l
PLUG - ~ ~ -
~
SLOT -
~ ~ -
~
EDGE - - - rn -
FLANGED
~ 1
/0 17
I
8 [JJ ~
SPOT -
~ ~ -
~
PROJECTION - ~ ~ -
~
SEAM - ~ ~ ~ ~
BRAZE !
Figure J.. az. 1'11t bMic weld j()illtS
[]
(~rt•
l !
L1
wtltl typ~$
db
m mt:et load requi rt!mt!IIU.
-
9J
38 @o Welding Skills
Plug or Slot Welds sem i-molten condition to form a coat-
~
ing. The surfacing material may be in A plug welt/ or slot
Plug welds and slot welds may be used weld is usell to join
the form of a powder, rod, cord, or wire. [;g]_ overlapping pieces of
to join two overlapping pieces of metal THSP is also called arc spray, flame metflllluvugh circular
by welding through circular holes or spray, and plasma spray. Thermal spray ltoles Qr sl01s mtule in
slots. A plug weld is a weld made in a one member.
hardfacing (non-fusion hardfacing) is
circular hole in one workpiece, fusing the application of a tllin layer of materi-
that workpiece to another workpiece. als to the surface in such a way that local
A hole is cut in one workpiece, which melting does not occur.
is then positioned over the second
workpiece. The weld is made through Stud Welds
the hole. A slot weld is a weld made in
an elongated hole in one workpiece of A stud weld is a weld produced by join-
a joint. fusing that workpiece to another ing a metal stud or s imilar pan to a
workpiece. The circular hole or slot workpiece. During the welding process,
may be open at one end. Welding is part of the stud is melted, providing
done by completely till ing the circular weld reinforcement at the base of the
hole or slot to join the two workpieces. stud. Welding may be done with heat
Plug welds and slot welds are often and pressure.
used instead of rivets.
Plug and slot welds should not be Spot and Seam Welds
confused with fillet welds because the
A spot weld and seam weld are, respec-
base of the circular hole or slot is com-
tively, circular cross-sectional or con-
pletely filled. A fillet weld only depos-
tinuous welds made between ovedap-
its filler metal in a triangular shape on
ping members in which coalescence
the perimeter of the circular hole or slot.
may start and continue on the fayin g
Plug welds were originally used dur-
surfaces, or may proceed from the outer
ing de.~ign transitions from riveted to
surface of one member to the faying
welded structures and are most com-
surface. A fayt'ng swface is the mating
monly used for joining sheet to a sub-
surface of a member that is in contact
strate to provide protection such as
with or in close proximity to another
corrosion resistance.
member to which it is to be joined.
A spot weld is a weld made between
Surfacing Welds overlapping w<>rkpieces in which coa-
lescence forms a series of circular cross
A swfacing weld is a weld applied to sections. A see1m weld is a continuous
a surface, as opposed to a j oint, to ob- weld between overlapping workpieces
tain desired properties or dimensions. in which coalescence produces a con-
Surfacing welds are commonly used tinuous seam or series of overlapping
to strengthen selected surfaces of a spot welds.
single component, such as an ex·
truder. A sulfaciog weld applied to in-
Projection Welds
crease wear resistance is known as
hardfacing or fusion hardfacing. Sur- A projection weld is a resistaoce weld
facing welds do not require prepar- produced by the heat obtained from
ing an actual weld joint. the resistance to the flow of welding cur-
A surfacing weld is different from rent. The resulting welds are local ized
thermal spraying. Thermal spraying at predetermined points by projections,
(THSP) is a group of processes in which embossments, or intersections. Spot and
finely divided meta ll ic or nonmeta.llic projection welds are specified in
materials are deposited in a molten or pounds per weld. Seam welds are
40 ~ Welding Skills
HORIZONTAL (2G)
VERTICAL (3G)
OVERHEAD (4G)
Figure 3-13. Tile four CIIIIIIIIIJ/1 welding pc>sition.r 11r~ jim. huri:<IIIWI. 1•micill. m1d 6Vtrilend.
After tack weld ing, the spacers are requirements provide for proper joint
removed before continuing the weld- preparation:
ing process. Consumab le inserts are • Sheet metal <U1d most fillet and lap
melted during the welding process and joints shou ld be clamped tight for
become part of the ri ller metal added the entire length of the workpiece
to the weld joint. to be welded. Gaps or bevels must
be accurately controlled ove•· the en-
tire j oint. Any variation in a given
Joint Preparation. A quality weld is joint forces the welder to adjust the
dependent on proper j oint preparation. welding speed to avoid me lt-
Edges are commonly cut, sawed, or through (burn-through) and to use
machined to prov ide good fit-up of different e lecu-ode manipu lations to .Joint preparation
parts. Edge preparation for groove fill the fit-up variation. guide!t'nes muss be
welds must also be considered. Fit-up followed dosely to
Correct groove angle is requi red for pmvide good jil-up
must be consistent through and a long good bead shape and penetrat ion. during 'veltfi,g.
the entire joint. The follow ing genera l See Figure 3-14.
PROPER
GROOVE
ANGLE
PENETRATlON
INCORRECT
42 ~ Welding Skills
Root Opening required root open ing for proper pen-
Figure 3- 17 etration and sufticienl weld reinforce-
ment. See Figure 3-19. Workpieces
should be aligned edge-to-edge and
-11- '!..>• TO !Ao"
end-to-end, and also should lie in the
same plane. Subassemblies can elimi-
nate some access problems.
Each weld joint type has certain
advantages and limitations. Welders
must be especially aware of the limita-
tions, as the effectiveness of the weld is
often contingent on the type of joint that
is used as well as the skill of the welder.
Load requirements dictate the strength
of the required welds. Weld lypes are
used with the applicable weld joint, and
figure 3-17. PrCiper r()Ot o~11ing Yit.e is r~quirt'd ill
ordu to m.t1kt '' Jmmd weld 11u~ root Opt'lli11g siz.~ i.f include fillet. groove. plug or sloL and
deumt~ilt~d by tire wall tlticlmess of tlr~ mt!ttll. surfacing welds.
Welding Location. Welding is per-
ROOT formed in the shop or in the field, de-
pending upon the size and fabrication
requirements of the structure .. Small
parts, structures, and subassemblies are
often welded in the shop. The shop
provides a controlled envi ronment in
which welding variables can be closely
controlled. Additionally, fixtures and
positioners can be used to move a part
or hold a pmt in position for improved
welding productivity.
BACKING STRIP
rect edge preparation, and have the Joilll dej·ign must wke imo consideratlOJl access ro 1he joillf /))'the wei<Jc,r.
GROOVE
ROOT OPENING WELD
SIZE
f-Igure 3 -1 9. CorrtC'I (lil'gllmt lll, tdgt> prtJWI'Otioll. (llrd root Q~11in,-: ore neussary for proptr flt·up.
l. The root pass is the in itial weld pass that provides complete penetration through the thickness of
the joint member.
2 . Square butt joints should be used primarily with materials o/ts" thick or less.
3. A double-V butt joint is suitable for all load conditions.
4. A T-joint is formed when two members are positioned approximately 90° to one another.
5 . A lap joint is usually welded on both sides of the joint.
6 . Groove welds are very adaptable for a variety of joints, but their use is limited by the thickness
of the material.
7. A plug weld or a slot weld is used to join overlapping pieces of metal through circu lar holes or
slots made in one member.
8. AWS codes are intended as a standard guide by which to design consistent. quality weld joints.
9. Joint preparation guidelines must be followed closely to provide good fit-up during welding.
44 ~ Welding Skills
I. What factors must be considered when detennining the type of joint to usc in welding
any structural unit?
2. What is a fillet weld?
3. In what type of joints arc groove welds made?
4. What is a plug weld?
5. Wben is a surfacing weld used?
6. Why are grooved butt j oints better for welding th ick plates than square butt joints?
7. Wbat are the basic types ofT-joints?
8. Describe a double fillet lap joint.
9. Which type of corner joint is the strongest?
I 0. What is the toe of a weld?
I I . What is the root of a weld?
12. What are some of the basic principles that contribute to good joint-geometry?
13. When are doub le bevel T-joints nonnally used?
14. Which butt joint requires the least amount of preparation before welding?
15. What is reinforcement of the weld?
16. How is the root opening size determined?
17. Why is a proper groove angle required?
18. How is the size of a weld leg determined'?
O.tyacetylene welding does not require electricity and is typical~v used for maintenance, in body shops.
and in the repair of small parts where other welding processes are too expensive.
Oxyacetylene welding can be used to join iron, steel, cast iron, coppe1; brass, aluminum, bronze. and other
metals. Often, dissimilar metals such as sreel and cast iron, brass and steel, copper and iron, and brass and
cast iron can be joined with oxyacerylene welding. Oxyacetylene welding equipment can also be used for
preheating, cutting mew/, case hardening. and annealing.
47
The separation of the nitrogen from position. This provides a seal to reduce
the oxygen is possible once the air has leakage from the va l ve. A protector
liquefied because nitrogen and oxygen cap screws onto the neck ring of the
have different boi ling points. Nitrogen cylinder to protect Ute valve from dam-
boils at -320° F (-195.5°C) and oxy- age. The protector cap must always be
gen at -296°F (-l82°C). The nitrogen, in place when the cylinder is not in
having a lower boiling poim, evapo- use. See Figure 4-1.
rates first, leaving the liquid oxygen at
the bottom of the condenser. Tbe iso-
lated liquid oxygen passes through a
heated coil, which changes the liquid
oxygen into a gaseous form. After the
gas moves through the heated coil, it
is stored in a storage tru1k. A gas meter
mounted between the heating coil and
the storage tank registers the amount
of gas entering the $lorage tank. The
stored oxygen gas can then be drawn
from the storage tank and compressed
into receivi11g cy linders.
The electrolytic method i.s a process
that uses water and electricity to iso-
late oxygen. Water is a c hemical
compound consisting of oxygen and
hydrogen. By sendi ng an electrical
current through a solut ion of wa ter
contai ning caust ic soda. oxygen is Figure 4· 1. A /lfOlt'C'ItJr <·tql .\a~w.-. onto tltt! llr't·l:.
ri11g fl/ till! C'ylhulu Ja l''"ut<'l 1lu• tttlw• from domt1gt'"
given off at one terminal plate, and whtoJt 1101 In ustt.
hydrogen at the other. The oxygen.
having been separated from the hy-
There are three common sizes of
drogen. is sui tab le for welding. The
oxygen cylinders. The large cylinder
electro lytic method is a very expen-
holds 244 cubic feel (cu fr) of oxygen.
sive method of producing oxygen;
The large size is common ly used in
for this reason the li quid-air method
industrial plants and shops that require
is more commonl y used to produce
large quantities of gas. A medium-size
commercial oxygen.
cylinder can contain 122 cu ft of
oxygen and a small cylinder can hold
Handle o.'C)'gCJJ aJUI 80 cu ft.
ar.fiylene cylinders Oxygen Cylinders
Cylinders are charged with oxygen
with care. Nt!\V!rex·
JK.IS(' 1hem m e.xce.o;. Oxygen cylinders are made from at a pressure of 2200 psi at a tempera-
si\'(' ht•aJ andprew!lll seamless drawn steel and tested with a ture of 70°F (21 °C). Gases expand
cmuac1 '''Iih oil OJul water (hydrostatic) pressure of 3360 psi. when heated and contract when cooled,
grease.
The cy linders are equipped with a so the oxygen pressure will increase or
high-pressure valve that can be opened decrease as the temperature changes.
by ruming the handwbeel on top of the For example, if a full cylinder of oxy-
cylinder. The valve handwheel should gen is allowed to stand outdoors in
always be opened by hand and not near-freezing temperalllres. the pres-
with a wrench. The handwheel must sure of the oxygen will register less
be turned sl owly to permi t a gradual than 2200 psi. However. none of the
pressure load on the regula tor. The oxygen has been lost; cooling has only
valve bandwheel is turned to fu ll open reduced the pressure of the oxygen.
48 ~ Welding Skills
Si.n ce the pres.~ure of gas varies with Figure 4-2. An ncf'rrh•ue C)limla
it poc-ked 11ith tl pOr{)lfS mutc-ritd
the surrounding temperature. all oxy- //1(1/ i.t !WIIU'att•d wilh (1('('1011(' 10
gen cylinders are equipped with a 11/Jow thl' .«(t smm.ttr of act:l)•lellf'.
safety nut that permits 1he oxygen to
drain slow ly if the temperaiUre in-
creases the cylinder pressure beyond
i1' rateJ safety loau. If" ~;ylinder wo::•e
exposed to a hot tlame. the safety nut
would relieve the pressure before 1he
cylinder reached its exploding poinl.
OAW - Equipmem 0 49
single cy linder, so a manifold system A backfire is caused by the flame
is commonly needed. A multiple cylin- goi ng out suddenly on the torch. A
der manitold system allows the necessruy backfire may occur when the tip is
volume of acetylene to be supplied to touched agai nst the workpiece; if the
the work are<~. Acetylene can be drawn flame settings are too low; if the tip is
off no faster than one-seventh the total diny. damaged. or loose; or if the tip is
volume of the cylinder per hour, which overheated.
is the quickest the acetylene can be re- When a torch backfires, it could
leased from the acetone lining in the cause a flashback. A flashback is a
cyl inder. A flash arrestor is also used cond ition in which the flame burns in-
in the manifold system to prevent a side the tip, the torch, or the hose. In
flashback from reaching the stored case of a flashback, the oxygen and
cyl indcrs. fuel valves must be immediately closed
Figur~ 4-4. A ct>l )'f' "t' c_vlitultrs
to prevent possible explosion of the
arc COIIIIt:l'Ud 10 ' ' mm11/o ltl cylinders . Flashhacks are typically
.ty:ttem w llft'tU where a llfgh
caused by malfunctioning equipment.
''olume C)f h'eldirtg is lo be
f1t'rformi'd. If a tlashbac k occu rs, the equipment
should be removed from service and a
service technician called to correct the
problem or replace the equipment.
Hoses should be discarded after a
flashback. The torch tip is reusable. but
it should be removed from the torch
and thoroughly blown out with alr to
remove any soot or residue.
SAFE HANDLING OF
....B I!HJ... ...,C~·. . ~....... CYLINDERS
Flash Arrestors. A flash arrestor is a To move a cyl inder, rotate it on its bot-
safety device thai prevents an explo- tom edge. Place the palm of one hand
sion or a backfire in the torch or torch over the protector cap and ti lt the cyl-
head from reaching the regulator and inder backward onto the edge. Start the
the acetylene cylinder. Two types of cylinder rolling by pushing it with the
flash arrestors are the torch-mounted other hand. See Figure 4-5. Follow
and the regu lator-mounted. these safety precautions when handling
The torch -mounted flash arrestor oxygen and acetylene cylinders:
A WARNING is a check valve that prevents a re-
• Never lift a cyUnder by the protector
Ne,•e.r move; cylinders with
verse gas flow from reaching the cyl-
cap.
rcguJotors .-.uac;b(:d. Always inder. The regulator- mounted flash
remove the regulator"\ and • Always keep cylinders in a vertical
arrestor is a combination check valve
ins1all the pn>~cc::ri vc cap position.
prior to moving. and flame barrier. The barrier meta I
is a porous flame-retardant material • Do not allow grease or oi l to come
thai allows gas to llow through, but in contact with cy linder valves.
blocks out a flame. Torch-mounted A l though oxygen is in itself
and regulator-mounted flash arrestors nonflammable, il quic kl y aids
should always be used on fuel hoses combustion if exposed to flrunmable
and oxygen hoses. Regulator-mouoted materials.
flash arrestors prevent backfires and • Avoid exposing cylinders to furnace
flashbacks from entering the hoses, heat, radiators, open fire, or sparks
and possibly the cyl inders. from a torch.
50 ~ IVeldi"g Skills
Figure :a-6. Cylinders .shoultl he
chni11t-d at 1111 time'f during ll$C'
aud wlle11 stort>d.
WELDING APPARATUS
Never transport a cyli nder by The weldi ng apparatus consists of a
dragging, sliding, or rolling il on its torch with an assortment or different-
side. Avoid striking it against any sized tips; two lengths of hose. one
object that might create a spark, as red for acetylene and the othe!f green
there may be jus t enough gas for oxygen; two pressure regulators;
escaping from the cylinder to cause two cylinders. one containing acety-
an explosion.
lene and the other oxygen; a welding
• Shut OFF cylinder valves completely sparklighter: and a pair of goggles.
before moving cylinders. See Figure 4-7.
• Do not tamper with or attempt to Cylinders are typically chained to
repair cylinder valves. If valves leak a two-wheel hand truck to permit
or do not function properly, notify moving the equipment to a desired lo-
the supplier immediately. cation. If the cy linders are positioned
• Keep valves closed on empty near the workbench. they should be
cylinders. chained to a fixed object.
• Do not use a hammer or wrench
to open cylinder valves. 1f they
Welding Torches
cannot be opened by hand or with
a T-wrcnch. notify the supplier. The welding torch. or b lowpipe. is a
• Keep cylinders covered with valve tool that mixes acetylene and oxygen
protector caps when not in use. in the correct proportions and permits
• Cylinders s hou ld be c hained in the mixture tO n ow tO a tip, where it
position at aU times during use and is burned. Although torches vary to
when stored. Cylinders in usc some extent in design, Lhey are made
should be securely attached to a to provide complete control of the
hand Cart. or chained near the work nam e during the we ld ing operation.
station. See Figure 4-6. See Figure 4-8.
OAW- Eq11ipment ~ 51
Figurt 4·7. C.v liudns c:tm bco
rhain<>d 10 11 lu'O•"'Itt:d ham/
trud.: fnr ,•asy uan.sportatimJ.
OXYGEN CYLINDER
ll1e two primary types of torches are ln a medium-pressure torch. the oxy-
the medium-pressure and the injector. gen and acetylene are fed independently
The medium-pressure torch requires to a mixing chamber. after which they
acetylene pressures of I psi to I 0 psi. flow out through the tip. In an injector
~CAUTION The injector torch is designed to use torch. the oxygen, as it passes llhrough a
Cylinders must be properly acetylene at very low pressures (0 up small opening in the injecto.r nozzle,
secured; mhllrwrse. rhey rll:ly to I psi). Bol.h types of torches operate draws acetylene into J.he oxygen stream.
lip over :1.nd ruin 1hc regulator.,.
or cause an c~plosion. when acetylene is supplied from cylin- When small fluctuations in lhe oxygen
ders o r medium-pressure generators. suppl y occur, a corresponding change
52 ~ We/di11g Skills
occurs in the amount of acetylene drawn, Welding Tips
maintaining consistent proportions of the
Welding on eli fferent thicknesses of
two gases while the torch is in opera-
metal is possible because torches are
tion. The medium-pressure torch is the
equipped with an assonment of differ-
most commonly used torch.
ent size heads, or tips. The size of the
Both rypes of torches are equipped
tip is governedl by the diameter of its
with two need le va lves; one regulates
opening. which is marked on the tip.
the flow of oxygen at the torch and
the other regulmes the flow of acety- Care of Welding Tips. A welding tip is
lene at the torch. At the base of the designed to be installed and removed
torch are two fittings for connecting by hand. Frequent tOrch use causes
each hose. To eliminate any chance of carbon to form in the passage of the
interchanging the hoses. the oxygen fit- tip. Carbon mu.st be removed from the
ting is made with a right- hand thread tip regularly to ensure the free tlow of
and the acetylene fiuing is made with gas. See Figu re 4- J 0. To clean a torch
a left-hand thread. tip. fol low the procedure:
I. Fi le the e nd of the tip flat with a A/way.v /l(mfl 11p 11
Care of To rc h es. When welding is
metal file. torch ,,·Jzeu 1101 in use
completed, the torch shou ld be prop- 10 prevent ir frmtt
2. Insert a proOperly-sizcd tip cleaner
erly secured to prevent it from falling dropping to the floor
into the tip and puU it straight ouL anti being IJent ur
and becoming damaged. Needle valves
Repeat until the tip is clean. damas~d.
are especially delicate, and if the torch
drops and st rikes a hard object. th e
needle valves can break easily. Needle
Jolgurt 4-10. A Hp dttmu!r is w:ed
valves may loosen and turn 100 freely, Cleaning a Torch Tip m dnm a wrtlt lip.
making it difficult to keep the proper Figure 4-10
adjus tment for the required mixture.
When the needle va lves loosen. the
packing nuts on the stem of the needle
valves shou ld be tightened with a slight
tum of a wrench. See Figure 4-9.
A CAUTION
Never remove welding
tips with pliers. If a tip ha.s
to be cleaned, usc a tip
c leaner.
OAW - Et111ipment @o 53
Regulators Regulators
Oxygen and acetylene pressure regula- Figure 4· 11
tors perform two functions. They con- WOR.KING·
PRESSURE ~ r CYLINDER
trol the flow of gas from the cylinder / PRESSURE
to maintain the required working pres-
~·
sure, and they produce a steady flow
of gas under varying cylinder pres-
sures. Regulators are equipped with two
gauges-a cylinder pressure gauge.
which indicates the actual pressure in
the cylinder, and a working- pressure
gauge. which shows the working. or
line, pressure used at the torch. The oxy-
gen cylinder pressure can be as high OXYGEN
as 2200 psi. The required working
WORKING·
pressure for oxygen is from 1 psi to PRESSURE CYLINDER
PRESSURE
25 psi. The acetylene cylinder pres-
sure can be as high as 250 psi. Tbe
working pressure for acetylene must
be between I psi and 12 psi. The regu-
lator must main tain the proper work-
ing pressure, even as the cylinder pres-
sure changes. If the oxygen in the cyl-
inder is under a pressure of 1800 psi
and a pressure of 6 psi is needed at the
tot·ch, the regulator must maintain a
constant pressure of 6 psi even if the ACETYLENE
cy linder pressure drops to 500 psi.
The oxygen cylinder pressure gauge Figure 4-l J. O.r)lgf:lt tmd tlcrtylt'tu* regulators
control the flow tJf gos to l>i! usn/ fol' ~l-·t/ding.
is a graduated scale up to 4000 psi.
A second scale on the gauge is cali- A single-stage regu !at or must be
brated to register the contents of the continually adjusted to maintain cor-
cylinder in cubic feet. The oxygen rect working pressure. The adjusting
working-pressure gauge is graduated screw on a re.gulator must be released
in divisions from 0 psi to 60 psi and (turned out) before the cylinder valve
the acetylene working-pressure gauge is opened. If the adjusting screw is not
is graduated in divisions from 0 psi to released and the cylinder valve is
30 psi. The acetylene working-pressure opened, the 1remendous pressure of
gauge is usually marked with a warn- the gas in the cylinder. forced onto the
ing color above 15 psi. The acetylene working-pressure gauge, may blow out
cylinder pressure gauge is graduated up the screw and damage the regulator.
to 350 psi or 400 psi. Sec Figure 4-ll. The adjus~ing screw is turned to
Be .mrr the m/justing
screw on a rt!gulator
The two types of regulators are the increase or decrease the gas pressure
<•fully releasedbefore single-stage and the two-stage. The from the torch to the regulatOr by
opening 11 cylinder single-stage regulator is typically less ex- controiHng the force of a spring on
Wl/l'l~. the flexible diaphragm. The dia-
pensive than the two-stage type. With
the single-stage regulator. there is no in- phragm moves a valve, allowing gas
termediate chamber through which gas to flow into the regulator. As the gas
passes before it enters the low-pressure pressure in the regulator increases, it
chamber. The gas from the cylinder bends the diaphragm back, closing
flows into the regulator and is controlled the va lve. During welding, the regu-
entirely by the adjusting screw. lator reduces the gas pressure beh ind
54 :@: Welding Skill.v
the diaphragm and the spring opens Do not attempt to interchange the
the valve. allowing gas to flow. The oxygen and acetylene regulator~.
change in internal pres;,ure is registered • If a regula10r does not function
on the working-pressure gauge. properly, shut OFF the gas supply
With the two-stage regulator, the and have a qualified service tech-
reduction of the cylinder pressure to nician check the regulator.
that required at the torch is accom- • Check the regu lator regu larly for
plished in two stages. In the lirst stage, creeping. If the regulator creeps
the gas flows from the cylinder into a (does not remain at set pressure).
high-pressure chamber. A spring and have it repaired immediate! y. Creep-
diaphragm keep a predetermined gas ing can be seen on the working-
pressure in the chamber. For oxygen. pressure gauge after the needle
the pressure is usually 200 psi. and valves on the torch are closed. A
for acetylene, 50 psi. From the high- creeping regulator usually requires
pressure chamber, the gas passes into that the valve sea t or stem be
a reducing chamber. Control of the changed.
pressure in the reducing c hamber is • Check the mechanisms regularly.
governed by an adjusting screw. If the gauge pointer fails to go
When acetylene and oxygen are back to the pin when the pressure
mixed correctly and ignited. the flame is released, the mechanism is likely
can reach temperatures of 5700"F sprung. caused by pressure enter-
(3150"C) to 6300"F (3482°C), which ing the gauge suddenly. Thb con-
melts commercial metals so completely dition should be repaired.
that they flow together to form a com- Always keep a tight connection
plete bond without the application of between the regulator and the cyl-
any mechanical pressure or hammer- inder. If the connection leaks after
ing. Filler metal is usually added to the tightening, close the cylinder valve
molten metal to build up the joint for and remove the regu Ia tor. Clean
greater strength. On very thin metals. both the inside of the cylinder valve
the edges are generally flanged and seat and the regula.tor inlet-nipple
melted together. ln either case, if the seat. If the leak persists, the seat
weld is performed correctly. the sec- and threads are probably marred,
tion where the bond is made is as and the regulator must be returned
strong as the base metal. to the manufacturer for repair.
Car e of Regulato rs. Regulators are
Check Valves
~ensitive instruments and must be
treated as such. A slight jolt can ren- A check val1•e is a valve that allows the
der a regulator useless. Regulators now of liquid or gas in one direction
should be handled extremely carefu lly only. See Figure 4-12. In welding ap-
when being removed from the cyli n- paratus, the pressure in the supply hose
dt'r Nrvc>r leave n r<'gulntnr nn n hPn<'h is higher than the pressure in the torch,
top or floor for any length of time as it allowing a valve disk in the check valve
could be moved and damaged. Gen- to open and release the gas into the
eral guidelines for the care of regula- torch. If the pressure in the torch be-
tors include the following: comes higher than that in the ~upply
• Check the adjusting screw before hose. such as when a flashback occurs,
the cylinder valve is lUrned ON and the valve disk closes. shutting OFF the
release it when welding has been supply of gas to the torch. A check valve
I
must be positioned at the tOrch inlet, Do 1Wt lubri('(IW the
completed. tulju.ttii•R .,crrwmr a
• Never use oi l on a regulator. Use and can also be placed at the regulator reg11lawr with l'il
only soap or glycerin to lubricate outlet. The check valve must be re- U.rt UNIP orgl)..:enn.
the adjusting screw. placed if a flashback occurs.
OAIV- Eqttipmem ~ 55
Figu rt ... 12. A chuJ, \'oh•t is
ro~uJa:ti'd to tilt' rorrh ami dt~ IH>Se
to en..turc tlrat OX\):/'11 tllltl fX·t!fylmt'
j/£M• only toward 1/re wrr:h.
REVERSE ACETYLENE
OW STOPPED
SPRING
!..-·
ACETYLENE
TO TORCH
VALVE
DISK
~EN...._
regulator and the torch. The acety-
lene nut ca n be distinguished from
the oxygen nUL by tbe notch that runs
around the center, indicating a
left-hand thread. See Figure 4-13. A
clamp i s used to squeeze the hose Figure 4·13. Tfrc mn 011 Jltt aan·ft,~ Nmmxtion
/rtu (/ 11()/c/t t/Wt fliiiS dfQIIIJI/ Jht <"C'"Itr.
around the nipple to prevent it from
Ji.'flinxuislli,rg it {tom tit~ ""' mt thr O.\ ygcu
working loose. cmwtctimr.
of the name produced lby the ignition metal particles from falling on the hair.
of tl1e acetylene flowing from the Lip is A pair of lightweight gloves should
likely to burn the skin. be worn to prevent burns. Occasionally
the hot end of filler metal or a piece of
metal that has been set down to cool is
picked up by mistake, and without gloves,
serious burns may result.
I
pal difference between these gases and Ne\·er use air bltJWII
tlurmgh the tnn·h to
An oxyacetylene name produces acetylene is in the propen.ies of the gas blow tlin ontl dust
intense Light and heat rays that may used in the burning mixture: the weld- from clothing.
destroy eye tissue if the eyes are not ing technique is the same.
OAW - Equipnumt ~ 57
Ji'it;urr 4-15. Gnggles willr lite
r('(X~tllllk'lllltd
sllnd<- mm1her sll(}ll/d TYPE OF
olwtJ):t bt worn {/uriiiR u•rlding. GAS WELDING PLATE THICKNESS SHADE NUMBER
Gas Welding
Oxygen Cutting
I. What safety devices are used to prevent cyl inders from exploding when subjected to inte.nse
pressure?
2. What is the pu rpose of the protector cap on a cylinder?
3. How much should the cy linder valve be opened on an acety lene cylinder? On the oxygen
cylinder?
4. Why is it dangerous to allow grease or oil to come in contact with the oxygen cylinder valve?
5. What is the function of the needle valves on a welding torch?
6. Why are the oxygen and acetylene hose fillings made with differem screw threads?
7. How is the size ot a welding tip indicated"!
8. What could happen if pliers are used when removing welding tips?
9. What is a tip cleaner? When and why should it be used?
I0. What is a two-stage pressure regulator?
I I. What precautions should be observed in handling a pressure regulator?
12. Why is it dangerous ro light a torch with a match or a lighter?
13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using MAPP gas?
14. Hydrogen is often used instead of ac.etylene for what operation?
15. What welding goggle shade numbers are common ly used for most oxyacetylene welding?
16. What type of protective clothing is commonly worn when oxyacetylene welding?
17. Name three ways of distinguishing oxygen hoses from acetylene hoses. Name three ways of
distinguishing oxygen fillings from acetylene fittings.
18. Who is responsible for repairing a damaged regulator?
19. How are oxygen and acetylene cylinders moved safely?
OAW- Equipmenr ~ 59
60 ~ Welding Skills
The welding apparatus must be correctly assembled by the welder to ensure safe operation. A certain
sequence must be followed in assembling the welding appara/lls to ensure a proper and safe connection.
Once the apparatus is assembled, the torch can be lit and adjusted .for the required welding pressure.
Oxygen and acetylene cylinders must be safely stored when not in use. When stored, cylinders must be
chained in tm upright position, with the oxygen cylinders separated from the ace1ylene cylinders. When in
use. cylinders can be secured on a hand truck, chained to a secure object such as a bench in the shop. or
secured in position adjacent to a manifold system.
6J
Figure S· l. Tlte b't!/dtng appora·
tus m11st bt! prnp·erly ll.t~embltll to Welding Apparatus Assembly
t:mmrc pro~r aru/ .wl[~ OJHrlllion Frgure 5- 1
Juring wehlm:~.
~
Poimlhe \'alve outle1
110:;)~ a..-ay befor~
~- t'rtrddllt; the cyliflller.
VALVE
62 ~ Welding Skills
Any condition that might cause a To check for leakage in the weld-
I
Peruxllcalh• lfSt the
reverse flow of g~ will close the ing hose. adjust the regulators to work- weltlir~g uPJmraws
valve. Check valves should be left ing pressure. Submerge the hose in clean, for leah. Uu mop)•
in place oo the torch when the clear water. Check for any bubbles u:at~r only.
DIA$-
METER::=~~·=:t·i:l:,::;:;:!!F;::;::_i:JCC:{Bott~~~
NOTE: TIPS
ENLARGED
0' SMALL
DIAMETER
Thid<ness up to
of
Ito
2 3 4 5 6 7 7 71!> 9
2 3 4 5 6 7 7 7~ 9
.......
A sati sfactory weld must have the
tight amount of penetrdtion and smooth,
even, overlapping ripples. Unless con-
di tions are optimized, it is impossible
for the torch to funct ion th e way it
should, and a poor weld will result. En-
sure that the apparatus, including the
hoses, regulmors. check valves, torch.
and welding tip arc properly connected
before lighting the torch.
lighting Torches
I . Select the correct welding tip size
lo r the metal to be welded and con-
nect it to the torch.
2. Stand to one side and open the
1-lgurc S-3. Sumd 10 01re sitle oflil4 rt'Jlu/mor when
oxygen and acetylene cylinder
Of~ni"g a c-yllndu \'lll~·~.
va l ves slow ly. See Figure 5-3.
Open the acetylene cyl inder valve 3. Set the working press ure of the
approximatel y one complete turn oxygen and acetylene regulator
amJ O!Jt'll tlrc:: uxygc::u val ve:: all the adjusting val ves to correspond to
way. Do not face the regulator the required working pressure of
when opening the cy linder valve. the welding ti p being used.
Oxygen and acetylene are stored 4 . Turn the acetylene needle val ve
under high pressure. If the gas is on the torch approximately one-
permitted to come against the half turn.
Staud to on(' sit/e regulator suddenly, it may cause 5. With the spark lighter held about
httfm·e otuming a damage to the equipment. In ad- I " away rrom the end of the weld-
cylimler ~~ah•e mtd dition, a defect in the regulator may in g ti p. ignite the acetylene as it
be .surt• tire regula·
/()r adjusting screw cause the gas to blow through, shat- leaves the tip. Adjust the acetylene
is fully rtleasttl. tering the glass and causing injury until the smoke di sa ppears. See
to the welder. Figure S-4.
64 :€): Welding Skills
When igniting a torch. keep the tip Figure 5·5. Wit It tltt' u t,·t·tylr n~
burning, gradual/.~ op en tlrr
of the torch facing downward. Light- UX.\'gen 11eeJie \'OI I't ta ()/Jiaill (I
ing the torch while it is facing outward llt utral flame.
or upward could cause injury to work-
ers nearby.
~ Exercises
68 ~ Welding Skills
Welding with an oxyacetylene torch requires practicing a series of operations in a prescribed ordet:
These operations involve carrying a weld pool, deptJsiting a weld bead wilh .filler mewl, (Ill(/ weld-
ing various types ofjoims. In flea position welding, Jhe torch and fi ller metal are lteldwith. tlte weld
joint in the f7at position.
Before performing welding operations, The torch should be held so that the
beginni ng welders should learn the name points in the direction of weJ<.l-
proper techn ique fo r forming and ing and at an angle of about 45° to
main taining a uniform weld bead. A the weld j oint. If ri ght-hande<.l, start
cons istent we ld bead can be formed the weld at the right edge of the metal.
and maintained using an oxyacetylene The l eft -handed welder shou ld start
torch to create and carry a weld pool. welding at the left edge of the metal,
The weld pool must be ca rried along working in the reverse direction. See
the j oint at a co nsi stent width and Figure 6-2.
depth. How Lhe torch is held. the torch
position in relation to the joint, and the
l•'igure 6·2. To uuwe tile welt/ pwl
motion used to carry the weld pool atTffS.~lht• wQrkpil'(:4', hafll t/w
have a direc'l effect on the quality of wrd1 at a 45o (mgle rwd muuiptt·
/me if iu a c:irc:ular m miou.
the weld bead.
LEFT-HANDED WELDER
69
Bring the inner cone of the neu- necessary to use filler metal that has
Move rlre ron:!Jju.st
tral flame to within W' of the surface the same properties as the base metal.
ftw enou~:h to kup
tire weld pool ac:- of the workpiece. Hold the torch still Inferior filler metals may contain im-
tivt! ami flowing until a molten weld pool form~. then purities that make them difficult to use
font'ard. move the weld pool across the work- and that create a weak or brittle weld.
piece. As the weld pool travels for- A good filler metal flows smoothly and
ward, rotate the torch in a circular readily unites with the base metal with-
pattern to form a series of overlap- out excessive sparking.
ping ovals. A poor quali ty filler metal sparks
Do not move the torch ahead of profusely, flows irregu larly, and leaves
the weld pool. bu t s lowly work for- a rough surface filled with punctures,
ward, giving the heat a chance to melt like pinholes.
the metal. If the flame is moved for- Filler metals come in a variety of sizes
ward too rapidly, the heat fails to pen- ranging from 1/ts" to %" in diameter. The
~
U.'fe filler ml!lal with
a dimm:ter equal to etrate far enough into the metal and size filler metal to use depends Largely
~- 1he thickn~.<rs oflhe
baJ·e mi!UIL
the metal does not melt sufficiently. ]f on the thickness of the base metal. The
the torch is kept in one position too general rule is to use filler metal with a
long , the flame will burn a hole diameter equal to the thickness of the
through the metal. base metal. For example, if a Y\s" thick
metal is to be welded. a 1/Js" diameter
ADDING FILLER METAL tiller metal should be used.
On some joints, it is possible to weld Many types of filler metal are avail-
two workpieces without adding filler able for weld ing a variety of metals.
me ta l. For mos t weldi ng jobs, For example, a mild (low-carbon) steel
however. filler metal is adv isable Iiller metal is used to weld cast iron, a
nickel filler metal for nickel steel, a
because it builds up the weld, adding
strength to the joint The strength of a bronze filler metal for bronzing mal-
weld depends largely on tbe skill with leable cast iron and other diss imilar
which the filler metal is blended, or metals. an aluminum filler metal for
interfused, with the edges of the base aluminum welding, or a copper filler
metal. metal for copper products.
The use of filler metal requires co-
ordination of both hands. One hand Manipulating Filler Metal
must manipulate the torch to carry the Hold the filler metal at approximately
we ld pool across the plate, while the the same angle as the torch but slanted
other hand must add the correct amount away from the torch. The filler metal
of filler metal. shou ld be moved at a consistent rate
Some welding applications may re- and speed as it is fed into the weld
q ui re that flux be added to the weld pooL See Figure 6-3.
with the filler metaL Flux is a material
that hinders or prevents the formation
of oxides and other undesirable sub-
stances in molten metal. Flux also dis-
solves or facilitates the removal of un-
desirable s ubstances and is used to
help clean the base metaL
70 ~ Weldiug Skills
Melt a small pool of the base metal pool about 1/ts" wi th each complete
and then insert the rip of the filler metal motion of the torch. An alternate torch
into the weld pool. To ensure proper movement is a sem icircu lar motion.
fusion, the correct diamete r fi ll er See Figure 6-4. When the filler metal is
metal must be used. not in the weld pool, keep the tip just
If the filler metal is too large, the inside the outer envelope of the flame.
beat of the weld pool will be insuffi -
cient to melt it. If the fi ller metal is
too small, the heat of the weld pool
can not be absorbed by the filler metal, Figure 6-4. Th<! tord• (;tW be
Torch Movement Patterns iu ll drnlft1r (Jr semidn:u-
and a hole wi II be !burned in the Figure 6· 4
ttWl't!d
lar mmion when deJ)o.tiiiug beml.t
workpiece. ,·, flm pcs;,;on.
ADVANCE PER OVAL
As the filler metal melts in the weld
pool, advance the torch forward. Con-
·+m1-
centrate the flame on the base metal
and not on the filler metal. Do not hold
the filler metal above the weld poo l,
as the molten metal will have to drip
down to the weld pool. When molten
CIRCULAR
metal falls, it combines with the oxy-
gen of the ai r and part of it buros up,
causing a weak, porous weld. Always
dip the filler metal in lbe center of the
ADVANCE PER
SEMICIRCLE ABOUT \-8• --1 Do •uJt itol<l tite
filler metal so itigit
weld poo l.
A beg inning welder may have 1
ABOUT Yo"
above tite weldpool
that lire molten
trouble holding the tiller metal steady,
which can cmtse the filler metal to stick
I meltll tlrips onto
rite weld pool.
to the base metal. Instead of inserting SEMICIRCULAR
the filler metal in the middle of the
weld pool where the heat is sufficient
to melt it read il y, the beginn ing welder
may insert it near the edge of the weld
pool where the temperature is lower.
However. the heat at the edge may not Maintaining Travel Speed. To secu re
be hot enough to melt the filler metal. weld beads of unifom1 width and height,
lf the filler metal is not melted suffi- keep the forward movement of the torch
ciently it may stick to the weld. Do not consistent. Tf the travel speed is too
try to jerk filler metal loose, since such slow, the weld pool is carried forward
an action will sim ply interrupt the too slowly, it becomes too large, and
welding. Instead, to loosen the filler may burn through the metal. lf the
metal , play the flame directly on the travel speed is too rapid, the filler metal
tip and the filler meta I will be loos- does not fuse thoroughly with the base
ened. While the filler metal is being metal but merely sticks on the surface.
freed, the weld pool w ill likely so- [t will also be impossible t.o form even
lidify; therefore. the weld poo l must ripples.
be re-formed before moving forward. When the weld pool appears to be
geuing too large, withdraw the flame
Depositing Weld Beads slightly so that only the outer envelope \VIum welding with
Rotate the torch to form overlapping of the flame is touchi ng the weld pool. filler metal. move the
torch in a semicir~
ovals, and keep ra ising and lowering Do not move the flame 10 one s ide, cular or circular
the filler meta l as the we ld poo l is since such a movement allows <tir to mmion.
moved forward. Ad vance the weld strike the hot metal, ox idizing the metal.
OAW- Flar Position ~ 71
WELDING BUTT JOINTS a briule weld. resulting from im-
Once the task of carrying a weld pool proper name adjustment during
across the surface of a workpiece while welding or dripping tiller metal
adding filler metal is ma~tered. the next excessive metal hanging under-
task is to fuse two workpieces together neath the weld, as the result of too
much penetration caused by mov-
using a butt joint.
ing the torch forward too slowly
insufficient penetration, caused
Tack Welds
by moving the torch forward too
Workpieces must be tacked at regu- rapid l y
lar intervals before weld ing to main- When penetration is correct. the un-
tain the root opening. See Figure 6-5. derside of the scam should show that
To make a wck weld, apply the flame fusion has wken place completely
to the workpiece until it melts and then through the joint. See Figure 6-6.
add filler metal.
Progressive spacing may be used to Penetration of Filler Metal
allow for closing of the root opening. Figure 6-6
Progressive spacing between the edges
of a seam is not commonly used, but
if it is specified, allow a gap of about CORRECT
Vt6" at the starting end of the joint and PENETRATION~
is needed for a lap j oim weld. mizes the possibi lity of cracks. On a
A T-joint is made by laying one small section of cast iron, preheating
workpiece flat and stand ing the other can be carried out by playing the tlmne
workpiece on top to form a T. The T- over the casting. A large casting may
joint requires a greater amount of have to be placed in a preheating fur-
fill er metal than other joi nt~. Correct nace. The temperatu re must be moni-
filler metal usage is critical. tored carefully on a heavy cast ing ,
especially if it has thin members. to pre-
OAW - CAST IRON vent overheating.
Gray cast iron may be welded; how- After we ld ing is completed,
ever, extreme caution must be taken postbeat the cast iron by bringing the
entire casti ng up to a uniform tempera-
to offset expans ion and contraction
~
Postltetlt cast iron
forces. Since gray cast iron is brittle, it ture. Use the same techn iques as for a/ll•r the wrld i.~
is suscept ible to rapid temperatu re pre heating the casting. ~- compleutcl am/then
allow it t(l cool
changes (thermal shock), making pre- slow(~~
heating and postheating necessary Filler Metal and Flux
when welding cast iron. A cast iron f iller metal that has the
To maintain the g ray iron structu re same composition as the base metal
throughout the weld area, the weld must is used to weld cast iron. The cast iron
be made with the correct f iller metal. filler metal contains silicon to ensure
All weld parts must be cooled slowly. flowabili ty. Correct preheating and
Lf the casting is cooled too rapidly, the postheat ing a llow for machinabi lity.
weld area is li kely to turn into white Using flux is also essent ial when
cast iron. mak ing the weld section welding cast iron to keep the weld pool
extreme ly brittle and so ha rd that ma- fluid . Otherwise, infusib le slag mixes
chining may be impossible. with the iron oxide that forms on the
OAW - Flar Posiriau ~ 73
weld pool. If infusible slag mixes wi th to become entrapped in the weld.
iron oxide, the weld will contain in- which leads to a greater likelihood of
clusions and porosity. corrosion.
When welding heavy aluminum
OAW- ALUMINUM plat e 3f ,s" to 3fs" thick, the edges
Although the gas sh ielded arc weld- should be beveled to form a 90° to
ing processes (GTAW and GMAW) 100° V. AU ow a '!Is" to W' notched root
are the mos t practical for we lding face. Aluminum that is greater than o/s"
commercially pure aluminum , oxy- thick should be prepared as a double- V
acety le ne welding is occas io nally butt joint with a notched root face. The
used. lf oxyacetylene we lding must edges should be beveled to form a 100•
be used o n aluminum, care must be to 120° V. See Figure 6-7.
taken not to overheat the a lu minum. As a rule, the lap joint is not recom-
weakening the metal. mended for aluminum welding because
The following considerat ions must flux and oxide may become trapped
be kept in mind when welding alumi- between the su rfaces of the j oin t,
num with an oxyfuel process: causing the aluminum to corrode.
• A luminum has a relatively low
• CAUTION melting poin t compared to other
Aluminum Joint Design
Figure 6 -7
The fl3me should never metals. Pure aluminum melts at
be pcmtiued lQ come in
contact with lhe weld 122o°F (660°C). NOTCHES
TO :Yo(" APART
y,.·
pool. The therma l conductivity of alu-
minum is hig h- almost four times
that of steel.
• Aluminum colla pses sudd enly
into liquid when heaLed. Since it is
li ght in color. there is practically
no indication when the melting ALUMINUM PLATE
point is reached . (V16' TO 'Ylo")
• Molten aluminum ox idi zes ve ry
- i rTo1oo·
rapidly. A heavy coating forms on
the surface of the seam, which ne-
cessitates the use of a good flux.
• Aluminum is very flimsy and weak
when hot. Care must be taken to sup-
port it adequately during welding.
• Aluminum welds shou ld be made
in a sing le pass if possible. ALUMINUM PLATE
(31,•" TO %")
Joint Designs
In general, the same principles of joint
design for welding steel apply to alu-
minum. Aluminum from 1/1s" to 3f,s"
thick can be welded using a butt joint.
provided the edges are no tched with a
saw or chisel. Notching minimizes the
possibility of burning holes through the DOUBLE-V JOINT
joint. pennits full penetration. and pre- HEAVY ALUMINUM PLATE
vents local distortion. Permanent {OVER >Je}
backi ngs and fillet welded lap joints
f'igure 6-7. AlumiiiUJIJ joim <lesigll is suuiiM 10 tlwl
shou ld not be used when we lding for most allu•r metnf..t. 'IJJt' ungle.s, n(Jtt:lws, anti jltmges
alum inum as they may cause the flux art tltpcmltnt ou tltf: thickness of the aluminum.
74 @o Welding Skills
Using Flux %" thick or more should be preheated
to a temperature of 300°F (149°C) to Always ust! the rec-
The edges o f a lum inum to be welded 0111111<'/lded flt<x tmd
must be thoroughly clean. All grease, 500°P (260°C). Preheating to these tem- filler metal when
oi l, and di rt must be removed with an peratures can usually be done by play- welding.
appropriate solvent or by rubbing the ing the flame of the oxyacetyleLle torch
surface with steel wool or a wi re brush. over the work. For large or complicated
S ince alum inum oxidizes rapid ly, parts, preheating is done in a furnace.
a layer of flux must be used to en - The preheating temperature must
sure a sound weld. Flux is sold as a When u:eftlirt.g ttluuu'·
not exceed 500°P (260°C). lf the
num, keep the prehetu
powder. which can be mixed with temperature rises above 500°P, the al- ; temperawre lu•lmv
water to the consistency of a thin loy may be weakened or the aluminum 500"F (2fffC).
paste (approximately two parts flux may collapse under its own weight.
to one part water). If filler metal is The correc t preheating temperature
not requi red , the flux is appl ied to may be determined with a temperature-
the joint by means of a brush. indicating crayon or by one of the fol-
When filler metal is used. it is lowing methods:
coated with flux by first heating the • A mark made on the metal with a
filler meta l and then dipping it into
carpenter's bl ue chalk wi II turn
the flux.
wh ite.
On thick sections of metal. it is ad-
• A p ioe stick rubbed on the metal
visable to coat the base metal as well
wi U leave a char mark.
as the filler meta l to ensure complete
• No metal lic ringing sound is heard if
fusion. When weld ing is complete, the metal is st111ck with a hammer.
all traces of flux must be washed
away. Flux that remains on the weld
can cause corrosion. Flux is removed Selecting Torches
by washing the workpiece in hot
Since aluminum bas high thermal con-
water or by immersing in a 10% cold \Vhe" welding ftlumi-
ductivity, a welding tip slightly larger
solution of sulfuric acid, followed by mmr, use a :.·lishtly
rinsing in hot or cold water. than one used for steel of the same thick- larger wei<iing tip
ness should be used. See Figure 6-8. than i.1 used for steel.
Many welders use bydrogen instead
Selecting Filler Metal of acetylene when weld ing aluminum,
The proper filler metal must be used and in many cases th is is preferable,
when welding aluminum. The filler especially for welding light-gauge ma-
metal composition should be compa- terial. In either case, the torch shou ld
rable to that of the aluminum to be be adjusted to a neutra l flame. Some
welded. The three most common filler authorities recommend a s lightly re-
Use tm 1100. 4043,
metals for welding nonheat-treatable ducing flame , but usually a neutral
or 5356.fillt?rmetal
aluminum are I I 00, 4043, and 5356. flame is satisifactory for producing a for weMing alumi-
The 4043 and the 5356 filler metals clean, sound we ld . Whether using mun.
are recommended when greater strength acetylene or hydrogen, the flame
is required. shou ld be adjusted to a low gas ve-
Fill er metals are available in Vts", locity to permit a soft flame.
Ys", o/16", and \4'' diameters. GeneraiJ y, The torch angle has much to do with
a filler meta I whose diameter equals weld ing speed. Instead of li fting the
the tbickness of the aluminum to be flame from lime to time to avoid melt-
welded should be used. ing holes in the meta l, the weld ing
Preheating. All aluminum to be torch should be held at a flatter angle Use a IWUlral or
slightly reducing
welded, inc lud ing thin sheet, should to increase the welding speed. The flame for liJI (t/umi-
be preheated to minim ize the effects welding speed shou ld also be increased num weltling.
of expansion and cracki11g. Aluminum as the edge of the metal is approached.
OAW - Flo/ Position ~ 75
Figure 6·8. Tip orifk<' diamf'IU
se/rC"tiOn is bastd on tilt tlrick·
ti~~J iJf lilt alwnimmr 11~ IN wtldW.
Welding heavy steel with oxyacetylene edges of the joim to be beve led to
is much s lower and less cost-efficient form the 60° groove angl e, single- V
than other methods. Occasionally, it butt joint. More skill is required to
may be necessary to use oxyacetylene weld a si ngle- V bun joint in horizon-
welding to weld or repair a structure. tal position because there is not a re-
When welding steel using OAW, main- tainin g s helf for the bead as there is
tain the proper oxygen and acetylene on a single bevel bun joint.
pressures. See figure 6-9.
I bn'<'l on sJeei,thegrom-e
angle should b.- 60'.
bevel is s ufficient. A s ingle- V bevel
s hou ld have a groove ang le of 60• .
See Figure 6-10. The bottom of the
Figure 6.10. A shtglc·V lmlf johtl is ust'..Jjor h~avy
Slt'tl "I~ In
UJtglt.
*'"'
tlric;k, mtd rt<JUirt!l o 60• gmm•t
76 0 Welding Skills
The angle of the filler metal must bottom of the V on both sides of the
be c hanged for each pass when weld- workpiece; then add successive layers
ing a single-V butt joint. The number to till the V. Each successive pa~s must
011 stet! ~H tllick or
of passes depends o n Lhe thickness of
!he metal and lhe filler metal diameter.
Sufficient penetration into each previ-
ous pass is necessary for complete fu-
completely penetrate the previous
passes and the sides of the base metal.
The joint can be welded us ing fore-
I '!'ore. ~o 1101 jill the V
m a smgle tJll.fS. Usl~
se••eral passes.
hand or backhand welding. Forehand
s ion of the we ld. On wide joints. the welding is a we lding techniqu e in
weld s hould be fin ished with a cover which the torch is directed toward the
pass .. A cover pass is made by using a progress of welding.
wide weav ing motion that covers the
entit·e area of the deposited beads.
Backhand Welding
~
Whe11 bocklumd weld-
Double-V Butt Joints Backhand welding is a welding ing. do nm swi"g thi•
[§J_ tmrlt: in.rteatl. mtwe
technique in which the torch is directed thefiller mew/.
On heavy steel \12'' thick or more, welds
opposite to the progress of welding.
should be deposited on both sides of
The backhand technique for welding
the joint. To deposit a we ld on both
sides. a double-V bevel is required. See heavy steel is s imilar to that used for
Figure 6-1 I. A double-V bevel has a thin metal; however, the problems A tlouble· Vjoinl muM
1/ts"· or 1/ s" root face. A 60° g roove associated with heavy steel welding are be used with .tteel *...,
rhil'k or IIUJrt'.
angle is also required. more co mpl icated. In backhand
welding. the weld is carried from left
to right (or right to left for a left-handed
GROOVE ANGLE
pe rson).
THICKNESS When weld ing on heavy steel, close
OF HEAVY
S TE/
attention must be paid to joim prepara-
tion and to lhe amount of heat required
I to e nsure complete penetration. The
MORE
y,• llame is directed back toward lhe com-
y,..• TO 11" ROOT FACE
pleted port ion of the weld, and the
DOUBLE-V BUTI JOINT Iiller metal is held between lhe tlanne
and the completed weld section.
Figurt 6-11. A dfn~bl~- V bull joint is r~~1uire.d whrn
u h't!l.d musl be depo.t;uu/ on bnlll ,\ itlc.'i qf a jninL The flame is directed on the edges
of the V ahead of the weld pool, so no
When depositing a weld in a sideways torch motion is necessary. A
double- V j oint. the weld shou ld be narrower V can be used with backhand
buill up in layers. It is difficu It to con- weld ing than wi th forehand we lding.
tro l th e weld pool and secu re good The weld pool is less lluicl in backhand
penetration by tryi ng to fi ll. the V in we ld ing, and the ripples are heavier
one pass. Deposit one layer near the and spaced further apart.
[!fil•ll~if'J(•Ji~~~~~~!;J~i-
l. Move the torch just fast enough to keep the weld pool active and flowing forward.
2. Use filler metal with a diameter equal to the thickness of the base metal.
3. Do not hold the filler metal so high above the weld pool that the molten metal drips onto
the weld pool.
4. When welding with filler metal, move the torch in a semicircu lar or circu lar motion.
5. Allow a space between workpieces to compensate for expansion forces.
6. Tf possible, use carbon backing bars when welding cast iron.
7. Clean all welding surfaces at least I" around the seam that is to be welded.
8. Preheat cast iron to a dull red before welding.
9. Postheat cast iron after the weld is completed and then allow it to cool slowly.
I 0. Always usc the recommended flux and filler metal when welding.
II. Use an 1100. 4043. or 5356 filler metal for welding aluminum.
12. When welding aluminum. keep the preheat temperature below 500° F (260°C).
13. When welding aluminum. use a slightly larger welding tip than is used for steel.
14. Use a neutral or slightly reducing flame for all aluminum welding.
15. When using a single- V bevel on steel. the groove angle should be 6o•.
16. Steel thicker than 1/l(' shou ld be beveled before weldi ng.
17. On steel 1fl' thick or more. do not fill the V in a single pass. Use several passes.
18. When backhand welding, do not swi ng the torch: instead. move the filler metal.
19. A double-V joint must be used with steel W' thick or more.
~ Exercises
Carrying a Weld Pool without
Filler Metal
•••••••••••••••••
I . Obtain a piece of mild steel 1/ta" to lh" thick. approxi-
mately 3" wide, and 5" long.
2. J3c sure the surface is free of oil, dirt. and scale.
3. Light the torch and adjust it for a neutral flame.
4. Hold the inner cone of tl1e flame approximately W' from
the work and position the torch at a 45° angle to the
workpiece. Move the torch from the right side of the
workpiece to the left side, using a circular manipula-
tion. Left-handed welders should reverse the direction
of travel.
5. Maintain a consistent travel speed to prevent melt-
through in the workpiece.
6. Practice depositing beads without fiUer until properly
formed beads are consistently produced.
80 ~ \\Hding Skills
Welding a Lap Joint in
Flat Position exercjse
•••••••••••••••••••••
I. Obtain two pieces of metal 1/ts" to lh" thick. approxi-
mately I 1h" wide. and 4" tO 5" tong.
2. Lay one workpiece on top of the other. slightly offset,
and tack in place to form a tap joint.
3. Weld the workpieces U'>ing a semicircular motion of
the torch.
4. White manipulating the torch and fitter metal, direct
more of the heat to the bouom workpiece. This may
be accompli~hcd by incrca~ing the duration of the torch
motion on the bouom workpiece. The top workpiece
requires tess heat and may overheat if too much heat
is applied.
5. Weld one side of the workpiece and then practice on
the revcr~c side.
Welding a T-Joint in
Flat Position
I • • •
• ••••••••••••• ••••••••
I. Obtain two pieces of metal approximately 1/ts" to 1h"
thick. I 'h" \\ide. and 4" to 5* long.
2. Lay one workpiece nat and stand the other on top to
form a T-joint. Tack weld the workpieces. r AREBRICK
3 _ Tilt the tacked work pieces 45° to the work surface and
place a firebrick under one side for ~uppon.
4. Hold the torch so the welding tip forms an approxi-
I waDING
TORCH
mately 45° angle to the bouom workpiece.
5. Using the same technique used when welding a buu
joint, keep the inner cone of the name about W' away
from the deepest pan of the weld.
6. Manipulate the torch constantly whi le adding fitter
meiUI to produce a consistent weld free from undercuts.
f1~11Jif"ii[•]~~J#•1fliOI•)Y-1~1•J•1~1HIJ>i>1t•1@-
l. Why is a filler metal used in welding?
2. What detennincs the size of the filler metal that should be used'?
3. Where is the filler metal insened when depositing beads with filler meta l?
4. What happens if the tiller metal is too large for the base metal that is being welded? If it is too
small?
5. How shou ld the torch be manipulated when using Iiller metal on a bull weld'?
6. lf the metal does not melt readily, what is ihe probable cause?
7. What happens if the torch is moved forward too slowly?
8. Why should cast iron pieces be preheated before welding?
9. Why is flux necessary when welding cast iron?
I 0. What is the melting point of aluminum?
II. What type of filler metal is recommended For welding aluminum?
12. How can it be determi ned when aluminum has reached its preheating temperature?
13. How are smooth. even ripples formed in the weld bead?
14. How is the flux manipulated in order to deposit it in the weld?
15. If cast iron has been properly welded, where should the break occur when the completed weld is
tested?
16. Why should tl1e edg~ be beveled when heavy steel is W' thick or more?
17. At what angle should the torch be held when welding heavy steel?
18. How should the torch and Iiller metal be handled in backhand welding? At what angle?
19. When welding heavy steel over W' thick, why use more than one pass?
84 ~ Welding Skills
O).)•acetylene welding cannot always be done in flat position. Occasionally. workpieces must be welded
in the horizontal, vertical, or overhead positions. Welding in flat position is easier and somewhat faster
than other positions: howeve1: with practice. welding in other positions can be pe1jormed easily.
When weldi11g in horizomal. vertical. or overhead position, the main obswcle to obtaining a sound
1reld is the g raviwtional pull downward on the molten mew/.
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL the weld pool to become too large. lf the
WELDING weld pool gets too big or too fluid, it
I
U .fl' 11 .tNnidrt·ulllr
could get out of control and run down
When welding in horizontal or verti- torch mtn•emtlll ftir
the face of the weld. lf the weld gets too lrmi:.omal. l'el1iclll. and
cal position. a jig or positioner may be fluid. pull the flame away slightly so that m·erlretul "'eldin~.
used to hold the workpieces in posi- it does not play directly on the weld pool.
tion. A sem ici rcular torch movemen t
Figure 7·1. Uflhill wl!ltii.n& i.'i fX!r·
should be used for horizonta l and ver- formetf w,.th tm 11piiUI pn•gr.-ssinn.
tical welding. Maintaining a consistent On 1101 t1llow tire wdd fHII' I w get
wo lor~ t'.
size weld pool helps control the weld
and preven t sagging.
As welding progresses in horizontal
welding, metal has a tendency to build
up much more on the edge of the bot-
tom workpiece. To overcome this ten-
dency, direct the flame longer on the
edge of the bottom workpiece without
allowing the weld pool to drop. Hold the
torch so the tip fonm an ru1gle of 45o LO
the workpiece and to the line of the weld.
Point the filler metal toward the welding In lwri:omnJ weld·
tip at an angle of approximately 30° to illg. dire('t tl1e jlome
more on the etlge of
the line of the weld and 15° to 20° to the the lower workpiecl'.
horizontal workpiece. Direct the flame
evenly over both workpieces. To prevent
undercutting. add li ller metal nearer the
OVERHEAD WELDING
top workpiece.
Vertical welding is performed uphill Overhead welding is more di fficult to
or downhill. Uphill welding is welding perform than horizonta l o r vertical
performed with an uphill progression. welding because of the unusual work-
See Figure 7-1. Downhill welding is weld- ing position and the skill needed to keep
ing perfonned with a downhill progres- the molten weld pool from dropping off
sion. When vertical welding. do not allow the workpieces.
85
Overhead welding is possible beause drops and falling off. Sec Figure 7-2.
molten metal has cohesive (sticky) lf the weld pool becomes too fluid and
qualities. as long as the weld pool does starts to run, move the torch slightly
not get too large. Molten metal does not away from the joint.
fall from the weld if the weld pool is
not allowed to fom1 in complete drops.
The amoum of heat directed on the
joint must be carefully regulated, since
excessive heat increases the flow of the
molten metal.
Use the same semicircular motion
of the torch for overhead welding as
~
Ou overhead weltl\',
mm'e thefiller meta/ for other weld ing positions. Move the
@j_ .tlo wly in a circular filler metal s lowly in a circular or
or swinging motion.
swinging motion to help keep the weld
pool shallow. The movement of the
Figure 7-2. Tit~ filler mt ttllmovts olttod of the
filler metal distributes the molten weld torch ottd di.Jtribuus lit~ molten wtld pool os ;, is
pOOl and prevents it from fonning large mow:d.
1. Use a semicircular torch movement for horizontal. vertical, and overhead welding.
2. To maintain cont·rol and prevent sagging, do not allow the weld pool to become too large.
3. If the weld pool becomes too fluid, raise the flame slightly away from the workpieces.
4. In horizontal welding, direct the flame more on the edge of the lower workpiece.
5. On overhead welds. move the filler metal slowly in a circular or swinging motion.
~ Exercises
Welding a Butt Joint in
Horizontal Position
•••• ••••• •••• ••••• ••
l. Obtain two pieces of 1/t6" or lh" mild steel.
2. Form a butt joint. with a root opening for expansion,
exercise
••••
and tack together.
3. Position workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal
position.
4. Start welding at the right edge if right-handed (or the
left if left-handed). using a semicircular torch motion.
As welding progresses, gravity can cause metal to
build up oo the bottom workpiece. To O'lercome this
tendency, direct the flame longer on the edge of the
bollom workpiece and keep the tip of the filler metal
nearer to the top workpiece.
86 ~ IVeldiug Skills
Welding a T-Joint in Horizontal Position
• • • ••••••••••••
e~x~e~rur.~i&~e~---~·
1. Obtain two pieces of Vt6" or 1..1!" mild steel.
2. Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90° ang le and tack
together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal
position.
4. Start welding at the right edge if right-banded (or the left,
if left-handed), using a semicircular torch movement.
5. Hold the torch so the tip fotms a 45° angle to the bottom workpiece. and a 45° angle pointing to
the end of tbe weld.
6. Point the fi ller metal toward the welding tip at an angle of approximately 30° to the joint root
and 15° to 20° to the bottom workpiece.
7. Direct the flame evenly over the workpiece. To prevent undercu tting, add filler metal nearer to
the vertical workpiece.
FILLER METAL
FILLER METAL
TOP VIEW END VIEW
OAW-Other Po.,·itions ~ 87
Welding a Butt Joint in
Overhead Position
••• .............A~~xe:uoc..;i~se~~~•~,..,
... ..
fl!!ltJ}iit•1Wf'1t•1iJiiiJ•)W+1~1•J•1f'-®!Oiit•1~-
I. What can be done to prevent the weld pool from sagging when weld ing in vert ical posi tion?
2. At what angle should the torch be held for horizontal welding?
3. How should the torch be moved for vertical, horizontal, and overhead welding?
4. In horizontal welding of a bull joint, why should the flame be directed more on the edge of the
lower workpiece?
5. What should be done when welding in vertical position to prevent the weld pool from becom-
ing too fluid?
6. Why is overhead welding more difficu lt to perfonn than borizontal or verLieal welding?
7. How can the weld pool be prevented from dropping off in overhead welding?
8. How should the filler metal be manipulated in overhead welding?
9. What can be done to prevent undercutting of the weld when welding a horizontal T -joint?
I 0. What can be done to maintain a shallow weld pool when welding in the overhead position'?
88 ~ Welding Skills
section . th re e Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). sometimes referred to as stick welding. is used in the fabrica tion of
many products. including ships, pressure vessels. ranks. automobiles. and appliances. SMAW welding
machines are used to weld light- and heavy-gauge metals of all kinds.
A consram-current welding machine is used .for SMAW. Power to produce a welding arc ccm be static.
such as is supplied by a trans.formet; transformer-rectifier; or inverter: or engine-driven. The power
source design is selected based on the requiremems of the welding task.
Proper personal protective equipme111 must be used during welding to protect the welder from injury and
to prevem damage 10 1he m(l(erials or strucwres being welded.
89
Welding current can be direct curren t An ampere (amp, or A) is a unit of
(DC) or alternating current (AC). Cur- measure for electricity that expresses
rent has the most effect on the depth the quantity, or number, of electrons
of penetration into lhe ba~e metal. flowing through a conductor per unit
D;rect current (DC) is an electrical of time. Amperage is the quantity of
current that flows in one direction only. electricity measured. An ammeter is an
This means that there is no change in instrumen t that measures amperage
the direction of current flow. Alternat- (amperes).
ing wrrent (AC) is an electrical current The primary voltage (input) to a
that has alternat ing positive and welding machine may be 120 V, 230 V,
negative values. Tn tlle first (positive) 460 V, or 600 V. The weldin,g machine
half-cycle. the current flows in one frame (chassis) must be well grounded
direction; the current then reverses and since primary voltages can be very
for the second (negative) half-cycle flows dangerous.
in the opposite direction. See Figure 8-1.
Polarity. Polarity is the posi tive (+) or
negative (-) state of an object. Polar-
ity determ ines the direction of current
Figure 8· 1. Dirur cu"tmt flow.f Current
in ont clireclhm o11/y. Altenwling flow in a DC circuit. Since current
t•urrcnt ha:r tWSiti~·e 1'0/llt!,,. a,d Figure 8- 1
moves in one d irect ion only in a DC
m!Rativt' valm•.f: currem flow.f ill
CURRENT _ CURRENT + c ircui t, polarity must be selected for
mrr tUrulimr. rhtll 1·e~·erus tmd
for lltr St!COntl lwlf·cyde flows in
rfur oppmritt dirt!t:li()ll.
FLOW~/ FLOWY/ some weldi ng operations. DC current
used for welding can be either direct
current electrode negative (DCEN) or
d irect c urre nt elec trode positive
(DCEP). See Figure 8-2. The tcnninol-
ELECTRODE ELECTRODE
NEGATIVE POSITIVE ogy DCEN and DCEP replaces the for-
DIRECT CURRENT merly used terms straig ht po larity
(DCEN) and reverse polari ty (DCEP).
Polarity is changed by con necting
the e lectrode lead to either the posi-
tive or negative terminal. When the
electrode lead is connected to the
o· 270' 360' negative terminal of the welding ma-
chine and the workpiece le.ad is con-
nected to the positive terminal , the
NEGATIVE(-)
polarity is DCEN. When the electrode
1-- -1 CYCLE=
VALUES
~SEC
ALTERNATING CURRENT
--1 lead is connected to the positive ter-
minal of the welding machine and the
workpiece lead is connected to the
negative terminal, the circuit is DCEP.
On some machine.~. polarity is changed
The rate of change is referred to as by moving a switch or lever on the
frequency. Frequency is the number of welding machine to DCEN (-) or
cycles per second in an AC sine wave. DCEP (+). Polarity is of no consequence
Frequency is indicated as 25, 40, 50, in AC welding machines because cur-
or 60 cycles per second. Frequency lis rent is constantly changing direction.
measured in hett2 (Hz). Hertz (Hz) is
th e international uni t of frequency 0 17u• 1V>I111ge tmd cun-e111 owp111 ofa weld·
equal to I cyc le per second. Ln th e ing machine should /u• regularly r.s1ed 10
ensure 1/Jar 1/1~ proper levels .are {1\'(li/·
United States, alternating current is 60 llble for welding.
cycles per second (60 Hz).
90 ~ Welding Skills
figure 8-3. Voltn.tt" ..n.J ,.,,,~,.,
Polarity wlus C'an IN shO'M-, ,. u drRrtal
Figure 8·2 drspiUl' on tM fr(HII f( e1 '14-t'ldm(
WELDING ma~hm~.
MACHINE ELECTROOE
+-
DIRECTION OF
CURRENT FlOW
DIRECT CURRENT
ELECTRODE NEGATIVE (DCEN)
OPEN-CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
ARC VOLTAGE
DC
SMAW- tiptipment ~ 93
Alternating Current (AC) CONSTANT-CURRENT WELDING
AC current output provides a constantly MACHINES
alternating current that can be used for Constant-current welding machines are
SMAW welding. AC c urrent allows a designed primarily for SMAW. A
welder to easily maintain an arc during constant-current ll'eldinR machine is
welding. Other features of AC current a welding machine in which a steady
include low operating and mainte- suppl y of current is produced over a
nance costs. and high overall electrical wide range of welding voltages caused
efficiency. AC welding machines by change~ in arc length. All welding
typically operate on single-phase machines used for SMAW arc constant-
( 19) primary power. current. Constant-current welding ma-
chines have a severe negative volt-amp
Direct Current (DC) curve with a limited maximum s hort
DC cuTTCnt output for SMAW may use circuit current. See Figure 8-8.
si ngle- phase (1$) or three-phase (3cp)
primary electrical power. The most Constant Current
stable DC welding is provided by Figure 8-8
welding machines that provide 3$
transformers and full-wave rectifiers. STEEP SLOPE
Alternating Current/Direct
Current (AC/ DC)
AC/DC current output is available on
constant-current welding machines that
oper.ttc using a I~ or 3~ primary power
source. The main difference between
AC and AC/DC output for SMAW is
that AC/DC contains a rectifier. Recti-
lied 1~ welding power is not as stable
a.~ rectified Jcp DC welding power. ACI
DC welding machines are commonly --+
CURRENT
used for SMAW. See Figure 8-7.
RANGE SWITCH
~ F'OV~ER SWITCH
CURRENT ADJUSTMENT
CONTROL
TERMINAL
+0 +0 C\ Q
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
u
I+AC
+0
FULL·WAVE RECTIFIER
+0 +0 1\ L\ _D.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
3~AC
+0 -
FULL- WAVE RECTIFIER
INPUT OUTPUT
96 ~ Welding Skills
A full-wave rectifier, which uses four been replaced by copper. making the
diodes in lhe circuit. produces a sine wave inverter smaller and more compact.
!hat is smoother than a half-wave recti- but also more expensive.
tier. Additional diodes can be used to pro-
duce a smoother output, depending on ENGINE-DRIVEN POWER
the requirements of lhe welding job.
SOURCES
Inverters Engine-driven power source designs
An inverter is an e lectrical device that use gaso li ne. diesel fuel. or propane
changes DC current into AC current. to run the engine and an alternator or
An inverter power source uses transis- genera to r to provide th e power fo r
tors to convert DC cu rrent into high- welding. Gasol ine- and diesel-powered
frequency AC current. An inverter can welding mach ines arc typ ica lly used
in the field where e lectricity is no t
be designed to produce variable fre-
quency to provide fine-tuned adjustment avai lable. See Figure 8- 12. When us-
ing an engine-driven power source.
of the welding arc. See Figure 8-11.
make sure there is oil. water. and the
correct fuel in the machine.
Variable Frequency
Figure 8·11 Figure ~ 12. G1glnr-dri\'('IP fKIU'~r
sources nwke wt'lding po$Sible in
ltrt•tu wht'rt' elt!clridt)' i'i 1101
tn'tlilt~ble .
FREQUENCY
(60Hz)
+
0 --
LOWER FREQUENCY
(40Hz)
WORKPIECE
CONNECTION
AND LEAD
Removable Clamped
WORKPIECE CONNECTIONS
weld ing machine to the electrode because voltage d rop across the leads
holder and the other is auached to the lowers the efficiency of the welding.
workpiece or the workbench. The lead Check w ith th e welding machine
connected to the electrode holder is manufacturer for the proper welding
ca lled the e lectrode lead. The lead lead sizes, and for specific lengths and
connected to the workpiece is called usage.
the workp iece lead or, incorrectly, All welding lead connections should
the ground. be tight because loose connections Keep welding leads
cause the lug, lead, or clamp to over- (lrderly to 11revenr
When U1e welding machine is ON themf rom becomitJg
and the electrode in the electrode heat. A loose connection may also pro- fl ha ~ard. Fasten
holder comes in contact with the duce arcing at the connection. Weld - the welding leads
in g leads should be kept clean and overlrettd whene\•er
workpiece. a circuit is formed. a llow- f>Ossible. Never kink
ing e lectrici ty to flow. should be handled so as to avoid dam- the welding leads.
The correct diameter weld ing lead age to the insulation.
for tbe length of cable specified for
the welding machine output must be Electrode Holders
used. lf welding leads are too small An electrode holder is a handle-like
for the current, they overheat and too l that hol<ls the e lectrode du ring
power is lost. Larger leads are welding. The electrode ho lder is at-
needed to carry the required current tached to the electrode lead during
long distances from the welding ma- welding. A properly designed e lectrode
chine; otherwise. there wi II be an holder is essential to good wel ding.
SMAW - Equipment ~ 99
The jaws of the electrode holder must Tools
Ust' lm l'lt'clrode
[I
-
holtlt>r lhlll i.\ com·
plrtrl\' insuliirtd.
be properly insulated. Laying an elec-
trodc holder with uninsulated jaws on
the workbench while the machine
To produce a ~trong weld. the surface
of the base metal must be free of for-
eign mauer such as rust. oil. and paint.
is running may cause a flash. A well- A ''ire brush (hand- or tool-powered)
designed electrode holder can be ideo- is used to clean metal surfaces.
tificd by the following features: Aller a bead is deposited on the metal.
• h is reasonably light. to reduce ex- the slag that covers the weld is removed
ccssivc fatigue while welding. with a chipping hammer. The chipping
• It docs not heat too rapidly. operation is followed by additional wire
• It is well balanced. brushing. Complete removal of slag is
It secures and releases electrodes especially important when sever'dl passes
ea~ily. must be made over a joint If n01 removed,
• h is properly insulated. slag becomes trapped in the weld, and
may form gas holes in the bead Lh:ll re-
Workpiece Connections suh in porosity. which weakens Lhe weld.
The workpiece (."'nneclion must be fas-
tencd to the w<lli;picce or Lhe workbench Welding Screen
to provide a complete path for Lhe elec- Whenever welding is done in areas
trical circuit. A workpiece connection is where OLher people may be working, Lhe
auached 10 the workpiece lead to com- welding operation should be enclosed
plete lhe circuit. ll1is type of workpiece with screens so the ullr'Jviolet rays can-
connection is removable, making it easier not injure nearby workers. Welding
for a welder to change locations. A screen~ cun be easily constructed from
workpiece lead can be attached or welded lirc-rcsislanl canvas painted with black
to the workbench using the lug on the or gray ultraviolet-protective paint.
I
lfw•ldmg nrttrotlou
IHJri.t--n. .\CitiJl Ut'Jd·
end of the lead. Connections should be When welding i~ done in a permanent
made a.\ ciO'.C to the welding location as location, a booLh is desirable. A perma-
- in~ Urttl'n.<r so th~
IJTC: d~.f IJOI htzrm nen1 welding booth provides the items
possible.
\\.-,rlJI'f IU'tltb). needed 10 \afely complete welding.
SHOP TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Shop equipment, such as C-clamps. Ventilation System
electrode ovens, tools, welding screens. Electrodes used for SMAW may emil a
and venti lution systems are required great deal of ~moke and fumes. which
for a $afe work area. See Figure 8-15. should not be inhaled. The smoke and
When welding workpicces that arc too fumes arc not hannful if the welding area
is pmperly vcnli luted. There should be a
large to lit in a vise, C-clamps hold the
suction fan or other adequate source of
workpieees in the proper position.
air circulation.
Many ei(.'Cirodes must be stored at high
Pennanent welding booths should be
temperature~ 10 protect them from hu-
equipped with a sheet-metal hood with
midity. Electrode ovens maintain the
an exten,ion arm mounted directly
required temperature and protect elcc-
above the welding !able and an exhau!.t
trodes from damage. Floors should be
\\~It/ tml~
system to dmw out the smoke and fumes.
I-
in all!a.s
u·lftrtt tlrl'l't' is ad~-
conMructed of fire-resistant materials SMAW ~hould not be performed wilh-
qmut ''l'lllilaliofL and '>hould be kept dry at all times 10 out $Ufficiem movemem of air through
prevent possible shock. the room. TI1e gcneml recommendation
for adequate vcmilation is a minimum
6 \\'t'1r~ flfl!ll.f. u:u/kways. lndtlers.. Nc. IIIIlS/ of 2000 cu fl of air now per minute per
IJt kr/lf drttr of obsmtcliOIIS. 1Yeldi11g welding machine. If individual movable
equiflmt!lll ,\hm1ld Ill)( be f>OSitiom!tl wltert!
lt obJtmtt'f 1.-t~fbl'ff)'S ar tHher h'O'* artUS. exhaust hoods can be placed near the
work. the r.ue of air llow toward lhe hood
100 ~ \Vdtfing Skills
Figu rc 8-15. Shop wols and
Shop Tools and Equipment eqrtitJmeut CIS;td$1 the wdtler iu
Figure 8·1 5 mttintahting 11 sti}C. work ttll'irmr-
melll oll{/fJtOdu!·in8 qualify wt!ldr.
Chipping Hammers/
Hand Grinder Wire Brushes
SMA\¥ - Equipment @: I 0 I
should be approximately 100 linear feet be turned down or eliminated and
Ne"er look at a weld-
ing mv.: without k-'ellf ·
per minute i.n the welding :wne. The ex- pockets removed to prevent molten
ing a we/ding helmet. haust hood should never be placed in a metal from catching in the clothes.
manner that draws the gas and fumes Sleeves and collars should be kept
across the face or the welder. buttoned. Pant legs and shirt sleeves
should be short enough that they do
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE not bunch around the ankles or wrists.
EQUIPMENT The head and eyes must be pro-
tected from metal pieces or sparks that
An electric arc not only produces a bril-
may be projected from a welding sur-
liant light, but also gives off invisible
face. Helmets with shaded lenses are
ultraviolet and infrared rays that are
required when performing any weld-
extremely dangerous to the eyes and
ing operations. Safety glasses should
skin. Additionally, extreme heat is gen-
be worn under face shields, hoods, and
erated by welding, as are slag and spat-
helmets, and at a II Limes when work-
ter, which may pop from the weld and
ing in the shop. See Figure 8- I7.
strike a welder. Welders are required
to wear personal protective equipment Eye Protection
to prevent injury. Figure 8 - 17
Approved work c lothes, such as
Silfety gla.« e.r should those made of leather, wool, or flanle-
be worn under ftlce resistant cotton: a headcap; safety
.\·ltic/d.r, lwntls, anti
h elmets. tmtl til t1/l glasses; approved work boots; and
times wlren working gloves are required for all welding and
iu the shop. cutting operations. Light-duty welding
requ ires cloth or leather gloves and a
welding helmet with proper shading.
Heavy-duty welding requires a leather
jacket. leather gauntlet-type g loves, a
leather apron, and a bel met with proper
shad ing. See Figure 8-16.
105
atmospheric contamination. The same AWS classification. shou ld have
slag also slows the cooling rate of sim ilar welding characteristics. Most
deposited metaL perm iuing the for- electrodes manufactured in the Uni ted
mation of a more ductile weld States are imprinted with an AWS sym-
provide easier arc starting, stabi lize bol. See F igure 9-2.
the arc, and reduce spatter
• permit better penetration and im-
prove the X-ray quality of the weld
Originally, bare e lectrodes were
uncoated metal rods; today they are
made with a coating. Bare electrodes
are rarel y used for welding because
they are difficult to weld with and they
produce brittle welds with low
strcngtl1. Practically all welding is done
with shielded e lectrodes.
The coating of some electrodes con-
tains powdered iron, which conve rts fi'iAure 9-2. Tltr ;\merktm Welding S(u·iny (AWS)
mtmerical ~lettrfHic clas:rification idt,uifieo: 11t~ char·
to steel and becomes a part of the weld nct~ristics and ust~ge (if the d~c1rode.
JJ
e-lectrode t:lttlr(I(;Wri:rtic.t.
ARC~~f£~g]
TENSILE STRENGTH
WELDING POSITION
TYPE OF COATING
AND CURRENT
HYDROGEN: H4: LESS THAN 4 mV100
H8: LESS THAN 8 mV100
MEETS REQUIREMENTS OF
ABSORBED MOISTURE TEST
DCEP
fi'igure 9-:l. Tire tlunl tmd fourtlt dif[its m tlu: elt't.'trod~ rlussifkmio~r ;demify tltt' proper ....-~ltllng position wtd till Wt!ld clw nu:tl!ristin t>ftlte
dt•t'lrtult:.
I
Welding Position. The position of the consume as much of the electrode as tXlS·
tht• stub i.\ no /mrgt•r
weld joint must be considered when se- sible. Do not d iscard stub ends until they 1han I $2H to 2H.
lecting an electrode. Some electrodes pro- are clown to I W' to 2" long. See Figure 9-6.
duce better results when welding is done Store electrodes in a dty place. at nom1al
in Oat position. Other electrode~ are de- room tcmpcr.uure. with a SQ<'ro maximum
signed for vertical. hori1.ontal, and relative humidity. When exposed to mois-
overhead welding. See Figure 9-5. ture. the coating tends to disintegrate.
SMA\V Se/ecti11g Electrmle\ 0 109
"Figure ~. Ute t4ectrodcs lUifll the electrodes shou ld be stored separately
stubs lwwt bc·~n COIM'fllll(>~/ tlown to
/'11" to 2"' Jong.
from other types of e lect rodes. When
s toring any type of electrode, do not
bump, bend, or step on the electrodes.
.!
-· ....
Damaged or chipped e lectrodes are
useless and must be discarded.
/.'I
" .. ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION
Electrodes can be classified by type
as mild steel, iron powder, and low-
hydrogen. See Figure 9-7. Electrodes
Low-hydrogen elect rodes are espe- arc commonly grouped as fast-free;;e,
cially vu lnerable to moi s ture. Low- fill-freeze, and fast-fi ll.
hydrogen electrodes, such as E-70 18, A fast freeze electrode is an electrode
afte r bei ng removed from their that produces a snappy, deep-penetrating
Srore eleNrodes in 11
dry ploce wlrere tire moistureproof coma iner, should be arc and fast-freez ing deposit. Fast-
coating camrot be stored in heated drying ovens at freeze electrodes produce little s lag
dtmwged. and flat beads. They are used for
250°F to 300°F. Stationary and por-
tab le drying ovens are often used for all-position welding for fabrication and
storing e lect rodes at specified hold- repair work. They are preferred for
ing temperatures. Low - hydrogen vertical and overhead posit ion.
AU Fast-freeze
Figure 9-7. AWS dtusn of ch."t:lnKJes ctm be further rllll'gorized by type. such ll~t milt! steel, irou puwdtr. and low-hydrogen, cm:lt including
se~·e,.ttl /!WS classifkmions tmtl httvinf: ctrtai11 welding (:hamtteri.~tic.f.
___ _
Mild Steel Electrodes :y,. 140-240
~ 225-300
The most commonly used mild steel
electrode is E-60 I 0. because of itS pen-
........._ y.
... 50 350
Groove butt welds, all positions(< I"') 10 9 5 8 (b) 6 (b) 7 6 (b) (b)
Deposition mte 4 4 5 5 10 6 10 4 6 8 6
Depth of penetrallon 10 9 6 5 8 6 4 7 7 7 8
Appearance, undercutting 6 6 8 9 tO 9 tO 7 10 10 9
Soundness 6 6 3 5 9 7 8 10 9 9 9
Ductility 6 7 4 5 10 6 5 10 10 tO 10
Welder appeal 7 6 8 9 10 10 10 6 8 9 9
Slag removal 9 8 6 8 9 8 9 4 7 8 9
• Ra~ Is on o CQmPIJt"&INe be$1S ol same-s1ze efeclrOdes wtlh to as lhe ~ w h..e. Aalings may change With sb:a
lAWS
' OCE,~ c:urront ~rode posi!M:: OC£H-d•rec1 curroot e4edtode noga~MY. AC--altemaling curmnt, DC-<flfeCI curreol, eilhef po&arily
(b) Not rocommenclod
Figure 9-11. Electrodes ure r01etl based 011 llrt.ir suiwbility 10 lht different CO!tdilions to '~·hich they will be subj~cud.
Although there are a variety of elec- The variables have a relative rating
trode classification charts that list the ranging from I to I 0, with I 0 as Lbe
basic characteristics or differences in highest value and I the lowest. These
electrodes. many of the variables variables and their corresponding rat-
encountered in production often require ings arc based on experience and are
testing to detemune the suitability of an intended primarily as an aid in the elec-
electrode for a specific application. By trode selection process. For example.
first analyzing the variables in terms if high-sulfur steel is tO be welded,
of their importance in a weld.ing sit- either E-70 16 or E-70 18 electrodes
uation, considerable time and effort can should be used.
be saved. The suitabi lity of an electrode ff poor fit-up is the problem. elec-
for use with cenain types of joints, such trode E-60 12 is considered the best
as groove bull welds and fi llct welds, e lectrode. If the deposition rate is the
ca n be rated to help determine the primary factor, then e ither E-6027 or
proper e lectrode to use. E-7024 is the most suitable.
114 ~ Welding Skills
Special Electrodes the surface to be welded cannot be
completely cleaned of dirt, paint, or
Special electrodes are used for specific other material. Welding operations
appUcations. on specific materials, to such as surfa.cing and gouging are pos-
obtain particular surface characteris- sible using special electrodes.
tics. or for health and envirol!llDent rea- A variety of special electrodes are
sons. For example, some electrodes are available to nneet the particular welding
environmentally safe and eiiJlit no ra- requirements of metals such as aluminwn.
diation or radioactive gases; release cast iron, nickel, copper. magnesium.
no contamination to the atmosphere; titanium, alloy metals, and tool steels.
and produce no contamination dur- Special e lectrodes prevent c racking
ing grind ing or machining. Some and embrittlemenl and may all ow dis-
special electrodes require very litLle similar metals to be welded.
heat input. Special electrodes can be used to
Special electrodes are used to allow build up a base metal surface to allow
welding of certain materials. 10 improve machining. or to harden the weld for
welding time and quality in specific grinding. Special electrodes can also
applications such as underwater, cx- add corrosion resistance to a weld and
tre me heat, extreme cold, or where allow a weld to be galvanized.
[~lil•ll~iftC•Ji~3~14~!:13i-
I. Use the correct type of electrode for the weld ing to be done.
2. Some electrodes can only be used when welding with DC currem: others are only used with
AC current.
3. Lf welding is to be done using DC current, determ ine whether DCEN or DCEP is needed for
tbe particular elecrr<Ode to be used.
4. Select an electrode with a diameter that is about one-half the thickness of the metal to be
we lded.
5. Use an electrode unti.l the stub is no longer than I 'h'' to 2".
6. Store electrodes in a dry place where the coating cannot be damaged.
SMAW requires maste1y of a specific series of operations through practice. Once these skills have been
acquired. they can be applied on any welding job. The first basic SMAW operation is leaming to strike an
arc and deposit a straight bead.
117
Figure 10.1. ProJJtr 111in:lu'm! $el·
ti11gs, electrode tmglt!, arr leflglh,
Sustaining a Welding Arc
ond lrtl'-'t'l .wec•tl nre "ete...stJry in Figure 10-1
order IIJ susWill tm ntc during
wl'ldi1tg.
Millni-J,.,·u~Mn~~"ftKturlNt ~
WELDING MACHIIIE
ELECTRODE
LEAD
ELECTRODE
HOLDER
WORKPIECE WORKPIECE
CONNECTION LEAD
ELECTRODE
I
Alwavs shr.a OFF
rhe '~;elding ma~ welding.
chine when let,ving Reverse the process by gradually
the weltling bench. raising the cu rrent. Turn the machi ne
0 Arc weltling equipmem must be instttlled
and groundcc/, with the 11ct.:essary discon..
up 5 A in several steps and each time nects, fuses. and incoming power line.t. in
nm short beads. As the current is in - accortlauce with requirements of ANSI/
NFPA 70, the National Eleclrica) Code•.
creased, the arc gets hotter and the anll rele~'Ont local C{)(/es.
electrode melts faster.
u~lil•''~.,.,,.,i~3l'113®' ~'*-
I. Inspect the equipment before starting to weld.
2. Set ihe polarity switch lo ibe recommended position.
3. Do not lay the elecu·ode holder on the bench wh ile current is nowing.
4. Release the electrode if it sticks to the workpiece.
5. Start with the recommended current mnge and adjust tbe current as
necessary after welding begins.
6. Always shut OFF the weldi og machine when leaving the welding bench.
3. Use Vs" or %2"; E-6012, E-6013, or E-7024 electrode. Insert the electrode in the e lectrode
holder and set the welding machine for the correct current.
4. Two methods can be used to s trike the arc- the tapping me thod and the scratching method.
The tapping method is preferred by experienced welders; however, the scratc hing method is
easier.
Ln the tapping method , the electrode is brought straight down to contact the workpiece and is
withdrawn instantly. With the scratching melhod. lhe electrode is moved at an angle in contact
wi th the workpiece in a scratching motion, much like striking a match. Regardless of the mo-
tion used, upon contact with the workpiece, promptly raise the electrode a distance equal to the
diameter of the electrode; otherwise, the electrode will stick to the workpiece. 1f aiJowed to
stick with the current flowing,
the e lectrode becomes red hot.
Should the electrode weld fast
to the workpiece, break it
loose by quickly twisting or
bending the electrode holder.
If it should fail to dislodge.
disengage the electrode by re-
leas in g it from the electrode
holder. TAPPING
DIRECTION
OF WELDING
S. Practice striking an arc until
the ope rati on can be per-
formed quickly and easily.
SCRATCHING
-
DIRECTION
This is lhe travel angle. .,
OF WELDING
~
Use rhe proper elec-
Electrode Selection Arc Length trodefor elicit weld-
Electrode selection must take into ac- Lf the arc length is too long, the metal ~- ing operation.
count the position of the weld, the melts off the electrode in large globule.~
propenies of the base metal, the diam- that wobble as the arc wavers. These
eter of the electrode, the type of joint, large globules produce a wide, spanerecl
and the current. Different electrodes and irregular bead with insufficient fu-
are manufactured to meet various sion between the base metal and the
welding requirements. deposited metal. An arc length that is
123
too shon fail\ to gener.ue enough heat Current Selection
to mel! the base metal properly. produc- For the de.,ircd weld chamcteristics. the
The urr lcnglh
<lum/J be upproxi-
ing high. uneven beads with irregular correct current (AC. DCEP. OCEN) for
mut~l.v tMdi•urtel~r ripples. Depositing welds using roo a panicular electrode must be used. If
<{lilt' •l•cln>ik. shon an arc length also increases the the current is too high. the electrode
possibility of the electrode sticking to melt~ too fnst and the weld pool is hu·gc,
the workpiece. irregular. and hard to conrrol. Excessive
The arc length required depends on spauer may also occur. When the weld-
the size of e lectrode used and the ing current is too low. there is not
welding ta;.k. Small-diameter elec- enough heat to melt the base metal and
trodes require a ~honer arc length than the weld pool will be too small. The re-
large-diameter electrodes. For beuer sult is poor fw.. ton. beads that pile up
conrrol of the weld pool. the arc length on the b:t~ metal and are irregular in
should typically be approximately the shape. and the electrode can stick to the
diameter of the electrode. For example. metal. Too low a current setting also
an electrode 1/s"' in diameter should causes the arc to continually break.
have an arc length of about 1/s". A
shorter arc length b typically used for
Travel Speed
horimntnl. vcnicnl. and overhead weld- If the tmvel ~peed is too fast. the weld
ing because it gives beuer control of pool docs nor 1~1 long enough and im-
the weld pool. purities are locked in the weld. The re-
Mttinwin a travel sulting bead is narrow, with pointed
SJH!t''' tllot is )llJ'tfast The proper arc lengt h also prevents
~liuu~lr to produce
ripples. If the r.mvcl speed is too slow. the
impu rities from enteri ng a weld. A cor-
t•wwlySfN.U·edripples. meta l piles up excessively on the base
rect weld bead has the proper height
metal and the bead is high and wide, with
and width and uniform ly spaced
straight ripple<. The correct tr.1vel speed
ripples . A long arc length allows the
produces a \tnooth weld bead with
atmosphere to now into the weld area,
evenly spaced ripples. See Figure I 1-3.
permiuing impurities of nitrides and
oxide.~ to form. Additionally. when the Bead Characteristics
arc length is too long. heat from the Figure 11 -3
arc stream is dissipated too rapidly,
cau,;ing considemble metal spatter. Sec
Figure 11 -2. If the arc length is too
short. the bead will have a narrow
width and exces~ive height.
fo'IAurt 11·2. Ctlfft'<'l vrc lmgth
I.\ ,t'tt'Hm'l· fur fiWfH'r Mad for- Arc length Effects
Ftgure 11 -2
"'"''""
CORRECT
~
weld. the angle of the arc should be The deplh of pen-
The electrode angle affects the weld erration should be
lowered and the arc directed more
bead shape. particularly io fillet and
toward the vertical plate. Work angle
- o11e-1hird 1n o11e-ha/f
Jbe Jo/a/Jiric!Jres.v of
deep groove welds. The electrode rlre we/(/ becul.
is especially important in multiple-pass
ang lc is detennined by the travel angle
and the work angle. Travel angle is an fillet welds. See Figure 11 -4.
angle less than 90° between the elee-
trode axis and a line perpendicular ro CRATER FORMATION
the weld axis and in a plane detennined
by the e lectrode axis and the weld axis. As tbe arc comes in contact with the
The travel angle i~ <llong the weld <~xis base metal, a, crater is formed. A ,.,-a-
and. varies from 5" to 30° from the ver- ter is a depression (pool or pocket) in
tical. depending on welder preference lhe molten base metal made by the arc.
and conditions. Work angle is an angle The size and! depth of a crater deter-
less than 90° in a line perpendicular to mine the amount of penetration. In
the workpiece and in a plane detenuined general, the depth of penetration should
by \he electrode axis and the weld axis. be one-third to one-half the total thick-
For example, the work angle nom1ally ness of the bead. depending on the size
is 90° when making a groove weld in of the e lectrode. See Figure 11-5.
flal position. To obtain a sound weld, the metal
i-
Ordinari ly. a slight <UJgle of the elec- deposited from the electrode must fuse Be sure tire mnlt/!11
mel(l/ fmm tire el«-
trade in either direction from the work completely with the base metal. Fusion JmdejiL'ii!Sl'OiryJietdy
angle does not affect weld appearance results onl y when the base metal has wilh tire lx1se mew/.
or qua lity. However, when undercuts been heated to a molten stare and the
WORK ANGLE
LESS THAN
90" FROM
HORIZONTAL
l U ~ Welding Skills
Completely remove flux from the Figure 11 -8. lll-ldm~ • 11h ""' low
Overlapping curr~nt u.ndts m JHWr pt-nttro·
crater before restarting the arc or Figure 11·8 1;011 011d C'OU.S~S m·~r/Of'ping,
di scontinui6es may re~ull with possible
porosi ty or slag inclusions.
Und ercutting a nd O verhli>ping. Uu-
derculliug 'is c reating a groove in the
base metal that is not co•nplctely ti Ued
by weld metal during the welding pro-
cess. Undercutting is the re.~ult of weld-
PENETRATION
ing with excessive current. Excessive
current leaves a groove in the base metal CORRECT
along both sides of the bead. which
greatly reduces the strength of a weld.
Sec Figure t l-7. Underculling may also
occur when there is insufficient depo-
sition of metal on a vertical plate. Un-
dercuning can be corrected by slightly
changing the electrode angle.
INCORRECT
UndercuHing
Figure 11 -7
Arc Blow
UNDERCUT
AI'(' blow is a deflection of the weldi ng
arc by magnetic forces that occur due
to electron now. When DC current is
used , it produces a magneti c field
around the electrode. The uneven
movement or the current causes the arc
EXCESSIVE CURRENT to dell cct from the weld area. Extreme
hea t can a lso cause arc blow.
Arc blow is a common problem
when welding with DC current. Cur-
rent in a DC welding machine flows in
UNDERCUT
one direction, which produces a strong
magnetism in the metal being welded.
BEAD
This magnet ism causes the arc to de-
flect from the weld area. Arc blow also
breaks the continu ity of the deposi ted
metal, making it necessary to refi ll the
INSUFFICIENT DEPOSITION crater. The process of refi ll ing the cra-
Avoid wult'rculling
ter slows down the welding and often a11tfm·~rlupf>illg o{1/r~
Fi~ure 11·7. UnducunitJR is ,-out~tl h~ ~xcusil-·t! leaves weak spots in the weld. Usi ng u·~kfpmtiJy 1<ri11.~ tile
rurrt'nl amllor i~r.sufficitnl mttul tlf'fJQJiticm. the proper current setting corrects or correct rurulll am/
t'/t'C'/rOdt WIJd<'.
prevents arc blow.
Overlapping is extending the weld Arc blow typically occurs in steel
metal beyond the weld toes. Overlap- and meta ls that contain iron, but may
ping occur s when the c urrent is set be encountere d in other metals as well.
too low. In this instance. the mo lten It is also mo•·e common in corners and
meta l is depos ited without actually near the ends of the workpiece when
fusing into the base metal, creating a the work lead is connected on only one
poor quality weld. See Figure 11 -8. side of the metal.
SMAW - De[W.<itiug a C<mtimwus Bead ~ 127
Arc blow usually occurs forward or workpiece connection to the end of the
Prt~·em arc blow
backward along the joint but may oc- workpiece. rather than one side. Addi-
tlw·ing W(•/diug IJy
usinJ.: AC rather casionally occur to the sides. See Fig- tional measures that may be taken to
thllil DC "" jnbs urell-9. prevent i\tc blow include the following:
where tire blow may Arc blow may result when welding welding away from the workpiece
be a pmblem.
toward the workpiece con nection near con nection
the end of a joint or in a corner. Arc reducing the welding currem
blow can also occur anywhere near an • using the backstep welding teclmiquc
end or a corner, and can continue to the • using the shortest possib le arc to
end of the joint. As the weld pool nears overcome the magnetic tield
the end of a workpiece. it becomes
more packed and arc blow i ncreases.
Arc blow resu lts in incomplete fu-
sion and excessive spatter. If arc blow 6 All electrical ctmductOrs ('rtatc a magnetic
is severe enough, a satisfactory weld ji{!ld when curl'eut ls flowing. whit'll can
interfen, wilh weltling by creating arc.: blnw.
cannot be made. The easiest method AC currem is nnt affected by arc blow be·
to reduce or prevent arc blow is to use cause tht- currelll is CQitstamly changing
AC rather than DC on jobs where arc tlirectio11. The n:versals hr cr-rrem in an
AC circuit cmnllemct the effects of the
blow may be a problem. Arc blow can mognrtic force on 1he ba~le metal.
also be prevented by clamping the
WORKPIECE
CONNECTION
0
MAGNETIC
FIELD
+
FORCE
ON ARC
WORKPIECE
CONNECTION
[ilil•ll~if>j(•J·~~~~~~~~]@j-
I. What factors allow for a quality weld with the proper penetration?
2. Wbat factors must be considered when selecting an electrode?
3. How is a crater affected when the arc length is too long? What happens when the arc length
is too short?
4. When the arc length is too long, what happe ns to the metal as it melts from the electrode?
5. How is it possible to identify a weld that has: been made wi th too long an arc length?
6 . What is likely to happen to the electrode when the arc le ngth is too short?
7. What are some c haracteristics of a weld made with too sho1t an arc length?
8. What are some factors that must be considered when deterrnin ing arc length?
9. l n what way does the amount of current affect a weld?
I0. What determines the travel speed at whic h a n electrode should be moved?
I I . What is a crater?
12. What should be the depth of penetration?
13. What shou ld be done when the crater gets too hot and the metal has a tendency to run over
the surface?
L4. How shou ld an electrode be restarted to fill a crater left from a previously deposited weld?
15 . What causes undercutting? How can undercutting be prevented'?
16. List six ways to prevent arc blow.
17. How shou ld slag f rom a weld be removed from a workpiece?
Root Pass
A root pass is the initial weld pass that
provides complete penetration through
the thickne,~s of the joint member. The
root pass (bead) is the first weld pass
made and is deposited in the bottom Intermediate Weld Pass
of the root. The root bead is made by An intermediate weld pass is a s ingle
moving a small-diameter elec trode progress ion of welding subsequent to
straight down into the groove without the roo t pass and before the cover
any weav ing mOlion. The purpose of pass. Intermediate weld pass replaces Whnr dcpn.flting 11
the root bead is to join the two term inology for both the hot pass and roo/ beat/. odl'(mce
workpieces and lill the root opening. the filler pass. The fi rst intermediate a small- diameter
The root bead serves as the base e/ecuvtle along 1/te
weld pass may be used after the root g roove with no
for subsequent passes, and it must pro- pass to couect undercut o r overlap. weaving motion.
d uce comp lete penetration. Complete The first intermediate weld pass uses
133
a high current setting and a fast travel adjusted so that the heat is concentrated
An imenneditue u:elll speed to blow out any .-emaining slag on the thicker metal. See Figure 12-2.
/)ass may be used to
1·emo"·r slt1g inclu- or inclusions and to create a quality Joints commonly welded in tlat position
sions or other tkfects weld surface for addi lional passes. The include lap. T, butt, and comer joims.
from lire ro01 betui. first intermediate weld pass deposits a
WO~v~
small amount of filler meta) and, when
completed. should form a concave HEAT .OIRECTEO
bead. The first intem1ediate weld pass ~ TOWARD
, THICKER PLATE
must be thoroughly cleaned before de- ~ w
positing additional weld passes. ..1
Additional imem1ediate weld passel\
may be needed to fill the groove.
depending on the thickness of the metal.
..lgu.rc 12·2. When wt'ltlitJg bast' mcwf.,• tif cliffertmt
When depositing intermediate weld thidm'.S:Sf~·. direct mtJr~ lte~~t Ill tilt! lhit:kt•r mt•llll.
passes, a sl ight weaving motion is
generally used to ensure proper fusion Lap Joints
with the previously deposited beads and The lap joint is one of th.e most fre-
the sides of the groove joint. When quently used joints in flat position
multiple passes are used, the beads welding. It is a relatively simple joint.
should slightly overlap to ensure a since no beveling or machining is nec-
smooth surface. Each pass must be essary. Surfaces to be welded must be
thoroughly cleaned of slag before clean and evenly aligned. A lap joint
additional passes are made. lntcnncdiatc consists of lapping one workpiece over
weld passes must completely bond to another and joining. The amount the
th e previous passes, but should not workpieces should overlap depends on
~ Uu a o~lightwetnring
motion when depoJ;~
penetrate 100 deeply to prevent remelting the tJ1ickness of the meta I and the
~- iting intcnm•tliote
wtld passe.s.
previous passes and weakening the weld. strength required. A fillet weld is used
to join the two workpieces. Usually the
Cover Pass thicker the metal, the greater the
A cover pass is the final weld pass amount of overlap needed. When the
deposited. The cover pass prov ides structure is subjected to heavy bending
additional reinforcement to a multiple stresses, it is best to deposit welds on
pass weld and provides a good ap- both sides of the joint. See Figure 12-3.
pearance. The cover pass shou ld not
extend beyond the fabrication code Lap Joints
criteria or, if not given, more than Yts" Figure 12-3
above the base metal surface. A weav-
ing motion is used on llhe cover pass
to obtain the necessary weld width ELECTRODE
when covering the filler passes.
,,.. OR OVER
1
G) BASE METAL
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
BUTT JOINTS
FIRETUBE BOILER SHELL
® SURFACE WELD APPLIED
Fitturt 12...8. Bull joims urt oJ)tfl IHt!d j(Jr 'itnt~tures
SIUit (1\boiftr.{.
Corner Joints
An outside corner joint may be used
®MACHINED TO SPECIFICATIONS
when constructing rectangular objects
such as tanks , metal furni ture, a nd
other machine section:s where the out- Surfacing is performed by deposit-
side corner must have a smooth radius. ing successive weld beads. Additional
A single pass is usually sufficient for tiller metal can be added by weaving.
welding corner joints. Weaving is a welding technique in which
the energy source is moved tr.mwersely
( ) A worn pari is ground tlo'"''' or maclriued as it progresses along the weld joint.
111 allow for rwo layery of.lllrfocillgto be Weaving increases the bead width.
det>osired 011 the fJa/"1. TIIC' fir.<t faye•· of Three weave patterns commonly used
dt•posited uwwlteJU/s to becomt' tliluted
tmd loses some of it.~ 111i1Jyi11g pmpenies arc the c rescent, figure eight, and ro-
w!Je11mi.<ed with tire btr.re mew/. Addi- tary motion , depending on the position
tiollal layers of sur[ad11g prm•ide tile and joint. See Figure 12-l 0. Weaving
required wear profN11ies while ltlllillraininJ:
tire part thick11ess. is also used to provide a smooth weld
fmisb on multiple pass weld~.
SMA IV - Ffttl f>mllion :@o 137
F i ~u re 1 2~ 10.
u·l'llvl' JHIIU:m.~.
Tltrt•t ('Qimmm
nrsccmt. figure
Weave Patterns SMAW FLAT POSffiON PROBLEMS
eight. lmd nmtry, (lTV IIS('d to in Figure 12·10
('rcastt the ln(/th tmd t•fJium~ of
When welding in tlal position, gravity
tlu 1\'t-lcl ht'ml helps direct the flow of molten weld
metal. Welding is normally best per-
formed in fla t posi tion, but many
welding tasks require other positions.
Problems that occur during weld ing
can result in joint weakness and/or fail-
CRESCENT ure. Conunon SMAW flat position prob-
lems can be remedied by analyzing the
specific problem and determining the
cause.
Some of the problems that may be
encountered when using SMAW in
flat position include instability of the
arc, poor penetration, a loud crackling
FIGURE EIGHT
noise when welding, difficulty strik-
ing an arc, weakness of the weld, and
arcing at the workpiece connection. See
Figure 12- l l.
Remc>t~)' welding prol,.
Problems that occur dur ing SMAW
ltwtrquick/ywhenper.. are often the result of improper set·
f()rmillg SMA IV i11 jim tings on the weldi ng machine. Adjust·
position tn prevr.mt
iog the c urre nt, chang ing polar ity, or
wenlme-S.J' orfailure of ROTARY
lht! we/(/, correcting a poor ground shou ld solve
the problem .
'
- - --
... ITO
• f-
0 _,:;:·~.7~-:
•
__ , • '
-:: •;
·~ -: . .:::\·!.".-~~·~..!:;..:.:..i. '•( ·-: -~
Unstable arc. Arc goes out,
•
Arc loolong
' Shorten arc
spatters over work
Loud crackling from arc. Too much currenl for electrode. Decrease wrrent
Flux melts too rapidly. Wiele May be moisture in electrode
bead, spatter in large drops cover
Weak weld. Arc hard to Dirty work Clean work. Remove slag
start. Arc keeps breaking from previous weld
fi ~ure 12·ll. J\ •••eftl~r :~lloultl be a/en ro any signs ofa problem tlurilrg welding. sut.·l• llS instobiliry of the
rtl'(" (~,. pm>r Jlt'llt:lrlllion, tmtl remedy tile :ritulllimt quit·kl)•.
~
WO R K
arc for a slightly longer ANGLE
time on the bottom
workpiece . <45'~ 1 ----.45~ INCORRECT
SECOND PASS
%
~ ~~
FIREBRICK
TRAVEL ANGLE
2. Form a comer join t with the pieces at a 90° angle and tack together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position .
4 . Hold the electrode at a work angle of 45° and a trave l angle of 30°. Deposit a bead
along the outside of the jo int.
5. For most corner joints, one bead is sufficie nt. Thick metals may require additional
passes to fill the corner.
7
1i~-7
45' '''"
...--- TRAVEL
WORK
~"
CO RRECT
FORM
1. Obtain a piece of '14" mild steel. 4" wide and 6" long.
ST RA IGHT
2. Draw a series of straight lines on the plate. BEA D
On many j obs. welding cannot be performed in flat position. Occasionally. the welding ope ration must
be don e while the work is in horizontal position. Welds performed in horizontal position must ha ve a
uniform. consistent bead. A fi ll-free ze or fast-freeze electrode should be used.
-
Figure 13- 2. Using a short tire
length m i"i m i ;:l'.\" the tendency of
the weld p ool to sag and ,'a u.lt'
o verlapping. Sagging weld pools
usuatty leave {/II u nde rcu t arra
01 1 the top side of the seam.
UNDERCUT
OVERLAP
Figure 13-1. 11/ horizontal weld ing, the weld joillf is CORRECT INCORRECT
\
in horizontal position.
147
Welding Procedure A till- freeze or fast-freeze etectrode
When welding in
horizontal position,
sho uld he used for hori zontal we ld-
When welding a butt joint in hori zon-
hold the electrode at ing. As the elec trode is mo ved in and
a work angle of 5° to
tal pos itio n, hold the e lec tro de at a
out of the crater, pau se slig htly ea ch
10 ° and a tra vel work ang le of 50 to 100 and a tra vel
lingle of 20°,
tim e it is returned to the crater. Thi s
ang le of 20 0 • See Fig ure 13-3.
keeps the crater small and the bead IS
less likely to sag .
Ftg u re D -3, Wilen weldin g in _ . _ ~ • • •: •
ho rl:.tmltll position. I/Oid the elec- _
trode at tI wort: anKh' of 5° to /0 0
III1tI a tra vel angle of 20 °.
WORK I. 7 1
ANGLE ~
.L-~ -\ I
~5' T0 1 0'
~r
\
\ DIRECTION
OF WELDING
~,
/
20 ' \ - /
TRAVEL . /
ANGLE J
top of the bead , slig htly tilt the elec- eter of the electrode. Sufficient penetration
into each adjacent pass is necessary for
trode upward to increa se the up wa rd complete fusion of the weld.
a ngle.
1. When welding in hor izon tal pos itio n, use a lower welding curre nt and shorter arc length
tha n when welding in flat position .
2 . Do not allow the molten weld poo l to sag, which ca n result in overlaps and undercut s.
3. When welding in horizontal posi tion, hold the electrode at a work angle of 50 to 100 and
a travel angle of 20 0 •
4 . Use a slight weav ing motion whe n we lding in horizont al posit ion .
-
-
PASS 2
PASS a
WORK
I , Obtain two pieces of V." mild steel. ANGLE
Whell welding ill vertical position, gravity tends to pull down the molten metal f rom the weld pool. To
p revent this fro m happenin g, fas t-freeze or jill-freeze elec trodes should be used. Weld pool con trol call
also be ach ieved with prop er electrode manipulation. vertical weldin g is done by depo siting beads using
one of two methods, down hill welding or uphill welding.
153
Figure 14-2. Mai ntai n a tra vel
an gle of /0 0 to 15 ° f o r uphill
we ld ing.
WEAVING
MOTION S
t
UPHILL WELDING
Figure 14·3. A fi gure eight, rotary, or crescent weal'-
ing motion is used with uphill welding 10 control the
Uphill Welding with a Whipping width of the weld bead.
Motion
The welder should pause at the toes
Uphill welding commonly uses fast-
of the weld. Pausing at the toes allows
freeze electrodes with a whipping mo-
for complete fusion of the weld metal
tion . Whippin g is a manual welding
into the joint. The electrode should be
technique in which the arc is moved
moved quickly across the center of the
quick ly backward and forward as it
weld to prevent excessive heat buildup.
progresses along the weld joi nt.
When whipping the electrode , do
not break the arc, but simply pivot it
E-7018 ELECTRODE WELDING
with a wrist movement so that the arc
TECHNIQUE
is moved up ahead o f the weld long
eno ugh for the weld pool in the crater Although vert ical welding tech niques
to solidify.
are generally applicable to all types of
electrodes, a slight modification in
Uphill Welding with a Weaving pro cedure is ad visabl e when usin g
Motion E-70 18 electrodes.
Weld joint width varie s depending on In downh ill welding, drag the elec-
the metal thickne ss and edge prepara- trode lightly, using a short arc . Do not
0" grooved joints.
deposit the mOl pass tion. The weld bead width must be ad- use a long arc since the weld depend s
deep into the roo t j usted to co mplete ly fill the required on the molten slag for shie ld ing. A
opening. single, narrow bead or small weave is
joint width. The width of the weld bead
can be controlled using a weaving mo- preferred to wide weav e pas ses . Use
tion , such as the fig ure eight, rotary lower curren t when weld ing with DC
motion, or crescent. Each weaving mo- than with AC. Point the electrode di-
tion produces a bead approximate ly rectly into the joint and tip it forward
twice the diameter of the electrode . a few degrees in the direction of travel.
Wh en using lo w- hyd ro ge n elec- With uphill welding, a triangular
trodes a nd a weavin g motion, the weaving motion often produces bet-
width of the weave pattern should not ter results. Do not use a whippin g
exceed 2'/2 time s the diameter of the motion or take the electrode out of the
electrode. molten weld pool. Point the electrode
The electrode is moved 10 allow directly into the joint and increase the
penetration at the bottom of the stroke, trave l angle slightly to permit the arc
and the upward motion momentarily force to assist in controlling the weld
remov es the heat until the weld meta l pool. Current should be set toward the
can solidify. See Figure 14-3. lower end of the recommended range.
154 ~ Weldinll Skills
I . When we ld ing light-gauge metal in vertica l positi on . downhill welding is used to co ntrol
pe ne tra tio n.
2. O n metal !j." thic k or more. uphill wel din g is co mmo nly used to o bta in the required
pe net ra tio n.
3 . On grooved joints. deposit the root pass deep into the root opening.
Ok Exercises
Depositing Beads in Vertical
Position (Downhill)
•• •••••••••••• •••
'
•
exe"iJrC_i"S.tAL...:---:,--J
O
!
the electrode slightly, with the crest at the top of the
crater.
". I
~ 15' T0 30'
t
the top of the workpiece .
7 . Do not break the arc while movin g the e lectro de
upward. Withdraw it j ust long enough to permit the DIRECTION
OF WELDING
deposited metal to solidify and form a shelf so ad-
ditional metal can be depo sited.
together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in vertical PASS 2
FILLER PASS
position.
4. Start at the bottom of the workpiece and deposit a
PASS 3
root pass. Remove slag completely. COVER PASS
I
Wllt'll welding ill over-
beads and incomplete penetration . .~ head position, keep the
and sparks from burning the skin. See
Keep the arc length as short as possible
Figure 15-2. Shirtsleeves should be .= un: length (IS sho rt (IS
when weldin g in overhead position to pos sible.
rolled down and buttoned .
prevent molten metal from falling out
of the weld pool. Beginning welders
should practice welding beads in over-
head position until a consistent bead can
be laid rep eatedl y. When practi cing
welding in ove rhead positi on, a posi-
tion er is co mmo nly used to sec ure
workpieces. The positioner allow s the
we lde r to se t th e wor kpiece to any
height or position. See Figure 15-1.
159
Overhead Welding Procedure Gri p the el ectrode holder so the
A travelangle of UjO
IJ
.ilE!!!E. to J50shou ld be used
•~ [oroverheadwelding.
Wh en we ld ing in overhead posilion •
use a fa st -freeze e lectrode . To start
we lding. hol d the electrode at a right
knuckles of the hand are up and the
palm is down. Thi s prevents particles
of molten meta l from being caug ht in
the palm of the glove and allows spatter
angle to the joint. Hold the electrode
to mil off the glove. The electrode holder
at a work ang le of 90 ° and a trave l
can be he ld in one hand; however.
angle of 10° to 15°. See Figure 15-3.
sometimes welding is easier if it is held
G rip the electrode
with both hand s. See Figure 15-4. To
ttolderso tileknuckles avoid hot meta l spatter. stand to the
(!(rfU'hand are upand side rather than directly underne ath the
the !Ut/III is down.
arc. The weight of the electrode lead can
be minimized by draping it over a shoul-
der if welding in a standing position. or
over a knee if in a sitting position.
ENDVIEW
Wilen we/ding in
overhrud position.
stand to the side to
avoi d injury f rom
hot me tal spatter:
--i~
"~
I
...,\-10' TO 15'
FRONT VIEW
der if welding in (/
standing position. A WARNING I
or 01'('1' (l knee if ill
a sitting position. Molten metal can fall from the weld when
welding in overhead position. Be sure sleeves
are rolled down and a protective garme nt with
a light-fitting collar is zipped or buttoned up
to the neck . Wear a headcap and hea vy-du ty
shoes, Figure 15-4. A welder may 11.1'£' both hands to hoM
the electrod e ~"" /l'1l welding in overhead position,
1. When welding in overhead position. keep the arc length as short as possible.
2. A travel ang le of 10° to 15° shou ld be used for overhead welding.
3. Grip the electrode holder so the knuck les of the hand are up and the palm is down .
4. When welding in overhead position stand to the side to avoid injury from hot metal spatter.
5. Drape the electrode lead over the shoulder if welding in a standing position. or over a
knee if in a sitting position .
Depositing Beads in
Overhead Position
••••••••••••••••••••••
eXerCiSe.
•
I. Obtain a piece of %" mild steel.
2 . Draw a series of guide lines on the workpiece, each
line approximately '/2" apart.
3. Position the workpiece so the guide lines are in over-
head position.
4. Set current as recommended for overhead welding.
Strike an arc and form a weld pool as in flat position
WEAVE BETWEEN
welding. Move the electrode along the weld joint, BEADS
keeping the arc as short as possible.
5. Deposit a series of straight beads with no weaving
motion . If necessary to prevent the weld pool from
dropping, reduce the current slightly.
6 . Practice depositing beads in one direction, then re-
verse and practice in the opposite direction.
WEAVING MOTIONS
7. Deposit beads using a weaving motion to fill in the
space between the beads.
Welding a Multiple-Pass
T-Joint in Overhead Position
•••••••••••••••••
exerC ise
•.
I. Obtain two pieces of V.' mild steel.
PASS 1
2 . Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 0 angle and tack
together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joi nt is in over-
head pos itio n.
4 . Deposit a root pass in the root of the jo int. Remove
slag com ple tely.
5 . Deposit an intermediate weld pass and a cover pass .
Remove slag completely between passes. Adjust the
work angle of the electrode for each pass to ensure
complete penetration.
I. Why is welding in over head positio n more difficult than welding in other positions?
2. What is the recommended travel angle for over head welding?
3. Why sho uld the electrode holder be grasped so that the palm is facing down?
4. What should he done to prevent the weld pool from dropping?
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) requires alternating current (AC) or dire ct current (DC). The choice
of AC or DC current depends on the metal and weld requirements. Direct current electrode negative
(DCEN) welding is commonly used for ferrous metals. AC high-frequency (ACHF) weldin g is com -
monly used for aluminum and nonferrous metals.
The GTAW process was developed in the late 1930s primarily for welding aluminum and magnesium in the
aircraft industry. A breakthrough in GIf\W occurred during World War II when ACHF was found to pro-
duce high-quality welds on aluminum . At one time, helium was used as a shielding gas, but was later
replaced by the less expensive argon.
163
GTAW CURRENT SELECTION Weld in g machine s s pe c if ic a ll y
A weldin g machine
tI
.e
•e::::::
originailydesignedfor
IH(' with SMA lV must
be dera ted to protect it
f rom thr effeCIJ of ;11-
Welding machines used for arc weld-
ing are classilied by the output charac -
teri stics of voltage and current. Some
designated for GTAW do not have to
be derated. Derating is a lowering of
the current output level of an AC weld -
temal Imuing tha t oc- in g machine when being used for
meta ls are joined more ea sily with AC,
curs durin g CTA W GTAW. I n form a t io n re gard ing the
whi le with other metals. beuer resu lts
Dam;ng is ( 11 /)' nee· weld ing processes a particu lar ma-
essory when using AC are obtai ned wit h DC. T he c ho ice of
GTAI¥. chine is rated for can be found on
using AC or DC current depends on the
metal to be welded. See Figure 16-2. the we lding mac hine nameplate or in
the prod uct literatu re.
Alternating Current AC we lding machines not specifi-
GTAW with AC current is used to we ld cally designed for GTAW mu st have
alum in um a nd magnesium alloys . A their output current le ve ls derated
clean ing action occurs with AC current when used for GTAW. A weld ing ma-
because o f a bombardment of positive chine ori ginally designed for use wi th
charged gas ions that are attracted to the SMAW mu st be derated to protect it
negati ve charged workpiece. Gas ion s. from th e effect s o f internal heating
as they strike the workpiece . break the that oc curs durin g GTAW. De rating
oxide film and dislodge it from the sur- is o n ly nece ssary when using AC
face. Ge nerally speaking. better results GTAW. Methods used to de -rate an
are obtai ned when using AC current to AC we lding machine are to lower the
weld aluminum and magnesi um. No ra ted output current . lower the duty
other metals require a cleaning action. cycle, or bo th.
Figure 16-2. 11,e choice of using A C (II' DC ClIrrellf depend s oil the metal to be welde d.
the workpiece tend to prevent the full Current selectlanjor GTAW is based Ofl the type of metal to be welded.
For example , what is the 100% derated duty cycle for a 200 A, 60% duty cycle welding machine used for
non-GTAW applications? Used for AC GTAW applications?
GTAW-Equipment @o 165
Figure 16-4 . In AC, half of the
complete A C cycle is electrode
negative and half is electrode posi-
tive . Alternating current, high -
. - .'
freque ncy (ACHF) combines the
beneficial qualities of DCEN
and lJ CE/~ + + + ONE
1-- - CO MPLET E CVC LE - -
</J
0..
f DCEN
"-c
0 0
TIME </J
• 0..
•
DC AC
+ PRIMARY CURRENT
WAVE FORM (60 Hz)
[
~O~~
"
~-~-~-~-~-~-( .. I
'"
I
HIGH FREOUENCY
WAVE FORM (16.000 Hz)
SUPER IMPOSED ON AC
ACHF
+
'V_
ACHF COMBINES
o
'6
o
j
°0 ,:.
CONCENTRATED HEAT
(DCEN) WITH CLEANING
ACTION (DCEP)
DEEP PENETRATION.
NORMAL WIDTH
[
L,ii-"~
", •
S':I*;t0Y ; ~ + ; ,. il
GTAW PROCESS WELD CHARACTERISTICS
c~
E L E CT RO N
GAS ION 1#rt-;
FLOW ~ \.:!:J o FLOW
+ G
G o HEAT CREATED
I ~ILEC TRON AT WORKPIECE
~LOW
DeEN
HEAT CREATED
ELECTRON AT ELECTRODE
o FLOW ~
WELDING
MACHINE
o~
E L ECT R O N
G o FLOW
+ GAS ION ~
FLOW
r,.,
'.:!:J
r ~,L ECTRON
G o
4 LOW
DeEP
OXIDE
LAYER
L..--'-....". . . .""""--~ +
DCEN PRODUCES DEEP PENETRATION
THROUGH CONCENTRATED HEAT DEEP PENETRATION-NARROW WELD
DCEN
+
OXIDE LAYER
BREAKS UP .
1
~.. ..;
DCEP
Torch
A GTAW torch is designed to hold the
tungsten electrode, direct the shield-
ing gas to the weld, and allow easy
positioning of the torch. Torches can
be either air-cooled or water-cooled.
Air-cooled torches are designed for
Miller Electric Man uf ncruring Comfilim
welding at low operator duty cycles
Figure 16-7. A cons tant-currellt welding machine
on light-gauge metals when low cur-
maint ains a nearly cons tant current flow during rent value s are used . Air-cooled
welding . torches are generally used for welding
up to 200 A.
Inverter welding machines have a A water -cooled torch uses a stream
faster reaction time than transformer! of water circulating around the torch
rectifier constant-current welding ma- to prevent overheating. A water c ir-
chines because there are no transform- culator on water-cooled torches pro -
ers or inductors in the inverter to slow vide s the flow of cooling water to and
reaction time. Constant-current weld - from the torch to maintain a safe torch
ing machines operate at 50 hertz (Hz) operating temperature . The water cir -
or 60 Hz, requiring one or two cycles culator consists of a tank, pump, feed
to react. supply line , and return line. The flow
rate of cooling water required de -
pends on the welding operation . Torch
GTAW EQUIPMENT manufacturers provide recommended
A water-cooled torch
is recommended when
To make a quality weld, the proper settings for s hie ld ing gas flow and using currents OFer
cool ing water flow . Water-cooled 200A. Ensure coo ling
GTAW equipment must be used. A
water is flowing be-
tungsten electrode directs the arc es - torches are recommended when weld- fore welding.
tabli shed between the welding ma- ing requires currents over 200 A.
chine and the workpiece. When Welding cables conduct welding
GTAW is properly performed, the current and direct the shielding ga s
tungsten electrode does not melt. The to the torch. The welding cable on a
workpiece at the arc melts , forming a water-cooled torch also tran sports
molten weld pool. cooling water.
Shielding gas, usually argon, pro- A control switch controls the flow
tects the weld area against contamina- of both cur rent and shielding ga s. A
tion from nitrogen and oxygen in the timer that maintains gas flow after the
atmosphere . The GTAW process can weld current is stopped (postflow) is
be used to weld with or without filler used to protect the weld area from at-
metal. Thick metals typically require mospheric contamination . Dependin g
that filler metal be added to fill the on the equipment, control of current
joint. Normally, filler metal is not re- and shielding ga s is controlled by
quired for thin metals; however, filler finger, hand , or foot. By gradually
metal may be added to thin metals d ecrea sing the c ur re nt , it is pos-
when joint reinforcement is required. sible to fill the crater and control heat
GTAW welding machines also include more effectively.
COO LING
WATER LINES
(FOR WATER·COO LED
TORCH)
FLOWMETE R
WELD ING
MACHINE
.> WORKPiECE
" LEAD
, WORKPiECE
" CONNECTION
REMOTE
FOOT CONTROL
The tungsten electrod e that supplies Gas nozzle s var y in size and are
the welding current is held rigidly in interchan geabl e to accom moda te a
th e to rch by me an s of a co lle t that variety of gas flow rates. The required
screws into the torch. The collet is con- size (orifice diameter) depends on the
tained within a collet body that screws type and size of the torch and the diam-
r= I
.~
GOo' nozzles tha t are
too small fo r the
into the torch body. A variety of collet eter of the electrode. See Figure 16-10.
Some gas nozzles are equipped with
sizes arc available so different diameter
.= welding tusk may
a gas lens to eliminate turbulence in the
overheat. c rack. o r e lectrodes can be used . The diameter
deteriorate rapidly. of the tun gsten e lectrode used deter- gas stream. which tends to pull in air and
mine s the size of the collet and collet cause weld contamination. Gas lenses
body required . A gas nozzle is screwed hav e a perm eable barrier of concentric
into th e torch head or snapped into fine-mesh stainless steel screens that fit
place. A properly sized gas no zzle into the gas nozzle. See Figure 16-11.
should be used to ensure the correct
shielding gas stream. The gas nozzle o Tungsten electrode lengths are determined
by the welding application and the type of
directs the shielding gas to the weld torch used. Standa rd tungste n electrode
zone. See Figure 16-9. length s are 3 ~ 6': 7': /2 ': /8 "', and 24'~
TORC H BODY
SHIELDING GAS
TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE
GAS NOZZ LE
AIR-COOLED
GAS NOZZLE
WATER-COOLED
Figure 16-9 . All air-cooled torch is used for weld ing liX/It-gauge metal s. A wate r-coated torch prevents overheating when welding req uires
current above 200 A.
TAIL~
NO GAS
LENS
COLLET BODY
TURBULENT INSIDE GAS
SHIELDING NOZZLE
GA S STREAM ~
WITHOUT LENS
GAS LENS
IN NOZZLE
DIRECTED
SHIELDING
GAS STREAM--------...
WITH LENS
Figure 16-12. III G TAly' a f// lIg- Tungs te n e lec tro de d iame ters are
electrode is use d to provide
.\ I C'' '
the arc for welding: it is 1/ot con-
sized by decimal (.0 10". .020", .040")
sumed ill the weld. or by fract ion ( '116". 3132", 'Is ", and
5/ 32) . The di ameter of the elec trode
selec te d for a weldin g operat io n is
determined by the required welding
c u rre nt. S ma ll- d ia me te r tun g st en
electrodes may be used with low cur-
rent. Lar ge- d iamete r tu ngsten e lec -
trodes are req uire d whe n using high
current. See Appe ndix.
Electrodes can be composed of pure
tun gsten or alloyed tungsten . Pure
tungsten electrodes are the least expen-
sive and are identi fied with a gree n
marking. Pure tungsten e lect rodes are
commonly used to weld aluminum and
magne sium and are designed for use
with AC curr ent.
172 ~ Weld ing Skills
Alloyed tun gsten electrodes usually opposite to the end with the color mark-
n it! diameter of the
contain I% or 2% thorium or zirconium
and are co mmonly used o n mild stee l
and stainless stee l. One perc ent tho ria
tungs ten elect rodes are identified with
ing to allow for future identification of
the electrode . The electrode must also
be kept straight to prevent the gas now
from bein g off-ce nter from the arc.
tI
_§
.=
electrode selected
fora welding opera-
tion is det ermined by
the required welding
current.
a ye llow marking. Two percent thori a Stickout. Sti ck out for GTAW is th e
tungsten ele ctrodes are identified with len gth of tun gsten e lectrode th at ex -
a red marking. Thori ated tungsten elec- tend s beyond th e e nd o f the g as
trod es can g ive o ff hazardous fume s. nozzle. The tun gsten electrode stickout
Always ensure proper vent ilation dur- must be properly adjusted when weld- Before starting 10
ing welding . ing with GTAW and is determined by weld, ensure thut the
Thoriated tungsten electrodes conduct the type of weld joint and the position tungsten eh>('tltklelUIS
higher currents, provide a more stable the prop er stickout
of welding. Typi cally the tung sten beyond the end ojthr
arc than a pure tungsten electrode, keep electrode should extend \18" to 3/16 ' be- gas nozzle.
the tip cooler at a give n current le vel , yo nd the end of th e gas no zzl e for
minimi ze movement o f the arc around
groo ve weld s on butt joints and 1// ' to
the electrode tip, permit easier arc start-
0/8" for fillet welds. Current must be shut
ing, and prevent contamination of the
OFF when adjusting electrode stickout.
elec trode through acc ide ntal contact
with the workpiece. Thoriated tungsten
Shielding Gas
elec tro des are d esi gn ed for use with
DCE N. The primary con sideration in any weld-
A 2 % thoria elec trode is used pri - ing operation is to produ ce a weld that
marily for critical sheet metal weldments has the same properties as the base
in the aircraft and aero space indu stries. metal. Such a weld can only be made if
Although 2% thoria electrodes normally the molten weld pool is completely pro-
maintain a formed point longer than tected from the atmosphere during the
the I % type , they have little advantage welding process. Shielding gas prevents
ove r the 1% thoria elec trode for most nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere
stee l we lds. from entering and co ntam inating th e
Electrode Shape, To produce a qual - weld pool. This res ults in we lds that The type and amo/lnl
ity we ld , th e tun gsten e lectrode is ar c stro nge r, more du ct ile, and more of shielding go.'i used
is determined hv
pre pa re d t o th e co rrec t s h a pe . A corros ion-resis tant than weld s made by current.rype ofweld.
poin te d -en d el ectrode is used with mo st o ther welding processes . S ince ba se metal, and
DCE N c urre nt and a he mispherical- the filler metal is not coated with nu x, welding conditions.
tip elec trode is used w ith AC current. tra ce s of flu x do not nced to be re -
See Figure 16- I3. The prepared end is movcd from the we ld.
b g~
POINTE D· END HEM ISPHE RICAL-TI P
DC AC
CTAW-Equipment ~ 173
Shielding gas is required before, dur- Figure 16-14. An inert gas is a gas that
A r,ROtI is the m ost does not read ily combine with other
ing, and after the welding uperation.
commonly used
shielding gas, and Before welding, shielding gas is directed elements. T he type and amo unt of
is regulated by a to the weld area to displace the air in the shielding gas used is determ ined by
jlowmeter. weld area. During welding, shielding gas current, type of weld , base metal, and
flow continues to protect the weld from welding condition s.
atmospheric contamination. After weld- Argon is the most commonly used
ing, a postflow timer controls the time shielding gas. Argon is heavier than air,
shielding gas flows after the arc is stopped which facilitates efficient coverage of
to protect the weld until it is no longer the weld area so less gas is required,
subject to contamination. which makes it more economical than
Shielding gases used for GTAW are helium . Argon gas is easier to control
inert gases such as argon or hel ium , in drafty conditions and it is eas ier to
or a mixture of argon and helium. See establish an arc at lower current setting.
Figure 16- 14. Arwm or a mixture of argon-helium may be used as shielding gases for CTAW
GTAW-Equipment ~ 175
I . A welding machine originally desi gned for use with SMAW must be derated to prote ct it
from the effects of internal heati ng that occurs during GTAW. Deratin g is only necessary
when using AC GTAW.
2. ACHF provides a combination of the penetrating qualities of DCEN and the cleaning action
of DCEP.
3. In the GTAW process, DCEN is used for weld ing most ferrou s metals because it produces
deep penetration into the metal.
4 . DCEP is rarely used in GTAW except in special aluminum and magnesium applications.
5 . A water-co oled tor ch is recommended when using currents over 200 A. Ensure coo ling
water is flowing before welding.
6 . Gas nozzle s that are too small for the welding task may overheat, crack, or deteriorate
rap idly.
7. The diame ter of the electrode selected for a welding operation is determined by the required
weld ing current.
8. Before starting to weld, ensure that the tungsten electrode has the proper stickout beyond
the end of the gas nozzle.
9 . The type and amount of shielding gas used is determined by current, type of weld , base
metal , and we lding conditions.
10. Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas, and is regulated by a flowmeter.
I I. If filler metal is to be used, it must be of the same composition as the base metal.
GTAW can be performed in all pos itions and produces a minimum of weld "flatter. Weld "flatter is greatly
reduced or eliminated because no metal passes through the arc. Since GTAW produces a smooth weld
surface and little or no metal fini shing is required, there can be a sav ings in production cost. In addition,
there is less distortion (if the metal near the weld. However. production cost savings may be offset by lo w
productivity and training fo r the additional skills necessary to perform GTAW.
177
agent s a s with SMAW to eliminate Grinding wheels designed for specific
contami nants. Ideal j oint preparation met al types sho uld be used to e nsure
is obtained using c utt ing tools suc h proper me tal preparation prior to weld-
a s a lathe for round o r cylindrica l ing . Micro-sized abrasive particles can
joints or a mi llin g machine for longi- permeate soft metals such as alum inum,
tudinal preparation s . Probl ems that and unless rem oved, result in excessive
a rise during GTAW are th e re sult of porosity. Grinding wheels must be thor-
using improper jo int pr ep aration oughly cl eaned before each use . Joint
methods. Man y of the se problems are de sign s used with GTAW include the
the direct result of improper grind ing butt joint, lap joint, T-joint, comer joint,
of th e metal. and edge joint. See Figure 17-1.
. o
Fteure 17-1. Joint de siens used
wilh GTAW include the but t joint,
. '_ • . _. _
lap joint, Tzjoint, comer joint, and
edge j O;II1.
Square
\ 60')
Open
LJ
ROOT FAC E
l;8'" TO W'
Single-V
Double-V _I
BUTT T
APPROX W'
BEVEL EDGE S ON
M ETAL OV ER y.N
Beveled
LAP CORNER
T-JOINT EDGE
I I
ELECTRODE STICKOUT
EXTENSION
Ftaure 17-3. Adjust the electrode extension 10 ensure the prof'a stickout [o r the particular j oint being welded.
- - -.
electrode is lowered until it touches the plate. maint ainin g a 150 push angle be-
tween the filler metal and the sur-
face of the work.
2. Remo ve the filler metal from the
weld area.
3 . Advance the torch to the leading
edge of the weld pool.
Repeat this sequence for the entire
length of the seam .
~
A D D FI LL E R
METAL
ther torch rotat ion is necessary. Move
the torch along the joi nt with the end
I,, TORCH AT
of the filler metal ju st above the edge
~ REAROF of the top workpiece .
WELD
POOL
When welding a lap j oint, the weld
pool forms a V shape . Inside the weld
CD ADD FILLER METAL
pool a notch is formed. The speed at
which this notch progresses determines
how fast the torch should be moved.
Do not adva nce the torch ahead of the
notch . The notch must be completely
filled for the entire length of the joint;
® REMOVE FILLER METAL
otherwise, incomplete fusion and pen-
etration of the weld results. See Figure
17-6. Dip the end of the filler metal in
and out of the weld pool abo ut every
114" of tr ave l. Avoid depositing filler
metal on co ld, unm olten base met al.
ADVANCE TORC H TO LEADING EDGE OF
® WELD POOL Addi ng a co nsiste nt amo unt of filler
meta l ensures that a uniform bead is
pro duced .
Figure 17-6. Ad vance the torch
so that the notch ill tilt' wel d head
continues 10 fo rm ah ead of the
torch.
. . . '-
--- DIRECTI ON
OF WELDING
CD NOTCH FORMED AHEAD OFTORCH
DIP FILLER
METALINTO
L
WELD POOL
FILLER
METAL
--- DIRECTION
OF WELDING At .~
TORCH
I
30 '
UPHILL
Figure 17-7. Dip the filler metal into the high side at
the front of the weld pool when welding a horizontal
butt joint. Overhead Welding Procedure
When welding with GTAW in over-
While the filler metal is dipped into head position, the current should be re-
the weld pool, withdraw the torch slightly duced 5% to 10% from what is normally
to allow the molten metal to solidify, nsed for flat position. A reduced current
which prevents the weld pool from sag- provides better control of the weld pool.
ging . Arc length should be approxi- Both the torch and filler metal should
mately the same size as the filler metal be held similar to nat position welding.
diameter. A work angle of 15° and a travel angle
of 15° to 20° should be maintained.
See Figure 17-9.
Vertical Welding Procedure
Figure 17-9. The tra vel a ng le
and work an gl e of the to rch in
Vertical GTAW on thin metal is usually o verhead posit ion is similar to
performed downhill to achieve an ad- f la t position.
equate weld without melt-through.
When filler metal is used, it should be
added from the bottom, or leading, edge
of the weld pool. On thick metals, up-
hill welding is preferred since deeper
penetration can be achieved. Uphill When using GTAW in
welding generally requires filler metal. ~ 15' V
overh ead position .
reduce thecurrent5%
The proper work angle and travel angle
must be maintained for both downhill ~WORK to J0% from what is
used for flat position.
FILLER ANGLE
and uphill welding. See Figure 17-8. METAL
~ Exe rc ises
Depositing Beads on Mild Steel
in Flat Position
•••••••••••••••••
exercise
•
.
DIRECTION
OF WELDING
~
PUSH ANGLE
7. Once the arc is started, establish a weld pool and raise the torch to a 90° work angle
and a 20° push angle . Using an in-and-out motion, dip the filler metal into the leading
edge of the weld pool. Do not touch the filler metal to the tungsten electrode.
8 . Use a small circular motion with the torch. Form a consiste nt bead, approximately 0/16"
wide, and deposit the bead across the workpiece, using the weld joint as the center of
the weld .
9 . The resulting weld should have complete penetration with a 0/,6" bead width .
L~=r==
3. Form a lap join t and tack together.
4. Po sition the workpiece so th e weld joint is in
hori zontal po sition.
WORK ANGLE
5 . Obtain the recommended filler metal for mild steel.
6. Hold the torch at an 80 0 to 850 work angle and a JS"
to 20 0 push ang le. Position the filler metal at a 20 0
angle .
7. Melt the top edge of the workpiece and add filler
metal using an in-and-out motion to the leading edge 20'
•
PUSH ANGLE
,------------+-,nt '
5. Obta in the recommended filler metal for mild steel.
6 . Hold the torc h at a 45° work angle and a 15° push
angle. Position the filler metal at a 20° angle fro m
the bottom plate.
20'
7. Establish a weld pool. Weave the torch slightly and,
usi ng an in-a nd-out motio n, add filler meta l to the
leading edge of the weld pool. DIRECTION
OF WELDING
8 . Avo id excessive heat buil du p on the vertical
workpiece.
•
PUSH ANGLE
The GTAW welding technique for metals such as aluminum, stainless steel, copper, magnesium, and
carbon steel is virtually the some for each Ope of metal. In general, these metals can be welded with
GTAW more easily and with better results than by OAW or SMAW. Filler metal used fo r oxyacetylene
welding is not suitable fo r use with GTAW.
GTAW is commonly used for joining metals in the aerospace and aircraft industries. The low heat input
of GTAW permits welding on very thin metal with minimal distortion and/or alteration of base metal
properties. GTAW is also used when welding pressure vessels and critical piping systems, such as systems
in nuclear power plants, because of its weld penetration and purity.
191
GTAW-ALUMINUM
- - --
AC currentt Argon Flow* Filler
Metal Joint Electrode ' Metal
Thickness' Type Flat Horizontal Overhead Diameter Ipm cfh
& Vertical Diameter *
Butt 60- 80 60 - 80 60 - 80 ¥<> 7 15 - 20 ¥<>
V,6
Lap 70 - 90 55- 75 60- 80 ¥<> 7 15 -20 ¥<>
Corner 60- 80 60 - 80 60 - 80 ¥<> 7 15 -20 ¥<>
Fillet 70- 90 70 - 90 70 - 90 ¥<> 7 15 - 20 ¥<>
Butt 125 -145 115 -1 35 120 -1 40 Ii> 8 17-20 Ii>
Lap 120 - 130 125 - 145 120 - 130 Ii> 8 17 -20 Ii>
Ii> 17- 20
Corner 125 -145 115 -1 35 120 - 130 Ii> 8 Ii>
Fillet 120 - 130 115 -1 35 120 - 130 Ii> 8 17 - 20 Ii>
Butt 160 - 180 160 - 180 160 - 170 ¥<> 10 20 ¥<>
Lap 170 - 180 160 - 180 160 - 170 ¥<> 10 20 ¥<>
¥"
Corner 160 - 180 160 - 180 160 - 170 ¥<> 10 20 ¥<>
Fillet 170- 180 160 - 180 160 - 170 ¥<> 10 20 0/32
Butt 220 - 240 210 - 230 200- 220 :y" 12 25 :y"
Lap 230 - 250 210 - 230 200- 220 ¥" 12 25 ¥"
V.
Corner 23 0 - 250 210-230 200 - 220 ¥" 12 25 ¥"
Fillet 230 - 250 210 - 230 200 - 220 ¥" 12 25 ¥"
• in in.
t amps
I 20 psi (in ioehes per minute (ipm) or cubic !eel per hour (cfh)]
Figure Ill-I. Weldi" g parameters .{JIlI,,!d be Jet based on aluminum thickness.
Figu re 18-2. W('It/iIlK parameters should he set based (/11 ,I'/a ;l1/e,1"S steelthickness.
-GTAW-DEOXIDIZED COPPER
DCEN! Argon Flow* Filler
Metal Joint Electrode'
Thickness' Type Diameter Metal
Flat Posit ion Ipm cfh Diameter*
Figu re 18-3. Weld i" g parameters should be set based 0/1 coppa 1II1' ckl1e.I'.\'.
Butt
,~
-~._-~:"".-,.,
-~ ,~ .0
~r~r~, ""~~;"'~
100 - 120
",I
--
GTAW-COPPER ALLOYS
~ ~'>1Tf""~''''~~==
--::T1~_i0~~ liLli,. ~r~ r@tt~J'.
'"
90-110 90-110
• _.
J, ~.,})",
V,6 6 13
"''''~:·I*')-t
V 16
+ /'
V.
Lap 250- 300 - - V. 9 19 Ya,¥. 6
Corner 175 - 225 - - %2 9 19 Vs,¥.6
Fillet 175 -225 - - %2 9 19 %,¥.6
• in in .
t amps
1 20 psi lin Inches per minute (ipm) or cubic!eet per hour(cfhl]
Figure 18-t. Welding parameters should be set bas ed on copper a /ltl)' thickness .
ACHF. used with helium, argon, or a metal, there may be some pitting (po-
Filler me tal co n-
ta ining deosidi zers
mixtu re of shielding ga ses, can join rosity) in the we ld. Porosity can be
should be used metals from approximately .20" to V. ' e lim ina ted by li ghtly bru shin g th e
when welding with thick. Both DCEP and AC current pro- jo int with a mixture of aluminum pow-
GTAW to prev en t
vide excellent cleaning action of the der and methyl alcohol before weld -
porosity in the weld.
base metal surface . Using DCEN with ing . When fi ller metal is used , it
helium as a shielding ga s produces a should cont ain deoxidi zers to prevent
deep pe netrating arc but no surface porosit y.
Medium- and high-
cleaning . DC EN with helium is used Medium - and high-carbon steels are
carbonsteels require for mechanized butt welding of metal weldable, but preheat, special welding
prehea t G il d p o st- up to v." thick without beveling. Weld- tech niq ue s, and po stheating are reo
heat ing 10 avoid
ing parameters such as proper current, quired . Unle ss these prec autions are
10.'15 of toughness
and ductility. e lectrode di ameter, argon flow rate , taken, the welded area loses toughness
and backing requirements, should be and ductility.
set based on the thickness of the mag- GTAW is rarely used to weld high-
nesium. See Figur e 18-5. carbon steels because the welding tern-
perature requ ired with GTAW tends to
CARBON STEEL de stroy the mechanical properti es of
th e carbon stee l. Common practice
Carbon steel can be welded using a va- wh e n repairing broken parts mad e
riety of welding processes. GTAW can with high-carbon steels is to use a braz-
be used for welding low- and medium- ing process where the heat is not suffi-
carbon and low-a lloy stee ls whe n cient to affect metallurgical structure.
greater protection of the weld from at- Weld ing parameters suc h as proper
mospheric contam inat ion is required. current, electrode diameter, argon flow
GTAW is typically limited to metals rate, and backing requirements, should
less than '!4" thick. Wh en GTAW is be set based on the thickness of the
used on carbon stee ls wit ho ut filler carbon steel. See Figure 18-6.
194 @o Weldi ng Skill s
Butt V'6 ¥."
.040 Butt Y,6 ¥."
No backing
Fillet V,S ¥."
Butt V,6 ¥." Backing bar
.064 Butt , Corner 1116 ¥."
No backing
Fillet 1116 ¥."
Butt 1116
Y" Backing bar
Butt, Corne r,
.081 50 1;16 6 13 Y"
Edge No backing
Fillet 80 V 16 6 13 Y"
Butt 100 ¥." 9 19 V- Backing bar
Butt, Co rner, 70 9 19
.10 2 Y" V-
Edge No backing
Fillet 100 ¥." 9 19 V-
Butt 115 ¥." 9 19 V- Backing bar
.128 Butt, Co rner ,
85 ¥." 9 19 V-
Edge No backing
Fillet 115 ¥." 9 19 V-
Butt 120 V- 9 19 V- 1 pass
¥.. Butt 75 V- 9 19 2 passes
V-
Butt 130 V- 9 19 ¥.. 1 pass
V,
Butt 85 V- 9 19 Y.. 2 pas se s
• in in.
t amps (non-dera ted current levels)
t 15 psi lin inches per minute (ipm) or cubic feel per ho ur (cf h))
Flgure 18-6. Weld ing parameters should be set based (It! carbon steel thickne ss.
The gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process was first used in the early 1920s to increase weld purity and
production efficiency. During the early I950s, it was discovered that carbon dioxide could be used as a
shielding gas. This discovery, and the development of more versatile continuous consumable wire elec-
trodes (welding wire), increased the popularity of GMAW
GMAW equipment consists of a welding gun , wire feeder, and shielding gas. Oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen adversely affect the weld, consequently they must be excluded from the weld area during weld-
ing. Inert gases , such as argon and helium, do not react readily with other elements, making them useful
as shielding gases for arc welding. A GMAW weld can be applied by the semiautomatic, mechanized, or
automatic processes.
197
DC EN sho u ld no t be used for welding in flat position to prevent the
GMAW because we ld pe netration is weld pool from ru nn in g out of the
shallow and wide ; there is excessive weld area. See Appendix.
spatter; a nd no surface cleani ng oc -
curs. DCEN is also ineffective because
GMAW WELDING MACHINES
meta l transfer is erratic and globular.
See Figure 19- 1. AC current should Welding machines used for GMAW
not be used with GMAW since should supply DC current up to 250 A
burn -offs are une qua l on each hal f- to cover most welding tasks . During
c ycle. welding, heat is generated by the flow
Welding cu rrent has a grea t effect of curre nt acro ss the gap between the
on the weld deposited usi ng GMAW. end of the welding wire and the work-
The welding cur rent lim its the wire piece (arc length). The voltage across the
feed speed to a definite range. How - gap varies with the length of the arc. To
ever, it is poss ible to adjust the wire produce a uniform weld, the welding
feed speed within the range. For a spe- voltage and arc length must remain con-
cific current setting, a high wire feed stant. This can be accompli shed by (a)
speed results in a short arc. A low wire feeding welding wire into the weld zone
fee d spee d contributes to a lo ng arc. at the same rate at which it melts, or (b)
A lower feed speed must be used for melting welding wire at the same rate at
welding in overhead position than for which it is fed into the weld zone.
WELDING ~
WIRE
+
+ ~~ t----FINE SPRAY
d',i•...-----
d 6 66 b
TRANSFER
~6(l' tb
DeEP
WELDING
WIRE
ERRATIC GLOBULAR
TRANSFER
+ ~
i SPATTER SHALLOW
BEAD
DeEN
~ 20
25 t - - - ,,- - - - - - __ adjusts itself to maintain a constant arc
length. Similarly, if the arc becomes
if)
~ 15 VOLTAGE REMAINS
NEARLY CONSTANT too long, the current decreases and the
g 10
welding wire feeds faster.
5
100 200 Slope Control. Slope is the shape of
CURRENT (I) the volt-amp curve on a GMAW weld-
ing machine. By altering the flat shape
of the V/A current, it is possible to con-
trol the pinch force on the welding
wire, which is particularly important
when using short circuiting transfer.
With better control of the short circuit-
ing transfer mode, the weld pool can
be kept more fluid. Slope control also
helps to decrease the sudden current
Miller E[l'ct~i<." Manufi"."lUr;nR Compm l)'
surge that occurs when the electrode
Figure 19-2. A constant-voltage welding machine
initially contacts the workpiece. By
has a nearly flat volt -ampere cur ve. slowing the rate of current rise, spatter
can be reduced. Some older model
Many constant-voltage welding machines welding machines designed for GMAW
used for GMAW have an average, "fixed " have a slope control. Newer models
amount of slope built into the circuit to have either a fixed slope or a slope re-
allow for good short circuiting transfer.
actor control built in.
GMAW - Equipment § 199
Constant-Current Welding preset, but the welding gun is manually
Machines operated. The welde r directs the weld-
ing gun along the weld joint, maintain-
A co ns tant-c urre nt we lding machine
ing the proper st icko ut and tr a vel
prod uces a curr ent that remains con -
stant ove r a range of welding voltages. speed .
Th e cu rre nt has a stee p s lo pe and a In addi tion to a we lding machine,
drooping vo lt-a mpere c ha rac teris tic. GMAW equipment consists of a weld-
See Figure 19- 3. ing gun, wire feeder, and shielding gas.
A constant-current welding machine See Figure 19-4. Additi onal equipment
is rarely used for GMAW; however, if it may be added to autom ate the system.
is used, the wire feed speed must be care-
fully set to prevent the welding wire from Welding Guns
burnin g back to the nozzle or plunging
into the workpiece. A we lding gun conducts the welding
wire, shielding gas, and we lding cur-
Figure 19-]. A constant-current
rent to the weld area. For we lding to
welding machine produ ces a COII -
Constant-Current Welding occu r, the welding gun must maintain
staru CIITTenl OI'eT a ra"ge of weld - Machine
electrical contact with the welding wire.
ing voltages. Figure 19·3
A copper-base alloy contact tip within
80 +-- - __ the welding gun con duc ts the welding
current to the welding wire. Current is
~ 60
<f) 40 routed through the welding leads to the
!:;
g 20
contac t tip in the we ldi ng gun. Con-
L-_-.---_ -.----_ __\_ tact tips arc availabl e with different hole
50 100 150
sizes, depending on the diameter of the
CURRENT (I)
weldin g wire. The welding wire is also
fed through the el ectrode lead . The
welding leads should be kept as straight
as possible to prevent kink ing or flat-
tening of the wire roll guides, and to
prev ent stubbing and bird nesting of
he wire in the feed er.
Shieldi ng gas is transported through
a separate hose within the welding lead.
A shielding gas conn ection and nozzle
on the g un direct the shieldi ng gas to
the arc and the weld pool. Cooling of
the welding gun is required to prevent
o verheating. Cooling is provided by
GMAW EQUIPMENT the shielding gas or by water circulat-
GMAW equipment must feed the weld- ing through the gun, or both. The weld-
ing wire at a pre set , controlled speed ing lead s must not become kink ed or
and provide shielding gas at a consis- damaged , as restri cted flow of weld-
tent rate throu gh the welding gun. The ing wire or shielding gas may occur.
s hie lding ga s co mplete ly cove rs the Welding g un par ts include the
we ld pool. handl e, co ntact tip , gas nozzle, and
A GM AW weld can be applied by trigger. Th e hand le allows easy posi-
the semiautomatic, mech ani zed, or au- tioning of the gun by the operator. The
tom ati c proce sse s. When se mia uto- contact tip conducts electricity from the
mati c welding is used , the wire feed welding lead to the welding wire as the
speed, powe r setting, and gas flow are welding wire leav es the we lding gun.
200 §o WeldillN S kills
Figure 19·4 . G MA W e q u ip me n t
· - .,
COlLI-is/.\' of (J welding machine,
wi re feeder, welding 1;UII, and (I
.l"hieldin1; gm s up" ly.
FLOWMETER
,I ;-
~
SHIELDING
GAS
SHIELDING
GAS
WELD ING REGUL ATOR
MACHINE ~
WELDING
GUN
NDZZL E
-
Th e gas nozzle directs the flow of Figure 19·5 . Weld ing guns use d
in G MA W are available with
shielding gas to the weld . Ga s nozzle stra ight or curved no zzles de-
size and shape may vary. Welding guns signed for C(lSY (I('e('.I'.\' to the weld
area ,
are available witb curved or straig ht
nozzles. See Figure 19-5. Th e trigger
on the weldin g g un starts and stops
welding . When the trigger is pulled ,
the current, shielding gas flow, and
wire feed are activated. CURVED
T he regulator delivers a steady pre- Mil/a Elntri" Monu}i/Cwrillg C"",I'''''Y
se t flow of shield ing ga s to the weld
area . The flowmeter indicates the rate
o f flo w (pres sure) of shie ld ing g as
from the tank to the pressure required
by the welding operation . The work-
ing pre ssure is c o nve rted into gas
flow, which is express ed in cubic feet
per hour (cfh) , The amount of shield- STRAIGHT
ing ga s required is determined by th e
type of welding gun , weld joint, bas e /lem",,1 netding E,!"i,>menl C,,"'pIlIlY
WIRE SPOOL
Y IN WELDING
CABLE
l'rtll,er /y aligned to ensure (I con-
sis tent we lding wi re fen! without
bird nesting.
~
IJn
acseris tics of the welding wire in an ade q ua te shie ldi ng gas cover.
the weld pool.
Air is made up of 2 1% oxyge n, 78%
CONTACT nitrogen , .94% argon, and .04% other
GAS
NOZZLE TIP
gases (primarily c arbon dioxide). The
WELDING AVERAGE ARC atmosphere will al so contain a certain
WIRE
I
NOZZLE·TQ·WORK
----. LENGTH
STICKOUT
amount of water depending on its hu-
midity. T he elements of air that cause
DISTANCE J-Jl- - - -l- difficulties for welding are oxygen, ni-
I trogen , a nd hydrog en. O xyg en is a
highl y reacti ve e le me nt a nd re ad ily
combines with other elements in a metal
or alloy to form ox ides and gases. The
Magnesium Aluminum Alloys 75% He Greater heat inputreduces porosity tendencies. Also cleans
25%Ar oxide surface
Argon + 1% 0 2 Oxygen eliminates undercutting when DeEP reverse polarity is used
Stainless Steels
Argon + 5% 0 2 When DCEN, is used. 5% O2 improves arc stability
Magnesium Argon With DCEN, removes oxide surlace on workpiece
75% He . 25% Ar Good wetting and increased heat input to counteract high thermal
Coppe r (deoxidized)
(Argon) conduct ivity. Ught-gauge metals
Low-Carbon Steel
Argon + 2% 0 2 Oxygen eliminates undercutting tendencies; also removes oxidation
(Mild Steei)
Low-Carbon Steel 80% Argon min.
High-quality, low-current, out-of-position welding , low spatter
(Mild Steel) (spray transfer)
Figure 19-9. Iller' K lI ,W' ,f .m ell (I.\' a rgo" and helium a re stable gases that d o 1101 readily rC(lCI with o ther Oftmu, "'lIki,,!: them suitable (I.{ shielding
gases for GMAlY.
tI
Argoll, or II mixture
refri gerated to a very low temperature. the arc strea m or core. This means that .~ ofargon and oxygen;
Th e temperature is then raised until the more arc energy is lost in the arc itself .= produces tnc most ef-
fective results when
various elements in the air are boil ed and is not transmitted to the work. The wel ding aluminum
off. Argon boils off at a te mpe rature result is that, with helium , th er e will and stainless steel.
of -302 .4°F (-I 85.9°C). T he res ulting be a broader we ld bead than with a r-
purity of the argo n used for welding is go n, with re latively sha llow pen etra-
appro ximately 99 .995%. When grea ter tion. (For GTAW, the op posit e is true.)
puri ty is required , th e g as can be Th e energy lost in the arc also accounts
c he m ica lly clea ne d to a purit y o f for the higher load voltage for the same
99. 999 %. arc length that is obtained with helium
Ar gon has a re lative ly lo w ioni za- as opposed to a rgo n.
tion pot enti al , w hic h mean s th at the Helium a t tim es has been in short
weld ing arc te nds to be more stable su pp ly d ue to governme ntal restric-
when argon is used as the shie lding gas . tion s and, therefore , has not been used
Argo n is oft en mixed with other gases for welding as much as it might hav e
to im prove their sta b ility. A rgo n re - been. Because of its high cost, helium
du ces spa tte r, producing a quiet a rc . is used primarily for spe cial welding
Since argon has a low ioni zation po- tasks a nd for non ferro us me ta ls suc h
tential, the arc vo ltage is reduced when as aluminum, magnes ium, and copper.
an argon mix ture is used as a shie ld- It is a lso used in combination w ith
ing gas. This result s in lower power in ot he r shie lding gases .
Prem ium quality wire containing AI. Zr, and Ti in addition to silicon and manganese deoxi dizers. Can
ER-60S-2 be used with CO 2• argon-C02. or ar90n-02. Reco mmended for pipe welding and heavy vessel
construction
Used for high-quality we lding either with CO2. ar90n -02, or argon-C0 2mixtures. Prod uce s
ER-60S-3
medium-quality welds in rimmed steels and high-qu ality welds in se mi-killed stee ls
ER-70S-1B Low-alloy wire for carbon steel s, low-alloy steels. and high-strength. low-alloy steels
General-purpose welding of low- to medium-carbon steels. Has a silicon co ntent high enough to
ER-70S-3
permit its use in either C02 argon·02 mixtures, or a mixtu re of the two
I
Co ntai ns higher ma nganese and silicon levels and has more powerful deo xidizing characteristic s for
ER-70S-6
weld ing over rust and scale or where stringent cleaning prac tices cannot be followed
ER-70S-5 Contains alu minum and is desig ned for sing le or multiple pass we lding of rimmed, semi-killed , or
killed mild steel s. Suitable to weld stee ls having rusty or dirty surfaces. Normally used with CO2 gases
, ,. , -..-
";,.
.1f7'~lMlf1;' ;.~'~;~ ":{:l:~ ;'+-~J:' : ;+~~) ~f; f:-~ rt:{" 'i"r ~&:ari~<~
M
..... . ,,'
,
,
'.
.~
For we lding ty pes 309 and straight chromium grades when heat treat ment is not possible
ER-309
Also for 304-c lad
ER-310 For weldin g types 310, 304-e lad, and hard enable stee ls
ER-316 For weldin g 3 16
ER-347 For we lding types 321 and 347 whe re maximum co rrosion res istance is required
op~~ a n
ECuSi (Silicon Bronze) Special wires for weld ing copper and copper-based alloys
ECu AI·A 1 (Al umi num
Bronze)
ECu (Deo xidized
Copper)
ECuAI·A2 (Aluminum
Bronze)
ECuAI·B (Aluminum
Bronze)
Ffg u re 19-1 1. Weldi,,!: wire should be of a similar ma terial to the base metal and mU.{1 be chosen deIJe1ldi n!: 011 Ihe I),/'e of weld ing 10 be
perfo rmed,
• in in.
t in cu bic feel per ho ur (cfh)
fin in./mi n
Figure 19-12. The requi red weld ing wire diameter is based 0 11 the type of meta l to be welded as well as the
position of welding.
213
Con sequently, groove JOint s formed
with GMAW have smaller root faces
and root openin gs.
Butt Joints. A butt joint typically re-
quires more welding skill than other
joints. When makin g butt joints. dis-
tortion and residual stress must be pre-
vented by using the proper fit-up and
joint edge preparation. Butt joints have
very good mechanical strength if prop-
erl y prepared .
Lap Joints. A lap joint is commonly
used for man y welding application s.
In a lap joint, the surfaces of the met-
Mill.., EI....,ric MtJllufaclWring Comp'lIly als to be joined overla p one another.
CMA W is I I versatile welding process that allo ws fast deposition (m different metal The degree of ove rlap is determined
thicknesses.
by the thickness of the metal. Lap joints
are usuall y we lded with fillet welds,
Joint Preparation which results in a weld with good me-
Groove joints used
ch ani cal properties, especially when
fi"CMAWhm'esmall Joint preparation is recommended to
rootfaces, small root welded on both sides.
openings. and a nar-
aid in penetration of the weld and weld
row g ron ve aIJKIt~, all reinforcement control. For GMAW, T-Joints. T-joint s generally require
of which redu ce the beveling the edges is usually desirable little. if any, edge preparation . Edges
joint arm, requiring of a T-joint may be left square or may
less weld metal.
for butt joints thicker than \f.{' if com-
plete root penetration is desired. For be prepared by grinding or machining.
thin metals, a square bott jo int is best. A T-joint typically requires a fillet weld.
Generally. the joint design recom- Edge Joints. Edge j o int s are com-
mended for other arc welding processes monly used when the finished weld will
can be osed for GMAW. However, some no t be e xposed to ex cess load s or
joint modifications may be reqoired to heavy impact. The edges of the metal
compensate for the operating charac- to be welded may be left square or
teristics of GMAW. These modifications beveled by grinding or machining. The
produce a narrower, more penetrating groov es c re ate d by beveling allow
arc than SMAW. Se e Figure 20-1. prop er penetrati on of the weld metal.
Ff gure 20-1. GMA W produces a
na rrower weld bead and deeper
penetration than SMA1¥, requir-
ing a smalle r nmt fa ce and root
-.l.. -.l..
T T
op ening.
SMAW I GMAW I
BEADWtDTH
,,," DIAMETER--I --I 1--.035" DIAMETER
l 00 A
.------.:._ II
SMAW GMAW
PENETRATION
DIRECTION OF WELDING
FtLLETWELD
•
WORKANGLE ~~
1
-25'
TRAVEL ANGLE
(90~
' -+-..-----,
DIRECTION OF WELDING
GROOVE WELD
•
GMAW - Procedures €l' 215
When the welding gun is ahead of • Use the correct size gas nozzle for
Ensure thas the COli· the diame ter of welding wire used.
ta ct tub e a nd gas
the weld. it is referred to as pulling the
no zzle orifices a re we ld metal. I f the welding gun is be- • Ens ure tha t the we ldi ng w ire is
clean to prevent hind the weld. it is said to be pushing pro pe rly threade d th rou gh the
clogg ing. which re- the weld metal. Generally, the penetra-
stricts wire feed and weld ing gun.
shielding gas flow: tion of bead s de posi ted by pulling the
Ensure that the contact tube and gas
we lding gun is greater than by push-
nozzle or ifices are clean. Blow out
ing the welding gun. In addition. since
the welding gun occasionally since
the welder can see the weld crater more
with use it becomes clogged with
eas ily by pulling the weld, high qual-
du st, restri ct ing the wire feed and
ity we lds ca n be prod uced more con-
shie lding gas flow.
sistently. Pushing the weld permits the
use of higher welding speeds and pro- • Se t the pred etermined w ire fee d
du ce s le ss pen etrati on and w ide r speed on the wire feeder co ntro l.
welds. See Figure 20-3 . • E nsu re tha t sh ie ld ing gas a nd
wate r coolant so urces are on and
Ftgu r e 20- .'. Pullill g th e we ld adj usted on the feeder co ntro l.
(d rag ang le] is preferred for weld-
ing thick me tals, while Illl.\'lIill1-: DRAG ANGLE • Check for wear on contact tip. With
IIIl' weld (push angle] is used for <, use. tips wear out and must be re-
Jigill -g a ugl' metals,
pl aced.
During any welding ope ration. cer-
tain we ldi ng co ndi tions may hav e to
be changed. Welders should be fami l-
iar with common welding variables and
the required changes that must be made
dur ing welding. See Figure 20-4.
PULLING
•
Starting the Arc
- PUSH ANG LE
<,
St arting the arc for we ldi ng involves
three fact or s: e lec trica l co ntac t. arc
voltage, and time. To ens ure a good
arc start, the welding wire must make
elec trical contac t with the work. The
we ld ing w ire mu st exert s u ff ic ient
fo rce on the work piece to pe ne trate
im purit ies. See Figure 20-5.
4 Sta rti ng the arc becom es increas-
PUSHING ingly diffi cult as stic ko ut increases.
A reasonab le bala nce of vo ltage and
current must be maintained to ensure
GMAW SETUP PROCEDURES the proper arc and to deposit the weld
Before starting to weld . the following metal at the best wire-melting rate. Once
must be checked: the arc is started. the we lding gun is
hel d at th e co rrec t wo rk and travel
• Ensure that all electric power co n-
an gles and moved at a uniform speed.
trols are in the OFF position.
• Ensure that all hose and cable co n-
nections from the welding gun to the
o Stickout can be adjusted to alter the Cllr-
rent and voltage conducted to the arc. A
wire feeder are in good co ndition. sho rter sticko ut creat es a hotter arc; a
longer sticko ut reduces penetration 011
are properl y insul ated . and have thin metals.
been co rrectly sec ured.
216 0 Welding Ski lls
WELDING VARIABLES
Electrode
Change Arc Welding Travel Tr avel W ire Gas
Extension!
Required Voltage Current' Speed Angle Size Type
Stickout
Deeper Drag
Increase (1) Decrease (2) Smallerl (5) CO, (4)
Penetration max. 25·
Shallow
Penetration Decrease (1) Push (3) Increase (2) Largerl (5) MCO,
Larg er
Increase (1) Decrease (2) Increasel (3)
Bead
Bead Smaller
Decrease (1) Increase (2) Decreaset (3)
Height Bead
and
Higher.
Bead
Narrower Decrease (1) Drag (2) Increase (3)
Width
Bead
Flatter,
90' or
Wider Increase (1) Decrease (3)
Bead Push (2)
Faster
Increase (1) Increasel (2) Smaller (5)
Deposition rate
Figure 20-4 . Wl'ldil1 f{ conditions mllY change during welding, H'C/U; ,.;,,}; adjusnnents 10 Il'd dinK variables.
tI
.~
.=
welding gunfrom the
weld a rea until the
weld pool hils solidi-
f ied. The shielding
the weld to stop the wire feed and
interrupt the we lding cur rent. Al-
ways kee p the we lding gun ove r
especially for vertical , hori zontal, and
overhead welding where control of the
weld pool is more difficult . Short cir-
gas prevents cracks th e we ld until th e shie ld ing gas cuiting tran sfer produces shallow weld
f rom dev el oping in stops !lowing to protect the weld penetration. Short circuiting tran sfer is
the molten weld pool. pool until it solidifies. co mmo nly used at cu rre nt level s be-
6 . Prop erly shut do wn the we lding low 200 A and with we lding wire di-
mach in e wh en we ld ing is com- ameters of .045" or less. Thin welding
plet ed: wire produces a weld pool that remains
a. Turn OFF wire speed co ntro l. re latively s mall and easily mana ged,
b. Shut OFF shielding gas !low at makin g all-pos ition weldin g possible.
cy linde rs . At the start of the cycle, the welding
c . Squeeze we lding gun trigger to wire melts into a small glo hule . An
bleed the lines. e lectro mag netic pin ch force squeezes
d . Shut OFF welding mach ine. the drop from the welding wire. Pinch
e . Han g up welding gun. force is a squeezing power common to
all cur rent ca rr iers . Th e amount and
METAL TRANSFER MODES suddenness of the pin ch is co ntro lled
by the welding machine . As the mol-
The shiel ding gas type and weld iog ten weld ing wire is transferred to the
wire size affect the metal transfer mode weld, the drop touches the weld pool
used . Metal transfer modes in GM AW before it has broken away from the ad-
arc short circuiting transfer, spray trans- vancing weldin g wire and the circuit is
fer, pul sed spray transfer, and globu- shorted, extingui shing the arc. Once the
lar tran sfer. The type of metal tran sfer drop of molten wire breaks contact with
that occurs dep end s on welding wire the unmelted welding wire, the arc reig-
size, shie lding ga s, arc voltage, and nites. Sho rting of the arc pinpoints the
weldin g current. As current increases, effective heat. Shortin g occurs fr om
the transfer mode changes from sho rt 20 to 200 times a second ac cording
c ircuiting to glo bular and then (with to preset controls. The result is a small,
80% argon) to spray. relati vely cool weld pool that reduces
Although origina lly GTAW was con- melt-through. Intricate welds are possible
sidered more practical for welding thin in most positions. See Figure 20-6.
sheet metal because of its lower current, In short circuiting transfer, the shield-
the deve lopment of the short circuiting ing gas mixture consists of 75% argon,
transfe r techn ique makes it possible to to control spatter, and 25% car bon di-
weld thin stock equally as effectively and oxid e, both of which provide increased
more economically with GMA W. heat for hi gher speeds . How ever,
straight CO , is also used whe re bead
contour is not particularly important
Short Circuiting Transfer but good penetration is essential.
1"8I
~
Short circuiting tram -
fe r is best for welding Short circuiting transfer allows thin sec-
.= light-gauge metals. tions of metal to be welded more eas-
Spray Transfer
ily. Short circuiting transfer is a meta l
tran sfer mode in which molten metal Spray transf er is a metal transfer mode
from co nsumable welding wire is de - in which molten welding wire is pro-
pos ited dur ing repeated short circuits. pelled axially across the arc in small
Short circuiting tran sfer is the easi est, dropl ets. Very fine droplets or particles
most common transfer mode used. It is of we lding wi re are rapidly proj ected
Figu re 20-6. Short circuiting transfer is practical for all welding pos itions. especially where contro l of the
weld pool is difficult.
Globular Transfer
Globular tran sf er is th e tran sfer of
molten metal in lar ge droplets from GLOBULAR TRANSFER
th e weldin g wire to th e workpiece
Figure 20-101. 1/1 /{ Iolm lar transfer. the molt en drop
acro ss an arc . Globul ar tran sfer oc- grows to two or three times the diameter (~r the weld-
curs when the welding cu rrent is low ing wire before scparuting lind transferring to the
or is below the tran sition current. The workpiece.
SPRAY TRANSFER
CURRENT RANG E
~~~ -_ - ~. ~~ ~ - --_ . . -
GLOBULAR TRANSFER
I- CURRENT RANG E
Z
w
a:
a:
;:)
o
TIME
Crater Cracks
The prim ary cause of crater cracks is
removing the welding gun and th e
shielding gas before the weld pool has
so lidified. Other po ssibl e causes of
crate r cracks are moisture in the
shielding gas ; rust, paint, dirt, or oil
on the base me tal ; and exce ssive
Figure 20-1 1. Cold lap occurs whe n the a rc does tip-to-work distance. See Figure 20- 13.
not melt the base me/a! suffic iently.
I.~
.=
or excessive pcnetra-
tion is the reSII /1 of
f ailure to controlhrat
input.
zo ne. Excessive penetration result s in
a weld bead that protrudes be low the
bott om of the joint. See Figure 20- 15.
Redu cing the wire feed spee d lo wers
the curre nt and less heat is gene rated.
eliminating excessive penetration . Ex-
cessive pe ne tratio n ca n al so be pre-
vented by increasing the travel speed.
If the root o pening in the joint is too EXCESSIVE
PENETRATION
wide, melt-throu gh may result. A wide
Stor k r ,.,-/mill/,'I, /II<.'.
root ope ning can be compen sat ed for
F ig u re 20-1 5. Red uci ng the wi re [eed speed lind
by increasing stickout and weaving the increasing the tra vel .~/,eed run preven t excessive
we lding g un. penetration.
I . GMAW is a faster weld ing process than SMAW and is easy to learn .
2 . Groove joints used with GMAW have smaller root face s, smaller root openings, and a nar-
rower included angle , all of which reduce the joint area to require less weld metal.
3 . Keep the welding gun prop erl y positioned to en sure a uniform weld with prop er penetration .
4. Ensure that the co ntact tub e and gas nozzle orifi ces are cle an to prevent clogging, which
restri cts wire feed and shielding gas flow.
5 . Do not remove the we lding gu n from the we ld area until the weld poo l has so lidified. Th e
shiel ding gas prevent s cracks from developing in the molten weld pool.
6 . Short circ uiting transfer we lding is best for welding light-gau ge metal s.
7 . High current is used with spray transfer to produce a steady, quiet arc with a well-defined core
within which metal tran sfer take s place.
S. Cold lap occur s if the arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently.
9. Check the weld for surface porosity. Surface porosity is usually caused by improper gas shielding.
10. Do not remove the welding gun from the weld area until the weld pool has solidified; other-
wise, cracks may develop.
I I. Lack of penetration or excessiv e penetration is the result of failure to co ntro l heat input.
(0
224 ~ Weldin g Skills
• Exercises
Depositing Beads on Mild
Steel in Flat Position eXerCiSe
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •.
DRAG ANGLE
45'
WORK ANGLE
Pass 2
Pass 3
WORK ANGLE
f- 40'
Pass 1 Pass 3
Pass 2
WORK ANGLE
GMAW can be used to weld carbon steel, aluminum, stainless steel, and copper. Welding parameters
such as edge preparation, electrode diameter, shielding gas flow rate, proper current, and electrode feed
speed are set based on weld requirements.
231
Fteure 21-1. Prope r edge p,,{,(/rtJ-
, ,
lil " ltllulr( I(Jt('/J('llil'<~(lrefl('( ·e.H{lr)'
when welding carbon steel butt
.. .. ~ ~
•
. . ... . .
joinH using GMAW
~35' TO '4'
T
Ii- -=:=J--=:J
- -II-- v,,' -11- V,6" TO %2"
BUITJOINT BUITJOINT
, GREATER , GREATER
-LTHAN 1,4" i -THAN l '
Figure 21-2. Weld inJ: parameters should he set bas ed on carbon steel thickn ess.
Using short circuiti ng transfer on welds are typica lly more difficult with
A rgo n gas is the
alum inum produces a cold er arc spray tran sfer than with short circuit- prefe rred shielding
than is produced with spray transfer, ing tran sfer. Welding parameters such gas for GMA W on
permitting the weld pool to solidify as edge preparation, electrode diameter, alumin um up to 1"
thick because it pro -
rapidly , This action is especially useful argon flow, proper current and voltage,
vides better metal
for vertical , overhead, and horizontal and electrode feed speed for spray trans- transfer and a rc
welding, and for welding thin alumi- fer should be set based on alum inum stahiliry with less
num , When using GMAW in vertical spatter
thic kness, See Figure 2 1-4,
position , a downhill tec hnique is pre -
ferred , Welding parameters such as
STAINLESS STEEL
edge preparation , electrode diameter,
argon flow, proper cur rent and voltage, Stai nless stee l was initially deve loped
and el ectrod e feed spe ed for s ho rt to prevent rusting and corrosion that
circuiting transfer should be set occured wi th carbon steel, Stain les s
ba sed on alumin um thickne ss , See steel is produced to a hig her quality
Fig ure 21 -3, level than carbon steel s and has fewer
Spray transfer on aluminum is espe- impurit ies, making it a reliable materia l
cially suitable for thick sections, With for welding, On stainless steel l/l' thick
spray transfer, more heat is produced or more, the weld ing gun sho uld be
to melt the electrode and the base metal, moved back-and-forth with a s light
Vertical , hori zontal , and overhead side- to- side mov ement.
GMAW - Applications § 233
GMAW - ALUMINUM (SHORT CIRCUITING TR.ANSFER)
- . . . - -- -~
.040 Fillet or
.030 30 40 15 240
tight Butt
Fi llet or
.050 .030 15 50 15 290
tight Butt
Fillet or
.063 .030 15 60 15 340
tight Butt
Fillet or
.093 .030 15 90 15 410
tight Butt
lflln .
tin c1h
I in amps
§ in votls
II in Ip!Tl (approximale)
Fia u re 21-3. Weldi ,,!: parame ters for short circuiting transf er 01 1 thin 0IUIII ; II I1111 should be set base d 011 aluminu m thickness.
Single-Y butt
(60' groove angle)
sha rp roo t face
Y I6 50 310 27
use backing ba r
.500
Doubl e- V butt
(75' grooveangle
Y16" root face). No V16 50 300 27
backing bar. Back chip
afte r roo t pass
'"
dh
amps
volts
Ftaure 21-4. Welding parameters fo r spray transfer 0 11 thick alumi num should be set based 01 1 alum inum thick ness.
- SIDE·TO·SIDE MOTION
ing parameters such as edge prepara-
tion, electrode diamet er, shieldin g gas
flow , proper curre nt, electrode feed
speed , welding spe ed, and welding
passes for spray transfer should be set
based on stainless steel thickn ess. See
Figure 21-7 .
Copper backing bars should be
DIRECTION
OF WELD ING used when welding stainless stee l up
•
THICK STAINLESS STEEL
to '11 6" thick. Precaution s mu st b e
taken to prevent air from reaching the
When using GMA W
on stainless steels,
undersid e of the weld while the weld proper ventilation is
BACK·AND·FORTH necessary to remove
MOTION pool is solidifying becau se oxygen
the fu mes emitted.
/ and nitrogen in the air will embrittle
the weld. To prevent air from contact-
DIRECTION ing the underside of the weld, an 'ar-
OF WELDIN G
•
THIN STAINLESS STEEL
gon back-up gas is often used.
COPPER
Figure 21-5. When usi ng GMAW to wel d stainless
steel plates, (/ slight weaving mot ion is used. Using GMAW on copper is usually re-
stricted to the deoxidized types of cop-
Man y of the ch aracteri stic s of
per. Welding electrolytic copper is not
stainless steel, such as its corros ion
advisable because of the potential for
resistance, sensitivity to heat, and low
embrittlement exhibited by such welds.
thermal and e lec trical conductivity,
Argon is preferred as the shielding
can be controlled once a welder under-
gas for thin copper. For copper I" thick
stands how weldin g affec ts the se
or more, a mixture of 65% He/35% Ar
characteri stics. Properl y identifying
is recommended.
the type of stainless steel and its par-
Steel backing bars are required for
ticul ar characteri stics is nece ssary to Steel backing bars
welding copper '18" thick or less. Pre-
determine which characteristics to con- are req uired for
heating is not necessary for copper Va" welding copper %"
tro l during welding . When using
thick or le ss. Preheating at 400 °F thick or less.
GMAW on stainless steels, proper ven-
(204°C) is advisabl e on sec tions 3/8 "
tilation is neces sary due to the fumes
thick or mo re. Welding parameters
given off by the metal.
such as ed ge preparation, elec tro de
Short circuiting transfer can be used
diameter, proper current and voltage,
on thin stainless steel in overh ead or
electrode feed speed , and weld in g
vert ical posit ion. Welding parameters
speed should be set based on copp er
suc h as edge preparation , elect rode
thicknes s. See Figure 21-8.
diameter, shie ld ing gas flow , proper
current and voltage, elec trode feed Preheating copper
speed, welding spee d, and welding o Filler metals tha t can be used to weld cop-
per are specified in ANS/IAWS A5.6. Speci-
at 400' F (204'C) is
advisable on sec-
pa sse s for short circuiting transfer firms :U/ ' thick or
fication s for Covered Copper and Coppe r
should be set based on stainless steel Alloy Arc Welding Electro des. more.
thickness. See Figure 21-6 .
GMAW - App lica tion s ~ 235
GMA..... - STAINLESS STEEL (SHORT CI~<::UITING TRANSFER)
- - -
Metal Edge Electrode Gas DCEP Electrode Welding Welding
Voltage§
Thickness" Preparation Diameter' Flowt Current* Feed Speed" Speed" Passes
Non-po sitioned
.063 .030 12- 30 85 15 184 18 1
fillet or lap
Non-positioned
.078 .030 12- 30 90 15 192 14 1
fillet or lap
Non -position ed
.093 .030 12 - 30 105 17 232 15 1
fillet or lap
Non -positioned
.125 .030 12 - 30 125 17 280 16 1
Iillet or lap
lOin.
t cO 2 in clh
*in amps
t in volts
II in ipm
Figure 21-6. Weldin.1: part/meters for short circu iting transfe r Oil stainless stee l ~'''oilld be set base d 0" Mail/less steel thickne ss,
Single-V butt
.250 (60' groove angle) V,6 351 250 -300 25- 26 150 - 200 15 2
no root face
Single-V butt
.375 (60' groove angle) Y1& (1%-° 2) 275 -325 25- 26 225-250 20 2
VIS'" root face
Single-V butt
.500 (60' groove angle) (1%-0 2) 300- 350 26-27
V16'" root face "" 75 -85 5 3-4
Single-V butt
.750 (90 ' groove angle) ¥" (1%-° 2) 350 -375 25- 27 85 -95 4 5 -6
Y'6" root face
Single-V butt
1.000 (90 ' groove angle) ¥" (1%-02) 350 -375 25 -27 85 -95 2 7 -8
1/16" root face
In In.
t m cth
~ in amps
S in volts
' "",
Flg ure 21-7. WehlinK parameters f or spray transf er 0" swill/en steel should be set based on stainless steel thickness.
Doubl e bevel,
% ¥32 500 27 150 14
90 ' groove angle , 0/16" root face
Doubl e bevel , 14
% ¥" 550 27 170
90 ' groove ang le, 0/16" root face
Doub le bevel ,
Yo, ¥.<> 540 27 165 12
90 ' groove angle, Y,," root face
Yo, Dou ble beve l,
¥.<> 600 27 180 10
90' groove angle, V.." root face
In lfI .
' in amps
• in volts
t inipm
Fi~ ure 21-8. We!ditlR parameters should be set based 011 COf'PeT thickness.
I. Welding parameters are set based on the thickness of the metal used.
2. Argo n gas is the preferred shielding gas for GM AW on aluminum up to I" thick because it
provides better metal tran sfer and arc stability with less spatter.
3 . When using GMAW on sta inless stee ls, proper ve ntilation is necessary to rem ove the fumes
emitte d.
4 . Steel backin g bars are required for welding copper '/8" thick or less.
5 . Preheating cop per at 400°F (204°C) is adv isable on sect ions %" thick or more.
I. When welding ca rbon steels, what thickness range may be butt we lded with no edge prepa ration')
2. What type of joi nt is required for carbon stee l greater than I" thick?
3. What shielding gas mixture is recommended for welding carbon stee ls?
4. Why is spray transfe r preferred for welding thick sections of alumi num?
5. Which technique should be used for GMAW in vertical position ?
6. Wh at type of backin g is requi red when welding stainless steel?
7. What type of backing is required when welding co pper?
8. Wh en sho uld preh eating be used on co pper?
The fl ux cored arc welding (FCAW) process was developed in the 1950.1'. It is an arc welding process
similar to GMAW in that it uses a continuously fe d electrode. FCAW has become more commonly used as
a result of developments and improvements in welding machines. wire feed systems, andfluxes. Welding
guns equipped with fum e extractors have also improved FCAW welding conditions. FCAW can be used
to weld carbon steels, low-alloy steels, various stainless steels. and some cast irons.
Self-shielded fl ux cored arc welding (FCAW-S) is a variation of FCAW in which the shielding gas is
provided solely by the flux materia l within the electrode. FCAW-S is commonly used on medium thick-
nesses ofmetal and can be used for all-position welding. Gas-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G)
is an FCAW variation that produces high-quality welds at a lower cost and with less effort than SMA IV.
FCAW-G generally pro duces a deeper penetrating weld than FCAW-S.
239
Fi~ul"e 22-1. I" I:CAW-S, a tubular FCAW EQUIPMENT
electrode containing fl ux ingredi-
('flU is used to produce II gaseous
CONTACT
TIP Equ ip me nt for FC AW is si milar to that
shie ld around till' wel d pool .
used for GM AW. A we lding machine,
FLUX COR ED
ELECTRODE welding gun, wire feeder, and flux cored
elec tro de a re required . Add itio na lly,
FLUX CORE
for FCAW-G, shielding gas and a shield-
GAS EOUS ing gas supply sys tem are required.
Th e welding equipment can be de-
SLAG
sig ned for se m ia uto ma tic or mecha-
nized op eration. With se m ia uto ma tic
~ " ~ o equipment, the welder moves a hand -
o 0 o
o o held we lding gun along the we ld joint.
o
o o o With mechanized equipment, the o p-
e ra tor m ak e s eq u ip me nt adj us tme nts
SOLIDIFIED BASE MOLT EN as required while o bse rv ing the weld-
AND FILLER METAL METAL
ing operatio n. See Fig ure 22-2 .
So me FCAW wires give off fluorides
Gas-shielded flux cored arc welding which ca n bu m the skin and irritate the
Gas-...hi elded flux
( FCA W-G) is a n FCAW va r ia tio n in nostril s a nd eyes. Re spiratory eq uip-
cored arc we ldi ng
( FCA lV· G ) is all wh ich the s hie ld ing is o bta ine d from ment mu st be used . Stand ard sho p ven-
FCAW variation ill both the CO, gas flowing from the gas tilation systems may not be capable of
which the shielding
no zzl e a nd from the flux core of the elimi natin g the s mo ke produ ced by
is ohtail/edfmm both
the CO 2 gas./7owiflg electrode. FCAW-G is commonly per- FCAW welding. A fum e extrac tion sys-
from lil t' !-il lS no zzle formed in flat or horizontal po sition . tem is used to protect workers and to
an d fro m th« JIIIX
With sma ll-diame ter electrodes, vertical remove smoke from the wo rk area. A
core of ti ll' electrode.
or ove rhea d welding ma y be possible. fume extractor may be attached to a flex-
ible ho se arm th at ca n be mo ved near
Advantages of FCAW
the wo rk are a or to a separa te ve ntila-
Th e FC AW process co mb ines the be st tion sys tem within the sho p. See Figure
qualities of SMAW, SAW, and GMAW. 22 -3. Wh er e smoke an d fumes are not
FC AW use s fl ux age nts th at di ssol ve a problem for other workers, the welder
FCA lV produces a ox ides and remove detrim ental mate- may use a per son al ve ntila tion sys tem
qual it y we ld at rial s fro m the weld area. The FCAW to protect again st fumes.
lower ( 'OJ' with less
proce ss provides the we lde r with the Specially designed we ld ing guns
effort 'han SMA ~V.
«nd is more flexible capabilit y to weld c o n tin oo us ly for are a lso av a ila ble th at have a built-in
than SAW lon g period s. FCAW produce s a qual- vent ilation sys te m to ev ac uate smo ke
ity weld with less effort than SMAW, from the weld area, prot ecting the weld-
and is more flexible than SAW. Some in g process and providin g ma ximum
additional benefit s of FCAW include visibility. FCAW-S ma y be used in the
the foll owing: field und er windy cond itio ns that will
• re q u ires le ss precl eaning than remove the smoke from the we ld area.
GM AW
• prod uces less distortion than SMAW
• p rod uce s smooth, unifo rm be ad s o FI"xcored arc welding (FCAlV) is "sed
for many of the same weldin g applica-
wit h an ex ce lle nt weld appea ra nce
lion s that use gas metal arc we/din g
• has a high deposit ion rat e (GMAlV) or shielded metal arc weld-
• is ca pa ble of relativel y high tra vel ing (SMA IV). IVilh FCAIV, higher depo-
s pe e ds sition m I l'S are p ossibl e, 'here is flO
stub loss, and less time is wasted switch-
• weld s a variety of steels and a wide ing electrodes.
ran ge o f metal thi ckn esses
SHIELDING GAS
(FOR FCAW·G )
L ATER,cooLANT
SYSTEM (IF REQUIRED)
WELDING
CABLE
WORKP IECE
METAL SHIELD . -.....~i@~
LEAD
FLUX CORED
ELECTRODE
Welding Machines
Weld ing machi ne s used for FCAW
mu st be ca pa ble of th e hi gh er cur-
rents and voltages requ ired co mpared A I >CCWTl'1I1, constant-
to GMAW. Ty pica lly, a DC current . voltu ge welding 1/1(/ -
co nsta nt-v oltage we lding machine is clti nc is tYl'icall.v
II ,H '" f o r FCAW-S
used for both FCAW-S and FCAW-G. and FCAW-G.
See Figure 22-4.
A co nstant-voltage we ld ing ma -
c hi ne can ma intain a co nstant arc
lengt h, delivering more current to the
wor k to melt the elec trode faster and
mo re co nsistently than othe r we lding
mach ines. When using AC current, a
c ons tant-c urrent weldin g machi ne is
commonly used.
Weld requirem ent s dete rmine the
type of welding machine selected for a
particular application. The welding ma-
chine must be able to handle the largest
size and type electrode required for the
Fi gu re 22<t Fume extrac tors are commonly installed application. Large-diameter flux cored
within (I permanent vent ilation .\)'.\'1(' 11I in a sho/,_ electrodes can require up to 650 A.
Flux Cored Arc Weld il1M (FCAW) €l' 241
Figure 22-4. The welding machine visibility of the weld and reduce air
used f or fl ux cored arc welding is
tYf)icafly a cons tant-voltage wetd -
pollution of the welding environment,
ing machine, similar to that used but also add weight and bulk to the
[ar GM;\\¥. welding gun . Properly set fume ex-
tractors do not remove shielding gas
from the weld area. Shielding gas, if
used, is controlled by the same type
of equipment used for GMAW.
Welding Gun
The welding gun selected is determined
The welding gun se- by the FCA W process (FCAW-S or
lected is determined
by the type of FCAW FCAW-G) being used, and the highest
process used, and the current required for welding. The weld-
highest current re- ing gun must be capable of delivering
quired for welding. The Lincoln Eleclr;c C""' [Jany
the electrode, current, and shielding gas,
Ftgure 22-5 . An FeA W-S weld ing gun has an in-
to the weld area; and circulating cool-
suiated no zzl e rip, a metal shield to pro tect the
ing water (if required) through the sys- welder f rom slag and spat/cr. and a trigger 10 start
tem. The types of welding guns avail- and stop welding.
able include pistol grip, air-cooled, and
water-cooled. Flux Cored Electrodes
Pistol grip welding guns provide for Flux cored electrodes are often referred
straighter feeding of large-diameter to as "inside-out" coated electrodes
electrode wire than other types of weld- because the flux material is contained
ing guns. Air-cooled welding guns are within the core of the electrode. Most
used with low current and low duty flux cored electrodes used for FCAW
cycles . Water-cooled welding guns are are classified by the AWS as tubular
used when welding with high current wire electrodes. A letter-number com-
or high duty cycles . Generally, weld- bination (such as T-?) at the end of the
ing applications that require greater AWS classification describes the speci-
than 600 A require a water-cooled gun fication of flux cored electrodes for
and a water-coolant system to prevent FCAW. See Figure 22-6 .
overheating. Tubular, mild s te e l, flux cored
A welding gun used for FCAW-S electrodes contain a core of flux ma-
requires a metal shield to protect the terials that produce a gaseous shield,
The flux in a flux welder from heat and spatter from the deoxidizing agents, and slag . Tubu-
cored electrode in- weld metal. FCAW-S welding guns do lar electrodes are designed for high
cludes ionizers to not have a shielding gas nozzle, allow- current densities and deposition rates
s tabiliz e the ar e,
deoxidizers to purge ing greater access to the weld joint. See which , when combined with high duty
the deposits of gas Figure 22-5. cycles , result in sharply increased
and slag, and other Some FCAW welding guns have production rates. The gaseous shield
metals to produc e
strong, ductile, and fume extractors to remove smoke and/ prevents contamination of the weld be-
tough weld deposits. or toxic fumes caused by the welding fore solidification and protects the
process. Fume extractors increase the weld from slag .
242 ~ WeldinK Skills
Figure 22-6. Electrodes are etas-
COMMON CARBON STEEL FLUX CORED ELECTRODES
_.
. _.
AWS
' ~.- -
Welding
- - - Single o r
!lifted by a letter lind number com-
hination. which reflects the ideal
" Shielding conditions under which the elec-
Classification Current , MUltil1le Pass
trode should be " sed.
EXXT-l DC EP A,·CO, Multiple
EXXT-2 DCEP A,-CO, Single
EXXT-3 DCEP None Single
EXXT-4 DCEP Non e Multiple
EXXT-5 DCEPOR DCEN A,- CO, Multipl e
EXXT-6 DCEP None Multiple
EXXT-7 DCEN None Multiple
EXXT-8 DCEN None Multiple
EXXT-l 0 DCEN None Sinqle
EXXT-l 1 DCE N None Multiple
EXXT-G - - Multiale
EXXT-GS - - Single
• agreed teteeen purchaser and scppuer
Ionizers in the flux stabilize the arc. A flux cored electrode can be used
Deoxidizers purge the weld deposit of with or without CO, as a shielding gas,
gas and slag. Other metals in the flux with DCEP or DCEN, and for single
help to produce stro ng, duc tile , and or multiple pass welding in either flat
tough weld deposits. As the flux gen- or horizont al positi on , de pending on
erates the gas shield, it also produ ces the type of electrode used. Alth ough When weld ing 111/11-
a slag cover ing that retard s the cool - most FCAW is performed using DCEP, tiple pass welds. can'
ing rate and protect s the weld deposit some electrode s may be designed spe- must he taken to pre-
\' l'111 buildup ofdeox i-
from contaminants as it solidifies. cifically for use with DCEN .
dizing agents ill the
Care must be taken when welding Carbon dioxide is used as a shield- weld. Bu ildu p of
multiple pass welds to prevent buildup ing gas for FCAW, and many electrodes deoxidizin g agen ts
elm result ;11 lower
of deoxidi zin g age nts in the we ld . are manufactured specifically for use
ductility ofthe weld.
Buildup of deoxidizing age nts can re- with CO" If an argon shield ing gas
sult in lower ductility of the weld. mixture is specified, the electrode used
The e lectrode size and base metal must be compatible, If an electrode not
thickn ess determine weldi ng par am- specifica lly designed for use with a
eters such as current, wire feed speed, shielding gas mixture is used, deoxi-
and shie lding gas flow required . See dizers could remain in weld deposit ,
Figure 22-7. producin g an unacc ept ab le weld .
FCAW-S requires higher current
level s than othe r weld ing processes.
Proper e lectrode extens io n must be
used throu ghout welding to maintain
the requ ired current. Proper elec trode
ex tensio n allo ws the e lectro de to be
preheated as it passes through the con-
tact tip, melting the flux material and
producing the shielding gas . Proper
e lectrode e xten sion is based on the
specifica tions for a part icul ar appli ca-
tion. If imp roper electro de ex tensio n
is used , the flux will not be properl y
preheated and will not melt as it reaches
the arc. Improper elec trode extension
can also Icad ,to porosity in the weld.
, , FCAW can be used to fabricate products in oil positions.
Figure 22-7 . Flux cored arc welding conditions must be properly main tained; and are determined by the electrode size and the materia l thickness.
I . Self-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-S) is an FCAW variation in whieh shielding
gas is provided exclusively by the flu x within the electrode .
2 . Gas-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G) is an FCAW variation in which the shield-
ing is obtain ed from both the CO, gas flo wing from the gas no zzle and from material
cont ained within the flux core of the electrode.
3 . FCAW produces a qua lity weld at lower cost with less effort than SMAW, and is mor e
tlexibl e than SAW.
4 . A DC c urr ent, co nstant-voltage we ld ing machine is typi ca lly use d fo r FC AW-S and
FCA W-G.
5 . T he we lding gun selected is det ermined by the type of FCA W process use d. and the
highest current required for weldin g.
6 . Th e flu x in a flu x co red elec trode includes ionizers to stabilize the arc, deoxidi zers to
purge the deposits of gas and slag, and other metals to produce high strength, duct ility,
and toughness in weld deposits.
7 . Ca re must be taken to prevent buildup of deoxidizin g agent s in the weld. Buildu p of
deoxidi zing agents can result in lower ductil ity of the weld.
8 . Flux cored e lec trodes are typ ically designed to be used with CO, and are intended for
high curre nt de nsities.
9. When straight CO, is not used as a shieldi ng gas for FCAW, a common gas mixture is
75% Ar/25% CO" ~
45 '
/"
i ! 1------,--------
"· · 1
END VIEW FRONT VIEW
(WORK ANGLE) (DRAG ANGLE)
\
30T040'
\
Pass 1 Pass 2 Pass 3
ENDVIEW
(WORK ANGLE)
Brazing and soldering differ fro m welding in that jo ining occu rs when fi ller metal is added at tempera-
tures below the melting point of the metals j oined. Soldering also uses nonf errous fi ller metals with
melting tempera tures below 840°F (450°C).
Braze welding is slightly different f rom conventional brazing. In braze welding. fill er metal is deposited
in standard weld joints. Capillary action is not afactor in distribution of the fill er metal. Braze we/ding
is adaptable for joining or repairing metals such as cast iron, malleable iron. copper; and brass. Braze
welding can also be used to join dissimilar metals such as cast iron and steel.
249
Brazing filler metal must be molten the greatest strength. For maximum
before it flows into a joint. The melting efficiency, the overlap should equal or
temperature of filler metals varies de- exceed three times the thickness of the
pending on the type of filler metal. thinnest member. The main drawback
Filler metal must have a liquidus tem- of a lap joint is that metal thickness at
perature lower than the solidus tempera- the joint is increased. For joint design
ture of the base metal. Liquidus purposes, T-joints and comer joints are
temperature is the temperature at which treated as butt joints.
a metal is completely molten. Solidus A butt joint does not provide the
temperature is the highest temperature same strength as a lap joint because
that a metal can reach and remain in a its cross-sectional area is equal only
solid state. The lowest effective braz- to the cross-sectional area of the thin-
Use the lowest effective
brazing temperatures ing temperatures possible should be nest member. Higher strengths can be
to minimize grain used to minimize the effects of heat on achieved by scarfing the edges; how-
growth, warpage, ami
the base metal. Excess heat on the base ever, greater care is required to pre-
hardness reduction.
metal can cause grain growth, warpage, pare the joint and keep the pieces
and hardness reduction. aligned. The strength of a butt joint
can be improved using a sleeve. See
Figure 23-1.
Joint Design
Joint design is also based on joint
Joint design/or bra z- Joint design is based on adhesive quali- clearance. Joint clearance has a major
ing is ba sed on the
ties of the filler metal. Two joints used effect on the mechanical properties of
adh esiv e qualities of
thefiller metal and on for brazing are the lap joint and butt a brazed joint. Surfaces that fit too
joint clearance. joint. A lap joint is commonly used be- tightly together hinder the flow of
cause it offers a large surface area for molten filler metal.
LAP
t d t
SCARFED EDGE
SLEEVE
Low Stress t f
High Stress
BUTT
BRAZING FLUX
-
AWS Base Metals Filler Metals!
Brazing Flux ' Useful Range* Flux Agent Available as:
tI
.e=
•e:::::::
lene orMAPP:oxygen
gas mixtures, heat
the surfaces with the
outer envelope of the
T he heat required for manua l brazing
met hod s is typica lly applied using a
ga s torc h. T he gas mixture can be
2.
for the work to be brazed.
Review safety practices per ANSI
Z49 .1, Safety in Welding and Cur-
flame a nd 110 1 the in- oxy ac e ty le ne, a ir -ga s, gas-oxyge n, ting. This incl udes ass essing the
lier cOil e.
ox yhydrogen, or MAPP-oxygen. The need for perso na l protec tive
gas mixture used depend s on the ther- equipment, assessing ventilation
mal conductivity, type, and thickness of requirement s, revi ewing relevant
the metal to be brazed. See Figure 23-6. MSDS s, and assess ing potenti al
hazards such as fires.
Ffg u re 23-6. A gas torch is
3. Remove dirt , grease, oil , and ox-
commonty used for manual
brazing, ides from surfaces to be brazed.
4. Se lect the correct flux and apply
it to both the workp ieces and the
filler metal by brushing, dipping,
spri nkling, or spraying.
5 . Assem ble the workpieces and
keep them in a lig nme nt using
clamps, fixtur es, or ji gs. Do not
apply excessive pressure because
eno ug h c le arance bet we en the
faying surfaces must exist to al-
Oxyacety lene or MAPP-oxygen is
Iow a free flow of filler me~)
generally more ver satile becau se its
6 . Preh eat the entire wo rk area to
he at can be co ntrolled over a wide
a uni form bra zin g te mpe rat ure
temperature range. With either of these
by play in g a torch over the
gas mixtures, a slightly reducin g flame
workpie ce surface.
is required . Only the outer enve lope
of the flame a nd not the inn er con e 7 . Once the flux is completely fluid,
should be applied to the wor k. touch the filler metal to the joint
The air-gas torch provides the lowest Keep applying filler metal until it
heat a nd has greate r applicatio n in fl o ws co mplete ly th rou gh the
br azin g light -gauge me tals. Air-gas joint. Use a slig htly red uc ing
mixtures may use air at atmo sphe ric flame and do not apply the inner
pre ssu re a nd c ity ga s o r an a i r- cone of the flame di rectly to the
ace ty lene mi xture. filler metal or the workpiece.
A gas-oxygen mixture uses oxygen 8 . Clea n the brazed jo int to remove
and city gas, bott led gas, pro pane , or flux residue or debri s.
buta ne. The gas-ox ygen mixture pro- 9. Visually inspect the brazed joint
duces a high flame temperature and is T he joi nt should be free from
effective where higher brazing heat is grease, paint, oil, oxide film, and
req uired. stopoff. The part should retain di-
An oxyhydroge n mixture, due to mensional conformance and there
the low heat it produ ces, is used for should be no visible interruption
bra zing alumi num and other non fer- to the flow of filler metal. There
rous metals. The low temperature pre- should be no cracks or porosity.
vent, overheating and the hydrogen pro- Visu al ins pection ca nno t detect
vides a clean ing action and shielding intern al discont inuities. The pro-
during the braz ing process. For bra z- cedure specification will indicate
i ng a p p lica tio ns on mo st met al s , s peci fic non dest ru cti ve pro ce-
follow the procedure: dures that must be performed.
FLUX BRAZ ED
JO INT
FILLER
METAL
--~
CONVEYOR
C RUCIBLE ~
• l
o
oa 0 a
HEAT APPLIED
I
a slight shelf at the bottom . The shelf Be sun' the surfaces
it to spread along the entire seam. . ~ are properly tinned
The flow of this thin film of filler acts as a support for additional filler .= hefore depo sit in g
metal is known as tinning. Unless metal. As the weld is carried upward , heads.
the surfaces are tinned properl y, swing the llame from side to side to
braze weldin g cannot be carried ma intai n uniform tinning and to pro-
out success fully. duce an even bead.
If the base metal is too hot, filler
metal bubbles or runs like drops of Cost Iron Braze Welding
water on a warm stove. If the base
metal is not hot enough, filler metal Braze welding is primarily used to re-
forms into balls that roll off the base pair brok en cast iron parts. High pre-
metal as water would if placed on heat temperatures are not usuall y
a greasy surface. When the ' base required unless the part is very heavy
metal is the proper temperature, the or compl ex in geometry. A maximum
liller metal spreads out evenly. preheat of 200 °F (93 °C) is typically
.- COPPER-ZINC
... FILLER
. . , .METAL FOR BRAZE WELDING
-~
- ~--,- ~
AWS Approximate Chemical Composiliont ' Min Tensile Strength ' Uquidus Temperature
Classification" ~~~~Jmmn~~~~
RBCuZn-A 60 39 1 40 275 1650 900
RBCu Zn-C 60 38 1 1 50 344 1630 890
RBCuZn-D 50 40 10 60 413 1714 935
see AWS AS.? and A S.8
t in%
Figure 23-13. A copper-zinc filler metal is common ly used [or braze welding .
Figure 23-1-1. Solder.~ an' ('olll/JO!lC'd principally of till , lead, antimonv. tllltl silve r.
SINGLE DOUBLE
Figure 23-15. Joint designs for soldered seams (I re determined by the strength requirements of the joint.
copper is used for solderin g light-gauge of the so lde r ing copper. Another
Hi' sure the solder-
metal and a heavyweight copper is used method of applying solder is to dip ing heat is adequate
for soldering heavy- gauge metal. Us- the point of the soldering copper f or the so ldering
ing a lightweight soldering copper on in a liquid or paste flux and then job to he done.
heavy metal does not produce enough apply the so lder.
heat to adequately heat the metal or al- 4. Remove excess sol der by wiping
low the solde r to flow smoothly. Sol- the soldering copper wi th a clean
dering coppers are heated either in a cloth .
furnace or with a blowtorch.
The point of a so ld ering copper Electric Soldering Devices. Electric
must be covered with a thin coat of soldering irons and penci ls are often
solder. Overheating or failing to keep more co nvenient than so ldering cop-
the copper clean causes the point to pers becau se they maintain uniform
become covered with oxide. The pro- heat. Electric soldering devices vary
cess of replacing this coat of solder is in size from 25 W to 550 W. Light-
called tinning . To tin copper: weight. low-voltage irons with replac e-
I . File each side of the point until all able heating e lement s and tips are
oxide and pit s are removed . called soldering pencils and are used
for electrical and electronic work. An
2. Heat the soldering copper until it electric so ldering gun is al so very
is hot enough to me lt solder. popular for electronic soldering work.
3. Rub the point of th e so ld ering Electric soldering gun s produce instant
copper on a block of ammonium heat at the tip of a long. small point
chloride (s al ammoniac) and ap- when the trigger is pulled . On some
ply solder while rubbing. Ammo- so ldering guns . th e trigger also turns
nium chloride helps clean the point on a light. which focu ses at the point.
WOODEN
HANDLE
ROD
~HEATING TIP
SOLDERING COPPER
Sm ith Equipment
Figure 23-17. A g a s to rch call be used to solder
copper pipe.
ELECTRIC SOLDERING IRON
Soldering
I. Parts to be soldered mus t be clean and their surfaces should fit closely toget her.
2. Do not allow the parts to move during soldering while the solder is molten.
3. Wash the soldered work in hot water to eli minate the corrosive action of the !lux.
4. Be sure the soldering heat is adequate for the soldering job to be done .
Surfac ing is one of the most eco nomical methods of extending the life of machine parts. too ls. and
construction equipment. The surfacing process applies a hard. wear-resistant layer of material to sur-
fa ces or edges (if' worn -out part s. The proc ess may involve buildin g up worn shafts, gears. or cutting
edges of tools. Many types of wear can be corrected with surfacing.
Surfacing can be applied by welding or thermal spraying. Surfacing can correct many types of abrasion.
erosion. adh esion. and surface fatigue problems. Arc welding pm cesses used to apply weld overlays
include SMAW, GTAW, GMA W, PAW, and SAW,' OAW ('(In also be used. Thermal spraying methods used
to apply weld ove rlays include plasma spraying. flame spraying, high -velocity oxyfu el (HVOF) flam e
sp raying. spray and f use. and arc spraying.
265
Surfacing need only be applied to breakdown of the abrasive body. Ero-
surfaces that may wear exc essively if sion ca n occur in movi ng liquids con-
not prot ected. Contact surfaces, screw taining abrasive particles. If the liquid
ni g ht edges, journal beari ng s , sea l- is corrosive , th e form of damage is
wi pe d areas, hammer tips , and shear erosion-corros ion.
edge s are some exa mples . Section s of Ar ea s in whic h eros io n can occur
a co mpo nent tha t do not wear do not in clude coal a nd a re chute s , and
require surfacing. On shovel or bucket slurry pipelines. Weldin g and thermal
teet h and items subject to hea vy wear, spray coa ting may be used to co mbat
su rfacin g creates re g ion s th at allow erosion.
abrasi ve ma terial to become trapped
so tha t the abras ive material becomes Gouging (High-Stress Abrasion)
a wea r surface agai nst itself.
T he area and thi ckne ss of the ap- Gouging (high-stress abrasion) is a se-
plied surfaci ng mu st be minimi zed to vere fonn of abrasive wear in which the
redu ce di stortion . With high hardness force between an abrasive body and the
dep os its, it is usually not po ssible to wearing surface is large enough to mac-
appl y more than two laye rs without roscopica lly go uge , groove, o r deeply
cracking . If the desired thickness of the scratch the surface .
hard material is inadequate, a soft metal An example of goug ing is the ac-
b uild up is used to min im ize cracking tion of backhoe teeth agai nst a surface.
before the final hard deposit is applied. Welding may be used to combat go ug-
ing. Th ermal spray coa ting should not
be used because the abrasive forces are
WEAR TYPES typi cally too strong for thermal spray
Materi als and part s in service may be coa ti ng to withstand .
subjected to many types of wea r. Most
wear ca n be repa ired by surfac ing; Solid Particle Impingement
however, not every ty pe of surfac ing
Solid part icle impingement is wearing
process may be applied to every type
away of a surface by repeated impa ct
of wear. T he spec ific wear type must
from so lid particl e s. So lid parti cl e
be determined befo re specifying a sur-
impingement forms small cr aters and
fa cin g method.
removes tiny chips from the surface.
Wear types that materials and parts
Solid particle impingement occ urs
in serv ice may be subjected to are ero-
in ab ras ive blasting o r cycl on e se pa-
s io n (low -s tre ss abrasio n) , go ug ing
rators. Both welding and thermal spray
( hig h-stress abr as io n), so lid particl e
coating may be used to fight so lid par-
im pingemen t, liq uid impi nge me nt,
ticle impingeme nt erosion. T he angle
c a vitatio n, slurry erosion, f re tting ,
of im pact of the particle and its hard-
adhc s ive wear and ga lli ng , pitt ing
ness affects which proces s should be
and spa ll ing, impac t dam age , a nd
used for surfac ing .
brinell in g.
Liquid Impingement
Erosion (low-stress
Erosion (Low-Stress Abrasion)
Liquid impin gem ent is progres si ve
abrasio n) is a form
of abrasive wear in Erosion (low-stress abrasion) is a form material removal from a surface by the
which the force of of abrasive wear in which the force striking action of a liquid. The removal
all abrasive against of a n ab ra sive aga inst the s u rface of material may be aggravated by cor-
the surface ca uses
thr remo val of sur- ca use s the remo val o f sur fa ce mate- ro s ive liqui ds. Liq ui d impingem ent
face material. rial. Th e forces are low, re sulting in occurs in stea m turbin e vanes and fans
the rem oval of sma ll particles and little that exhaust liquid droplets.
266 ~ WelditlMSkills
Both welding and thermal spray Fretting
coating may be used to fight liquid im-
Fretting is surface damage between two
pingement. The corrosiveness of the
materials, usually metal, caused by
liquid may influence the surfacing pro-
oscillatory movement between the sur-
cess used. When liquid impingement
faces. Fretting produces oxide debris
is cau sed by liquid droplets, a rubber
and leads to pitting and , eventually,
lining may be used because it provides
fatigue failure .
better protection from repeated impact
without damage. Fretting commonly occurs on bolted
components subjected to repetitive
stresses, and can occur in loose-fitting
Cavitation bearings; metal parts in vibrating
contact; and gears and sheaves at the
Cavitation is surface damage caused setscrews. Welding and thermal spray
by collapsing vapor bubbles in a coating may be used to combat fretting.
flowing liquid . The vapor bubbles
form because of changes in flow ve-
locity and/or direction , or a reduc-
Adhesive Wear and Galling
Adhesive wear is the
tion in the cross section of the flow Adhesive wear is the removal of metal removal ofmetalfrom
passage. An increase in pressure at a a surface by welding
from a surface by welding together and together and subse -
location causes the bubbles to col- subsequent shearing of minute areas quent shea ring of
lapse. The collapsing bubbles give of two surfaces that slide across each minute areas of two
surfaces that slide
rise to shock waves or minute explo- other under pressure. In advanced ac ross each other
sions that cause contact stresses on stages, adhesive wear leads to galling. under p ressure.
the metal surface. Repetitive shock Adhesive wear may occur in drive
waves or explosions lead to spalling chains, gears, and bushings . Welding
and pitting of the surface. may be used to combat adhesive wear;
Cavitation is common in pumps and selection of weld overlay consumabies
engine cylinde rs and can occur in ship is on a trial-and-error basis, or repeated ,
propellers, pump impellers, and cas- successful experience. Thermal spraying
ings. Welding may be used to combat should not be used.
cavitation. Thermal spraying should
not be used.
Slurry Erosion
Slurry erosion is the progressive loss
of material from a surface caused by
slurry moving over the surface. Slurry
is a mixture of solid particles in a
liquid. If the slurry is corrosive, ero-
sion of material from the base metal
is accelerated.
Areas in which slurry erosion can
occur include slurry pipelines and
pumps, and oil well downhole equip-
ment. Welding and thermal spray coat-
ing may be used to combat some types
ASl R,,!>im n
of slurry erosion. When slurry is corro-
Conveyor systems are exposed to many types ofwear including fretting , which results
sive, the surfacing material must provide from repetitive stresses, ami adhesive wear, which results from parts sliding across
corrosion resistance. each other.
Surfacing ~ 267
Ga lling is a co ndition that occ urs Brinellin g occ urs in whee ls or rail s,
when excess ive fric tio n, ca used by ro ll ing e leme nt bea rings, and ca ms.
ru bbing of high spots on the surface, Wel di ng may be use d to combat
result s in locali zed welding with sub- brine ll ing . Therma l spraying should
sequent spa lling (formation of surface not be used .
slive rs) and further roughening of the
rubbing surfaces. Galling is a result of
an improper mati ng combi natio n be- SURFACING METHODS
twee n components, and not a failure
of anyo ne component. Ga lling may Surfacing methods used to repa ir and
resu lt in seizure of a com ponent. com bat wear are welding and thenna!
Examples of compo nents that gall sprayi ng. See Figure 24-2. Spray and
incl ude valve trim, engi ne camsbafts , fuse is a surfac ing variation that com-
and threaded connections. Galling may bines traits of both we lding and ther-
be combated using we lding. Therma l mal s pray ing. Surfaci ng by we lding
spraying shou ld not be used . creates fusion with the base metal. Sur-
fac ing by therma l sprayi ng ap plies a
coating to a surface that is mechanically
Pitting (Spalling) bonded to the base metal and does not
Pitting or spalling is fuse with it. Spray and fuse is a method
ljl the f orming oflocal-
Pillin g (spalling) is the forming of lo-
of improving wear or corrosion resis-
~
- ized cavities in metal
resulting from cor-
c a lized ca vities in met al re sultin g
tan ce th at incl udes e leme nts of both
from co rros io n, repe titive s lid ing or
msion. repetitive slid-
roll iog surface stresses, or poo r elec- surfacing weld and thermal spraying.
ing or rol ling sur- M an y co ns uma bles ca n be used for
face stresses. or poor troplating. Pitting leads to subs urface
electroplating. fati gue crac king . Pittin g appears on weld overlay and thermal spraying, but
the surface as cav itie s. depres sion s, a few co nsuma ble typ es are most of-
ten used to correct most wear problems.
or flakes.
Pittin g can occ u r in c a m path s,
gea r teeth , rolling element racewa ys, Welding
and sproc kets . Wel din g may be used Welding processes arc commonly used
to co mbat pittin g or spalling, but the to apply a weld overlay to produce the
typ e of mate ria l used must be ca re- desired propen ies on the surface of the
fully selected. Thermal spraying should metal. Weld ove rlay is the application
Weld overlay ;.'1 the
applicationof surfac-
not be used. of surfac ing usi ng a we lding process
ing using a we lding that crea tes a metallurgical bond with
I'ITH,'CSS that creates
metallurgical bond the base metal through melting of the
(J
Impingement
· forms sma ll craters
· cyclo ne separators
· removes chips of material
Liquid
· prog ressive material remova l
caused by the striking action
· steam turbine vanes
• fans exha usting liquid droplets
• weld ing
• thermal spray ing
Impingement of liquid
· rubber lining
• prog ressive loss of mate rial • ship prope llers • weld ing
Cav itat ion caused by air bubbles of a • pump impellers and cas ings
liquid collaps ing nea r su rface • ultrason ic cleaners
· ag itato rs
· localized da mage in
solid-state welding between
• face sea ls
· gears
• weld ing t
· plug valves
• threaded faste ner assemblies
• when slurry IScortosrve. must have adequate corrosion resistance
t determine prop er consumable by trial & error
Pining
· rem oval or displacement
of a surface
· cam paths
• gea r teeth
• weldi ng
Impact
·
surface
· rivetin g too ls
Damage caused by repetitive impact
collisions of two surfaces · pneumatic dril ls
Fi~1I1'"e24·2. Pa rts ill se n-ice are commonly suhjected 1(1 [our l.\1'CS of wear: ab rasion, erosion, adhe sion, and slit/ace fatigue. Surfa cing overlays
10 repair wea r call be app lied by welding and thermal spraying .
ZONE 3 ZONE2
} FACING
DILUTION " - .....,i-__-'--'-'!::'-' -' -_ _¥-_
ZONE "
BASE •
METAL .../"
ZONE 1: Base metal diluted by zone 2
ZONE 2: Facing diluted by base metal
ZONE 3: Minimal dilution
40 . , -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - --,
30 · f -- --== = - - - - -
0
0 20
si5
10
" 0
OAW SMAW GTAW GMAW PAW SAW
Figure 24·3. /)i/lltioll varies with the type of welding proce ss used for .m rfclcillK.
Surface Preparation
Base metal preparation for weld over-
lay depends on the required qualit y of
the finished surface. For dilly work, such
as guide plates, coke chute s. lIT power
shovels, where some degree of surface
Figure 24~S. I~ W ,l'lll:{t IC;llg is a welding process filar
porosity or inclusions may be tolerated,
uses a IIIIlR.l Il'1I electrode and metal powder.
loose scale, dirt, or other foreign sub-
The power source used for PAW weld stances should be removed by wire
over lay s cons is ts of a conventional brushing, grindin g, or sandblasting.
DCEN power supply unit. A second DC For critical work such as valve seats,
unit is connected between the tungsten pump shafts, or coating rolls where no
electrode and the arc-constricting orifice porosity or inclusions are permitted, the
to support a nontransferred arc. The sec- base metal must be prepared by machin-
ond power supply supplements the heat ing or grinding to bright metal; other-
of the transferred arc and serves as a pi- wise, surface irregulariti es can lead to
lot arc to start the transferred arc. Argon gas vo ids and inclu sion s. All forei gn
gas is used to form the plasma as well as matter such as grease, oxides, or dirt must
the shielding. be rem oved co mplete ly. The surface
may also be scrubbed with meth anol.
Handling of the component after prepa-
SAW Weld Overlays ration shou ld be minimized because
even fingerprints can interfere with good
Submerged arc we lding (SAW) is a
wetting action during surfacing.
welding pro cess that uses an arc be-
twee n a bare meta l electrode and the
weld pool. Th e SAW process is used Weld Overlay Filler Metals
when surfacing an extensive area, and
on parts that requ ire heavy depo sits of Filler metals used for weld overlay are
surfacing. Since SAW uses a high weld- formul ated to possess prop erties that
ing current, it has a high deposition rate provid e wear resistance or corrosion
and results in high quality depo sits. resistance to the surface. Filler metals
Filler metal may be either solid or may be bar e met al or w ire; coate d
tubular. Filler metal is especially suit- elect rode ; flux-co red electrode; metal
able for surfacing th at requires high powd er ; or metal-cerm et, self-fluxing
co mpression stre ng th. However, th e powder. See Figure 24-6.
Surfacing @o 273
• repairs on tool steels
R Fe 5-B
High speed Steel OR 60
E Fe 5-B
• high-stress abrasion
R Fe CroAt resistance for
High Chromium - heavily-loaded metal
OR 58
Iron Alloy
E Fe CroAt - metal sliding systems
in dirty environments
• low-stress abrasion
resistance
• metal-to-metal wear
R Ni Cr-C
• deposits that must
Nickel Alloy OR 35-56
be machined
ENi Cr-C
- shafts
- running in packing
- ash handling equipment
• metal-to-metal wear
RCo Cr-A • low-stress abrasion
Cobalt Alloy OR 38-47 resistance
ECo Cr-A • elevated temperatures
• corrosive environments
Figure 24-6. Filla metals may be bare metal or wire; coated electrode; flux-cored electrode; metal powder; or metal-cermet. self-fluxing powder.
AWS specifications identify filler and the limited ductility of some filler
metals for surfacing applications. The metals, cracking of the deposit may re-
Filler metals may AWS designation uses chemical sym- sult. Preheating the base metal helps
be bare metal or
wire; coated elec- bols to describe the main elements, such minimize cracking, and in some cases
trode; flux-cored as RNiCr-A. An R prefix stands for bare hardness of the deposit may be com-
electrode; metal promised to reduce cracking. In most
wire or rod, which does not normally
powder; or metal-
cermet, self-fluxing conduct current. An E prefix stands surfacing deposits (except those used
powder: for electrode, which can conduct cur- for sealing purposes) , some cracking
rent. The A, B, and C suffixes iden- is expected and is of little concern.
tify a specific alloy within the group.
The type of filler metal used depends Thermal Spraying
on the requirements of the weld metal /
/f
GAS
~ POWDERED
""'- - METAL ALLOY
HOPPER
' - FLUIDIZING
COMBUSTION GAS
CHAMBER
should wear a respirator. The gas is directed through the Figure 24-9. III plasma spraying. {/1/ 80.\" stream
l lrg m /
curries rhl' metal powder mrfllcillg materia! f rom a
nozzle and an arc is struck between the hopper to the elect rode holder. 71t(' powder moves info
electrode and the noz zle. As the gas the are' stream. is melted, ami [uses to the base metal.
• in psi
tin%
Figure 2~-8. Th erm al spraying processes include pl asma spraying, jll/mt' spraying, high-velocity OX)fuel (H VO F) flame spraying , spra y and
fu se, and a rc .\'p l'llying .
SPRAY
DEPOSIT
GAS - .....~J
GAS NOZZLE
WIRE
WIRE GUIDE
Surfacing ~ 279
reduce porosity usually results in hard, Thermal Spraying Operation
When spraying j7al
tI~
•
• surfaces. the surfac-
ing gnn is moved back
and jim" to allow a
fuJI. unlfon n depo sit.
brittle, and hi ghly oxidized coatings
that ar e likely to fail in service.
Oxidation normally occurs within the
The wire feed spee d. amount of spray,
and gas and oxygen pressure mu st be
re gulated accordin g to the rec-
Spraying should he-
melting flame and as the metal particles
ommendation s es ta b lis he d for the
gi" beyond olle edge fly to the surface. Generally, lillie oxida-
equipme nt to be used a nd the type of
of fill! area to be COl'- tion takes place as the metal is melted
ered and continue be- thermal spray ing to be done. Air pre s-
unle ss the gas-fuel mixture is oxidi zing .
yond the opposite n ul. sure is normally set for 60 psi. The use
The mo st common causes of oxidation
of a flowm eter e nsures accurate con-
ar e ov erheating o f the coating , exces-
trol o f the gas flow. A slight increase
sive use of oxygen, and spraying at too
in air pre ssure provides a finer coating
great a distance from the workpiece. To and, similarly, a decrease in air pre s-
protect against oxidation. metal s can be sure produce s a coarser coating.
a lu m in ized or coated with a nickel - The tip of the melting wire should
chromium deposit and then heat treated. project beyond the end of the air cap .
The length of the projection depends
largely on th e material being used .
A recommended practice is to speed
up the wire feed unt il c hunks of wire
are being ejected, then reduce the wire
feed unt il the ejection of chunks stops.
Each coating should be between
.003" and .005" thick, or as light as
possible. Too heavy a coating produces
an irregular and stratified surface. The
actual movement of the surfacing gun
is similar to paint spraying. The nozzle
should be kept approximately 4" to 10"
away from the surface and moved with
a uniform motion . If the gun is held
too close to the work, minute cracks
form in the coating . Too great a dis-
tance produces a so ft, s po ng y deposit
with poor phy sical properties. Th e gun
travel speed is a lso important. When
Wht'll surfacing using an automated plasma sprayer: wire feed. limO/till ofspray, gas the travel speed is too rapid, the coat-
oxygen pressure, and othe r parameters lire preprogrannned by the operator.
(1/1(/
ing develops hi gh oxide c ontent.
After th e first lay e r, either the
6 Postt reatme nt s applied afte r thermal workpi ece or th e gun is rotated 90 °
spraying include sealing 10 prevent cor- and the sp ray ing pattern is repeated
ros ion and/or lengt hen the se n-ice life of
a part; diffusing to provide co rros ion re- for each subseq ue nt coating until the
sis tance ; and surface fi nishing. Surface required thi ckne ss is built up . On cy-
fi nishing pro cesses include machinin g, lindrical piec es. the work is generally
grinding. buffing (poli shing ), and abra -
fa stened in a lath e with the g un
sive tumbling.
mounted on a tr av eling c a rr iage.
I. What is surfacing?
2. What benefit s does surfac ing provide when used for repair work?
3. What types of wear do parts encounter in service?
4. What is solid partiele impingement?
5. What is pitting?
6. What are the two common surfacing overlay meth ods?
7. What is diluti on?
8. What surface defects can occur on critical work if the surface is not properl y prepared?
9. Why should surfacing be done in flat position ?
10. How should the torch be manipulated when surfacing large objects with SMAW where a
high depo sition rate is required?
I I. What is the most commonly used form of thermal spraying?
12. When is high-velocit y oxy fuel (HVO F) flame spraying comm onl y used ?
Cutting may be controlled manually or with mechanized equipment. In manual cutting. a torch is ma-
nipulated over the area to be cut. In machine cutting. the torch is guided entirely by automatic controls.
The cutting process used depends largely on the kind of metal to be cut or the cost of the operation.
Common cutting processes used are oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC). plasma arc cutting (PAC). and air car-
bon arc cutting (CAC-A).
283
Co ppe r and a lu mi num fo rm similar savings. Acetylene gas is the gas most
high -m elting-point oxides and in ad- commonly used for OFe. Because oxy-
dition possess high thermal co nductiv- ge n and ace tylene are the most co m-
ity, making it diffic ult for them to be mon gases used in OFC, oxyacetylene
heated sufficiently. equipment and procedures are depicted.
Torches
For the rap id cu tting of metal to be
possible, it is nece ssary to use a cut-
ting torch th at will heat the iron or
steel to a certain temperature and then"-
direct the oxygen onto the heated sec-
tion to perform the cutting action. See
Figure 25 -2.
CUTTI NG OXYGEN
HOLE
PREHE AT HOLES
A number of different tip sizes are pressure cannot always be strictly fol-
prov ided for cutting metals of varying lowed because cutting co nditions are
thicknesses. In addition, special tips are not the same for every metal.
made for other purposes , such as for
clean ing metal; cutting rusty, scaly, or Piercing Holes
painted surfaces; rivet washing; etc. It For steel up to ¥.{' thick, hold the torch
is possib le to convert a welding torch ove r the area where the hole is to be
into a CUlling torch by repl ac ing the cut until thc name has heated a small,
mixing head with a CUlling allachment. round spot. Gradually press down the
oxygen lever and at the same time raise
Oxygen and Acetylene Pressures, The thc tip slightly. A small, round hole is
correc t oxygen a nd ace ty lene prcs- quickly pierced through the mctal. See The correct oxygen
sures to bc used depend upon the tip
size used, the type of cutting to be pcr-
formed, and the thickness of the metal
Figure 25-5 . Fo r stee l more than 1/2'
thick, move the torch slow ly in a cir-
cular moti on as the oxygen le ve r is
tI
. ~ and acetylene pres-
.= sures to be used de-
pend upon the tip size
used. the type of ( ' /I t-
to be CU t. Sec Fig ure 25-4. Always depressed to pierce the metal. ting /0 be performed.
co nsu lt ma nufacturer recommenda- Wh en la rge r hol es an d ci rcu lar and the thickn ess of
the metal to he Cllt .
tion s as to the proper oxygen and shapes are requ ired, trace the shapes
ace ty lene pre ssu re settings for a par- with a soapstone. If the holes are located
ticular torch and tip. The given oxygcn away from the edge of the wo rkpiece,
Figure 25-4. The ('orn 'l"I OX)'Xe l1 and acetvtene pressure lilliS' he used when cutting meta ls; cor rect press urt''''
Me determined bv the tip site and the thickness of tlir met al to be cut.
Beveling
To make a bevel cut on steel , incline
the head of the torch to the desired
angle rather than holding it vertically.
An even bevel may be made by rest-
ing the edge of the torch tip on the
®Depress oxygen lever and raise tip slightly workpiece a, a support, or by clamping
a piece of angle iron across the
'" workpiece. A cutting machine can also
be set to automatically cut the proper
beveled edge . See Figure 25-7.
~
For high-sp eed cut-
Flgure 25-8. Wilen cutting round stu ck , sta rr 90 ° PLASMA ARC CUTTING (PAC) .~ ling of nonferrous
fro m the lOp edge. Then f ollow around the conto ur
of the ba r: Plasma arc cutting (PAC) is a cutting pro- .= meta ls, pla sma arc
cutting is the most
cess that uses a constricted arc to remove effective.
Cutting Cast Iron molten metal with a high-velocity jet of
Wh en cutting cast iron, the chem ical ionized gas. Th e hi gh -velocity jet of
co mpos ition o f the iron must be con- ionized ga s issue s from a constricting
sidered. Since cast iron has such a wide o rifice and removes the molten metal.
range of uses, a vast differen ce in qual - PAC is one of the be st processes fo r
ity and chemi cal composition can be high-speed cutting o f nonferrous met-
expected. The better grades of castings als and stainless steels. lt cut s carbon
are more ea sily cut. Do not start a cut steel up to 10 time s fa ster than any
in ca st iron or heavy steel unless it can oxyfuel mixture , with equal quality and
be completed without stopping. at Jess cost. See Figure 25-10.
Ffuure 25-9. Th e OXYNt' 1l an d
ace ty le ne pre.\"sure settings re -
quired f o r cut ting ( ' {/ .I'1 iron ar r
de/ermined by the tip size lind the
thickness of the ('<H ( iron.
L-3 50 7 to 8
1'h 60
2 70
3 80
4 90
L-4 6 110 8 to 10
8 120
10 150
12 170
• in in.
t in Ib
Manual PAC
In a plasma arc cutting torch. the tip of
the e lec trode is loc at ed within the
tl]
•~
.=
lt11'la,m W arc cutting.
set the polarity 10 di-
reel current electrode
negative.
Figure 25-10. The ptasma arc ("U/f inK I'roce.~.\· is 0111'
of the bes t " ;K" " ~I't'f'd cutti ng proc esses for nonfer-
no zzl e . T he no zzl e has a relati vel y
sma ll o pe ning (o rifice), whi ch co n-
rous metal s and S /d ;lI /('.U steels. st ric ts th e arc . T he gas mu st flo w
through the arc where it is heated to
Plasm a is often co nsi de red the the pla sm a te mpe rature ran ge. Since
fourth state of matter. The other three the gas cannot expand due to the con-
are ga s, liquid , and solid. Pla sma re- struction of the nozzl e , it is forced
sults when a ga s is heated to a high through the op ening. and emerges at
temperature and changes into positive an extrem ely high velocity and hotter
ions, neutral atom s, and negative elec- than any n am e. This heat melts any
trons. When matter changes from one known metal and its velocity blasts the
state to another, latent heat is gener- molten metal throu gh the plate cre at-
ated. Latent heat is required to change ing a kerf. See Figure 25- 11.
ORIFICE GAS
o ELECTRODE
(CATHODE)
SHIELDING!
COOLING
GAS
+ GAS
NOZZLE
PLASMA ARC ~
Figure 25-11. Gases emerge from the no ule oj a I'!W'fII(f an- torch in the form of a high- velocity jet stream fil m C(/ II MU.I" thro ugh the metal,
creating II kerf.
Mechanical PAC
To make a proper plasma arc cut, the
pow er supply and the gas flow must
be adj usted to the appropriate settings. ESAB \\01.1''' 8 "'", C"II;II/: 1',..l< luo 'I.\'
See Figure 25- 12. When the operator A plasma cutt ing tool is commo nly used f or accurately cutting circles and large
pu she s the START button on the cun 'es.
•II clt1
kW
• 65% a rgon. 35% hydroge n mmure
•• mullipo rt orifice
Flgure 25-12. The operator mU.~1 adj ust the power supply and ga.\' }70w ((I the appropriate settin gs for l/ particular PAC operat ion.
tI
cutting are plain or copper-clad Use plain or copper-
Gouging is a cutting process that re- .~ clad carbon-grap~ite
carbon-graphite electrodes . Plain .= rods when cutting
moves metal by melting or burning off
carbon-graphite electrodes are less ex- metals with the air
a portion of the base metal to form a carbon arc process.
pensive, but copper-clad carbon -
bevel or groove. The depth and con-
graphite electrodes last longer, carry
tour of the groove are controlled by
higher currents, and produce more
the electrode angle and travel speed.
uniform cuts . Electrode holders are
For a narrow, deep groove, a steep elec-
specially designed for air carbon arc
trode angle and slow speed are used .
cutting. See Figure 25-15.
A tlat electrode angle and fast speed
Air carbon arc cutting is used to cut
produce a wide, shallow groove. The
metal, to gouge out cracks , to re-
width of the groove is also intluenced
move risers and pads from castings ,
by the diameter of the electrode .
to remove inferior welds, and to
During all gouging operations, using
backgouge and prepare grooves for
the proper travel speed produces a
welding. Air carbon arc cutting is
smooth, hissing sound.
used when slightly ragged edges are
The electrode holder should be
not objectionable. The cut area is
gripped so that a maximum of 6" of
small, and since metal is melted and
electrode extends from the electrode
removed quickly, the surrounding
holder to the work. For aluminum al-
area does not reach high tempera-
loys the distance should be reduced to
ture s. This reduces the tendency to-
4". Hold the electrode holder so the
ward distortion and cracking.
electrode slopes back from the direc-
Air carbon arc cutting may be used
tion of travel. The jet air stream should
for alumimum alloys, copper alloys,
be behind the electrode. Maintain a
carbon steels, cast irons, nickels, alloys,
short arc and travel fast enough to keep
and stainless steels . It is not recom-
up with metal removal. The arc must
mended for titanium or zirconium.
provide sufficient clearance so the
After air carbon arc cutting, but be-
compressed air blast can sweep be-
fore welding, grinding must be used
neath the electrode and remove all
to remove the surface that has picked
molten metal.
up carbon. Gouging in tlat position is typically
performed toward the left (as the work
is viewed). The electrode holder
o Theair carbonarc cutting process mustbe
properly performed when gouging, cutting,
should be held perpendicular to the
direction of travel , with the electrode
washing, Of beveling metals to prevent car- pointing to the left. The air jet orifices
burized molten metal from remaining on
the surface. should be under the electrode and should
follow the electrode. See Figure 25-16.
~:'r.~"""_
ELECTRODE HOLDER \
ELECTRODE ~::;1:::~~~
~ Exe rc ises
Cutting Steel Using Oxyfuel Cutting...
•••••••••••••••
exerCise
•.
7. Start the cut at the edge of the workpiece. Hold the torch with the tip vertical to the surface of
the metal and the inner cone of the heating flame approximately 1/1 6" above the line. Hold the
torch steady until a spot in the metal has been heated to a bright red.
8. Gradually press down the oxygen pressure lever and move the torch forward slowly along
the line.
The torch should be moved just rapidly enough to ensure a fast but continuous cut. A shower
of sparks falling from the underside of the cut indicates that penetration is complete and the
cut is proceeding correctly.
9. If the cut does not seem to penetrate the metal, close the oxygen pressure lever and reheat the
metal until it is a bright red again. If the edges of the cut appear to melt and have a very
ragged appearance, the metal is not burning through and the torch is being moved too slowly.
10. Initially, the workpieces may stick together, even when the cut has penetrated through. This
is due to the slag produced by the cutting flowing across the workpiece. Slag is not a serious
problem because it is quite brittle, and a slight blow with the hammer will separate cut sec-
tions .
1 1. It may occasionally be necessary to start the cut in frorn the edge of the plate. If so, hold the
preheating flame slightly longer on the metal; then raise the cutting nozzle about 112" and
depress the oxygen lever. When a hole is cut through, lower the torch to its normal position
and proceed with the cut in the usual manner.
I
...L ~
;1"\ ~TO'
~NEUTRAL
FLAME
Hold torch at a 40 ' to 50' angle
and heat starting point
•
Move torch with
swinging motion
Move torch along cut Continue swinging motion
for entire length of cut
FRONT VIEW TOP VIEW
4 . Light the torch and adj ust the preheating flame so that it shows an excess of acetylene.
5. The excess acetylene, as indicated by the length of the white cone , must be varied to best suit
the grade and thickness of the cas t iron to be cut. Experience is the best guide ; however , it
generally varies from little or no excess of ace ty lene for extreme ly thin workpieces to an
excess of a I" to 2" white cone for thick workpieces,
6 . Bring the tip of the torch to the starting point. Hold the torch at an angle of approxim ately 40°
to 50° and heat a spot about 'h" in diameter to a molten condition.
7 . With the end of the preheating cone about 3110" from the metal, start to move the torch and open
the high-pressure cutting valve. A swinging motion may be required for thick metals .
If adjustments to the Ilame are needed, they should be made with the high-pressure valve wide
open to avoid any change in the character of the flame during the cutting operation.
S. Grad ually bring the torch along the line of the cut, continuing the swinging motion. As the cut
progresses, grad ually straighten the torch to an angle of 65° to 70° to ensure thorough penetra-
tion. Co ntinue the swinging motion along the entire length of the cut.
9. On thick workpieces, ensure that there is sufficient heat to allow the cut to proceed without
interruption. On thin workpieces, it is easy to lose the cut as the surface of the metal cools too
rapidly and only a slight groove is made with the flame .
Restart a cut by heat ing a sma ll circle as prev iously described. Gradually raise the torch and
incline it to cut away the lower port ion of the workpiece. Proceed as before, with the exposed
side of the cutting groove appearing bright. Co ntinue to cut until finis hed.
EVALUATING REPAIR METHODS repair, the leaking area must be cut out
and an insert plate welded flush with the
Repair welding is used only if it is eco- tank wall. See Figure 26-1.
nomical or if a replacement part is not
available. If a piece of equipment fails
within the warranty period, the manu- Failure Analysis
facturer of the equipment is contacted
to determine replacement options be- Failure analysis provides an accurate
fore developing a repair plan. explanation of the cause of a failure or
Certain repairs may require the ap- loss of performance. Failure analysis
proval of authorized personnel, use techniques consist of failure modes and
of a qualified procedure, and/or prep- effects analysis, physical failure analy-
aration of supporting documentation. sis, and root cause failure analysis.
Repairs that are regulated by appli- Failure modes and effects analysis
cable codes and standards, such as re- is a failure analysis process that pro-
pairs to aircraft, pressure vessels, and vides a diagnosis of the technical cause
transportation containers, require doc- of failure using experience gained
umentation that repairs were made from previous failures . Physical fail-
appropriately. ure analysis is a failure analysis pro-
An understanding of how a part failed cess that provides a diagnosis of the
is necessary before considering repair technical cause of failure using rigor- A n understanding of
how a part failed is
methods. Some repair methods may not ous analytical methods . Root cause ne cessary before
be effective on certain failures. For ex- failure analysis is a failure analysis considering repair
ample, a leaking stainless steel tank that process that determines how to prevent methods. Some re-
pair methods ma y
has failed by chloride stress cracking a failure from recurring by understand- not be effective on
cannot be repair welded. The heat cre- ing how the actions of humans or sys- certain fai lures.
ated by grinding to remove the cracks tems may have led to the technical
or by welding over the cracks actually cause of the failure. Root cause failure
accelerates the spreading of the crack , analysis seeks to eliminate defects so
making it worse. For an effective weld that the failure does not recur.
299
Ftgure 26-1. An understanding
of ho ll"'p(lnfailecli.~11e(·es.~Clr)'
"'''1'''
selecting all effective repa ir
".- •.. . - .. . ~
method.
HEAT ACCELERATES J
SPREAD OF CRACKS
INSERT PLATE
WELDED FLUSH WITH
THE TANK WALL
-.It:1
-
EFFECTIVE WELD REPAIR
Root cause failure analysis uses fail- Once the technical cause is identified,
Root cause fail ure ure modes and effects analysis or physi- human behavior and system operations
a na lysis id entifies
and links 'he three cal failure analysis to determine the root causes that contribute to the root cause
levels of defi ciency cau se of fa ilure . Overall, root cause of failure can be dete rmined. Once the
that lead to failures: fai lu re ana lys is ide ntifies and lin ks root cause of the failure is determined, a
technical, hunum,
and system.
thre e level s of de ficienc y that lead to repair plan can be established. Mechani-
fa ilures: cal repa ir and we ld repa ir are two op-
• technica l causes that lead to equip- tions for conducting repair welding.
ment unre liabi lity
• human cau ses that lead to tec hni- o An understanding of hov..· a part jailed is
necessary 10 pre vent further dama ge to the
ca l ca uses
part. Some repair options. such as weld-
• system operations ca use s that lead ing, I1UI )' worsen the condition of the pan.
10 human causes
~~'~
cess that con sists of method s that do tigue strength is increased.
not create a metallurgical bond between
the restored parts or at the restored sur-
face . Mechanical repai r methods pro-
duce a physi cal joining or resurfacing
of parts without metallorgical bonding. I
CLEAVAGE PEELING
Mechanical repai r does not involve a
significa nt heat input, which reduces the JOINT FAILURE
poten tia l for di stortion and re sidual
stresses that may occur in weld repair.
Som e mechanical repai r method s
may be performed in the field where
the failore occurred; however, the failed
par t is generally tak en to a shop for
I
M ec ha nica l repair
repair. Mechani cal repair methods in- .~ methods do not ere -
clude adhesive bonding, cold mechani - 0= at e a met all urg ica l
bond with the surface
cal repair, electroplating , thermal spray ADHESIVE BONDING COMBINED
that is being repaired.
WITH RIVETING
coating, and blend grinding.
Adhesive Bonding
I
Adhesive banding is
Adhesive bonding is th e joining of .~ the joining (~f parts
parts with an adhe si ve placed be- .= with an adhesive that
twee n th e fa ying (matin g) surfa ces , Surface Preparation . A clean, dry sur- is placed between the
faying (ma ting ) sur-
wh ich produ ce s an adhe sive bond . face is necessary for a quality adhesive
faces, producing an
A satisfac tory adhe sive bond requ ires bond. Joint failure commonly occurs adhesive hondo
close contact between the surface s to because of inad equ ate cle aning. Sur-
be j oin ed . face cleanliness may be ev aluated by
Adh esive bonded par ts normally pouring a small quantity of water over
have a high resistance to shear and ten- the cleaned surface. If the water breaks
sion stresses because the entire surface into individual droplets, some contami-
are a of th e join t contributes to th e nation is present. If the water uniformly
strength of the bond. On the other hand, covers the surface in a thin layer, the
adhes ive bonded parts e xhibit rela- surface is c lean. Surface preparation
tively low resistance to clea vage and methods for adhesive bonding are abra-
pee ling . T hus, if the load is conc en - siv e cleaning , so lve nt cleaning, and
trated at the end of the bond, the joint chemical con version .
may start to fail from the loaded end , Abrasiv e cleaning includes sand-
leadin g to incremental separation into blastin g, sanding, and wir e brushin g.
the body of the joint ("unzipping"). Abrasive c leaning is used to remove
To minimi ze or eliminate the nega- heavy layers of rust or other deposits.
ti ve effect s of peelin g or cl eavage, Solvent cleaning includes hot alkalin e
adhe si ve bonding may be comb ined wa shing, solve nt wiping, and vapor
with an additional mechanical fasten- degreasing. When using solvent clean-
ing method s uch as riveting. Ri vet- ing, the solvents must be properly dis-
ing coupled with adhes ive bond ing po sed of once c lea ning is fini sh ed .
al so increases th e fat igu e str eng th. Chemical conversio n includes anodiz-
See Figure 26- 2. ing and pho sphatin g.
• good room temperature strength and toughness Applied as hot melt and cures
Polyamide
• aluminum and copper by cooling
moderate strength, flexible, good adhesion Applied as hot melt and cures
Polyhydroxyether
nickel and copper by cooling
• flexible
Rubber-containing limited load bearing ability, but high impact Varies, but mostly pressure
(e.g. neoprene. natural rubber) strength and moisture resistance sensitive
Fig ure 26-3. VariOlH adhesives may be used depending 01 1 the service requ irements of the pari 10 be repaired.
DRILL H AMMER
BIT
HOLE
PATTE RN
~k
ST ITC HING M AC H I N ED
PIN FLUSH W IT H
~ SURFAC E
rco: I
, Electroplating pa rt before e lectro pla ting , and baking
Electroplating is the the part a fter electroplati ng . Baking
.~ application of a thin. Electroplating is the appl icat ion of a
·= hord. chrome ('(Kltin/-: to th in, hard , chro me coating to repair should be performed for 4 hr at 350°F
repair mil/or damage. ( 175°C) or higher.
minor dama ge. The coating is typically
between 5 mil and 10 mil thick. The Electroplating may also be used for
part is masked with a nonconducting minor rep airs by mean s o f selective
co mpo und suc h as wax to scree n ar- plat ing. Selective plating is a form of
ea s not to be plated . Th e part is then electroplating used for touch-up repairs
r= I
•~
Selective platin g is a
form ofelectroplating
placed in an electro plati ng tank that
co nta ins e lec tro plat ing solut io n. An
o n wo rn or damaged parts . Selective
plating can be performed in the field or
·= used for touch- up re- electric current is applied , with the part in the shop to repair nick s, scratches,
pairs that call he pa- o r ding s in rolls , bearing journal s,
formed in the field or as the negativ e electrode in the circuit,
ill flit' shop. so that metal (plating) is deposited on wear surfaces, or oil seal surfaces . See
the part. Heavier platin g thickness ca n Figure 26 -5 .
be achieved by applying a copper flash An a no de satura ted w it h specia l
pl ate a nd c rea ting the bul k o f th e plating so lutio n is used for se lective
buildup (up to '/16") with electroplated platin g. A rectified AC pow er supply
nick el. Wh en e lec tro pla t ing is in- is co nnected to the workpiece and the
tended to produce wear resi stance, a plating anode. Selecti ve platin g is
thin layer of electroplate is used . acc ompli shed by the relati ve moti on
Elec tro plat ing redu ces the fatigue of the solution-soaked anode and the
st re ng th of rotati ng or recipro catin g workpiece . A varie ty of plating types
equipme nt s uch as shafts. Fat igue is ava ilable; however, hard nickel and
strength can be restored by peening the nickel alloy platin g are most co mmon.
304 @ Welding Skill"
Figure 26-6 . The SWf(l Cf'S of PlJnS
to be repaired wi th thermal spray
coating mltSI be properly under-
RADIUS FOR
GRADUAL
minimize 'he chalice of chip-
C UI 10
CORRECT
TAN~
ments. Examples of structural weld
A repairs are restoration of a broken
WATERLlN~j
COR RODED AT
rotating shaft, or rebu ild ing a stor-
CORRO DED TANK age tank wall that has worn to less
than the design thickness.
Before structural weld repair is per-
formed, confirm that the res idual
stresses introduced by the weld will
not worsen the failure. Welding must
BLEN D GRINDIN G be don e in a region away from the
REDUCES STRESS
CONCENTRATION critical high stress region where the
failure occurred to prevent continued
REPAIRED TANK
failure of the part.
306 ~ Welding Skills
When fatigue stresses are a factor,
the location of the weld repair must be
in a region away from a change in sec-
components to extend their useful life.
Surfacing weld repair can be used for
many appli cati ons, The co mpatibility
r=I
.~
.=
The compatibility of
the base metal and
the surfac ing mate-
tion thickness, where the stress concen- of the base metal and the s urfaci ng ria/ determines which
material determines which surfac ing surfacing weld re-
tration is highest. See Figure 26-8.
pa ir technique 10 UM' .
Preheating , posthea ting, and distor- weld repair technique to use. As with
tion cont rol requiremeot s must be de- structu ral weld re pair, preheatin g ,
tailed in the repair plan. The structural po stheatin g , and di st ortion con tro l
weld repair technique must minimi ze must be detailed in the repair plan.
distortion and prevent the introduction Surfacing weld repair may be done
of excessive residual stresses. If the re- in the shop or in the field and may be
pair is greater than W' thick or the joint perform ed automat ically or manually.
is highly restrained, low-hydrogen elec- Autom ati c surfaci ng we ld re pa ir is
trodes should be used. A fillet weld joint typically performed on large corroded
is commonly a highl y restrained joint areas that must be rebuilt. Automatic sur-
and the toe should be undercut when a faci ng welding machines have one or
fillet weld joint is to be used in fatigue two GMAW head s and depo sit metal
or high stress applicatio ns. on the vertical inside surface. The weld-
ing heads are mounted on a boom that
~
. .. rotates around a centerline and makes
. the metal deposi ts on the inside diam-
SHAFT FRACTURES eter of the corroded surface. Many au-
ROTATION IN REGION OF
( I HIGHEST STRESS tomatic surfacing weld repair machines
are portabl e enough to be used in the
\J------.J('c:=J field as well. For manual surfacing re-
pair in the field , SMAW is preferred,
FRACTURED SHAFT however, OFW proc esses can also be
used because the equipment is portable.
WELD NEW
STUB HERE The thickness of the surfacing weld
ROTATION lA" RADIUS repair should not be greater than twice
SMOOTHLY POLISHED the amount of wear. For hard deposits,
(:::::1icMINIM~M RADIUS OF
SMOOTHLY POLISHED
~. existing deposit that has partially worn
away. A worn deposit must be com-
pletely removed by grinding.
SMAW or FCAW may be used after
HOLLOW SHAFT REPAIR
a worn depo sit is co mplete ly ground
Figure 26·ft Whn l makin g a structural weld repair, away, and for applications in which the
ensure the weld is made a way fro m tile region of same component is resurfaced o n a
highest stress.
regular basis. GMAW is used with au-
tom atic or semiautomatic processes .
Surfacing Weld Repair
GTAWand PAW arc typically only used
Surfacing weld repai r is the applica - on small component.' because they are
tion of a layer, or layers, of weld metal more expensive, take longer to apply,
to restore corro ded, worn, or cavitated and there is less availability of wires.
Repair Weld ing @ 307
OAW is used for bronze bearing sur- welded to a corro de d surface. The
faci ng weld repair. Only one pass of corrosion -resistant sheets are usually
weld metal is required, which helps mad e of nickel alloy. GMAW is com-
minimi ze distortion. However, if the re- monl y used for wallpapering using
pair is being don e to improve corro- short circuiting transfer or pulsed spray
sion resistance, the level of dilution by transfer. An intermittent fillet weld is
the base metal must be determined to used with adjac ent sheets overlapping
ensure that one pass is adequate. If di- one another. A continuous fill et weld
lution of the surfacing weld could be a is made between the new sheet and the
problem, a second pass may be required. pre viou sly installed sheet. See Figure
Peening is used to minimi ze distor- 26- 9. Continuo us fill et weld s are re-
tion and cross chec king in surfac ing qu ired around the entire outer edge
deposits. Crosschecking is a series of of the corrosion -resistant sheet so that
parall el cracks about '/2" apart that oc- no leakage occ urs . If she e ts larger
cur in brittl e deposits (with hardness than I sq ft are used, spot weld s or
greater than HRC 50) as they under go plu g weld s sh ou l d be made in the
stress relief. Peening is done by bat- middle of each sheet to provide addi-
tering the surface with a blunt-no sed tional reinforcement.
hamm er while the temperature exceeds
JOOO°F (540°C) . Peening compresses
the surface and reduces residual ten-
sile stresses . For manual repair weld
processe s, the welder deposits 6" of
surfacing and then peens the surface.
Pitting can occur from underbead
cracking if surfacing weld repair is
appli ed to heat-treatable steels without
sufficient preheating and postheating .
To prevent hardening of the base metal
durin g surfacing weld repair, the base
metal must be preheated to the appro-
priate temperature. Preheat tempera-
ture must be maintained throughout the
procedure , and the component must be HapU'I {mema/;",,,,I, 1m:
blanket-cool ed after surfacing weld Figure 26-9. Corrosion-resistant sheets are overlapped.
with a fillet weld made between flnv and prev iously
repair is completed. installed sheets, 10 repair (I corroded surface.
Aluminum bronze surfacing welds
are used to restore plungers in pumps,
Sleeving
rams in extrusion presses, and rings on
hydraulic ram s. An aluminum bronze Sle eving is a weld repair method that
surfac ing weld wears fast er than the appli es surfacing to badly worn shafts
hardened stee l sleeve it contacts , but by welding snug- fitting semicircular
can be replaced mo re easily. Alumi - form s to cov er the shaft surfac e. Half
num bronze s can also be used to re- sleev es are usually mad e of a wear-
pair weld worn bron ze bearings in resistant cobalt alloy. Transverse shrink-
hea vy machinery, and to overlay cast age tends to pull the half sleeves tightly
Wa f/p ap er in g and
sleeving are special - iron gears and sheaves . down on the shaft when sleeves are lon-
ired repair welding gitudinally welded to one another. Lon-
p roc esse s and a re Wallpapering gitudinal relief grooves are cut into the
tess commonly used
than ot he r repair
Wallpapering is a weld repair method shaft to prevent heat buildup that might
welding processes. that uses thin, usuall y '116" , sheets of lead to crackin g where the half sleeves
corros ion- re sis tant material that are arc welded together.
308 €1 Welding Skills
WELD REPAIR PLANS C Per AIVS. D/ ./ . Structural Welding Codc-
Steel. whenperforming repairs 10 an existing
When develop ing a we ld rep air plan , stm ctllre. all modifications mllst meet de-
all fact ors th at lead to a success ful sign requirements specifiedby the engineer.
repair mu st be co ns ide re d . Fact ors The engineer must prepare a comprehen-
sive plan (weld repair plan) fo r all repair
include determining necessity of re- work to be performed.
pairs , repair codes , identifying ba se
metal , joint profil e, distortion control ,
and rep air we lding pr ocedures. See Repa ir C od es. Weld repair ma y be
Fig ure 26 - 10. governed by a code, in whi ch case it
is necessary to foll ow the applicable
requirements, or risk penalties for vio-
Determining Necessity of lation of the code . Som e codes ad-
Repairs dre ss rep air welding requirement s as
Before an y rep airs can take place, it a speci fic subjec t and ot hers requi re
mu st be det ermined wh ether a weld welding qualification s that apply to
repair is the best course of action for both new and repair welding . Codes
the part. Some components can be re- dealing spec ifica lly with repairs are
paired , whil e others are normall y re- sometimes called in-service inspecti on
placed . Man y fact or s de te rmine th e and repair codes. All repair codes re-
type of repair to be made, or whether quire qu ali fied we ldi ng procedures,
qualified welders, and proof that weld- A documented re-
any re pa ir a t a ll s ho uld be m ad e . pair we ld ing plun
Based on the e ffects of distortion and ers are qualified to perform the required " "1.\'/ be created be-
res idual stress in the performance of procedures. Most codes rely on ASME fore (>l'eI)' job.
the co mpo ne nt, mechan ical rep air Section IX and AWS D 1.1 to describe
methods may offer better option s. the requ irements for qualifi ed weldin g
Mechani cal repair meth ods may pro- procedures and welders. Nondestru c-
vide better results because if an incor- tive e xa mination must be performed
by qualifi ed ex am ine rs , and th e re-
rect welding procedure is used , the re
sults interpr eted by inspecto rs qu ali-
is an increased chance of failure .
fied in the ap pl icab le code . T he
Th e com ponent or equipmen t name
followin g spec ific types of equip ment
must be doc ume nte d. A fabricatio n
are cove red by repair codes :
drawing number is assigned to the com-
ponent to he designed. The fabrication • Bridges, steel-frame buildin gs, and
drawin g number for th e compon ent ships may only be repaired with
contains essent ial data , such as mate- spe c ia l authori zation . Structu ral
rials of construction and heat treatment steel and bridges are built in acco r-
requirem en ts, whe n applicable . For dan ce with American Weldin g So-
shafts , the fabrica tion drawing num- ciety Codes . Th e repa ir work must
ber contai ns other esse ntia l ioforma- be designe d: a pproved . Wel der s
tion necessary to ma ke an e ffec tive must be qualified according to the
rep air. Esse ntial informati on such as code used ; and the work must also
shaft finish; radii, if stepped locations; be inspected. Writt en weldin g pro-
special fits; existing surface treatment s; cedures are required .
and run out are includ ed. • Tran sport ation equipment and co n-
The techni cal cause of failure must tainers, such as railroad locomotives
be known and und erst ood. Using an and rail road car whee ls, high -
inappropriate weld repa ir method may strength, low-alloy steel truck frames,
cause the repair to fail rap idly. Inap- and compressed gas containers are
propria te we ld repair method s are a not usually weld repaired. Weldin g
co mmo n probl em w he n pe rform ing is only permitted with specia l per-
weld repai r on fatigue failures. mission and approva l.
Figure 26-10 . A weld repair pla n detail s all required stl'/H to successfulty complete a repair weld.
.. values are approximate and vary with state 01healthand physical activities
t % by volume
* at atmospheric pressure
SITE LOCATION and OESCRIPTIO N PERMIT SPACE HAZARDS (indicate specif ic hazard s with initials)
Bunker Wate r Tank #2 _ _ Oxyg en def iciency (less than 19.5%)
- - Electrical Shock
- - Materials harmful to sk in
AUTHORIZED DURATION OF PERMIT
_ _ En gulfment
DATE: 10/ 2 to 10/4
- - Other:
TIME: 7:00 AM to 3:00PM
• BOLD DENOTES MINIMUM REQUIRE MENTS TO BE COMPLETED AND REVIEWED PRIOR TO ENTRY·
REQUIREMENTS COMPLETED DATE TIME REQUIREMENTS COMPLETED DATE TIME
Loc k OutJOe-.energ izelTag-out 1012 0900 Full Body Harn ess wr o- ri ng 10 /4 08,00
Line(s) Broken- Capp ed-Blanked 1012 11,00 Emergency Escape Retri eval Equ ip 10 /4 08,00
Purge-Flush and Vent 10/3 09,00 Lifelines 10/4 08,00
Ventilation 10/3 10 ,00 Fir e Extinguishers 10 /4 08,00
Secure Ar ea (Po st and Flag) 1012_ 0800 Lightin g (Exp losiveproof) 10/4 08,00
Breathing Apparatu s 10 /4 08,00 Protective Clo thing 1Qi1.- 08,00
Resuscitator-Inhalator 10/4 08,00 Resplrator(s) (Air Purifying) 10/4 08,00
Standby Safety Personnel 10 /4 08,00 Burning and Welding Permit 10/4 QMQ
Note: Items that do not apply enter N/A in the blank.
REMARKS:
GAS TESTER NAM E & CHECK # 1NSTRUMENTISj USED MODEL &/OR TYPE SER IAL &/OR UNIT #
Fh mrc 26· 12. A confined .\"I'a("(' entr y permit form dOCllll1ellt.~ preparations. procedures. and required equipment,
I. What are the three levels of deficiency analyzed by root cause failure analysis?
2. When are mechanical repa irs required rather than repair welding?
3. What is adhesive bonding?
4. Why must an adhesive bonded joint be allowed to cure?
5. On what type of metal is cold mechanical repa ir primarily used?
6. What is electroplating?
7. What type of bond is produced between thermal spray coating and the base metal?
8. Why must thermal spray coatings be applied to smooth base metals and not sharp corners?
9. What conditions must be present in order to use blend grinding as a repair option?
10. What are the two major types of weld repair?
I I. What is the benefit of peening a surface?
12. What welding process is commonly used for wallpapering?
13. Why is it important to know the type of base metal before attemptiug a weld repair?
14. Why is cleaning of the surface so important to repair welding?
15. What common types of inspection are used to inspect weld repairs?
318 ~ Welding Skills
- --
Pipe is used to transport oil, gas, and water in a system. Pipe is also used to transport chemicals (nitro-
gen. air) or utilities. Pipe is used extensively fo r piping systems in buildings, refin eries, and industrial
plants. The use of pipe has gained acceptance in construction and ofte n takes the place of beams, chan-
nels, or angle iron. Pipe is commercially available in a wide range of diameters, wall thicknesses, and
lengths.
Welding is the easiest, most common method ofjoining sections ofpipe. Pipe welding eliminates compli-
cated threaded j oint designs, permits free flow of liquids, and reduces installation costs. Welding is
also a practical and eff ective cost-cuttin g technique in joining noncriti cal low-p ressure piping fo r
refrigeration or HVAC systems. Welded j oints are not designed to be disassembled. Repair or replace-
ment requires removal of a section by cutting.
319
STANDARD ~~3~ii SCNEDULE SCHEDULE
40 60
y, .40 5 .269 .215 .068 .095
I
Small-diameter pipe
.E with a UY11l thickness commonly require edge preparati on or restric tion to the flo w of mat eri als
•e:::::: (?l tess than l,t§// is not beveling. Pipe with a wall thickness in the pip e . When prop erl y welded.
typically beveled. greater than VB" usually requires edge there is no gap between pipe sections
preparation. See Figu re 27-2. and joint stre ngth is co nsistent with
Figure 27-2 . Thick -wall pip e has
a wall thickness Kremer than M6'~
Wallthicknc.\-.\-e.\ ora ~"req u ire
.C
r Va" WA LL THI CKNESS
;; 14
1 ';
f UP T~ 0/,,' W:~IL ~HICK N:SS
som e edge p reparat ion .
THIN-WALL
l THIN-WALL WITH
[r::aKkJ
GREATER THAN ROOT OPENING
THICK-WALL WITH
EDGE PREPARATION
PIPE
SOCKET FtTTING
~!7
OVER Vlt;'" iI
L '
ROOT J ROOT FACE
¥:rr" TO Ye'"
J-HI- 0/.- TO y,,-
ROOT OPEN ING
FACE ""6"
Th in-Wall Pipe Th ick-Wall Pipe
EDGE PREPARATIONS
fected by pipe dimensions, locat ion , Figure 27·5. An oxyacetylene beveling mac hine can
be used to bevel pipe.
A WARNING requirements of the pipe and the weld,
Improper fit-up in piping and welding equipment available. The Joint Alignment and Fit-Up
can lead to catastrophic following steps are used to prepare pipe
failure of a pipe, especially for welding: After the joint is prepared, it must be
in high-pressure piping. accurately aligned and spaced. Surfaces
I. Select proper joint design for the job. to be welded must be clean and free of
2. Clean the joint surface. foreign matter before welding. Joint tit-
3. Align and fit-up the pipe jo ints. up mu st be as consistent as possible
4. Tack weld the pipe sections together. around the circumference of the pipe.
Fit-lip is the positioning of pipe with
Joint Design other pipe or fittings befo re weldin g.
Weld speci fications and detail s indi-
Join t desig n specificatio ns va ry de - ca te fi t-up re qu ire me nts. Line-up
pending on the size and co mpositio n clamps are used to hold pipes or pipe
of the pip e and the thickness of the and fitti ngs sec ure ly a nd to e ns ure
pipe wall. However, a single-V groove proper alignment durin g weldin g. The
is used for most thick-wall pipe weld- pipe may be aligned with consumable
ing. The joint edges must be smooth inserts, spacers, backing rings, or pipe
and free of defects and contaminants. jigs. See Figure 27-6.
Edges should be worked with a wire
brush, if necessary, to remove defects
or discontinuities and contaminants.
Pipe typicall y arrives from the sup-
plier already prepared and beveled to
standard specifications. A bevel can be
cut or ground in the field; however, this
meth od is time-consuming and is less
acc urate tha n machine-bevelin g.
Whether performed at the supplier's
or at the shop, bevelin g of the joint is M a th. ) , D<-arman
usuall y don e with an oxya ce ty le ne Figure 27·6. Line -up clumps lrold pip e .\'(' 1'1;0 /15 se-
bevelin g machine or pipe machine . curely ill pos ition while tack welds are made.
CLASS 1 CLASS3AND5
CLASS 2 CLASS 4
Figure 27-7. Consumable insert rings are categorized by class and may be used to maintain an accurate
roo t opening before welding,
ROOT PASS
or se mici rc ular moti on can be used ; Figur e 27-14. Electrode size is reco mmended based
the weld IJa.u lind required weld strengt h.
l UI
however, it must be w ide eno ug h to
cove r the entire weld joint. The cove r
pass also provides the weld reinforce- PIPE WELDING TECHNIQUES
ment required for strength and protec-
Pip e welding is recogni zed as a spe-
tion. See Figure 27- 13.
c ia lty within th e welding tr ade. Al-
though man y pipe welding skills and
Ftg u r e 27-13. Th e fili al cover
COVER
practices are similar to other types of
pa ss adds reinfo rce me nt to the PASS we lding, pipe we lders must deve lop
weld and provides a 1Ie«t uppear -
ClIICl:', The co ver p,U.f .flullIlc1 fo rm
INTERMED IATE
WELD PASSES
\\----L~~.L
r 'A," CROWN
certain techniques that are characteris-
a sliglu crown above the surfa ce tic to pipe welding alone. Pipe welders
of tile pipe.
have to pass certain tests to be certified
because public health , enviro nmental
restrictions, and safety concerns are in-
ROOT PASS vol ved (especia lly in welding cross-
cou nt ry t ra ns missio n p ipe li nes and
CROSS SECTION high- pressure lines that convey steam,
o il, air, or co rrosive mat er ial s). See
ROOT
KEYHOLE PASS Fig ure 27- 15.
Pipe weldin g techn iqu es vary de-
pending on the welding conditions and
the type of pipe being used. Pipe weld-
er s shou ld be profic ie nt in we lding
techniques such as, downh ill welding,
uphill welding, roll weld ing, and posi-
tion welding.
COVER PASS INTERMEDIATE
WELD PASSES
COVER PASS Downhill Welding
Downhill welding is used to weld
thin-wa ll pipe. Sma ll-d iamete r pipe is
typically welde d with GTAW or
Electrodes
GMAW. Downhill welding is preferred
Most shielded metal arc pipe welding is fo r we ldi ng cross-co untry pipel ines
done with E-60 I0 or E-60 11 electrodes, because it is a fast welding technique.
exce pt where high strength weld s are Afte r th e pipes are sec urely tack
required . Wh en hi gh strengths are welded, a root pass is depo sited com-
Uo wnh ili welding
needed, es pec ially on low-all oy stee l pletely arou nd the joi nt. The electrode
should be used 10
we ld thin-wall pipe. pipe, electrodes in the E-70XX series are is held in approximately the same posi-
used. See Figure 27-14 . tion as when making the tack welds.
The arc is struck slightly ahead of the For downhill welding, follow the pro-
weld to preheat the area where the weld cedure:
bead will be started. After the arc has I . Deposit four tack welds to hold the
stabilized, the electrode is lowered into pipe in alignment.
the root openin g and moved along the 2 . Start welding the root pass in the
groove. Intermediate weld passes are 12 o'clock posit ion.
usually made with a side-to-side (weav- 3. Carry th e root pass weld down -
ing) motion and consist only of a light ward to the 6 o'clock position .
bead deposit. The electrode should pause 4 . Follow same procedure on the other
at the end of each stroke to ensure good side of the pipe. See Figure 27-17.
fusion at each edge of the weld. As the If the electrode sticks and fai ls (0
electrode reaches the bottom of the weld glide smoothly because of built-up
a semicircular or horseshoe weave is heat, a slight side-to-s ide osc illating
used . See Figure 27-16. motion will usually correct the prob-
Intermediate weld passes are made lem . After the root pass is completed ,
with the same diamet er electrode used additional wel d pa sses are deposited.
for th e root bead but with slightly The number of passe s depend s on the
higher current. thickness of the pipe.
ONE ELECTRODE
DIAMETER
~_ _,/ PAUSE
DIRECTION
OF WELDING
SIDE- TO-SIDE
(WEAVING) HORSESHOE WEAVE
Figu re 27-16. Two motio ns used to make intermediate weld passes are the side-to-side (weaving) motion and
the horseshoe wea ve.
12 O'CLOCK
CD WE LD FOUR TACKS
®2
START W ELDING AT
12 O'C LOCK POSITION
A CAUTION One problem encountered in down- SMAW. Co ntro l of the molten weld
When restartin g the arc, hill weldin g is controlling the heat pool is accompli shed using a fast travel
completely tie together the input. Lack of heat input co ntro l is speed a nd a hi gh -current se tt ing to
welded sec tion with the
es pec ia lly a probl em whe n weldin g keep the arc ahead of the weld pool.
next section.
sma ll-d iame te r pip e where heat does
not di ssipate fas t enough and exces - Starting and Stopping. There is a cer-
sive heat buil ds up in the weld zo ne. tai n amount of starting and stopping
Heat in put can usu all y be re g ul ated du r ing we ld ing d ue to the need to
using a small diamete r e lectrode and c hange e lec trodes o r weld po sition .
reducing the curre nt setting. Wh en we lding must be stopped and
Another problem in downhill weld- then restarted . the ends of each weld
ing is maintaining proper control of the bead must be tied together. To restart a
weld pool. The molten metal tends to weld . the arc is struck about Vz" back
flo w downward in the same dir ection of the bead and then mov ed forw ard
the arc is mo vin g. If the flow is not with a long arc . As soon as the arc is
co ntro lle d , pen etration cannot be stabilized, the electrode is momentarily
achi eved and s lag becomes entrapped buried in the crat er of the last bead to
71/(' ends of the weld
must always be lied in th e molten metal , produ c ing slag regenerate the molt en weld pool. The
together. inclu sion s in the weld. Sla g inclusion electrode is then rais ed slig htly and
is only a problem when welding with the weld co nti nue d. When the weld
" 5- TO 10'
TRAVEL ANGLE
6 O'CLOCK
Roll Welding
Roll welding is a welding procedure The lincoln EleClri(' CompWly
that app lie s heat and pressure to Figu re 27 -20. Position welding requires tliat the
pipe he welded in various positions aro und station-
interlock the faying sur faces of the ary pipe .
weld. Roll welding is usua lly
performed with GMAW using a hand-
PIPE WELDING STANDARDS
hel d welding gun . The roll welding
method requ ir es that two o r more Standard s ensure pipe welding qual-
sections of pipe be lined up and tack ity. Pipe welding standards have been
welded . Special pipe clamps hold the established by the American Petroleum
pipe in alignment until they are Institute (API ), the Americ an Society
tacked. See Figure 27-19 . The weld of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and
is then compl eted in flat po sition the American Welding Society (AWS)
while helper s rotate the pipe. After the for specifying material requirements,
short pip e section s are welded, they preparation , welde r profi ciency, and
are plaeed in line with the existing or weld testing. Other agencies may adopt
pre viou sly installed pip e and welded these standards for spec ific applic a-
in a stationary position . tions . For example, the U.S . Depart-
ment of Defe nse has adopted several
Figure 27-19. Pipe damps are
used to hold pipe in alig nme nt
standards published by the AWS.
until tack welds are made . PIPE CLAMP
Welder Certification
Certification of we lder s is based on
the proficiency of the welder making
welds in specific positions. Pipe weld
joint positions are identified as test po-
sitions. Because pipe weld s are usu-
ally groove welds , they are identified
by the letter G, for groove weld. Test
po sitions are I G, 2G, 5G , 6G, and
6GR. There is no 3G or 4G test posi-
Position Welding tion in pipe welding. The axis of the
Position weldin g (stove pipe welding) pipe may vary ± 15° for the IG, 2G, and
con si st s of lining up each sectio n, 5G test positions, but only ±5° for the 6G
length by length, and welding each and 6GR positions. See Figure 27-21.
og
ROTATED\
1S'
PIPE NOT
ROTATED
HORIZONTAL WELDING POSITION
2G PIPE NOTj
ROTATED
MULTIPLE WELDING POSITION
INCLINED POSITION WITH RESTRICTION RING
6G 6GR
Figure 27-21. Tile American Weldi ng Society (AWS) lias identified weld positions f or pipe and Tubing welding as test 1'0,\";(;011.\ I G. 20, 50. 6G,
and 6GR.
Figure 27-23 . The bevel 011 a pipe ca n he adapted f or automatic welding to al low for differences in
penetration of the welds.
( EDGE OF WIDEST
REDUCED SECTION " FACE OF WELD
LI~-----":""
I3,4"
L
,-----
",iPg;:: -0
1A"
TENSILE TEST
FACE BEND ROOT BEND FACE BEND
Figur e 27-25. Tensile anti guided bend tests (Ire used for destructive testin g of p ipe welds.
Nondestructive Examination
Nondestructive examina tion (NDE) is
the devel o pment and application of
methods to exa mine materials or com -
ponents in way s th at do not impair
their usefulness or serviceability.
No nde st ru c ti ve e xam ina tio n is TIt<- ljf><'"l" Ek e/ric C..m/~m.I'
used to determine we ld quality with- A welder mus t he able to weld pipefrom various positions around the pipe since most
out affectin g perform ance of the we ld. pipe cannot be rotated.
NONDESTRUCTIVE
EXAMINATION
- NON DEST RUCTIVE
Letter EXAMI NATION
Method Desionation SYM BOL
LOCATION \
Acoustic emission AET
Electromagnetic ET
r~-
Leak LT
Magnetic particle MT
Neutron radiographic NRT
Liquid penetrant' PT
Proof' PRT
Radiographic' RT
Ultrasonic* UT
Visual' VT
'methods use<llorlestmg pipe wek:Is
Figure 27-26. Nondestructive examination does 1101 adversely affect the performance of the weld.
Special weldin g machin es are (iftell designed for a particular industry. All aircraft company may need a
spotwelde r designed to join ce rtain types of a luminum structures, while all auto mo tive ma nufacturer
lIIay require a resistance-type sea m welder specially made to weld structural steel. Other applications
nUlY require a stud-welding gun to fas ten studs Oil metal components.
Weldill g processes used fo r production welding include resistan ce welding (RW), gas metal arc welding
(GMAW), stud welding, electron beam welding (EBW),friction welding (FRW). laser beam welding (LBW).
plasma arc welding (PAW). submerged arc welding (SAW). ultrasonic welding (USW). elect rogas welding
(EGW). and adhesive bonding (A B). Other welding pmcesses that lIlay be used fo r production welding are
explosion welding (EXW). fo rge welding (FOW). roll welding (ROW). and cold welding (eW).
337
reduces voltage and proportionally pressure is applied before the current
Spot welding is a
increases current to provide the nec- is turned ON. Next , the current is
form of RW with
wide application in essary heat at the point of welding. turned ON for a short time. The third
industry, • The electrodes include the mecha - step is the hold time, in which the cur-
nism for making and holding con- rent is turned OFF but the pressure con-
tact at the weld area . tinues. The hold time fuses the metal
• The timing controls use switches while it is cooling.
that regulate the amount of current, Spot welding usually leaves slight
current duration, and the contact depressions on the metal that are un-
period . desirable on the " show side" of the
finished product. Depressions can be
The most common types of RW are
minimized using large-diameter elec-\
spot welding, seam welding, projection
trode tips on the " show side" . )
welding, multiple-impulse welding,
Spotwelders are made for both di-
flash welding , and upset welding.
rect current and alternating current.
The amount of current must be con-
Spol Welding trolled. Too little current produces a
Spot welding is the most commonly light tack and provides insufficient
used RW process. The material to be strength to the weld. Too much cur-
joined is placed between two elec- rent causes excessive heat.
trodes, pressure is applied, and a To dissipate the heat and cool the
charge of electricity is sent from one weld as quickly as possible to prevent
electrode, through the material, to the overheating, the electrodes that con-
other electrode. duct the current and apply the pressure
There are three stages in making a for spot welding are water-cooled. The
spot weld. First, the electrodes are electrodes are made of low-resistance
brought together against the metal and copper alloy and are usually hollow
ELECTRODE
PunJjiri.l, Inc.
•
DIRECT ION
...- OF WELDING
CONTINUOUS CURRENT
PROJECTIONS
BEFORE WELDING
DIRECTION
OF WELDING
INTERMITTENT CURRENT
MOLTEN
PROJECTIONS
FUSE TO
FORMWELO
AFTER WELDING
Multiple-Impulse Welding
CURRENT FLOW
STO PPED
CLAMPING ELECTRODES
/ CURRENT FLOW
CURRE NT FLOW V CONT INUES
WORKP IECES
-.
)
~
When gas tung - The current required for welding is
dirty material , or insufficient shield-
•~ '~'lm arc sp.ot weld-
.= IlIg, set the curreflf ing gas. Helium used as a sh ielding determined by the thi ckness of the
based on the thick- gas produces greater penetration than metal to be weld ed. The major effect
ness of the metal of inc rea sing the current when both
ar gon, although argon produce s a
to be spot welded.
larger weld diameter. Gas flow should workpiec es ar e approximat el y the
be set at approximately 6 cubic feet same thickness is to increa se penetra-
per hour (cfh). tion. However, it also tends to increase
the weld diameter. Increasing the cur-
rent when th e bottom workpi ece is
Gas Tungsten Arc Spot Welding con siderably hea vie r th an the top
Procedure wo rkpiece re sults in an inc rea se in
weld diameter with little or no increase
To make a spot weld , the end of the
weldin g gun is placed agai ns t the in penetration. See Figure 28-1 1.
workpiece and th e trigger is pulled.
Squeezing the trigger starts the flow o Manu al gas tungsten arc spot welding can
be pe rformed using automatic sequencing
of cooling water and shielding gas and controls to set the gas and waterflo w rates,
ad vances the electrode to touch the control arc star ting and intervals. and pro-
vide necessa ry postweld shielding gas and
workpiece. As soon as the electrode
wate r flow.
touches the workpiece , it automatically
344 €l' Weldin g Skills
Figure 28-12. Good surfa ce Cot/ -
PROPER FIT-UP tact is important to ma k ing a
ALLOWS PENETRATION sound spot weld.
INCREASED
PENETRATION
INCREASED CURRENTI
WORKPIECES SAME THICKNESS
PENETRATION
REMAINS ALMOST
UNCHANGED
FERRULE
BASE
METAL
CHUCK
STUD FERRULE
ARC MELTS
STUD AND
WORK AREA
~eJ
~~
b "- -
_I
SHARP BLOW
DRIVES PIECES
TOGETHER
<,
Sciaky. It,,' .
Figure 28-16. The welding gun and workpieces are
EBW Equipment
enclosed in the vacuum chamber of an electron heam
wel ding mach ine. An electron gun consists of a filament,
cathode, anode , and focusing co il. The
electrons emitted from the heated fila-
ment carry a negative charge and are
The beam -in-air proces s uses a gun repelled by the cathode and attracted
that has a vacuum ch amber that sur- by the anode. Th e ele ctro n s pas s
rounds the area wh ere el ectron s exit through the anode and then throu gh a
from the welding gun; weldin g is done magnetic field gen erated by the elec-
in the open atmosphere. To shield the tromagnetic focu sin g coil. An opt ical
weld area from atmospheric contami - viewing or num eri cal control sy ste m
nants, argon is used as a shielding gas. determine s the path o f th e electron
T he we lds produ ced by the beam- beam centerline to the weld area. See
in-a ir proce ss ar e simi la r to we lds Fig ure 28-1 7.
made using GTAW. By varying the current to the focus-
EB W has se vera l advantages over ing coil, the op erator can focu s the
oth er pro cesse s. It welds with a lo w beam for g un- to-w o r k di stan ce s
total-energy input. Workpiece distortion ranging from '/2" to 25". The electron
and effects on th e prope rtie s of th e beam can be co ntro lled with a focus-
workpiece are reduced. The weld size ing coil to produce a spot diameter
and location can be controlled relative of less than .00 5".
Production Weldi ng :€) 349
HIGH VOLTAGE
!r
CAB LE RECEPTACLE
FILAMENT
~ E L E C T RO N BEAM GUN
GUN HOUSING
ANODE
COLUMN
VENT VALVE
ALIGNMENT
ADJUSTMENT
SCREW
MAGNETIC LENS
MAGNETIC LENS
SHUTTER
OPT ICAL
DEFLECTION COIL
, '~~
,,,
VIEWING
SYSTEM
,
WATER CONNECT ION ,,, VENT TO
,,,
""~\
VAC U
,
:u_....._---, L _ _ _" "
VIEWING
WINDOW
, ,
WATER COOLED ,,,
HEAT SHIELD ,
i: WORKPIECE •
C HA MBER ~ ,
"
WOR K TABLE
Figure 28-17. In the electron beam column, file electron s pass through an aperture in the anode and then through a magnetic f ield generated by
the electromagnetic focusing coil. An optical viewing system provides a line of sight down the path of the electron beam centerline to the weld area.
~_--"'O ~i'---'"o
their heat-treated condition, and the
weld can be held in the hand immedi-
ately after welding is completed.
GEAR TO SHAFTS LBW can be used to join dissimilar
metals such as co pper, nickel, tungsten.
aluminum. stainless steel, titanium. and
columbium . Add iti on ally, the laser
beam ca n pas s throu gh tran sparent
HAZ subs ta nces with out affectin g them,
STAINLESS STUDS TO mak ing it possible to weld metal s that
MILD STEEL PLATE are sealed in g lass or pla stic. Because
the heat so urce is a light beam, atmos-
HAZ
pheric cont amination of the weld joint
is not a problem .
LBW is used in the aerospace and
HYDRAULIC ROD TO YOKE el ectro n ic indu stri es where ex treme
control of th e we ld is req uired . A
major limitation of LBW is its shallow
penetration .
The durat ion of the beam is usually
about .002 sec, with a pulse rate of one
to 10 pulses per second. As each point
of the beam hits the workpiece, a spot
HUBTO BELL is me lted that reso lidifies in microsec-
onds . The weld line consi st s of a se-
rie s of round, so lid, o verlapping weld
LASER BEAM WELDING pool s . The workpiece is moved be-
Laser beam welding (LBW) is a weld- neath the beam or the energy source is
ing process that produces coalescence moved across the weld . The beam is
wit h the heat from a lase r beam im- focu sed on to the workpiece usin g an
pinging on the joint. Laser beam weld- opti cal syste m and the welding energy
Laser beam welding ing is used without shi elding gas and is controlled by a switc h.
(LBW) is a welding without ex ertin g pre s sure on the
process that pro : Laser Beam Theory
duces coa lescence
weld . Fu sion is achieved by directi ng
with the heal from a a highly concentrated beam to a spot Atom s have been made to g ive off
laser beam imping- about the diameter of a homan hair. energy by exc iting them in such com-
ing 011 the joint.
The highly co nce ntrated beam gener- mon devices as fluorescent lights and
ates a power inte nsity of I bi llion or tele vi sion tube s. Fluorescence is the
more wall s per square ce ntimeter at its ab ility of certa in ato ms to emit light
point o f foc us . Becau se of its excel- when th e y ar e ex po sed to ex ternal
lent heat input contro l, LBW can be radiation of sho rte r wavelength s.
used near glass or varnish-coated wires In LBW, th e atom s tha t are ex-
without damaging the glass or the insu- cited to produce the laser light beam
lating properties of the varn ish. are produced in a sy nthetic ruby rod
Since t he heat in pu t to th e 3/B" in diameter. The ruby rod is iden-
workpiece is extremely sma ll in co m- tical to a nat ural ruby but has a more
parison to other welding processes, the perfect cry stall ine str uc ture. About
size of the HAZ and the thenna! damage .05 % of its weight is chromium ox-
to the adjacent pa rts of the we ld are id e . T he chromium ato ms g ive the
352 ~ Welding Skills
ruby it s red co lo r because they ab- PLASMA ARC WELDING
sorb green light from ex te rn al light
Pla sma arc weldin g (PAW ) is an ar c
sources. When the atoms ab sorb thi s
welding proce ss that u se s a con -
light ene rgy, so me of the ir electrons
str icted arc between a nonconsumable
are ex cited . Thus, gree n light is said
tungsten electro de and the weld pool
to pump th e c h ro mium atom s to a
(transferred arc). or bet ween the elec-
higher energy state.
trod e and constri cting nozzle (no n-
The excited atom s e ventua lly re -
tran sferred arc).
turn to the ir ori ginal sta te . A s th ey
The electrode and part are shielded
do , a portion of the extra energy the y
by ionized ga s (plasma) issuing from
pr eviousl y abs or be d (as gr een light)
the torch , which may be supplemented
is g iven off in the form of red fluo-
by an aux iliary shi elding gas. PAW
rescen t light. When the red light emit-
uses a central pla sma core of extre me
ted by on e exci ted atom hits another
temp erature surrounded by a sheath of
excited atom, the second atom giv es
cool ga s. See Figure 28-20. The re -
off addition a l red ligh t. Th e addi-
quired heat for fusion is generated by
tional re d li gh t is in phase w ith the
an electric arc that has been highly in-
collidin g red light wave, increa sing
tensified by the injection of a gas into
th e inte ns ity of the light. In oth er PAW uses an electric
the arc stream. T he superheated arc col- arc that is highly in-
wo rds, the red li ght from th e fi rst
umn is conce ntrated into a narro w tensified hy the injec-
ato m is amplified becau se more red tion (~f gas into the
stream, and when directed onto a
light exactly like it is produced . arc stream, wh ich
workpiece, can mak e a groove weld results in a jet ofhigh
By using a very intense green light
1jz" thick or more in a single pass with- current density:
to exc ite the chromium atom s in the
out filler metal or edge preparation .
ruby rod, a larger number of its atom s
can be exci ted and the chance s of
. ..
~
colli sion s are increased . To further Figure 2M- 20. PAW uses {/ ('01-
tral plasma core of ex trem e tem-
enhan ce thi s effect , the parallel ends - perature surrounded hy a sheath
and the sides of the rod are mirrored of cool gas.
tu bounc e the red light back and forth - TUNGST EN
ELECTRODE
within the rod. When a certain critical
intens ity of pumping is reached (the
th reshold ene rgy ), the chain rea ction INNER SHEATH
co ll isio ns become numerous eno ugh CENT RAL V (HOT)
PLASMA ......-- OUTER SHEATH
to cause a bur st of red light. T he lens CORE / (COO L)
at the front end of the rod is only a par- __ WORKPIECE
tial reflector. allowing the burst of light +
to escape throu gh it. See Figure 28-19 .
RUBY ROD
(LASER CRYSTAL)
WATER SUPPLY
SHIELDING GAS
WATER RETURN
DC POWER SUPPLY
CONTROL CONSOLE
F igure 28·21. Tilt' PAW welding ci rcuit includes (J DC power source, control console. wate r supply, plasma gas and shielding gas supply,
welding cables, and torch,
HAND·HELD
TORCH ______
FILLER METAL
ADDED FOR
Fll lETWE lDS ----.
HAND-HELD
PLASMA
TORCH
MOUNTED
Thrmt(11Arr. Q d"';~UHl <>/ TJr..rmad.ln r {,.J,m ri... , J,....
tI
.e
•-
is required f or SAW
e::::::: S;/I ('(' th e flux com-
plete ly su rrounds the
electric arc.
gun .
SAW can be used for metals from
VI6" thick. It is usually used for weld-
ing thick metal s and where deep pen-
etration is required. For exa mple, it is
possibl e to weld 3" plate in a single
Figure 28·24. The welding unit used with the (lUIO -
pass. Ho wever, cautio n is nec essary is .\'et up /0 movr (w eI' the weld area at
mati c pro('e,fS
as impurities in the weld collect toward a con /rolled speed,
FLUX SHELF,
SOU D SLAG '\
WELDING JOINT
GROUND
CLAMP
,
~ \:N~ED
BASE METAL
WELDING WIRE
VIBRATORY
ENERGY ~
.,....- TIP
COUPLER WORKPIECE
TRANSDUCER INTERFACE
PLASTICALLY
DEFORMED
ANVIL
ELECTROGAS WELDING
Electrogas welding (EGW) is a weld-
ing process that uses an arc between a
filler metal electrode and the weld
pool , using approx imately vertical
welding and a backing bar to control
the weld metal. EGW can be used with
or without shielding gas and without
exerting pre ssure on the weld. EGW
uses a ga s-shielded metal arc and is
de signed for single-pass welding of
vertical joints on steel ranging in thick-
ness from 3/8 " to 11/2". Fd -Pm Chemi,.,,1 Prod,, "t .'·
ADHESIVE BONDING
Void- Heat Cold Thermal Water Metal
Adhesive Components Cure Time Viscosity Filling Flexibility Resistance Resistance Res istance Resistance Bond ing
Two-part
O ne-parI Med ium
Acrylic Medium Good Good Good Good Good Good Good
(UVor 10 Fast
Heat cure)
Poor to
Anae robic One -par t Medium Low Good Good Good Good Good Fair
Fair
Poor to Poor 10
Cyanoacrylate One -part Fast Low Fa ir Fair
Fair Fair Goo d Fair Good
Two-pa ri
Epoxy Slow to Medium
One-pa rt Excellent Fai r Go od Fair Good Good Good
(heal cure) Medium to High
Fair to Poor to
Hot Melt One -part Fast High Exce llent Fair Fair Good Fair
Good Fair
On e-pa rt
Polyure thane
Two-pa rt
Med ium Medium Good Good Fair Good Good Fai r Good
O ne-pa rt
Potysulfide
Two-part
Med ium High Excellent Good Good Good Excellent Good Good
On e-part
Silicone Two-part Medium High Excellent Excellent Exce llent Excellent Excell ent Excellent Fair
So lvent-base One-part Med ium Low to Poor to Good Good Good Good Good Good
Medium Fair
Water-base One -part Med ium Low to Poor to Poor to Fair Fair Poo r Poor Poor to
Medium Fair Fair Fair
Ftgure 28·27. Adhrsivcs a n' selecte d based 011 tne material and application of the parts 10 be joined.
363
Si nce the weld ing e qu ip me nt is
mechanic al, the opera tor must adju st
the mechanical path to make changes
to the torch movem en t. Adjustme nts
requi re time to re too l the equipment
for the next weld. The single-purpose
design of the equipment makes intri-
cate welding ap plica tions pro hibitive
if not imposs ible . Fixed automation
welding sy stems eq uipme nt com -
PunJj ins. 1111:.
monl y include s operator con tro ls, a Ftgure 29-2. A torch positioner used 011 a sramer
torch positioner/holder, and a workpiece keeps the torch on (/ linear path along the joint wrd
maintains a constant speed.
po sitio ner/holder.
Operator Contr ols, Operator controls Workpiece positioners can be controlled
are used to start and stop the weld ing manuall y, pneumaticall y, or hydrauli-
cy cle . T he operato r co ntro ls may be ca lly. The workpiece positi oner may
conn ect ed to a pro gr ammabl e lo gic rotate or tilt by means of an elec tric
contro ller (PLC), which in turn con- motor that allows eas ier access to the
trol s the positi oner s and the weldi ng weld sea m.
equipment. The PLC sequences through
the weld cycle , co ntro lling wh en to
move the torch , start the arc , feed the
o The pu rpose ofautomation is to reduce
rnanufuctu ring costs bv increasing pro -
wire, and turn on the shielding gas, as ductivity and quality.
well as other welding sequences. Some
welding equipment uses internal con -
trol s rath er than PLCs to control the Flexible Automation Systems
weldi ng equipment.
A fle xible automation system is a sys-
Torch Positioner/Holder. Fixed auto- tem th at uses pr ogr ammabl e move-
A torch positioner is
mation equipment such as seamers and ments of the torch and sometimes the
"fired-path mechani-
cal ap paratus th at orbital welders use a torch position er, workpiece. In tlexible automation, pro-
mm 't's the torch in a or holder. A torch positioner is a fixed- gra mmed equipment guides the torch.
specified path. The most common type of programmed
path mechanical apparatus that moves
the torch in a specified path. A seamer device is the robo t. A robot is a pro-
is design ed to we ld linear seams in gram med path device used to position
rolled tubes or nat plates. When a torch the torch and at time s the workpiece.
positioner is used on a seamer, it keeps A robot ca n perform complex move-
the torc h on a linear path along the me nts in order to fo llow a complex
j oint and maintains a constant rate of path. The robot can provide the fab-
A robot is a pro- ricator with extended arc-on time .
grammed pa th device speed. See Figure 29-2. A PLC or some
used to position th e other auto mated control ler is typically With the advances in electrical mo-
torch "JIllat times the used to direct the weld seq uence. tors and moto r control circuits, robots'
workpiece. speed s have almost matc hed those of
Workpiece Positioner/Holder. T he fixed auto matio n equipment, and the
de si gn o f a wo rk p iece pos itione r/ air cut time of the robot sys tems has
holder needs to be quite sophisticated been reduced, Air cut time is the time
and elaborate to ensure that the simple that a piece of eq uipme nt spends in
path required by th e tor ch can be th e nonpro du cti ve ac tiv ity of mov-
maintained . T he wor kpiece positioner ing from one we ld to ano ther. In the
must hold the work pieces without in- pa st, fi xe d a utoma tio n e q ui pment
terferin g with the path of the torch. pro vi ded mu ch fast er move ments
364 €l' Welding Ski lls
than fle xi ble au tomati on equipment. accurate movement than the stepper
T he bigg est advantage that fle xible motors used in the past. Stepper mo-
automation has over fixed automation tor s would rotat e 3600 in stepped in-
is the reprogrammability of the robot crements, with an accuracy of .5°. AC
mov ement, allowing for varied move - servomotors can be controlled with an
ment of the robot. This feature makes it accuracy of . 1°, without the need for
easier and quicker to change weld set- the complex dri ving circuits associated
tings , locati on s, and workpiece posi- with stepper motors.
tion s. Th e robot is capable of stor ing The robot controll er directs the start-
weld programs, which can quickly be ing and stopping of the servomotors
changed, permitti ng a variety of parts as well as the rate of speed and accel-
and welds to be efficiently mad e by eration of each se rvomotor. See Fig-
The mho! controller
one robot.
In the pa st , fle xible auto mation
equipment was much more expensive
ure 29-3. The robot controller not only
controls mov em ent of the manipula- I]
.~
.=
controls the move -
ment of the manipu-
lator from point to
tor s from point to point but also con-
point ami the path of
th an fixed automation equipment. trols the path of the torch from point the torch from paint
However, with the incr ea sed variety to point. Controlled mo vement path s to po int .
and availability of flexible automation may be linear (straight line) or circular
systems , the costs have become com- (curved line).
parable. A flexible automation system
typically incurs additional costs for the
fixture designs and tooling associated Ftgure 29-3. ;\ mho! contr oller
with flexible automation systems. is used /0 direct the sta rling, stop -
pin g, spee d. and acceleration (~r
An additional cost to the user s of
the servomotors.
flexible automation systems is the cost
associated with training. Operators, pro-
grammers, and maintenance per sonnel
all must be trained in the proper use of
the robot. In each case , the most effi-
cient and beneficial training is to train
process experts- we lders - on how to
operate and program the robot.
The components of a robot welding
system (robot cell) used for flexible au-
tomation consist of a robot controller, ro-
bot manipulator, teach pendant, operator
controls, and workpiece positioner. - • (
• • •
Robot Con t roller. The robo t control-
ler pro vides the control for the servo-
mo tors a nd communica tes with th e
we lding equipme nt and other equip-
ment in the sys te m . A servomoto r is
an AC or DC motor with encoder feed-
back to indicate how far the motor has
rotated. AC servomotors provide higher
speeds and torqu es than DC servomo-
tor s and are the preferred method of
The !.it"' ol" Elel'lri,' Com!,,,,,y
control for robotic sys tems . With en-
coder feedba ck technology, AC servo-
motors prov ide faster an d more
Automation & Robotic Weldin,; :§: 365
A robot controller may control more operation. An articulated co nfiguration
than the servomotor in the manipula- allows the arm link and wrist j oints to
tor. it may also control servomotors in be sma ll a nd co mpact. A s ma ll and
the wo rkpi ece po sition er and other co mpact jo int can be eas ily maneu-
equipment in the robot ce ll. Some ro- vered into tight areas .
bot cont rollers can control as many as
-
16 se rvomo tors simultaneo us ly for a
sy nchronized motion . The robot con-
troll er must accelerate and decelerate
. - ..
each servomotor individually to main-
tain the controlled path at the tool cen-
ter point (TC P). Advanced software and '\
digital hard ware are typically required )
to conti nually adj ust the ser vom otors
to the co rrect speed, accel eration, and
decel er ati on.
Robot Manipulator, Th e ro bo t ma-
The robot monipula- nipulator is the robot arm. A servomo-
tor is the mbot arm tor moves the robot manipulator from
and consists ofa base
and severollinks and one point to another. Th e rob ot ma-
joints (o r a.res). nipulator con sists of a ba se and sev -
eral links and joints. The base provides
the mounting for the robot manipula-
tor, much like a human torso. The links
are the arm structures, similar to a hu-
man upper arm and forearm. The joints
slide and rotate to allow the movements M" '""'ulI, l,,c
of the links, ju st like the human shoul-
de r, elbow, or wrist. Th e joints of the Figure 29·... A common config uration fo r a welding
robot manipulator are referred to as robot is a six -axis articulated robot manipulator:
ax is joints. Thu s, a six-axi s robot will
have six ax is j oint s. Welding ma nipula tors are usually
Th e robot manipulator is the most only req uired to lift small, light loads,
important part of the robot cell design . but they must be able to move the loads
Manipulators can be found in man y qui ckl y and with hi gh rep eat abil ity.
different configur ations, s iz es, a nd Most manipulators can return to a pro-
speeds. Early robot manipulators, such grammed point within app roximately
.004 ", which gives the man ipulator a
as the rectilinear robot manipul ator,
A reach pe nda nt is .004" repeatability factor.
the inpu t me th od were designed for easy control. These
that the robot pro- robot manipulators were large and Teach Pendant. The teach pendant and
grammer uses to ere - slow, but eas y to design and contro l. the robot controller are the brains of
art' robot movement
programs. Rectilin ear robot manipulators are still the robot welding system. A leach pen-
used for so me spo t welding applic a- dant is the device that the rob ot pro-
tion s, but are limited in their access to grammer uses to create ro bo t move-
va rio us we lding posit ion s. ment programs. See Figure 29-5. The
T he most co mmo n con fi guration programmer uses the teach pendant to
fo r a weld ing ro bot is a six-ax is ar- move th e ma ni p ulato r in e ithe r the
ticul ated rob ot manipulator driven by axis plane or the Cartesian coordinate
AC servomotors. See Figure 29-4. The plan e. Se e Figure 29-6. Axis motion
se rvo motor provide s the s peed and is creat ed by each axi s se rvo motor
rep eatabi lit y needed fur the welding indiv idu all y creatin g mov ement to
366 ~ Welding Skill s
posr tron the T CP at th e point pro-
grammed. Points in the Cartesian plane
are found using the Cartesian coordi-
nate system. The Cartesian coordinate
system is a syste m of locating points
in space define d by perpendicular
---
. - .. Figure 29 ·6 . Robot manipulator
move me nt is produced by axis
motion specified using the Ca rte-
sian coordinate system.
DIRECTION OF
MOVEMENT
z+
DIRECT ION OF
MOVEMENT
DIRECTION OF
MOVEMENT z-
MOiOnUln. Illc.
CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM
Figure 29·5 . The teach pendant is the input method
that the robot program mer uses to move the robot
and create robot programs.
I ~
"'~
, .. ~
.."'"
I _"'~ worldhame
...
i- -' -· , ~
IB"" base
l;J.i, rbale
I 8 5 _00
: e --S' 'PQlrOCUIrl
I I
I
8 ·5 _ob_~
~"'S' spolrol
; ,,-- i t polrol
I:..i; T-s,
eechet
spolrOCLRIO
I.. ,a box
375
in metal welding. with one significant Joint Preparation
difference. In metal welding. a sharply
defined melting point develops and the The types of joints used in plastic weld-
Bevel all edges to se- base material and fille r materi al melt ing are the same as those used in metal
cure a proper we ld and n ow together to form th e we ld welding -butt, come r, edge. lap, and
joint, Inte rlocking joint. However, plastics are poo r heat T. The edges of the joints are beveled
tire co rners pro -
d uces til l' best re- conductors. and consequently they do to prov ide a sufficient area on which
sults 0 11 corners. not read ily melt and n ow. To achieve to fo rm a good bond . T he bev eled
a perm anent bond. the filler materi al edges should have a groo ve angle of
and base materials must be heated to a 60° with a root opening between V.."
point at which the materials will fuse and 1116" , a lthough the root openi ng
together, but not so high that the plas- may be deeper if a larger filIer ma-
tic decomposes. terial is requi red . See Figure 30-2. /
Double·V Single-V
BUTT
1k4" TO V16"
ROOT OPENING
Fillet Single-V
CORNER
V&a"' TO V 16 H
ROOT OP ENING
.ll. WARNING I ROOT OP ENING
So me plastic materials. such
as vinyl. produce He l gas
or obnox ious odo rs.
Pol yvinyl ch loride
produces poisonous fumes.
Precautions must be taken Double Bevel Single Bevel Double Fille t
to avoid inhaling these
fumes. If necessary. a
T
respirator should he used.
'''"
*·F ¥..." trom up
II ! r HIGH-SPEED TOOL
DOWNWARD
PRESSURE
START OF WELD
f7\
\.0
HOLD TOOL AT 90' ANGLE TO SURFACE AND TAMP BROAD
SHOE O F TIP ON SURFACE UNTIL STRIP ADHER ES TO BASE
f2\ DROP GUN TO 45 ' ANGLE WHILE MOVING
\V ALONG SEAM
PLASTICIZED
STRIP
BROAD
SHOE
I.
END OF WELD
Ftgurc 30-7. Spedal tips ('(I ll In' used f or lligll"spad wd di"K to hold the f itter material in the correct pos ition ; however. the p mp a procedure
m/ u l also he us ed to ('/U I/Fl' sufficient penetration ami strength,
I. What is the main difference between plast ic welding and metal welding?
2. Why are thermosetting plastics not weldable?
3. At what range of temperatures are plastics generally welded?
4. What governs the degree of heat that is to be used in plastic welding?
5. What is the particu lar advantage of using triangular filler material over round?
6. How far from the surface should the gun be held when welding plastics?
7. Why is a fan ning motion necessary in manipulating the gun over the weld joint?
8. Why should excessive pressure on the filler material be avoided?
9. What happens if insufficient heat is used when a welder is making a plastic weld?
10. What test can determine if a weld is made properly?
II. What precautions should be taken when welding plastics?
12. How does the high-speed plastic welding technique differ from the regular hot gas welding technique?
13 .When using high-speed welding, why should the filler material not be allowed to remain in the
feeder tube?
14. How is the heated-tool welding technique accomplished?
15. What is one of the main limitations of induction plastic welding?
16. How are plastic joints bonded by friction welding?
Destructive testing involves taking sample portions of a welded structure and subjecting them to loads
until they fa il. The nature of the test is dictated by the service requirements of the fi nished product. De-
structive testing is performed on welds to qualify both welders and welding procedures; to develop manu-
facturing quality control acceptance specifications; and to determine if electrodes and fi ller metals meet
the requirements of the specifications. Destructive testing is also used to measure residual stresses asso-
ciated with welds. Several types of standardized destructi ve tests are used. Destructive test types and the
Iocationts} of specimens in the weld joint are indicated in the controlling fabri cation code or standard.
Specimen preparation techniques are necessary for reliable test results.
383
Th e spec ime n is c ut e ither from an
all -weld area or from a we lded butt
j oint for plate and pipe. The specime n
for an all-weld area should conform
to specific dimensions and it should
be cut from the welded section so its
redu ced a rea contains only we ld
metal. See Figure 3 1-2.
The transition from the ends of the
ten sile spec imen to the redo ced sec-
tion is either shouldere d or made with\
a fill et. Sho ulde rs and fill et s mini )
mi ze stress conce ntra tio ns. T h is is
parti cul arly important for brittl e ma-
terial s becaose they are mor e likel y
to fail ca tastro phically at a region of
Tini.... Ofst>n r" JlinX M"" -hi.... O J.. Im__.
high stress co nce ntration. T he longi-
Figure 31·1 . A uni versal testi ng machine is used w
perform a tensile test 0/1 weld specimens. .weh as a tud inal ax is of the specimen and the
boll . to determine the tensile strength of tile welds. spec imen grips are symmetrical along
~
D I STAN C E BETWEEN
SHOULDER
' 0" APPROXIMATELY
DISTANCE OF ~
REDUCED AREA --I I-- WELD REINFORCEMENT S SHALL BE
T I I %:L
THE SE
b~1J
MACHINED FLUSH WITH BASE META EDGES
MAY
BE FLAME
q~-~=:-
CUT
," I_!!
~'+ f..%"1 'J
DIAMETER
FILLET OR WIDTH v. 2"R ~ v. O F WIDEST
\1 EDGE OF
FACE
+ WELD
GAUGE w = 11f.t ' ± 0 0 1"IFT
LENGTH DOES NOT EXCEED 1"
FILLET THIS SECTION MACHIN ED.
W=1 "'±O.01'"I F T PREFE RABLY BY MILLING
EXCEEDS"
f = A SURFACE CONTROL SYMBOL
r
PLATE
/(""'
,..v / ,
....;:.-::: ~ /
..
,.. '" ,..
· ,t '0
d,..
10" APPROXIMATELY
. ~ ...-: , C
. .- 1/
, / :" / THESE EDGES MAY
:,.. l ,
1/: ,.
. Wi BE FLAM E CUT
:0 o//IF-== ~~~
~ ,
~ ' r : ,..
~./. J/
/' "
- v.,j
FOR GAS WELDING. OM IT BACKING.
DOTTED LINES SHOW POSITION FROM WHICH
SPECIMEN SHALL BE MACHINED
PIPE
"
ALL,WELD AREA BUTT JOINT
Fi ~ure 31-2 . A fith'l is IHn / on tile tens ile test specimen 10 remove stress concentrations. Spe cimen s for all -weld areas must cOf/fo rtll 10 specifi c
dimensions. Butt wdd.~ art' used [or teneit e tests (/ 1/ p/at e lind pipe.
ROUND
PLAIN PIN
END END
RECTANGULAR
G
G
C
w
if)
UJ
a;
~
o
9
Elastic limit is the maximum stress to Between points F and G, the specimen
which a material is subjected without begins to neck down or develop a pro-
any permanent strain remaining after nounced wai st. Point G is the po int
stress is completely remo ved. Beyond of failure , the point at which fracture
point B, strain is perman ent , or th e occurs. With all materials , the slope of
s trai n in the spe c im e n is plastic. the load-extension curve decreases and
Plastic strain is strain that remains peaks at point F, with failure occurring
permanent after the stress is removed. at point G. With brittle metals, fracture
Beyond point B, the shape of the curve may occur while the load is increasin g
varies for different metals. toward point F.
Low- and medium-carbon stee ls When the tensil e test is completed,
show a jog in their curve, which peaks the broken specimen is removed from
at point C, or the yield point. Yieldpoint the testing mach ine. The percent of
is the location on the stress-strain curve elongation can be found by fitting the
where an increase in strain occurs with- broken ends of the two pieces together
out an increase in stress . Yield point and measuring the new gauge length .
beh avior leads to Luders bands The new, increased gauge length and
(ripples) on the test specimen. Stretcher the reduced diameter at the narrowest
strains (elongated markings) are ob- point are measu red. Measurement can
serv ed in low-carbon steel pre ssings be made on either sid e of the break.
when deformed to the yield point. Yield See Figure 31-6 .
point behavior is only exhibited by
low- and med ium-carbon steels.
Between points C and D the curve
falls, ind ica ting a pla stic stra in. The Figure 31·6. The increased gauge
REDUCTION OF
curv e continues down to point E, the length and reduced diameter at
peaks at point F. Point F is the ultimate ' ~ 4G~~~-G-E---- red uction in area.
Peel Test
Figure 31·7
Bend test specimens allow inspection of all shit's of a weld joint to determine the
ductility and plastic def ormati on capa bilities ofa weld.
WELD TO
BE TESTED __________
TEST
SPECIMEN
)
Peel Test. A peel test is a shear test in
which a specimen is gripped in a vise CD SP ECIMEN IS GRIPPED IN VISE
tI
.~
.=
eco nomical way of
j udging weld quality
to qual ify u proce-
dure or welder:
A bend test is a destructive test used to
determine the ductility of a weld by
f3\ SPECIMEN IS PEELED THROUGH WELD
\V AREA
bending a welded specime n around a Figure 31-7. A pal test is an inexpensive anema-
standardized mandrel. Bend tests pro- tire prod uction control tool [or testing shear strength
ill a weld joint.
vide qualitative information for a spe-
cific procedure qualification record Guided Bend Test. A guided bend test
(PQR) on the acceptability of a weld . is a bend test in which a rectangular
Bend tests are also used for welder per- piece of welded metal is bent around a
formance qua lification (WPQ) . U-shaped die and forced into a U
Bend tests provide information on the shape. The weld and the HAZ must be
plastic deformation capabil ity of a completely within the bent portion of
welded joint. The plastic deformation the specimen after testing. The guided
capability is shown through the ability bend test is the most commonly used
of the weld to resist tearing. The weld ductility test for groove welds, surfac-
orientation and the bend location must ing welds, and fillet welds.
be specified for bend tests. Guided bend te st fi xt ures ca n be
A bend test may also reveal discon- bottom guided or bottom ejecting. The
tinuities on the surface and can be used bottom guided bend fixture is designed
to expose incomplete fusion and delami- to support the specimen in the die as it
nation. Fabrication codes and standards is bent. The bottom ejecting guided
specify the maximum allowable size for bend fixture allows the specimen to be
390 ~ Welding Skills
ejected from the die after it is bent. and evaluated. If upon examination
711e guided bendfest
Both types of testing are described in crac ks greater than '/s" appear in any is the most co m-
ASTM E 190 , Meth od fo r Guided direction , the we ld is con sidered to monly used ductility
Bend Test for Ductility of Welds. See have failed. The localized overstrain on test f or grvoV(' welds.
surfac ing welds,
Figure 3 1-8. the convex side or the U-shaped bend andfilter welds.
Two specimens must be used for the reveal s the presence of we ld defec ts
guided bend test. A face-bend speci- such as lack of fusion. The convex side
men is used to check the quality of fu- of the specimen is inspect ed for slag
sion, or whet he r the weld is free of inclus ions , poro sit y, and c rac ks . If
defect s such as porosity a nd inclu- these exceed the requireme nts of the
sions. A root -bend specime n is used applicable fabrication code or standard,
to check thc de gree of weld penetra- the weld must be rejected .
tion. See Figure 3 1-9. In a root-bend test, the test specimen
To perform a face-bend test, the test is placed in a jig with the root down, or
specimen is placed in a tcst jig with in the reverse position of the face-bend
the weld face down and forc ed by a piece. To be an acce ptable we ld, the
plunger into a U- shape d die . The specimen must show no cracks.
specimen is substantially bent through
180°. but when it is removed from the o grinding
When preparing guided bend test coupons,
and polishing may make it hard
die the spec ime n wi ll spring back 10
distingui sh the location ofthe weld. An acid
slightly and no longer exhibit a perfect etch may be needed to (ocate the weld area.
180° bend. The specimen is removed
BonOM GUIDED
BonOM EJECTING
T -=~~~~=·[}Et:::~~~::::=:::JI·T
1O".J I
------------- --- --- ---- ---- --- -- - ----, TO BE REMOVED
)
FACE- AND ROOT-BEND SPECIMEN FOR PIPE
~~====-';;;;;;:====~~
10
WELD REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE
MAC~:.~-~~~SH-~~~~-~-~-~-~~:E-~ETA: ,I~ ~~NR~~6\~~L
o/,T c_________________________ ____________ i --------------------------------------'T y," MIN MATERIAL
TO BE REMOVED
Wraparound Guided Bend Test. A is made with the weld cross section in
wraparound guided bend test is a bend ten sion. Side-bend tests are useful for
test in which a specimen is bent around exposi ng d iscon tinuitie s near th e
a st at iona ry man d rel a spec ifie d mid-thickness of the weld that might not
amo unt to expose weld discontinuities. be see n in face- or roo t-bend te sts.
O ne e nd of the specimen is fixed to Side-bend spec imens are normally used
prevent it from sliding during bending for relatively thick sections (over 'Ys").
and a roller is used to force the speci- See Figure 3 1-1 I.
men to bend around the mandrel. The Transverse face -bend s pec ime ns
weld and the HAZ must be completely have a longitudinal axis that is perpen-
within the bent portion of the speci - dicul ar to the we ld and bent with the
men after testing. The test specimen is w eld face in ten s ion . Long itud ina l
removed from the bend fixture whe n face- bend spec ime ns ha ve a longit u-
the ou ter ro ll has moved 180 0 from din al axis that is parallel to the we ld
the starting po int. See Figure 3 1- 10. and bent with the weld face in tension.
T he ben d location may be on the Transverse root -bend spec imens
face. the root, or the side. A face-bend have a longitudinal axis that is perpen -
test is made with the weld face in ten- dic ular to the weld and ben t with the
sion. A root-bend test is made with the root surface of th e we ld in ten sion .
we ld root in tension . A side- bend test Longitudinal root-bend specimens have
392 ~ Welding sun,
Figure 31 ·10. A wraparound
guided hem l fest use s a roller to
ensure that the specimen bends to
the correct radius around the
mandrel.
~ TH I CKN ESS (T)
~
MANDREL
CLAMP
e = --,3::..7: ",.5=---
3 + .375
37.5
e= - -
3.375
e = 11%
STRONGER NOTE
Low -carbo n steel we lds ca n eas ily WELD DIFFERENCE IN
STRETCHING
achieve the II % strain value. Ho w- OFWE LDS
ever, if weld defects are present, the bend EXCESSIVE
test specimens will consistently fail. WELO ZONE
STRAIN
Wh e n the deposit ed wel d me ta l is
stronge r than the base met al, bending
wi ll beg in in the base metal, resulting
in more bending there and little, if any,
bending in the weld meta l. In this situ-
ation the severes t test region is the fu-
sio n zone be twee n th e we ld and th e
base metal. WEAKER WELD
When the dep o sited we ld metal is
weaker tha n the ba se metal, ben d ing
}'i ~ ure 31·12. Problems associa ted with the guided
begin s in the weld, resu lting in more bend test relate 10 the relative strengths of the weld
be ndi ng in the we ld tha n in the base and bast' metal, lind the applied loads duri llK resting.
-
over-aging, respectively, which re -
duces the overall strength of the joint.
Indentation hardness testing is most
often applied to weld testing and uses
~ _. the surface impression produced by a
~~
standardized-shape indenter and stan-
dardized load to determine hardness.
The depth or size of the impression is
I measured to obtain the hardness value
for the test specimen.
Indentation hardness tests for welds
consist of Brinell , Rockw ell , and
Vickers tests, which provide informa-
tion on the bulk properties of the metal,
and microhardness tests, which pro-
vide information on the weld and the
Budd,", Lid
HAZ in the metal. Converting hardness
numbers hetween different tests must
Figure 31·13. A hardness test is performed usin g a
hardness teste r, such as a mi crohordness tester, to be done carefully.
determine the relativ e hardness of the weld area as BrineU Hardness Test. The Brinell hard-
compa red with the base metal.
ness test is an indentation hardness test
that uses a machine to press a 10 mm
diameter, hardened steel ball into the
Hardness testing is sometimes used
instead of the more expensive tensile surface of a test specimen. The Brinell Hardness testing,
hardness test is used to determine base although considered
testing methods in heat-treating opera- destructive, does not
tions since comparable results can be metal hardness. The load must remain necessarily require
obtained. Hardness tests are a widely on the specimen 15 sec for ferrous ma- that the specimen be
terials and 30 sec for nonferrous ma- cut into pieces, and
used quality control tool in metal pro- is thus convenient
ces sing operations such as heat treat- terials. Sufficient time is required for and relatively rapid.
ment because they are sensitive, rapid , adequate flow of the material being
and relatively nondestructive. Hardness tested; otherwise the read ings will be
tests are less commonly used for welds in error. See Figure 31-14.
because the critical area for hardness Hardness is calculated by dividing
testing , the HAZ, requires special the load by the area of the curved sur-
preparation. Additionally, hardness face of the indentation. The Brinell
testing does not provide adequate in- hardness number is found by measur-
formation on the physical quality of the ing the diameter of the indentation and
weld compared with other tests such then finding the corresponding hard-
as the guided bend test. Hardness is in- ness number on a calibrated chart. The
dicated by values obtained from vari- test is described in ASTM E 10, Brinell
ous hardness testing machines. Hardness Testing of Metallic Materials.
ELEVATING \L-'-'-'----~
SCREW -
MAJOR~
\ - \·
i
MAJOR
ii
MAJOR LOAD
LOAD • • • LOAD WITHDRAWN
APPLIED MINOR
MINOR MINOR
o·
MINOR LOAD LOAD
LOAD WITHDRAWN
LOA D ~ APPLIED APPLIED
INDENTER~
TEST
~ ~
SPECIMEN ~ .
ANVIL ELEVATING
SCREW -
CD DIAL IS IDLE
® DIAL SET
AT ZERO
f3\DIALREADS
\::J MAJOR LOAD
f4\ DIAL READS
'-;V ROCKWELL ® DIAL IS IDLE
HARDNES S
NUMBER
Figure 31-16. The Rockwell hardne ss test uses two toads. a mino r road and a major load, which are applied sequentially to determine hardness.
~:J
averaged to obtain the Vickers hard-
ness number, which is followed by the
letters HV. The Vickers hardness test is QUARTER· NEAR
THICKNESS SURFACE
described in ASTM E 92, Vickers Hard-
ness Testing of Metallic Materials.
TRAVERSE
............
' TRAVERSE
~~-----.:~ ;,;,,;;
STRAIN
o ASTM 23, Notched Bar Impact Testing of
Metallic Materials. girl'S requirements for
Ffgure 31-18 . Metal tested at (J low strain rare is the Charpy v-notch test, which is the most
ductile compared with the .willie metal tested at (/ commo1l impact test used.
hiRh strain rate.
..
V,NOTCH
SPECIMEN toughness values . See Figure 3 1-20. ",
SPECIMEN
SUPPORTED HAMMER
HORIZONTALLY
-
BY ANVIL
V,NOTCH
CENTERED WELD SAMPLE
NOTCH
f2\ SP ECIM EN IS SUPPORTED IN TE STER BY
~ ANVIL
PENDULUM AT REST \
STA N DA R D~
PENDULUM ~~' , - ,
AFTER -- ' -'~i'-
STRIKING / -u u
TEST / '
SP ECIMEN 1 k ' / BASE METAL
~/ NOTCH WELDED SAMPLE
BASE~7' STRIKING
EDGE Figure 31 ·20. Cha rry v-no tch test sp ecimens ma -
ANVIL chined fro m differ ent locations in a weld ma.. . exhibit
PENDULUM
SPECIMEN DURING dif feren t notch toughness rallies.
SWING
-
A weld bead made from a brittle alloy
Urcok tests are also
rapid methods of 0 .\' · is laid down the center of the plate. The
sessillK weld quality plate is brought to the test temperature
and may he called out and placed in the test fixture. It is sup- WE IGHT
hy specific industries. DROPPED FRACTURE
ported along both ends parall el to the OCCURS AT
weld, with the weld side facing down . TEST SPECIMEN 3' OF BEND
(PLATE)
A weight located vertica lly above the
center of the plate is allow ed to drop,
causing the plate to bend .
FIXTURE
G) WEiGHT DROPPED ON TEST SPECiMEN
~
5· BEND --.....L
STOP
Break Tests
Break tests are a rapid and convenient
method of eva luating certain types of
li"iu.• 0 1....11 k<fillK M tu-hi,U' Co., /11£.
welds and are used for welder qualifi-
Electromechonicol tensile testing machines can he used to perform tension, comp res- cation . Break tes ts include the nick -
SiOIl , andjlcx tests on a specimen. break test and the fillet weld break test.
FLAME CUT
r
obta in representative samples
and results throughout groove-
welded pla te, groove-we lde d IMPACT SPECIMENS TEN SION SPECIMEN
pipe, and th ick: g roove-welde d AND WELD METAL
plate. TENSION SPECIMENS,
WHEN REOUIRED
if! DISCARD
SIDE·BEND
SPECIMEN
DISCARD
GROOVE·WELDED PLATE
FACE·B END
SPECIMEN FACE·BEND SPECIMEN
ROUND T ENSION
S PEC I ME NS ~ .>
SIDE.BEND A~
SPECIMENS
REDUCED
SECTION
TEN SION
SPECIMENS
depending on the type of hardness test times as thick as the depth of the im-
to be performed. Surface preparation pression. For the Vickers hardness test,
requi rements become increasingly the test specime n sho uld be one and
stringent as the size and de pth of the one-half times as thick.
indentat ion decreases . At the very For eva luation of weld metal hard-
minimum, it is necessary to remove ness, the edge of the indentation must
rust and scale from the surface. Exces- be within the weld metal and no closer
sive heat m ust be avo ided when pre - than VB" from the weld metal interface
paring the test area of the spec imen. with the base metal. The minimum
Weld metal hardness tests are only sp ac ing between ind e n ta t io n s de -
permitted either on we ld joi nt cross pends on the type of test. If th e in-
section samples or on local areas of dentations are too close toget her, there
we ld reinforcement that are ground will be disturbed zones of metal. Th e
smooth before testing. The edge of the minimum separatio n between inden-
ind e ntati o n m ust be no cl oser than tations shou ld be four diameters (4 d
three times the majo r dimension of the center to center) for the Bri nell and
indentation from the edge of the ground Rockwell hardness tests and two and
area of the reinforcement on wel ded o ne -ha lf diagonals (2 '/2 0 center to
assemblies . Specimen s mu st be sup- cen ter) for the Vickers hardness test.
ported to prevent rocking under the See Figure 31- 25 .
MINIMUM
SEPARATION BRI NELL TEST
OF INDENTATION S
d = diameter
=
D diagonal
I . The current edition of the con trolling fabrication code or standard must be followed when
makin g test weld s and test specimens, and when conducting destructi ve tests.
2. Tensile specimens obtained from welded joints are typically rectan gular. unless taken from a
location where it is not possible to obtain a sample of rectangular cross section.
3 . Bend testing is an economical way of judging weld quality to qua lify a procedure or welder.
4 . Th e guided bend test is the most commonly used ductility test for groove weld s, surfac ing
welds, and fillet welds.
5 . Hardness testing, although considered destructive. does not necessarily require that the speci-
men be cut into piece s, and is thus convenient and relati vely rapid.
6 . Toughness testing requirements depend on the specific applicable fabrication code or standard.
7 . Th e Charpy V-notch test uses the energy produced by a dyn ami c load , and measu res the
energy needed to break a small machin e-notched test spec imen.
8. Break tests are also rapid methods of assessing weld quality and may be called out by specific
indu stries.
9. Specimen preparation must pro vide a smoo th surface for testing. Nicks or sharp edges are
undesirable because they introduee local stress raisers that might cau se prema ture failure.
10. Proper personal protective equipment, including eye and ear protection and correctly tinted
gogg les must be worn to observe weldin g.
I I . Residu al stress measurement is a method of measurin g the stress in materials produ ced by
manufacturing processes such as welding.
NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINA-
I' =I Aj/awisnor
indication interpreted to be cau sed by
TION (NDE) TERMINOLOGY a discontinui ty at a location where no
.~
necessur-
i(vadt:k(tA.Jlmvmay
di scontinuity actually ex is ts. Fa lse .= he relevant Irrquiring
Nondestructive examination (NDE) is indicat ion s arc nonrelevant indi ca- evaluation by nonde-
th e dc vclopm ent and application of tions. Sec Fig ure 32- 1. structive testing),
techni cal methods to examine materi - nonrelrvant (rejection
A defect is one or more indications is not necessary after
als or components in ways that do not whos e agg reg ate size, shape, ori enta- evaluation). or false
impair their future usefuln ess and ser- tion, or location fail to meet the accep- ( I/O discontinu itv ac-
tI
w ith the resul ts eva luated by an in-
.~ 'lillhHl isl'n fom wtlby
pend ing o n th e N DE pro ce ss. N DE specto r. Qualification and certification .= all exanuner; who is a
resu lts arc co mpared with the allow- requ ire me nts fo r exami ne rs and in- person qualified to
ab le discontinui ty limits in the appli- spectors ar e describe d in the appl i- conduct ywcific NDE
processes.
ca ble fabr icat ioo code or standard to cab le fabrication code or standard. An
determine accept anc e or reject io n of examine r is a person who is qualified ,
the we ld. or q ual ified and ce rtified, to co nduct
A fl aw (ind ication ) is a disco nti- ce rtain types of NDE processes. Ex-
nuity th a t c an be det ect ed th rou gh aminers are quali fied an d ce rtified to
NDE tech niqu es. Ind ication s are ca t- Ame rica n Society of No nde structive
ego rized as rel evant , non relevant, or Testin g (AS NT) Recommend ed Stan-
false . A relevant indication is an NDE dard SNT-TCIA. An inspector is a per-
indi cation caused by a di scontinu ity so n who is qualified, or qualified and All inspector is a per-
SOI/ qualified to inter-
that requires evaluation. A nonrelevant certified, to apply the result s of ND E p rt'l nondestructi ve
indication is a n N DE indi c at io n fla w c harac te riza tio n to dete rmi ne examina tion res ults
cau se d by a di sco ntinuity that , afte r whether the flaws meet the acce ptance according to the con-
lrollillg code or Stllll-
eva luatio n, does not need to be re- crite ria of the app lica ble fab ricat ion durdfor III(' job.
je cted . A [alse indication is an ND E code or standard. See Appendix.
413
Figu re 32-1. Nondestructi ve ex-
amination is used to detect
discontinuities in welds and de-
termine if they are accep table or NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
must he rejected.
Indication (flaw)
detected
I I
j I
False indication Relevant indication
noted noted
I
j
Evaluation of weld
(per applicable
fabrication standard
or code)
I
I I
Nonrelevant Relevant
I j
Accept Reject
weld [{1 weld IRl
1II1111;1,lt'·,JtlH welds.
POLISH AND ETCH
SURFACE ____
MACRO SA MPLE
J
~ TACK MACRO SAMPLE TO
PLATE WITH ETCH ED
SURFACE UP
BUTT JOINT
DUPLI CATE FILLET
W ELDON
OTHER SIDE
2" MINIMUM
~
MACR O SAMPLE
1'" MINIMUM
J
~ TACK MACRO SAM PLE TO
PLATE W ITH ETCHED
SURFACE OUT
T·JOINT
~ C L EA N E R
DEVELOPER
I
The surface of a part
result of, and only during, the absorp- and chlorine, must not have an adverse .~ must be completely
tion of black light radiation. effect on the materials of construction. . = clean and dry before
administering liquid
Surface Precleaning. The surface of a Nickel alloys may be damaged by penetrant examina-
part must be completely clean and dry degreasers containing sulfur; titanium tion.
before administering liquid penetrant alloys and stainless steels are affected
Nondestructive Examination :€): 419
by de greasers contai nin g c h lo rine . to remain on the surface for a pre de-
Cracking ma y re sult if degr ea ser s are tennined amount of time , known as the
not co mplete ly re moved from test ar- dw ell time. Dwell time is the total time
eas that are subs equently ex posed to penetrant is in con tact with the co m-
heat or high-temperature se rv ice . pon ent surface, including a pplica tio n
Penetrant Application. Penetrant appli- and dra in times. See Figure 32-7. Dwell
cation is don e by immersion , spraying, time is direct ly related to the size and
or swabbing (brushing) on dry parts over sh a pe of ant ic ipated di sco nti n uities
the areas to be examined . The surface since discontinuity size determines the
of the we ldme nt is coated wi th a thin rate 0 r pen etration
. . For examp' tC,/IIg' ht
film of the pen etrant, which is allowed cracks req uire more tha n 30 mi n fo r
DWELL TIME
Solvent-
Water-Washable Post-Emulsified Removed
Material Form Type of Penetration Penetration
Discontinuity Penetration
Time*t Time -' Time *t
Porosity 5- 15 5' 3
Cas tings
Cold Shuts 5-1 5 5' 3
Extru sion s & Forgings Laps NR§ 10 7
Aluminum Lack of Fu sion 30 5 3
Welds Poro sity 30 5 3
Cracks 30 10 5
All Fatigue C rack s NR§ 30 5
Poro sity 15 5' 3
Castings
Cold Shuts 15 5' 3
Extrusion s & Forgi ngs Laps NR§ 10 7
Magnesium Lac k of Fusion 30 10 5
Welds Poro sity 30 10 5
Cracks 30 10 5
All Fatigue Crack s NR§ 30 7
Poro sity 30 10' 5
Casti ngs
Cold Shuts 30 10' 7
Extru sion s & Forgings Laps NR§ 10 7
Steel Lack of Fusion 60 20 7
Welds Poro sity 60 20 7
Cracks 30 20 7
All Fatigue Crack s NR§ 30 10
Porosity 10 5' 3
Castings
Cold Shuts 10 5' 3
Extru sions & Forgings Laps NR§ 10 7
Brass & Bron ze
Lack of Fusion 15 10 3
Brazed Part s
Poro sit y 15 10 3
All Crac ks 30 10 3
Pla stic All Crac ks 5- 30 5 5
Glass All Crack s 5-30 5 5
Lack of Fusi on 30 5 3
Carbide-tipped Porosity 30 5 3
Tool s
Cracks 30 20 5
Titanium &
High-temp All NR§ 20-30 15
Alloys
Stress or Intergranul ar NR§
All Metals 240 240
Corrosion
lo r part s 60 F (16 C) to 125 F (25 C)
t in min.
I precision caslings only
§ not recommended
Figure 32·7 . Penetrant dwell rime is relat ed ((I the size and sha pe of ttse discon tinuities expected.
FAINT GROSS
MAGNETIC
Magnetic particle examination (MT) is FIELD
Magnetic panicle ex-
an NDE method that uses a strong mag-
amination is used to
netizing current and a finely divided detectsurfaceor near-
powder to detect defects. Magnetic par- surface discontinuity
indications in ferro -
ticle examination uses magnetic leakage
ma gneti c metals.
fields and suitable indicating materials
to detect surface and near-surface dis-
o
( ; \ YOKE ENERGIZED TO FORM
MAGNET IC FIELD IN SPECIMEN
. .. ..
: : :' :: :', LEAKAGE FIELD
PART
~CONTACT HEAD
CURRENT /
(HEADSHOT)
1
CIRCULAR FIELD
CENTRAL CONDUCTOR
PART
CIRCULAR
FIELD DISTORTED
BETWEEN PRODS
COIL
IRON CORE
CURRENTJ
~MAGNETIC FIELD
CURRENT
YOKE
~
Search un it confi gurations in weld
testing are straig ht beam and angle
beam. A straight beam is a vibrating SIGNAL GENERATOR
pu lse wave traveli ng perpendic ular to (PULSER)
ELECTR ON IC TIMER
the surface. An angle beam is a vibrat-
ing pul se wave traveling other than AMPLIFIER DEMODULATOR
SWEEP DELAY
perpendicu lar to the surface .
ATTENUATOR
Couplan t A couplant is a liquid substance
/ SWEEP LENGTH
used between the search unit and the test
CATHOD E RAY
surface to permit or improve the trans- TUBE (CRT)
mission of ultrasonic energy. A gas inter-
face such as air reflects almost all of the
ultrasonic energy it receives. The purpose
of the couplant is to exclude air between
the tran sducer and the test surface.
Couplants consist of liquids such as wa-
ter, glycerin, light oil, or cellulose gum
powder mixed with water. After exa mi-
nation, couplants must be completely re-
TEST PIECE
moved with an acceptable solvent if heat
SEND ING AND RECE IVING
is to be applied to the test surface at a TR ANSDUCER(S) (CRYSTAL)
later stage.
The weld metal or base metal must Figure 32- 17. The bll.\.;c equipment components re-
quired for UT are (/ signul g t' lIt' m tlJ/; sending and
be smooth and llat to allow close con- recei ving transducers, {III amplif ier/demodulat or. a
tact with the search unit if required by CRT display, and (1/1 electronic timer.
Ultrasonic Examination
SHEAR WAVES Procedure Requirements
UT procedure require ments defin e
Figure 32-Ut Longitudinal waves and shear waves
how the instrumentation is set up and
are Iypically used for ultraso nic weld testi ng. used for weld testing. UT pro cedure
requi rements for weld testin g consist
A longitudinal wave is a compres- of pulse-echo mode, amplifier controls,
sion wave that represents wave motion calibration standards, and instrument
in which the particle oscillation is in the calibration procedures.
same dir ect ion as wave prop agation . Pulse-Echo Mode. Pu lse-echo mode
Longitudinal waves can travel through is a UT examinatio n in which the pres-
solids, liquids, and gases. e nce and po sit ion of a re flecto r are
Nondestructive Examination €1 431
ind icated by the echo amplitude and Ultrasonic Examination Methods
time . The pu lse -echo mode produces
repeated burst s of high -frequency Applicable standards for UT of we lds
sound from the crystal with a time in- are detailed in ASTM E 164, Standard
terval between burst s to receive sig- Practice for Ultrasonic COlitact Ex-
nals from the test piec e and from any amination of wcldment s. Th e stan-
di scont inuitie s in th e we ld or base dard cover s exa mina tio n of spec ific
met al. Ea ch pul se sets off a wave of we ld confi gurat ion s in wro ug ht fer -
mechanical vibration s. The initi al dis- rou s and aluminum a lloys to d~'0
tortion and subseq ue nt vibration s of weld di sc ontinuiti es. Rec ommended
the crystal are fed to the amplifier and procedures fo r test in g butt, corner,
cau se a pip on the CRT. and T-joints are give n fo r we ld test
The ultrasonic unit senses reflected piece thickn esses from .5" to 8". Re-
impul ses. amp lifies them. and presents quired procedure s fo r calibratin g
them as spikes. called pips. on the CRT. equipment and appropriate ca libration
Th e horizontal location of a reflector blocks ar e included in the standard.
pip on the screen. such as from a flaw. UT of Base Metal. UT of the ba se
is pro port ional to the di sta nce the metal is done on eith er s ide of the
so und ha s traveled in the tes t piece . we ld over a band that ext ends as far
This makes it possib le to determi ne the as a full skip for the shallo wes t ang le
location of rellectors suc h as llaw s by probe, usually a 70 ° probe. plus half
using horizontal screen grad uations as the we ld reinforcemen t width . A f ull
a distance-measuri ng ru ler. skip is one complete rell ection of the
Calibration Standards. Reliable infor- ultra son ic heam . By c hecking the
mati on can be o btai ne d abou t th e base metal thickness. actual thickness
speci me n o n the CRT by co mpa ring va lues are ob ta ined fo r subsequent
signals from the specimen with those shear wave ca libra tion s rat her tha n
obtai ned from spec ia lly mach ined the nomi nal thick ness obtained from
blocks. known as calibrat ion standards . the pr ints ,
A calibration standard is a calibration Systema tic scanning of base metal
blo ck or a reference block . in the band wh ere subseq ue nt shear
A ca lib ration b lo ck is a piece of wave scans will be mad e allows de-
material of specified composition, heat te ction o f la m in a t io ns. which , a l-
treatment, geometric form , and surface though they ma y not affect the
fini sh. by which ultrasonic equipment strength of the struc ture, mi ght inter-
can be assessed and calibrated for the fere with the shear wave beam . A large
exa minatio n of mat erial of the same lamination ca uses the beam to reflect
ge ne ra l c o nd it io n, A c alibration up to the weld reinforcement, givi ng
bl ock may be a s im ple ste p wedge a sig na l tha t might he mistaken for a
of a particular mat erial to allow the normal root head. At the same time ,
time base to be calibrated for accurate the lamination ca n cause the beam to
thickness measurement. A ca libration mi ss a discontinuity suc h as lack of
block may a lso he a more co mplex pen etration .
blo ck, a ll o w ing ca libration of time UT of Root Pass. UT of the root pass
base, search unit angle, reso lution, in- is carried out from both sides of the
dex , and o ther feat ure s, A refe rence weld. when ever possib le, usin g a suit-
block is a test piece of the same mate- able ang led probe , UT of the root pass
rial, shape, and sig nificant dimensions de tects incomp lete penet ratio n or in-
as a particular object under examination, co mp le te f usion . Scann in g lines are
and which may contain natural or artifi- marked at half skip distance hack from
cial discontinuities or defects . the origi nal root face on eit her side of
432 ~ We/dillK Skills
the we ld . A guide is then placed so
th at when the heel of the se lec ted
angle probe is butted a ga ins t the
guide , the probe index is on the scan-
ning line. Flexible mag netic strips are
useful guides for magn etic material s
- : ~. -, - ;;-
'---v-"'-v-1
Ultrasonic Examination FULL " - - REINFOR CEMENT
of Root Pass SKIP
Figure 32-19
Fig u re 32-20. UT of the fusion face and the weld
b ody cons ists of examining ' he ell/ ire weld 1'01-
AA~
HALF·SK IP BEAM PATH
ume, ~dl ;dl is a f ull skip dista nce plus one -half the
weld reinforcement widt h.
SPECI~
fewer personnel will be affected. MATERIAL
BEING
TE STED
Radiographic Examination
Principles
X rays and gamma rays are two types
of electromagnetic waves used to pen-
etrate opaq ue material s. A per mane nt
record of the intern al struc ture is ob-
tain ed by placin g a sensitized film in
direct co ntac t wi th th e back of th e DARKER AREAS
tWHEN PROCESSED)
weldment. When the X or gamma rays
pass through a weldment of uniform Figure 32-21. The tess material abso rbs radiation.
thickn ess and structure, they fall upon but less absorption takes place where there is a void,
the sensitized film and produce a nega- leading to darker areas ('" tlse processed radiograph.
tI
Rudiographicfitm is
•~ ptucrd 0 11 the oppo - A radiograph is a perm anent, vis- Since more radi ati on pas se s
.= site side of the test ible image on a recording medium pro-
specimen 10 reco rd throu gh thin sections or locations co n-
the internal image of
duced by penetrating radiation passing tainin g void s, the co rres po nd ing ar-
the component. through a mat eri al being tested. Se e eas of the film are darker. The relative
Figure 32-2 1.
FILM IS NOT
PERP ENDICU LAR
PART TO AXIS O F
RTBEAM
NOTES:
Chart extends in v....' increments up to 2lh" , then in 12" increments up to 8". and then in 1"
increments.
101(PENNY)
SHIM STOCK
'\:FILM
•. .. .. _ ~ .
PLATE
I
~-
1
M IN.3S"
SOURCE·TO· PART
PRIMARY BEAM
1--- - DISTORTION.
IMAGE MISALIGNMENT DUE
TO DETAIL GEOMETRY AND
DIVERSIONARY BEAM ALIGNMENT
PIPE OR TUBING
Double" Wall RT for Pipe or Thbing shots provide sufficient coverage of the
l'Aw to 2W" ID. Double-wall RT for pipe entire circumference and reveal discon-
or tubing welds from 114" to 2Vi' ID is tinuity orientation. In addition. two 90°
done with a 15° elliptical shot. As with opposing, superimposed shots should be
pipe or tubing less than 114" diameter. taken to show discontinuities in the per-
two IQl s should be used. Six elliptical pendicular position. See Figure 32-29.
Nondestruc tive Examina tion :@: 439
Double-Wall Radiographic Examination for Pipe and Tubing Less Than 1Y." 10
Figure 32-28
EXACT ANGLE DETERMINED
BY PIPE O R TUBING DIAMETER
FILM CO NTACTS
TOP PORTION OF Bo n OM PORT ION OF SIDEWALL
W ELD PROJE CTED WELD PROJECTED
Figure 32·28. The ,\'(11/1"("(' angte fo r dauhle-wall RT of pil'e or ltlhing less tlian 11/4" ID is de/ermined hy the pipe or tubing JI> 10 ensu re the top
portion of the weld projects outside of tile ho /fo!/l port ion.
/
1W' TO 2lh:"I D
FILM CO NTACTS
SIDEWALL
\.- AREA OF INTEREST
Figu re 32-29. RT of 1';1'(' or tubing from J If,'" to 2 /12" If) requ ires if 15 ° ellipticol ,\"h Ol and two 90° shots.
I
duced voltage of the exciting coil or the ence the type of equipment calibration
adjacent coil is used to monitor the condi- .~ amination procedures
tion ofthe part being inspected. standards that are required. Electro- .= must be standardized,
magnetic examination procedures must often usingfull-scale or
mo ck -lip ca lib ra tion
Electromagnetic Examination be standardized, often using full-scale standards with simu-
Requirements or mock-up calibration standards with lated discontinuities.
simulated discontinuities . Equipment
Electromagnetic examination require- calibration standards must meet the
ments indicate the parameters that must following requirements :
be controlled and documented to en- • Conform to the applicable specifi-
sure effective, repeatable applications. cation .
ET requirements include ET inspection • Be easily fabricated .
equipment, ET equipment calibration, • Be reproducible in precisely gradu-
and ET procedures. ated sizes.
ET Inspection Equipment. ET inspec- • Produce an indication on the ET
tion equipment consists of a generator, tester that closely resembles those
inspection coil, amplifier, detector, and produced by natural discontinuities.
Nondestructive Examination :@: 443
Electromagnetic Examination PROOF TESTING
Pmo! leslillg is 1I,\'ed 10
demonstrate the ubil-
Methods for Welds
Proof testing is the application of spe-
ily (iflll(' welded s/nu"
ture 10 ca rry loads
Electromagnetic examination methods cifi c loads to welded structures, with-
equal to or illexce.. . . . of for welds are primarily applied to lon- out failure or perm anent deformation.
Iht' amicil'aled service gitudinal welded pipe or tubing as a to assess their mech anical integrity.
conditions.
production quality control tool. Proof tests are usually designed to sub-
ET of Longitudinally Welded Pipe or ject parts to stresses exceeding those
Tubing. ET of longi tudinally welded anticipated du ring service, but ma in-
pipe or tubing is done using an encir- tained below or at the specified yield
clin g ex ternal e nerg izi ng co il and a strength of the metal. Proof testing is
prob e-type di fferenti al detector co il. used to demonstrate the ability of the
The probe-type detector coil is located welded structure to carry load s equal
at the longitudinal center in the inner to or in excess of the anticipated ser-
perimeter of the primary co il and is vice conditions. Proof tests must be de-
arranged so that it inspects the outside sig ned by an eng inee r familiar with
surface of the longitudinal weld. in -u se requirement s, a nd co ns is t of
Examination is performed by pass- hydrostatic testin g. pneuma tic testing,
ing the pipe or tubing longitudinally spin testing, lea k testing, vacuum box
through the primary energizing co il, testing, and aco ustic emission testin g.
causing the probe-type detector coil to
move across the longitudinal weld from Hydrostatic Testing
end to end . The primary coi l is ener-
gized with an alternating frequency that Hydrostatic testing (hydrotest ing } is
is suitable for the part being inspected proof testing of closed contain ers such
and induces eddy currents into the part. as vessels, tanks . and piping systems
See Figure 32-3 1. by fillin g them with water and apply -
Ftaurc 32·31. To inspect tongi- ing a predetermined test pressure. Hy-
tudiuul weld q lll//i(', in welded dro static testin g is the most common
{,iJlt , or tubing. an energizing co;1
type of proof test.
(/mJ (/ deft'I'lor coil a re required.
Adequate venting must be ensured
during hydrostati c testin g to prevent
co llapse (sucking in) of the tank . See
Figure 32-32. For components built to
the ASM E Boi ler and Pressure Vessel
Code , this pressure is 150% of design
pressure. Fo r othe r components, the
Ade q uate ve nting te st press ur e may be ba sed upon a
11I1lS t be ens ured
du ri ng hydro static fixed percentage of the minimum yield
testing 10 prevent col- Th e DC co il is energized at high stre ngth. Afte r a fixed holdi ng time,
hII' ll' (sucking in) of curre nt levels to magnetically saturate the co ntainer is ins pec ted for sound-
the rank.
the pipe or tubing, improving penetra- ness by visually check ing for leakage,
tion of the eddy current and cancelin g or by monit oring the hydrostatic test
the effects of magnetic variables. This pressure for any drop.
type of inspection is effective in detect- Op en co ntainers suc h as sto rage
ing mo st types of lon gitudinal weld tank s ma y a ls o be hydro st ati ca ll y
di scontinuities. su ch as ope n weld s, te sted by fillin g them with wa te r;
weld crac ks , and hot c rac ks . Many ships or barges may be tested by par-
discontinuities may be detected at rela- tially submerg ing them in water. T he
tivel y high speeds (speeds of 300 ftf hydro stat ic pre ssure exe rted aga in st
min are common) . The speed must be an y bound ar y is go ve rned by the
constant to within ± I0%. head of wa ter.
444 €l' Weldinll Skills
Figure 32·32. When performing
hydrostatic testing on an atmo -
NOTE : VENT NOZZLE MU ST BE LARGER spheric pressure stora g e tank.
THAN WATER DRAIN VALV E there mu.I'! he adequate venting
to prevent the tank from collapse
ROOF ENTRY OR (.l"Uckillg ill) when it is drained.
LARGEST ROOF NOZZL E ATMOSPHERIC
LEFT OPEN TO CHECK VENT NOZZLE
FILL LEVEL AND VENT AIR
MAX. FILL = 2" ABOVE
TOP ANGLE O R
TOP TANGENT LINE
BLINDED OFF
OVERFLOW
WATER
SOUR CE
MANUAL WATER/
DRAIN VALVE
449
length of the weld. Transverse sections where precision cuts are required. If a
may be supplemented by longitudinal diamond-tipped cutoff whee l is used,
sections. If add itio na l deta ils are re- the rough grinding steps are bypassed.
qui red, other s pec ime n orie nta tions See Figure 33-2.
may be necessary. See Figure 33- 1.
l
,ral1.H'{'r,\" e section is 1101 tak en {'X- CUTIING
actly perpendicular to the plane PLANE LINES r t TRANSVERSE
• CUTIING
of the weld. " // .' PLANE LINES
(
r '.
.
/'
5.0 20 F::::::r-"K--o;;r i
;f.
<i
4.0 ~
0 3 .0
0:
0:
w
2.0
7
V
1. 0
~
l/
O.0
o 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20
$. DEGREES e, DEGREES
MOUNTING RESINS
Molding Conditions Heat-
Distortion Transparency Chemical
Plastic Type
Tempera- Pressuret Curing Temperaturetr Resistance
ture'" Time
Phenolic Not resistant
molding Thermosett ing§ 170 4000 5min t40 Opaque to strong ac ids
powder or alkalis
Acryli c
(polymethyl
Not resistant
methacrylate) Therm oplastic 150 4000 none 65 Water white
to strong acids
moldin g
powde r
Fair resistance to
Epoxy Clear but most alkalis and
acids; poor re-
casting Therm osettlnqt 20-40 - 24 hr 60' light brown
sistance to
resin in color nitric and glacial
acetic acids
For mvar*
(polyvinyl Clea r but
220 Not resistant
formal) Thermoplastic 4000 none 75 light brown
to strong acids
molding in co lor
compound
Polyvinyl chloride
Highly
resistant
molding Thermoplastic tt 160il 3000 none 60 Opaque
to most acids
co mpo und and alkalis
"C
t in psi
t de termined by melllod in ASTM 0648-56, et a fibe r stre ss of 264lb1in.l
§ wood ·fil led grade , pre ler ably with k:lw filler con tent
• liquid epoK)' resin with an aliphatic enure hardener
• depends on curing schedule (can be as high as 110' C WIth heal Ctlring )
• • diallyl phl ha lale polymer WI1 h a mi nefa l filler
It stabili zed ndged PVC
It must nol exce ed 2OO'C
F iJ.:ure .13· 4. M Oll lltill g resins //111.\'t satisfv a variety of conditions 10 he acceptable.
Rough Polishing. Rough polishing is of the specimen surface using tools such
a polishing process that is performed as energy-dispersive X-ray analysis or
on a series of rotating wheels covered electron probe microanalysis.
with a low-nap cloth (cloth containing Automatic Polishing. Automatic pol -
a small amount of fiber). Successively ishing is a process that establishes a
finer grades of diamond rouge (pol- complex motion for the mount relative
ishing powder) are applied to each to the rotation of the polishing wheel.
wheel, usually starting at 45 Il size. The The rough and final polishing steps are
grades usually decrease from 30 Il to performed in an automatic polishing
6 Il to 1 u. A small amount of lubricant machine . The machine setting is de-
is applied to the cloth to prevent over- termined from operator experience.
heating of the mount. The mount is Automatic polishing is used for large
washed with liquid soap and water, al- batches of repetitive work , for radio -
cohol, or acetone between each polish- active specimens, and for poli shing
ing to prevent carryover of diamond techniques that add corrosives to the
rouge. wheel. See Figure 33-7.
Final Polishing. Final polishing is simi-
lar to rough polishing , but during final
poli shing very light hand pressure is
applied to the mount. After washing
and drying in a current of warm air ,
the mount is examined under a metal-
lurgical microscope for scratches. If the
mount is scratch-free, it is ready for
etching and examination under a met- <
.
allurgical microscope.
Final polishing is done by rubbing the
mount against a medium-nap cloth that
UCO Co rl'0 mlion
has a .3 Il to .05 Il alumina slurry ap- Ftgure 33-7. Au tomatic po lish ing in an automat ic
plied to it. If the specimen surface is to polishing machine establi shes a comp lex motion f or
be subjected to microanalysis, alumina the numn! relative to the rotation of the poli.\-hing wheel.
ELECTROLYTIC
SOLUTION
MOUNT
SPECIMEN
ROUGH PEAK S
ARE REMOVED
POLISHED
SURFACE
Metallography ~ 455
Th e spec ime n is then thorou ghl y Specimen Examination. Metallurgi-
degreased, dried, and prepared for etch- cal microscope examination uses light
ing. Etching is the last stage before ex- refl ected from the specime n surface
amination. Etchants selectively dissolve to e xamin e micro stru ctural detail s.
speci fic microstructural components. The surface of the specimen must be
giving the as-polished surface a relief widely sca nned to gain a repre senta-
appearance. Etchants are se lected to tive view of the microstructure . De-
di stingui sh va ri ous mi crostructural tail s are re vealed becau se et ching
component s to provide the best view atta ck s the gra ins of metal at differ-
of the microstructural feature s. ent rate s , whi ch re sult s in variou s
Etching is usually performed hy shading e ffects. The proper amount
Etchin g nften re - immersion. The specimen is immersed of etching is required for optimum
quires t!lc' use of
strong acids. ami all
with th e poli shed face upward in a vi ewing of the microstructure. Im-
saf et y precautions small dish of etching solution, which is proper amount s of etching lead to
must he observed. AJ~ genlly swirl ed . The spec ime n is re- overetchin g or underetching, result-
way.... add acid to wa-
ter when diluting. not moved when a bloom appears. A bloom ing in false effects. See Figure 33- 10.
vice versa . is a slight haze that appears on the sur- The etched spec ime n is placed in
face of the specimen and is evidence of a metallurgical microscope and exam-
the first appearance of the microstruc- ined at low -power ma gni ficati on of
ture. See Figure 33-9. 25x or 50 x to obtain an over all im-
pre ssion of the microstructure. It is
Flgure 33-9. For optim um i'iewill!:
then ex amined at increasing magnifi-
of the m icrostrllcturt·. the mOllllr
is etched unt il a "'Ollm (If'J'<'a H cation s o f IOOx to IOOOx to reveal
011 the surface. fine detail. High er magnification s up
to 2500x cannot be achi e ved within
the air space avai lable between the
lens and the specimen .
Higher magnification s require the
use of water or oil immersion. A small
amount of water or oil is daubed on
the obj ective len s, which is lowered
towards the specimen. If water or oil
imme rsion is to be followed by lower
AWARNING~
magnification work, the water or oil is
Alway s add add t tl water
whe n diluti ng. Nitri c acid removed from the specime n and the
ca uses stains and severe mount may require repolishing and re-
burn s. Wash affec ted a reas
with water immediatel y if etchin g. Surface films on some alloy s
the nitric acid mix ture may require that specimens are repol-
to uches the ski n.
If necessary, further etching may be ished and re -etched several times to
performed after examination under a remove the affected surface layer and
microscope to strengthen any details . reveal their true structure.
However, over-etching may cause loss When focu sing the metallurgical
of contrast. After etching , the specimen microscope, contact betw een the lens
is thorou ghly rinsed in running water. and the spec imen must be avoided to
Then aceton e or alcohol is sprayed prevent surface damage to the mounted
When [ocu . . ing the over the surface. The excess is allowed specimen. The micro scope is focu sed
metallurgical micro-
to run off against a cloth that is held at in two steps. First, the microscope stage
scop e, cm llClct be-
tween tile lens ami tile one side of the specimen. The speci- is gradually moved tow ard the objec-
spec imen mu.... t be men is then dried in a stream of hot tive lens using the coar se adjustment.
avoided to pre vent air. The specimen should be etched and Second, when the image appears, the
surface damllKc' to the
mounted specimen. tin e polished at least twice to remove focus ing is completed usin g the fine
flowed metal from the surface. adju stment.
456 €l' Welding Skills
-, :-..
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... . \
,
.} \ -<,0'
f
~I
)~
, ",
f.;.~
•.. ) . ",I
i
I,W
if
"''. ~ ,,;S
":4 .
.x ') "'> ...~
OVERETCHING UNDERETCHING
Figure 33-10. Properly etched spe cimens reveal true microstructural f eatures when viewed hy a metullurgivul microscop e.
':1_
._,
- - - - - »<:->:
{yeo Corporalio"
, ><
\
• r-
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t
;
BRIGHTFIELD DARKFIELD
\Vht'IJ examining mel-
ailographic samples
w it/era metallurgical
microscope. illumina-
tion techniques such
lIS brigiufietd. dark-
field, polarized. lind
Nomarski may be
"sed 10 nvrat micro-
st ructural features.
POLARIZED NOMARSKI
l.£CO COf{Wfd l io rr
~
Macros copic ex -
size of weld. a metallurgical microscope. See Ap- amination consists
Macroscopic examination consists of pendix. ~
- ofspecimen prepa-
ration; rough and
specimen preparation; rough and fine A hydrochloric acid solution should
fine grinding; and
grinding; and macroetching and exami- contain equal parts by volume of con- macroetching and
nation. Photography may be used to centrated hydrochloric (muriatic) acid examination.
document macroscopic examination. and water. Immerse the weld in the
Metallagraphy @o 459
boiling reagent. Hydrochloric acid will to the surface of the weld with a glass
etch unpoli shed surfaces . It usually stirring rod at room temperature or im-
e nlarges gas pock et s and disso lve s merse the weld in boiling reagent, pro-
slag inclusion s, enlarg ing the result- vided the room is well ventilated. After
ing cavities . etching, wash the weld immediately in
An ammonium hydroxide-peroxide clear, hot water. Rem ove exc ess wa-
solution should co ntain one part am - ter. Dip the etched surface in ethyl al-
monium per sulfate (so lid) and nin e cohol : th en rem ove a nd dry it in a
parts water by weight. Vigorou sly rub steady blast of warm air.
the surface of the weld with cotton satu- An iodin e a nd pot assium iod id e
rated with the ammonium per sulfate solution is obtained by mixing one part
reagent at roo m temperature. powdered iodine (solid) to 12 parts of
Nitric acid etches rapidly and should a so lutio n o f pota ssium iod id e by
only be used on poli shed surfaces . It weight. The pota ssium iodide solution
will show the refined zone as well as should co nsist of one part potassium
the metal zone. Mix one part concen- iodide to five parts water by weight.
trated nitr ic acid to three part s water Brush the surface of the weld with this
by vo lume. Eithe r apply the rea gent reagent at room temperature.
Aluminum Alloys
Tucker's reagent, Immerse or swab: use freshly
A, B
45 mL HCI + 15 mL HN 0 3 + 15 mL mixed general macroet ch ; all alloys
HF (48%) + 25 mL H2O
Poulton's reagent,
60 mL HCI + 30 mL HN 0 3 + 5 mL Immerse or swab; general
A. B
macroetch, all alloys
HF (48 %) + 5 mL H2O
"'f i\
DIFFUSED
INTENSE
LIGHT
SOURC E SEMI·OPAQUE
SCREEN
WHITE CARD
/ PULSE OF
,/ INTENSE LIGHT
REFLECTED LIGHT J
REFLECTED LIGHT FLASHLIGHT
The four types of lightin g methods The light source for till lighting may be
are main lighting, fill lighting, back- spo tlig ht, diffused light, or re flected
light ing, an d bu ildup lightin g. These light. Backli ghting is a lighting method
light ing met hods use com bin ation s of that uses a diffused light source to elimi-
the four types of light sources to achieve nate or soften shadow detail. A light box
the des ired lighting effect. (lighted ground-glass screen) behind the
Main lighting is a primary ligh ting specimen is the most commo n diffused
method that uses a light source at aver- light so urce for backligh ting. Buildup
tical angle of 40° to 60° to the subject. lig hting is a lightin g method that com-
Fill lighting is a lighting method that uses bines (adding or deleting) light sources
a small region of a brighter light to in- to achieve the desired ligh ting effect.
crease detail on a dark area of a subject. See Figure 33- 15.
Y ,/
y SOURCE
/
SPECIMEN
1,/....-- SPECIMEN
I"'L
MAIN FILL
~ LIGHT
MAIN
GROUND·
SPOT·
LIGHT
GROUND·
Y WHITE
SOURCE
BACK BUILDUP
I . T he stages of meta llography include cutting and rough grinding, mounting and fine grinding.
rough and fina l polishing, and etching and examination.
2. Etching often requires the use of strong acid s, and all safety precaut ions must be observed.
Always add acid to water when dilut ing, not vice versa.
3. When focusin g the metallurg ical microscope, contact betwee n the lens and the specimen must
be avo ided to prevent surfac e damage to the mounted spec imen.
4. When examining metallographic sample s under a metallurgical microscope , illumin ation tech-
nique s such as brightfield, darkfi eld, polarized, and Nomarski may be used to reveal micro-
structural features.
5 . Macroscopi c examination may be used to exa mine spec imens with large test surface areas.
6 . Macroscop ic examinatio n co nsists of spec imen prep arati on ; rou gh and fine gri ndi ng ; and
macro etching and examination.
7. Magnifi cation, resolution , and lighti ng are the three most important method s of photo graphy
used for documenting macroscopic examin ation feature s.
Metallography ~ 463
I . What types of weld attributes may be studied using metallography?
2 . Why must overheating be avoided when cutting specimens for metallographic examination?
3. What is the minimum distance the heat source must be kept from the area of interest when
burning is used to remove specimens?
4. What is the purpose of rough grinding for metallographic examination?
5. What is macroscopic examination?
6. Why are successively finer stages of grinding and polishing used to prepare a specimen for
metallographic examination?
7. Why must a polished specimen be etched before examination under a metallurgical microscope?
8 . What is the difference between microetchants and macroetchants?
9. What type of light does a metallurgical microscope use?
10. How does the magnification range of a metallurgical microscope compare with that of a binocu-
lar microscope?
I I. What is the meaning of depth of field when used in the examination of macroscopic specimens?
Weld defects are weld discontinuities that fa il to meet the requirements ofthe codes or standards by which
the weld is made. A weld defect requires that the weld be rejected, or repaired and reexamined. Weld
defects are not permitted by controlling codes or standards because they can lead 10 premature failure.
Various nondestructive examination (NDE) techniques are used to detect weld defe cts and discontinuities
and measure their size and orientation.
465
Types of Pipelin e s Power Boilers
Defect (per API Std. 1 10 4) (per ASME Section 1)
If density 01 radiographic image of internal concavity is Shall not reduce weld thickness to less
Internal Concavity less tha n base met al, any length is allowable. If more than thinne r mate rial. Contour of Not Covere d
dense, the n see burn-t hroug h above conca vity shall be smoo th
elonga ted, except as Isolated Slag Inclusions: %" to 2 V~R %It 0/." to 2Vl' %tt
note d • Maxim um widt h WI"an d lh" length in 12" of weld . great er than 2Y~R Y," grea ter than 2 Y~R Y,"
• No mo re than 4 isolated inc lusions of ~" maximum
wid th. Maximum length of tt in 12t t length Maximum total leng th of It in 12tt lerlQth
10 0 % X -Ray, Random X- Ray, a nd S pot X- R ay a re q uality level d e signations u sed by the ASME p re ssure vessel and ANSI p iping codes a nd are a lso u se d
whe n o ther NDE me lhods 01eva luation are used
t t '" weld thickness
t T '" thinner m ateria l thickness
§ w = weld width
I s e e U HT-20 fo r special heat- treated ferritic steels
, joint category A
00 joint categories B , C . and D
Figure J4~1. Fabrication standards and codes govern tile acceptahte qllality of a Ire/Jed jo int. and are the determinin g [actor ill 'he acceptance
or rej ection oj a weld . See Appendix,
CRACKS
A crack is a fracture -type discontinu-
Cracks are frocmre-
ity characterized by a sharp tip and a type discontinuities
high ratio of length to width , and width and are not permit-
to open ing di splacement. Cr ack s are ted in fabrication
standa rds and codes.
the mo st serious di sc ontinuities in
we ldments a nd are not perm itted in
fabr icat io n sta ndard s and codes .
Cracks are not per mitted becau se they
create signil1cant stress concentrat ions
at thei r tips . See Fig ure 34-4. When
crack ing is observed during welding,
it must be remo ved before weldi ng
SIIt/'k ll-ch"imel, In...
co nti nues . Wel d metal that is depos-
ited over a crack can result in exten-
Ffgure 3-1-2. If the load- bea ring area of a weld is
.u ifficit'tIl1y reduced . structural failure may occur when sion of the crack into newly depo sited
the part is place d under load. weld metal.
t LOAD
t
SMOOTH TRAN SITION BElWEEN
LOAD
WELD AND BAS E METAL MEANS
THAT STRESS AMPLIF ICATION
IS MINIMIZED AND PART DOES NOT
FAIL PREMATURELY UNDER LOAD
t LOAD
t
We'ld Discontinuities :§: 467
Figure 34-4. Cracks are flOT per-
mined ill metal because they create
\'ign!f/can{ stress concentrations at
their tips. Cracks must he removed
before welding contin ues .
Prehe at
Reliev e residual st resses mec hanic ally
Highl y rigid joi nt Minimize shrinkage st resses using back- step o r block weldi ng
sequence
Change we lding cu rrent and travel speed
Excessive dilution We ld with covered electrode , DCEN; butter th e joi nt faces prior to
we lding
Change to new electrode ; prope rly store and maintain electrodes
Defective electrodes
to prevent moisture and damage
Poor fit-up Reduce root opening; build up edg es wit h weld metal
Small weld bead Increase electrode size ; raise weld ing current; red uce travel speed
High -su lfur base metal Use low-sulfur filler metal
Angu lar distor tion Ch ange to balanced welding on both sides of joint
Fill c rater before extinguishi ng the arc; use a welding cu rrent decay
Crate r crack ing
device when te rminating the w eld bead
Heat.AffecledZqne
Use low-hydrogen welding process ; preh eat and hold for 2 hr
Hydrogen in welding atmosphere
after wel ding or posth eat immediately
Hot cracking Use low heat input; deposit thin layer s; change ba se metal
Low ductility Use preheat; anneal bas e met al
Redes ign the w eldment; chan ge welding sequence ; app ly
High residual stresses
intermediate stress-relief heat treatment
Preheat; increase heat input ; heat treat withou t cooling to room
High hardenability
temperature
Br ittle phases in the microstructure Solution heat treat pr ior to weld ing
- . - ..
RUN·OFF
TAB
UNDERBEAD CRACK
Transverse Crocks
Trans verse cracks are cracks in a weld
perpendicul ar to the axis of the we ld Figure 34-9. Unde rbead crack..~ me cold cracks that
fo rm in the heat-affected zone, and gene rattv do not
and so metimes ex tending beyond the ex tend to the surface of the base met al.
weld int o the base metal. Tran sverse
cracks are cold crack s resulting from Unde rbead c racks are hydrogen
high res traint ac ting on low ductility cracks that occ ur in steels susce ptible
weld metal. Transverse cracks in steel to hydrogen e mbritt le me nt during
we ld ments are usually rel ated to hy- welding. Dissol ved hydrogen . whi ch
drogen em britt le me nt. Tr an sver se is relea sed fro m the electrode or from
cracks are detected by VT. PT. and MT the base metal, combines with marten-
as tight . relatively straight cracks per- site formed in the HAZ during rapid
pendi cul ar to the weld axi s. cooling, creating a narrow region that
Transverse Crack Prevention. Trans- is extremely br ittle and se ns itive (0
verse crack prevention depends on the c rac king from re sidual stresses.
specific welding situation. For example. Underbead c rac ks are det ected by
transverse cracks may be caused by UT or RT because the crack is usually
470 €l' Weldin g Skill"
below the surface and immediatel y ad- Lamellar Tearing
jacent the weld. Because of their tight-
ness and s hort len gth , underbead Lam ellar Tearing is a subs urface ter-
cracks may be difficult to detect. rac e and s te p-like crack pattern in
wrought steel base metal oriented par-
Underbead Crack Prevention.
allel to the base metal working direc-
Underbead cracks are prevented by
tion. Lame llar tearin g is cau sed by
avoiding hydrogen cre ation in stee ls
tensile stresses in the base metal from
that ar e susce ptible to hydrogen
welding in a directi on perpend icul ar
embrittlement. Welding conditions that
to the working directi on, acting upon
encourage hydro gen creation include
poor she lte ring of outdoor wor k that nonm e talli c in clu si on s in th e ba se
permit s rain, snow, or condensation to metal parall el to the wor ki ng di rec-
contact welded areas. Underbead crack tion. Nonmet allic inclusions consist of
prevention is achieved by using low- metalli c oxides, sulfides, and silica tes
hydrogen electrodes to join susceptible that are held in steel. Nonmetallic in-
steels and excluding moisture from elec- clusions are formed durin g solidifica-
trodes. A dr ying pro cedure mu st be tion in the stee lmaking process from
used to remove moisture that can ab- addit ives to the melt or contamination
sorb into the coatings on some types of from refractory in the mold . Hot or
electrodes when exposed to humid at- co ld wo rking elon gat es nonmetall ic
mospheres. Th e pro cedure involves inclusions in the working direction if
storing electrodes in a low-temperature they are plastic at the working tem-
oven, preh eatin g th e s urface before perature. Th e net result of the elon -
weld ing to remov e moi sture, and gated nonmetall ic incl usio ns is to
postheating immediately to encourage decrease through-thi ckn ess ductility.
hydrogen to escape. See Figure 34- 10. This result s in lamellar tearin g paral-
lel to the direction of the inclusi ons.
Lam ell ar tearing is most likel y to
occur when we lding stee l plate using
groove welds , fillet welds, or co mbi-
natioos of them . T-joints may be es-
peci ally s usc e ptib le to lam ell ar
tearin g. See Figure 34- 11. Th e two
members of a T-joint are located at
approximately right angle s to eac h
other in the form of a T. Under these
conditions, high ten sil e stresses ca n
develop perpe ndicular to the midplane
of the stee l plate . Th e magnitude of
the tensile stresses depends on the size
of the we ld, the welding procedure,
and the amount of joint res traint im-
posed by the weldin g design . La mel-
la r tearin g detecti on is diffi cult
because it usuall y does not bre ak to
the surface. RT and UT are the most
applica ble meth ods fo r de tec tio n of
la me lla r tearing , whic h has th e ap -
Figure 34-10. Low-hydrogen elec tro des can !Jell' pearan ce of ste p-like, jagged crack-
prevent und erbead cracking. Moistu re is remo ved
f rom electrodes befor e use by storing the electrodes ing, with eac h step nearly parallel to
i n all o vell . the midpl ane of the plate.
Weld Discontinuities :€) 471
Ftgure 3~·11. Lamellar tear ing
is caused by welding stresses in
o The chalice of lamellar tearing can be re-
duced bv using the correct material, joint
the ba se me tal perpendicular 10
the working direction, design, 'welding process. and fill er metal.
Preheating and buttering the jo int can also
help reduce the risk oftearing.
HAZ
GROOVE FILLET
.,
are II cavi ty type fo rmed by n m ·
traction (.m ckbClck' of the .... etd
metal during sol idific ation.
SHRINKAGE )
VOID CAUSED BY
CONTRACTION
(SUCKBACK)
CAVITIES
.- FORMED BY
GAS TRA P~ED .
Porosity DURING
SOLIDIFICATION
Wormholes
INCLUSIONS
Wormhol es are e longa ted or tubula r
cavities caused by exces sive entrapped Inclu sions arc entrapped foreign solid Inclusions consist of
gas. Wormho les are detect ed by RT material in deposited weld meta l, such foreign matter in the
where th ey ha ve th e appearance o f as slag or nu x, tungsten, or oxide. In- weld metal, either
from the base metal.
sharp ly defined da rk shadows of clusion types are slag incl usions, ox- fille r metal. or mm-
rounded or elongated contour, depend- ide inclusions, and tungsten inclusions. COII.'iIllI111hle elect rod e.
ing on the orientation of the wormholes, See Appe ndix.
-
Figure ,34-18. SIcIR ill c",,~iom (Ire
ure to thoroughly remove slag between
II01l111(' Ialli e materials f o rmed hy
,d aR reactions thai are napped
. . . . each pass increases the probabil ity of
slag entrapment and the produ ction of
ill a weld. SlaR inclusions call
orrur h l'IIW'C'1/ ptHH'S or (1/ the SLAG a defective weld. Slag may be removed
INCLU SIONS
,s:1"00I'(' face. BETWEEN from the weld surface by chipping, wire
PASSES brushing, grinding, or air arc gouging.
See Figure 34- 19.
Complet e a nd e ff ic ie nt s lag re -
SLAG
moval requires that eac h weld bead be
INCLU SIONS properly contoured and blend smoothly
AT GROOV E FACE
into the adjace nt bead or base metal.
Sm all weld bead s coo l more rapidl y
than large ones, which tends to make
slag remo val eas ier from small beads.
6 Slag inclusions can be preve nted by using Con ca ve or fl at beads th at bl end
we/ding techniques that produce a smooth
weld. using the co rrect current and travel smoothly into the base meta l or an y
speed, removing slag between each pass, and adjo ining beads minimi ze undercutting
using wire brushing or light chipp ing 011 bun and avoid a sharp notch along the edge
joints or grinding 011 more difficult joints.
of the bead where slag cou ld stick .
~
Tungsten Inclusion Prevention. Tung-
• . , I
sten inclusions are prevented at the
weld start using superimposed high-
frequency current for arc starting and a
copper striker plate. Tungsten inclusions
may be minimized by using thoriated
tungsten or zirconium-tungsten electrodes
and less current or larger electrodes, and
by keeping the tungsten electrode out
of the molten weld pool.
GROOVE
FILLET
incomplete fusion occurs more com- layers to the meltin g point, which al-
monly with some welding processes than lows the deposited metal to fuse with
with others . For exa mple, the reduced th e surface bel ow it. T his may be
heat input in the short circuiting transfer achieved by reducing travel speed. in-
mode of GMAW results in low penetra- creasing welding current or increasing
tion into the base metal. This may be elec trode diameter, using joint des ign
desirable on thin-gauge materials and for to allow elec trode acce ssib ility to all
out-of-position welding. but may resull surfaces within the joint , use of proper
in incomplete fusion. especially in the e lectrode ang le, and reduci ng the ef-
root area or along groove faces. incom- fects of arc blow. See Figure 34-23 .
plete fusion leads to undesirable stresses
and its admissibility is severely restricted
in most fabrication standards and codes. Incomplete Penetration
incomplete fusion can be detected Incomp lete penetration is a condition in
by RT as a thin. dark line with sharply a groove weld in which weld metal does
defined edges. Dependi ng on the ori- not extend through the joint thickness.
entation of the defect with respect to the in arc welding. the arc is established be-
X-ray beam, the line may tend to be tween the electrode and closest part of
wavy a nd d iffuse . However, so me the base metal. All other areas of the base
codes may not permit RT as a means of metal rece ive heat principally by con-
qualifying welders when using GMAW duction. if the region of base metal clos-
short circuiting transfer on test welds. est to the elec trode is a considerable
Incomplete Fusion Prevention. in - distance from the joint root. heat con-
co mp lete fusion is prevent ed by en- duction may be insufficient to attain ad-
suring an adeq uate surface temperature equate temperature to achieve fusion of
to raise the temperature of the surface the root. See Figure 34-24.
478 § Weldin g Skil l ,
Figure 34-23. Incompl ete fusio n
INCOMPLETE FUSION PREVENTION pr eventi on can be en sured using
.~ ..'pr4WtltlVlJ MtllISUte
'he pr oper weld ing parame ters.
.;Pt~tl[~rtt; ...... ,........... ..".
Use correct type or size of electrode; proper
Insufficient heat input joint des ign; and proper gas sh ielding
Incorrect electrode posit ion Ma inta in proper electrode position
Repos ition work; lower current; increase weld
Weld metal running ahead of the arc travel speed
Trapped oxides or slag on weld groove
Clean weld surface prior to weld ing
or weld face
- .- , ,
JO INT PENETRATION
GROOVE WELD SIZES
Incomplete penetration may occur
when a groove is welded from one side
only if the root face dimension is too
great, if the root opening is too small ,
or if the groove angle of the V-groove
is too small, even with an adequate root
opening and a satisfactory joint design.
Incomplete penetration may also be
INCOMPLETE
caused by electrodes that are too large
JOINT PENETRATION or that have a tendency to bridge ; or
by using ab normall y high r ates of
trave l or insufficient welding current.
Incomplete Penetration Prevention.
The most frequent cause of incomp lete
penetration is the use of an unsuitable
INCOMP LET E JOINT joint de sign for the welding process
PENETRAT ION
or the conditions of the actual weld
construction. Unsuitable jo int des igns
make it difficult to reproduce quali fi-
cation test results under cond itions of
actual production . See Figure 34 -25 .
- . ~
Ji'reventive.Measure
0/ '" ¢_ .- . -.
root opening Use proper joint geometry
-
Ftgure .~-1-2ft Excess weld rein-
Overlap
Overlap is protrusion o f weld metal
.- . . [orcement. while 1101 1I severe dis-
contin uity. ('(III excess ivetv stiffen
II section of metal, ("(IIIS ;"K stress
built up beyond the weld toe or we ld WELD FACE concentrations lit II,e base, 11 is
ats o more ex pe ns ive due 10 the
root. Ove rlap is an area of incomplete increased (/ ",0 11I11 of filler 11/('((//
fusion tha t creates a stress co nce ntra- ne eded, and c a ll ha ve W / ohjcc-
ti onahle (l1 ,/w a rance.
tion and can initiate premature fai lure
under load . See Fig ure 34-27 . Over-
lap is de tected by VT. Ove rlap is co n-
sidered a defect that must be removed
by grinding accord ing to the appl i- ROOT
REINFORCEMENT
cable fabrication sta ndard or code.
EXCESS ROOT REINFORCEMENT
GROOVE WELD MADE
Overlap BEFORE WELDING
Figure 34-27 OTHER SIDEi
ARC STRIKE
WELD
MELT-THROUGH
Spatter
MELT-THROUGH
(CONVEX ROOT Spatter is a discontinnity that occurs
SURFACE)
when metal particles are expelled dur-
ing fusion welding and do not form part
Figure 34-30. Meu-througti is a discontinuity pro-
duced in (/ joint when the arc melts through the
of the weld. Spatter appears as droplets
bottom of the weld. of solidified weld metal on the base metal
adjacent to the weld. See Figure 34-32.
Spatter detection is achieved by VT.
Arc Strikes
Figure 34-32. Spatter appears as
Spatter droplets of solidified weld metal
An arc strike is a discontinuity that re-
Figure 34-32 on the base metal adjacent to the
sults from arcing of the electrode and weld.
consists of any localized remelted metal,
heat-affected metal, or change in the sur-
face profile of any base metal. Arc
strikes may be depressions or marks that
occur on the surface of the weld by the
welder accidentally striking the elec-
trode on the base metal adjacent to the
weld. Arc strikes may degrade base
Arc strikes may
metal properties on hardenable steels degrade base metal
like medium-carbon steels or low-alloy properties on hard-
steels and may form a region of brittle enable steels like
me di um-c arb on
martensite from the rapid quenching steels or low-alloy
effect of the high temperature. See Fig- steels and may[arm
ure 34-31. Arc strike detection is a region of brittle
martensite from the
achieved by VT. Some fabrication stan- rapid quenching
dards and codes require arc strikes to Spatter Prevention. Spatter can be re- effect of the high
be ground to a smooth contour and in- temperature.
duced or prevented by reducing the
spected to ensure soundness by an ap- welding current, reducing the effect
propriate NDE test such as PT or MT. of arc blow, reducing the arc length,
Are Strike Prevention. Arc strikes are and ensuring the use of clean and
prevented for certain types of work, undamaged electrodes. See Appendix.
such as pipe, by placing protective Anti-spatter spray is available for pre-
wrappings around the part to prevent vention of spatter for many welding
accidental contact with the electrode. applications.
Weld Discontinuities :€) 483
I . A discontinuity is an interruption in the structure of a weld. Discontinuities are not always
defect s.
2. Disco ntinuities are cla ssified as defects when they exceed the minim um requirements per-
mitted by the contro lling code or standard.
3. Weld stresses may be concentrated or enhanced by the presence of disco ntinuities. leadin g
to failure under load .
4 . Cracks are fractu re-type discontin uities and are not permitted in fabrication standards and
co de s.
5. Cracks arc classifi ed acco rding to their location in tbe weld.
6. Cavities are rounded discontinuities within a weld or at the surface. The most common type
of cavi ty is porosity.
7 . Inclu sions co nsist of foreign matter in the weld metal. ei the r from the base metal. filler
metal. or noncon sum able e lectrode .
8 . Incompl ete fusion and incompl ete penetration are found in areas with incomplete meltin g
between the base metal and the weld metal. Incomplete fusion is less desirable than incom-
plete penetration .
9 . Incorrect shapes. such as undercut. overlap. excess weld reinforcement . underfill. co ncave
root surface. and melt -through. produc e an unacceptable weld profile.
10. Arc stri kes may degrade base metal properties on hardenable stee ls like medium-carbon
steels or low-alloy steels and may form a region of brittle marten site from the rapid quench -
ing effect of the high temperature.
Welding procedure qualification determines, by prepa ration and testing of standani specimens, whether
welding in accordance with a welding procedure specification ( IVPS) will produce sound welds and
adequate jo int prop erties. A IVPS provides fo rmal documentation fo r all qualified welding variables.
A procedure qualification record (PQR) determines, by preparation and testing of standa rds speci-
mens, whether welding in accordance with a IVPS will produce sound welds and adequatejoint properties.
Much of the data required by the PQR is the same information required in the IVPS.
485
by flu x s hie lde d we lding pro ce sses Thermal (flame) cutting co nsists of
Weld ing procedure
tI
.~
.=
qualification vari-
ab ies a re welding
parameters 'hat af-
feet the integrity ofa
such as SMAW. Tita nium alloys are
most often welded by gas shie lde d
welding processes suc h as G MAW,
a group of processes that remove metal
by rapid oxi dat ion. Thermal cutting is
th e most co mmon met ho d of ed ge
weld joint and m U.{1
GTAW, or RW. preparation, and is used for most work
be indicated in the
PQR. o Welding procedu re specifications are
typically developed by a welding engi-
with thickness greater than sheet metal.
Th erm al cutt ing is ve rsa tile and eco-
neer who has previous experience with nomi cal and may be man ipulated to
the pa rticular weldparameters. and who produce both sq uare ed ges and added
uses recomm endations by supplie rs of
welding equipment such as the base
bevels. The heat produced by thermal
metal, weldin g machine, and filler met- cutting may alter the metallurgical
als. The welding procedure specification structure of so me metal s . In suc h
mu st also meet applicable codes.
cases, the therm ally cut surface mu st
be dr essed by grindi ng ( 0 remove a
Joint Design minimum o f '/ 8" of affect ed ba se
Joint design is the sha pe, dimension s, met al before any weldin g is per-
Joint design is elll
example ofa proce- and configuration of the joint. The joint fo rmed.
du re qu alifica tion is the junction of members or the edges Grinding is the mechanical removal
var iable and may of me tal from the surface using hard,
enco mpass weld of me mbers that are to be joined. An
type. edge prepara- effec tive joint design achi ev es weld- brittle grains of an abras ive material.
tion. and method of ing at minimal cos t. Th e joint design Grinding is usually perform ed with a
preparin g the edge. grinding whee l. Grinding is used for
influ ences how much filler metal may
be required to fill a joint, and the ease med ium thicknesse s of mat eri al and
of ad ding filler metal. Welding proce- may be tooled up to provid e reproduc-
dure variables that affect joint design ible geometries. See Figure 35- 1.
are weld typ e, edge preparation, and Machining is preci se shaping to a
A WARNING backgou g iog . desired profile using special tools to re-
Glo ves are not usually mov e material. Machining is used on
worn whe n gr ind ing. The Weld Type. Weld type is the cross-sec-
thick-wall components to prepare J- and
hand can he dra wn into the tional s hape of the weld aft er filler
gri nde r if the glove gels U-grooves and on circular components
ca ugh t.
metal is added to the joint. Basic weld
of all diam eters and wall thicknesses.
type s are groove weld and fillet weld .
Machinin g is an accurate, final method
Each weld type ca n have severa l dif-
of edge prep aration .
feren t co nfig urations.
Edge Preparation. Edge Preparation
is the prep ar ation of th e wo rkpiec e Grinding
edges by cutt ing, cleaning, o r o ther Figure 35·1
methods. All fillet weld configurations
can be made without additional ed ge
preparation . Three groove weld con-
figurations can be made without addi-
tional edge pr ep aration . The y are
sq ua re g roo ve , flare V-groov e, and
flare bevel groove . Ed ge preparation
is done by shea ring, therm al cutting,
grindi ng , machin ing, or backgougin g.
Shearing is the partin g of material
when one blade forces the material past
an opposing blad e. Shearing produces
a sq uare groove. Shearing is the most
econo mica l method of edge prepara- Figure 35-1. Grinding is used fo r medium thicknesses
tion and is used for sheet metal. of material 10 remove metal fm m the surface.
CARBON ELECTRODE ~
ELECTRODE
HOLDER ~
AIR STREAM
WELD
BASE METAL
-_ -. .
See Figure 35-6 .
TACK
WELDS L _-
Single bevel Double bevel
Groove Groove
Figure 35- 6. Tack welding m/HI co mp ly willi the
welding procedure specification if it is incorporated
;1/10 the fin al weld.
Welding Position
Singte-V Double-V Welding position is the relationship of
Groove Groove the weld pool , joint, and base metals.
GROOVE WELD Weldin g positions are flat , horizontal,
MORE { LESS overhead , and vert ical. Weld er acces-
FILLER METAL FILLER METAL
sibility must be con sidered whe n de-
v' L s ig ning th e j o int and th e asse mb ly
%V pattern to permit a comfortable working
environment for the welder.
To achieve the best qua lity we ld, a
welder must be able to access the joints
from both s ides after all areas to be
FILLET WELD welded ha ve been co mple te ly as -
se mb led and tack we lde d . Th e se-
quence of assembly may be adj usted
To calculate the weight of fi ller to improv e welder acce ssibili ty. Some
metal, mullip ly the cross-sectional area welds canoot be acc essed fro m both
of the joint by the length of the weld, sides (box co lumns or small-diameter
and mulli ply the result by the den sity pip ing ). Suc h joints are inaccessib le
of the filler metal. and require o ne-side d welding . See
Poo r fit-up counteracts the optimiz- Figure 35-7 . When o ne-si ded welding
ing benefits of the desirable filler metal is done, backing material or consumable
q uantity thro ug ho ut a joint. Poor fit- inserts can be used to ensu re complete
up is a com mon probl em with full- or penetration on the backside of the weld.
partial-penetration fillet welds in T-joints When backin g material or co nsum-
fabricated in the hori zontal position . able inserts are not desired or feasible,
However, welding in a more diffi cult open root welding must be done. Open
positi on ma y qualify a less difficu lt root we ld ing requires a higher weld-
po siti on . ing skill than welding with backing and
490 €1 WeldillR Ski lls
also requires good fit -up and joint reduce residual stress, or further im-
preparation. Care must be taken to prove toughness. The postheating pro-
achieve the proper root weld without cedure must be indicated either in the
excessive penetration (excessive root welding procedure specification or on
reinforcement). a separate document, such as a shop
heat -treating traveler. Postheating pro-
cedure requirements include rate of
heating and cooling of the structure;
BACKING time at temperature; and location of
weld joint(s) to be postheated.
Shielding Gas
The shielding gas provides a gaseous
protecti ve atmosphere that prevents or
reduces atmospheric contamination of
BOX COLUMN
the molten weld as it solidifies and
CONSUMABLE INSERT cools. Shielding gas efficiency relates
to the ability of a shielding gas to dis-
place the atmosphere from the arc area.
Shielding efficiency depends on
shielding gas purity; the design of the
nozzle; the distance from the nozzle
SMALL-DIAMETER PIPE to the work; the internal diameter or
size of the nozzle; the gas flow rate ;
Figure 35-7. Welder accessibility is a key consider-
and side drafts.
ation in creating a sound jo int. If a joint is inacces-
sible, backing material or consumable inserts can
Electrical Characteristics
be used to ensure complete penetration.
Electrical characteristics should be
Preheat, Interpass Temperature documented when the welding involves
Control, and Postheating the use of electric current. Electrical
Preheat, interpass temperature control, characteristics include current type, cur-
and postheating are welding parameters rent level, polarity, and arc voltage. The
that indicate the temperature to which proper current type and polarity must
the joint must be heated to improve the be defined in the welding procedure.
final properties of the joint. The tem-
perature for each parameter varies de-
pending on the metal to be welded. Welding Technique
Preheat and interpass temperature The welding technique includes weld-
control are specified when applicable ing procedure details that are controlled
to ensure toughness of the heat-affected by the welder or welding operator.
zone, particularly for heat-treatable Welding technique parameters include
steels. When preheat temperature con- heat input, travel speed, interpass clean-
trols are required, a minimum value
ing, and peening.
must be specified. When interpass tem-
perature control is required, a maximum Heat Input. The heat input influences
value must be specified. the weldability or as-welded proper-
Postheating may be specified when ties of specific metals. Heat input de -
welded structures require heat treatment tails must be indicated whenever the
after welding to develop required prop- heat input could influence the metal
erties, maintain dimensional stability, properties of the finished weld joint.
Welding Procedure Qualification ~ 491
Alloys, such as nickel alloy s, that immediatel y after comp letion of a
are se nsitive to hot cracking require be ad len gth (a ppro ximately 9"), as
heat input contro ls. Wh en heat inp ut soon as the we ld has solidified. Peen-
co ntrols are required, details such as ing is never applied to a root pass or
using a straight bead or a weav e bead ca p pass. De tails of peenin g must be
must be spec ified. speci fied to ensure co rrec t application
A straight bead is a type of we ld of the met hud .
be ad made witho ut an y apprec iable
weaving motion . A wea ve bead is a
type of we ld bead made with tran s-
verse oscillation. Using a straight bead
or a weave bead can lead to e ither a
redu ction or an increase in heat input,
respectively. Either bead type may be
accep table for certain types of metals.
Many nickel alloys prefer a lower heat
input , while chro me- mo ly steels pre-
fer higher heat input.
Ftuure 35-8. tnterpass cleaning is requ ired to re-
Travel Speed. The travel speed used "lOW'slag fro m the weld and prevent slag j"c1I/.~iOlIS.
Com p,my _
BRAZING CONDITIONS
BASE ME TAL:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8 M No.
Identification
Ot her _
FILLER METAL :
Fo<m _
Melhod 01 Application
TIME, _ CURRENT, _
OTHER _
JOINT:
Type
Clearance
UTS
Oth.,
FiJ.:urc ]5·((1. Tilt' posi tion of the test brarement may 'il/alif }' one or mo /"(' brazing positions.
til~
•-
•
an' para meters which.
ijclllmged. do not alter
the mechanical proper-
ties ofthe weld and do
WPS Conformance o Th e AWS publishe s sta ndard AWS 8 2,
Specification for Welding Procedure and
Perform ance Qualification. to he lp welders
na t requ ire requ ali- Conformance w ith the WPS is required
understand a nti m ee t the proc ed ure
fication of the weld. to meet the applicable fabrication stan- qualifi cation requirements (l a WPS.
dard or code. Many fabrication standards
...Figure 35-11. Essential welding variables require requalification if they are cnanged.
Mock-up tests are ing and after welding. Brazing J'QR. Brazin g procedure
used to simulate ac- A sta nda rd WPS is a type of pre - qualificat ion testing co ns ists of var i-
tua l welding j obs
qualified WPS . A standard WPS is one ou s des tructive tests on test spec ime ns
under diffunlt or
restricted condi- de veloped throug h analy si s o f tho u- obtained from braze sa mp les made to
tion s, such as f or sands of qualifi ed we ld ing procedures th e applicab le brazing proc edure
heat (>xc/ u/llger fllhc -
that prov ide restr icted ran ges of we ld- specifi cat ion. Test results arc recorded
tubcshret joints.
ing variab les to ensure a hi gh prob- on the Brazing Procedure Qualification
abilit y of success ful app lication by e nd Record and certified by the witness-
users. Standa rd WPSs are approved for ing co ntrac to r representati ve.
some fahri cation co des . suc h as for Resistance Welding PQR. Resistan ce
sheet met al. wel ding procedure q uali fication tests
Mock-up Tests. Mock -up tests are used vary a nd de pend la rgel y o n th e type
to simulate ac tual producti on we ld ing of wo rk to be produ ced . When th e
co nditions in ce rta in typ es o f fabrica- we lded part is sm all, th e p ro cedure
tion jobs. usuall y under diffi cult or re- may be qualified by making a number
stricted welding co nd itio ns. Mock-up of fini shed pieces and test ing them to
tests ve rify that proper too ling and in- de struction und er serv ice cond itions,
spection have been se lecte d . either simulated or real. In other cases.
Ce rtain variab les such as joint ge- re sistance welds can he made in tes t
o metry. we ld ing position . and acces- specime ns that arc tested in ten sion or
s ib ility m a y not be con s idered a s shea r, or in spected for other proper-
qualification variables. Often. the on ly tie s suc h as su rface appearan ce and
way to gauge their effe ct is with mock - so undness.
up s . Fa bricatio n standards a nd codes A p ro cedure qu ali fi cati on record
do not usually requ ire the fa brication determ ines . by preparati on a nd test-
of moc k- Ups for destru cti ve exami na- ing of sta nda rds spec ime ns . w het he r
tion unless they are to dem onstrate tha t welding in accordance with a WPS will
th e we ld ing procedures will produce produce sou nd weld s and ade q ua te
the spec ifie d welds. For e xa mp le, al - joint properties. Much of the data re-
th o ug h mo ck -up test s arc used to quired by the PQR is the same as the
verify weldin g procedures for heat ex- information referenced in the WPS .
500 ~ Weldillg Skills
I . Qualifi ed welding procedures consist o r the welding procedure spec ifica tion (WPS) and the
procedure qualificat ion record (PQ R).
2. Welding procedu re qualific ation variables are welding param eters that affect the integrity or a
weld joint and must be indicated in the PQR.
3. Joint design is an example of a procedure qualificati on variable and may enco mpass weld
type, edge preparati on, and meth od of preparing the edge .
4 . Base metals are gro uped by weldability classi ficat io ns to redu ce the number of procedure
qua lification variab les. Base metals with the same weldabi lity classification may be substi-
tuted for one ann ther with no effect.
5. Filler metals are grouped by usability classification to reduce the num ber of procedure quali-
fication variables. Filler metals with the same usabilit y cl assification may be substituted for
one another with no effect.
6 . A WPS includes essential, supplementary essential , and nonessential variables .
7. Essential variables are parameters which, if changed, could alter the mechani cal propertie s of
the weld . Requalification of the new variables is required .
8. Suppl ement ary esse ntial variables are param eters which affect the impact properties (tough-
ness) of the weld. Requalification of the new variables is required.
9 . Nonesse ntial variables are parameters which, if changed. do not alter the mec hanical pro per-
ties of the weld and do not requir e requ alific ation of the weld.
10. A procedure qualification record (PQR) is documentation of the welding variables used to pro-
duce an acceptable test weld and the test results conducted on the weld to qualify a WPS.
I I. PQR development encompasses welding a sample joint within the applicable param eter s of
the WPS, testing the j oint, and recordin g the results.
12. Several PQRs can support a single WPS, and several WPSs can be supported by a single PQR.
13. A prequ alified WPS is a WPS that complies with a spec ific fabric ation code or standard and
requi res no qualification testing.
14 . Mock-up tests are used to simulate actual welding jobs under difficult or restric ted conditions,
suc h as for heat exc hanger tube-tubeshee t jo ints.
The employer is responsible for ensuring that welder performan ce qualification tests meet the require-
ments of the applicable febrication standard or code. Fabrication standa rds and codes contain similar
methods of qualifyin g welders. welding operators. and tack welders. but differ in the requirement details.
Welder performan ce qualification (WPQ) tests must be made in the most difficult position encountered in
production. However, WPQ test results cannot predict how an indi vidual will perfo rm on a particular
production weld. The quality of production welds should be determined by inspection both durin g and
f ollowing completion of welding.
503
Th e g ove rni ng sta ndard or c o de weld in acco rd a nce w ith one qu ali-
Qualification unde r
I
.~ a ile [ahrication code
.= or standard does not
necessarily qua/if\' a
welder 10 weld under
should be con sulted for specific details.
Requirements for the ASME Boi ler and
Pressu re Ve ssel Code, AWS Stru ctural
fied WPS is al so qu alifi ed to weld in
a cc ordanc e with oth er qua lified
WPS s using th e sa me w eld in g pro-
another code or S1a l1-
Weldill g Code-Stee l, AW S Struc tural ce ss, within the limits o f the indicated
dard, even though the Weldillg Code-Sheet Stee l, and API esse nti a l w eld in g va ria bles .
qualification tests 01'- CmS-' Country Pipeline Weldillg are typi - A qual ifi ed w el d er is gi ve n a n
pear 10 be identical. ide ntify ing number, lett er, or symbo l
ca lly speci fied. Qu alifi cation under one
fabr ication code or standa rd does not nec - that is used to iden tify his or her wo rk.
essarily qualify a we lde r to weld under The qu ali fication expires if the we lder
anothe r code or sta ndar d. even though the d o c s no t we ld for a pe riod of s ix
qu alification tests appe ar to be identical. months or mor e. Moreover, if there is
reason to quest ion the we lde r's abi l-
ity to make we lds mee ti ng spec ifica-
ASME Boiler and Pressure
tion s. his or hcr qu alific at ion sh a ll be
Vessel Code
co ns ide re d ex p ire d .
Boiler and pressure vessel code require-
ments ar e conta ined in ASME Section AWS Structural Welding Code-
IX. Qua lification Standard Fir welding Steel
and Brazing Procedures-Welders. Braz-
ers, and Weldillg and Brazing Operators. Structural welding code WPQ require-
Sec tion IX req uirements also apply to ments are contained in AWS 01.1,
Strurtura! weldin g
co d,' WPQ require- other struc tures suc h as e levated water Stru ctural Weldill g Code- Stee l. AWS
ments are con tained storage tanks and o il storage tanks. requirement s ar c sim ila r to those of
ill AWS 1>/./ , Struc-
Per AS ME require ments , the we lder th e AS ME Boil er and Pressure Vessel
tural Welding Code-s-
Steel. who prepares test samples for the WPQ Code , but also contain provi sions for
mu st be personally qu alified within prequalified welding pro cedures.
ASME performance qua lification var i- U nder the AWS cod e, vi sual in-
ables. All oth er weld ers are qualified by s p ec t io n, g u ide d bend te st s , fill et
spec ific welder qualifi cation te sts re- we ld te st s, a nd RT ma y be used to
q uired by the welding procedure speci- le st s a m p le w e lds . Th e Stru ctural
fic ation ( W PS) that wi ll c o ve r the Weldillg Co de -Stee l a lso allow s, at
work. A welding procedure qualifica- th e e ngi nee r's di scretion. acceptanc e
tion record (PQ R) is used to document o f prope r docum ent e d ev ide nce of
th e a b ility of th e welder or welding pre vi ou s qu al ifi c at ion s o f welde rs.
op erator to me e t the WPS .
A PQR mu st incl ude the esse nt ial AWS Structural Welding Code-
A PQR mll st include we ldi ng var iables , the type of te st. the Sheet Sleel
the essential welding metal thickness ranges qu alified, and the
variables. the range
te st re sul ts . Wh e n tes ting, RT ma y The struc tural we lding code for shee t
qualified. the type of
test, ami the lest re- so me times be substituted for mechani- stee l welde r qu alifi cati on s is co ntained
sults. c a l te sts, but no t w he n GMAW with in AWS 01.2. Structural welding Code-
short circuit ing tran sfer is used. RT can - Sheet Steel. The requirements are differ-
not be used because incomplete fusion , ent from AWS 01.1 for structural steel
a common di scontinuity with GMAW in that qual ificat ion , when es tablished for
in the short c ircuiting mode. may not an yone of the stee ls permitted by the
be detected by RT. See Appendix . code, allow s the weld er to be qualified
G enerall y. w elders who mee t the to we ld on any other stee l permitted by
requirement s f or groo ve weld s a re the code, except for coated stee ls. Quali-
a lso qu alified for fillet we ld s, bu t not ficat ion on coat ed stee ls must be tested
vice ver sa . A w eld er q ua lified to on coated steels.
···
Electr ode classificat ion
PRODUCT-SPECIFIC WPQs
Electrod e size
Increase in filler metal strength Prod uct -spe cifi c weld er performan ce
• Melting rate/current/wir e feed speed
qual ification tests arc 1110st commonl y
• Type of coating
• Coa ting thickn ess done for plate and structural member
• Use of flux (for SAW) welding, pipe welding. sheet metal weld-
ing, and brazing .
Position Welder performance quali fication s
tI
test the most difficult positions that will The WPQ must be
• Change in position . ~ develo ped for tilt'
• For vertical welding: uphill vs. downhill ; be encountered in production for weld- .= mo st diffi cu lt pos i-
downhill vs. uphill ing and brazing. Qualification in a more tion expected during
• Welding from both side s to welding from difficult position usuall y also qu alifies welding or brazing.
one side only (for square butt joints) fo r welding or brazing in less difficu lt
positions. A welder who qualities in ver-
Shielding Gas
tical, horizontal, or overhead positions
• Type of shielding gas (for GMAW and GTAW) is usually also co nsidered qualifi ed for
• Flow rate (for GMAW and GTAW) we lding or brazin g in fl at po siti on .
Qualification on a groove weld test will
Current
normally qualify thai welder for the pro-
• Current level/wir e feed speed/melting rate duction of fillet welds in the same posi-
• Type of welding curr ent , polar ity
. tion. The applicable fabrication standard
Base Metal or code dictates the exact limits on pro-
duction weldin g and brazing qualifica-
· Shee t steel thickness
tion test position s.
Joint Design
Tested _ Welder _
Approved ~ Welding supervisor _
Adopted _ Chief engineer _
Electrode Current
Bead Number Size and Voltage and Speed
Type Polarity
Figu re 36-2. WPQ tests to meet API I J()4 (Ire usually perfo rmed in the fie ld.
3
Arc seam weld,
sheet to sheet
Horizontal Hori zontal
Arc seam weld,
sheet 10 sheet
Thickness
tested Bend
Fille t welded T- or
Flat Flat
lap jo int, Th ickness
Horizontal Flat, Horizontal
sheet to sheet, tested Bend
Vertical Flat, Hori zont al , Vertical
Overhead Flat, Hor izonta l, Ove rhead
or sheet to and
Fillet we lded "l-joint. supporting mem ber thicker
sheet to sheet
Flare-bevel-groove
Flat Fla t we ld, sheet to sheet, T hickness
Horizontal Flat, Ho rizontal or sheet to tested
suppo rti ng member; or and Bend
Vertica l Flat, Ho rizontal , Ver tica l
Flare-bevel, Overhead Flat , Hori zontal , Ove rhead Flare- V-groove thicker
shee t to sheet weld , sheet to sheet
Figure .' 6--'_ For sheet steel welding. the position, weld joint, and thicknes s that are tested are typicall y the only variables for which the welder
is qua lified, per test.
Figure 36-~. WI'Q for b ra zed j oint is achieved hy sectioning. polishing, (l IJ(J etching {/ test join t.
Welding metallurgy is the study of the effect of welding on the metallurgical structure of weld joints.
Heat input during welding produces rapid heating, very high temperatures, and rapid cooling. The
physical properties of the metal determine the response 10 the heat of welding. Mechanical properties (if
the metal, residual stresses, and corrosion resistance of metal are also affected by the heat of welding.
SII
other nuclei. The solidifying structures Grain Structure
are called dendrites. As the dendrit es Figure 37-2
grow, they fill the space between them-
se lves w ith offshoots and bran che s D
until their extremities meet other den-
drites. The dendrites continue to gro w <:> I ~ CLUSTER
until the space between them is com- ~ -o ./ OF NUCLE I
NUCLEU S FORMS
(FIRST STAGE)
Heat Input
Heat is th e mo st important ele ment DENDR ITE
Heat input is the most
needed for welding. Heat (heat input)
important elementfor
welding. Heat (heat is required to melt the base metal and
input) is required to fill er metal during weld ing. Heat in -
melt the bas e metal p ut is the amount of heat applied to SO LID ATOMS
and fille r metal du - AD DED
thc filler metal and the base metal sur- TO NUCLEI
ring welding.
face at the required rate to form a weld DEN DRITE S
pool , plus the add itional heat required (SECOND STAGE)
7i" /; -
7i .1;
y :
,
,
I I~ - - - - O~ o
"li ¢ - - - -,--
,,--,_ _ _ _ CJ
BODY-CENTERED FACE-CENTERED
CLOSE -PACKED
CUBIC CUBIC HEXAGONAL
I
II is us ualtvnecessarv
SMAW, GTAW, and GMAW arc we ld-
.~ 10 apply 1\~'O layers ({ O FW surfacing we ld reduces cracking
.= s urf acing weld 10 ing processes . Surfaci ng ca n also be or spa lling becau se thermal stress is re-
o vercome dilution and applied using OFW or b razi ng . Arc
a lia ;" the requ ired
duced . OFW is use d to surface steel
weu r o r co r ro si o n
weldi ng processe s genera lly produce w hen maximu m hardne ss and mini-
res istance /JITJ/ JC'r lies. the most di lution. It is usuall y neces - m um cracki ng are req uired , for ex-
sa ry to a pply two layers of surfaci ng ample at a sealing face .
we ld to overco me d ilution and ensure
the seco nd layer has the required chemi-
Buttering
cal co mpos it io n o r othe r propert ie s.
See Figure 37 -6 . A surfac ing weld is Bu tt ering is a surfac ing we ld van a-
applie d to a sur face, as opposed to a tion that app lies su rfac ing met al on
joint, to obtain th e desired properties one or more jo int surfaces to provide
or dim en sion s. co mpatible base me tal for subse quent
~
Buttering is also used to elimi nate ing . O ther properties may be altered Phys ical properties of
.~ me ta l include me lt-
th e need for preheat and postheating by welding. Physical properties that in- .= in g point. th erma l
whe n we ld ing two components, such tluence the weldability of metals in- ex pa ns ion . sl' ('c iji c
as a medi um-carbon steel fixt ure that clude melting point, thermal expansion. heat . therm al COfUJUC-
tivitv; electrical ('("'-
is we lded to a low-car bon steel parI. specific heat. the rma l co nd uct iv ity , dnctivitv . magnetism.
The medium-carbon steel fix ture is but- electrical co nductivity. magnetism, and and oxidation.
tered with austenitic stainless steel tiller oxi da tio n.
~'~~"","ma
melting tempe ratures.
\ MEDIUM-CARBON STEEL
(DO ES NOT REO UIRE POSTHE ATING) (REOUIRES PREHE AT
AND POSTHEAT ING)
!
SURFACED (BUTT ERED) WITH E·309
STAINLESS STEE L (US ING APP LICA BLE
PREHEAT AND POSTHEATING)
!
BUTT ERED
SURFACE
"~~~\~---~
LOW-CARB ON STEEL BUTTERED JOINT EDGE
COO LING
HEATING
{
I
LIQUIDUS ...
w
a:
COMPLETELY :::>
SOLIDIFICATION BEGINS
MO LTEN i<
a: (SOLIDS FIRST APPEAR)
w
c,
:;;
W
I-
SOLIDUS
ALLOY COMPOSITION
FiJ.:lIl'"l' 37-1'1. Till' so lidus and liquidus bra cket the boundary tempe ratures between which an all oy is part iall y molten.
,
~ Specific Heat
Figure 37·9. Thermal expansion occurs in the length, Specific heat is the ratio of the quan-
the width, and/or the thickness. tity of heat required to increase the
temperature of a unit mass of metal
by 10 , compared with the amount of
heat req uired to raise the same mass
of water hy the same temperature .
COEFFICIENT OF Specific heat is a way of comparing
THERMAL EXPANSION FOR the amo unt of heat required to melt
.. VARIOUS
- ~
- . METALS
- various metals .
A metal with a low melting point
~II()Y g~~~t;· and high specific heat requires as much
,Expanllilm*;. heat input to melt as a metal with high
Aluminum 1100 13.1 melting point and low specific heat.
Alum inum 3003 12.8
Alum inum, pu re 13.1
Aluminum, with a low melting point
Alum inum 6061 13.0 and high specific heat, requires almost
Alum inum 7075 12 .9 the same amount of heat to melt as steel,
Alumi num 356 .0 11.8
which exhibits a higher melting point
Copper, pure 9.16
Copper, oxygen-free 9.83 but lower specific heat.
Brass, 85% 10.4
Brass , 80% 10.6
Brass, 70% 11.1 Thermal Conductivity
Man anese Bronze 11.7
Phoso hor Bronze, 8% 10.1 The rmal conductivity is the rate at
70-30 Coppe r-Nickel 9.00 which metal transmits heat. In weld -
90- 10 Coppe r-Nickel 9.50
Aluminum Bronze 9.11
ing, the rmal conductivity provides a
Iron ure 6.5 measure for the heat inp ut required
Mild Steel (.2%CI 6.5 to compensate for the rate at which
Med ium Carbon
6.3 he at is conduc ted away from the
Steel (.4%C\
304 Stain less Steel 9.16 weld. Copper has a high thermal con-
Nickel. oure 7.39 ductiv ity and is difficult to weld with
Monel® 7 .77
low-temperature heat sources.
lnconelw 639
Haste llov C 6.28 Austenit ic stainless steel, with
Haste llov X 7.67 one -eighth the thermal conductivity
T itan ium 4 .67 of copper, requires a significantl y
Silver 10.9
Zircon ium 3.25 lower heat input. The high thermal
Invar 1.11 conductiv ity of copper makes it an
Gold 7.89 excellent backing for welding. The
In mcromcnes per Inch per degree Fahrenheit
rapid conduction of heat through cop-
Figure 37-10. The coefficient of lin ear expansion
may he used to calc ulat e the change in dimensions
per backing prevents it from sticking
of a metal with heating. to weld metal.
Welding Metatlurgy ~ 519
Electrical Conductivity EFFECT OF WELDING ON
Mechanicalproper-
ties describe tile Electrical co nduc tiv ity is th e ra te at
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
beha vior of metals
which e lectric curre nt flows thro ugh a The me ch ani cal properties of met al s
under mechanical
loads and inclu de metal. T he hi gh er the e lec trical co n- a re c la ssified using sta nda rds es ta b -
strength. toughne ss. ducti vity of the me tal , the more eas ily li shed by the Americ an S ociet y of
hardness. ductility. current flow s through it. Electrical co n-
!atiglu'. creep. and
Te st in g and Material s (AS TM ). A
1II11lleahilit.\: ductivity decrease s as te mperat ure in- me chanical property is a property of
c reases, but room tem peratu re values meta l that de scribes the behavior of
of elect rica l con ductivity may be used metals under applied loads. Mechani-
for co mpa rison between met al s. cal properties are influenced by the
Electrical resistivity (resistivity) is the composition and treatment of the metal.
electrical resistance of a unit volume of Welding may alter spe cifi c me-
a material. Res ist ivity is the reciprocal chanical properties of metal s, leading
of electrical co nduct ivity. Resistivity is to prematu re fai lure under load . The
the co m mo n me thod o f ex p ress in g joint de signer mu st conside r th e me-
e lectrical conductivity. Metals with low c ha n ica l properties o f metal s when
resistivity (h igh e lectrical co nd uctiv- specify ing the wel ds required. Weld -
ity ) are more conducive to resistance ers should be familiar with basic term s
we lding . a nd co nce pts associated with the me-
chanical properties of metal s, suc h as
Magnetism stre ngth, ducti lity , ma lleability, tough-
ness, e rnbrittlernent , hardness , fati gue,
Magnetism is the ab ility of a metal to be and cree p. An understanding of the se
attracted by a m ag net , or to develop concepts is ofte n directly related to the
residu al mag ne tism w he n placed in a ab ility to produce so und we lds.
magnetic or electrical field. T his prop-
erty is al so known as ferromag ne tis m.
Most steels are magnetic and may co n- Strength
tain residual magnetism that can occur Strength is the ability of a metal to resist
during magnetic particl e in spection d eformation from mechanical force s
or from liftin g wi th a ma gnet. Parts exert ed on it. Deposited filler metal is
ma y need to be demagn eti zed before usually stronger than the base metal s it
we ld ing to pre vent problem s suc h as joins. It is necessary to usc only the mini-
arc blow during welding . Arc b low mum amount of filler metal specified.
cau ses the welding arc to dellect from Excess till er metal ma y be detrimental
its normal pat h because of magne tic and exaggerate residua l stress problems.
force s. Proper ly executed we ld test specimens
do not fail in the we ld metal or HAZ
Oxidation when mechanically tested, but fail in the
base metal. See Figure 37-11.
Oxidation is the co mbination of a metal In a structure, weld s are classified as
with oxygen in the air to form metal primary or secondary. A primary weld
oxide. Every metal form s a thin oxide is a weld that is an integral part of a
layer at room temperature. As tempera- structure and that directly tr an sfers a
tures increase, the oxide layer thickens. load. A primary weld mu st poss ess or
At we lding temperature, steps must be exceed the stre ngth of th e stru ctural
ta ken to remove the met al oxide layer members . A secondary weld is a weld
to prevent it from interferin g with we ld used to hold joint members and sub-
qualit y. Usi ng nux-coated filler metals assemblies together. Secondary welds
and inert gas we lding preve nts ox ides are subj ected to less stress and less load
from entering the weld area. than primary welds .
, L AT TOE OF WELD
(C RAC K-LIKE
D, ISCONTINUITY)
Jl. "m"
Figure 37-11. Weld mecha nical test samples sho uld m
"
[ait in the base metal. ,
1 , . , ¥t
; " ,
-,-,-,,,-,-,--_ ' ,u p
t~
bein g weld ed shou ld be known, so ST EEL WITH LOW
TOU GHN ESS FAILS
that a strong, safe structure can be built.
Likewise , wh en th e stre ng th of th e
weld is known as compared to the base
'-- 'Q',, CATASTROPHICALLY
UNDER IMPACT LOAD
. l .FORCE APPLIED
CRACK·lIKE
DEFECT -'\-~:::::;ll::::l::lio;::::::;:::::::=::=~
STRESS CONCENTRATION
~FORCEAPPlI E·D-~-'" MICROCRACK OCCURS AT
AT TOES OF WELDS TOE OF FILLET WELD
YIELD
STRESS ACTUAL
STRESS
(f)
(f)
w
a:
t:i TEN SION
o ~~I-~+-\o"-~ APPLIED
COMPRESSION STRESS
TIME
72,500
HAMMER PEENED
58,000
Cii TOE GROUND
~ 43,500
w
- -
'"
z
«
a: 29,000
(f)
(f)
w
a: MILD STEEL
t- (35,000 PSI)
(f)
ASWELDEO
14,000
10' 10' 10' 107
ENDURANCE (CYCLES)
Malleability
Fig ure 37- 15. Fill et welds are
prone 10 f at igue f ail ure. During
Malleability is the ability of a metal to
cooling, a .o1/(JII croc k can grow
illto a f atigue crack and lead to be deformed by compressive forc es
premature [ailur e. as cooling call witho ut developing defects suc h as
cansr the crack 10 spread.
those encou ntered in rolling, pressing,
or forging .
Mechanical Force
Mec han ica l properties are character-
is tic res ponses of mate rial s to me-
chanical forces . A load is an external
If des ign improvement is not pos- mec hanica l force app lied to a com-
sible, it may be necessary to use post- ponent. Standard term s used to de-
weld improvement techniques such as sc ribe the mech anical properti es of
gr inding, peen ing, or GTAW pl asma solid meta ls incl ude stress and strain.
dressing of a fillet weld toe to remove See Figu re 37-16 .
microc rack ing . Pos t-we ld improve-
ments can increase fatigue life signifi -
cant ly, but must not introd uce surface
notch into the part .
Fatig ue fa ilures in we lds are pre-
vented by des igning welds away from
cr itical regio ns of high stress concen-
tration . Welding in an area of high
stress concentration is a leading cause
of failure of rotating shafts . Th e area
of high stress is where the shaft transi-
tio ns to lar ge r diame ter. Weld ing or
rebui lding by welding in a high stress STRESS
concentration area. such as to rebu ild
FORCE
a worn shaft, will lead to failure within MATERIAL APPLIED
a short per iod. The shaft must be re- DEFOR MS
built so that welding is ca rried out in
locations away from the region of high-
est stress .
Creep STRAIN
Creep is slow, plastic e longat ion that Ftgure 37- 16. Stress ;.1' the internal resistance of (I
occurs during ex tended serv ice under material to {Ill extern ally appli ed load . St ress is
measured as the " pplied load over all area. Strain is
load above a specific temperature for that lite accompanving clumge in dimensions when a
metal. Structural metals undergo creep load indu ces stress in (l mate rial.
-...
CROSS-SECTIONAL CROSS-SECTIONAL
AREA
STRETCHED
f}i-~~.9----::
r AREA REDUCED
INCREASED INCREASED }
FORCE FORCE
Tension
OBJECT IS
CROSS-SECTIONAL
COMPRESSED
r AREA INCREASED
"\ E"~:-U-A-L------l~----"
FORCE
Comp ression
~OBJECT I S
SHEARED
Shear
CYLINDRICAL
SHAFT
J CLOCKWISE
FORCE
OBJECT IS
TWISTED INCREASED
CLOCKWISE
FORCE
Torsion
INCREASED
~l
PERPENDICULAR
PERPENDICULAR FORCE
FORCE
{
t t
~REACTI ON ~REACTI O N
- , OBJECT
IS BENT
FORCE FORCE
Flexing
NO DIMENSIO N CHANGE DIMENSIONAL CHANGE
PLASTIC STRAIN
1-1"-1
BEGINS STARTING LENGTH
~ ELASTIC STRAIN
REG ION MODULUS
OF ELAST ICITY APPLIES
ST RAIN (ELONGATION)
•
30 ,000 psi
TENSILE STR ESS
•
~ 1 001" 1-
NEW LENGTH
Figure 37-18. Modulus of elasticity is a measure of stifj iu'.\"s and has 110 dimensions .
ACTUAL RESULT
o Residual stresses in welds must be controlled
to prevent the occurrence ofdistortion in the
weldment; prematurefailure ofthe weldment,
or both.
WORKPIECE
260
- 125
240
220
200
c::::::::= --- <,
<, -, - 100
~
180
-~ --:....:.:::: - 75
E
ur
160
a: 140
:::>
~
a:
r-. <.; ~
~
ur
a:
:::>
ur I-.. a:
50 ur
c, 120
= c,
"
W
f-
100
"
W
f-
80 25
60
40
~ o
20
o 10 20 30 40 50
CAUSTIC %, BY W EIGHT
Metal identification verifies as-received base metals and jiller metals meet specifications. Metal identi-
fication is also required when the materials test report has been lost or physical identification markin gs
have disappeared because of environmental lVear. For critical weldin g 1V0rk, supplementary metal
identification may be required to verify conformance with purchase specifications.
Metals used in fab rication are typically specified on the weld prints. If a metal is not specified, qualified
personnel must determine the metal to be used. Welders may be required 10 identify approp riate metals
without assistance fro m qualified personnel during maintenance and repair tasks.
Many metal products such as pipe or plate are often purchased and stored f or f uture use. Metals and
filler metals can be identified before welding using visual identification. qualitative identification, semi-
quantitative identification, and quantitative identification .
537
Certificate of Compliance Consequences of Improper
Materials Substitution
A certificate of compliance (CaC) is a
stateme nt by a manufacturer, without If improper meta l subs titutions are
suppo rti ng docum entation , that the made, significant dama ge to equipment
supplied metal meets spec ifications. A or injury to wo rkers may result. For
cac co nta ins no test reports; it only exampl e, chro me- mo ly stee ls have a
states that, from the records, the manu- key use in critical applications, such as
fac ture r is co nfide nt no subs titutions piping for handling high-temperature
have been made. A cac can be issued steam or hydrogen. Chrome-moly steels
for any metal. can easily be mistaken for carbon steels.
They are similar in appearance to car-
MATERIALS bon stee ls, are ma gn eti c like ca rbon
tI
A materials 1I01lC0 I1- steel, and rust like carbon steel if stored
• ~ fon nance report helps
NONCONFORMANCE REPORT
.= the end user docu-
outdoors unprot ected. However, substi-
ment probtems ill rc-
A mat erials nonconformance report is tuting carbon stee ls for chrome-moly
ceived mat erials so a form crea ted by the rece iver of the steels may result in catastrophic failure
that problem areas metal to audit manufacturer paperwork
nm hi' identifi ed. cor-
because, in a critical application, carbon
reefed. and pre vented
regarding supplied meta ls. Anal ysis of steel is likely to fail before chrome-moly
in thefuture. material s no nconformance reports al- fails. Also, substituting the wrong type
lows prob lem areas in metal s acqui si- of metal , such as medi um-carbon steel
tion to be identified , corrected , and for low-carbon steel, nullifies the weld-
prevented in the future. Materials non- ing procedure and increases the chance
co nformance report s are only valuable
of cracking.
if followed up by co rrective programs.
See Fig ure 38-1.
VISUAL IDENTIFICATION
Visual identification is metal identifica-
tion that consists of checking the ap-
pearance of the base metal or filler metal
for key feature s that identify the metal
type. Visual identification is performed
by ch eckin g th e appearance , color,
nameplate, and markin gs of the metal.
Appearance
The appearance and sha pe of a metal
may indicate the type of metal. Appear-
ance includes the fonn and dimensions
of metal components and parts. A hot-
rolled structural shape in a steel-frame
building would be low -carbon steel.
A rai l would be identified by it s
shape as high-carbo n steel. Many ma-
chine parts for light- and medi um-duty
indu strial eq uipm ent and agricu ltural
equipment are made of cast iron. Cast-
}/arri"xum Hoi.\1.\'. '"c.
ing s for heavy -duty wo rk such as
Materials can he identified hy color and appearance, by II nameplate, or hy markings
brake pre sses are commonly made of
stenciled 0/1 the end of the me tal. med iu m-carbon stee l.
Supplier or replicator _
If re built, by whom? _
Specification(s) _
Shipping procedures _
Receiving/stores procedures _
Inspection procedures _
Material type _
Tolerances _
Installation Procedures _
Other
Reported by _
Nameplate
Fabricated eq uipme nt, suc h as heat
exchangers or press ure vesse ls, must
have a plaq ue or namepl ate fixed to
the ex terior. The namepl ate identifies
the des ign, pressure and temperatur e
rating, test pressure, and material s of
construction. The namepl ate must not
be covered, damaged, or removed dur-
ing the life of the equipment.
Markings
EMBOSSED MARKING ON
FASTENER HEAD
Markings may be embossed, stamped,
stenciled, or attached to a part. Stamp-
ing and embossing are surface identifi-
Fig u re 38 -4. All embossed marking 011 the head or
cation markings created by mechanical other end of (I [as tener i.~ ""l' method of idennjving
deformation on wrought prod ucts . On fastene rs.
Fig ure 3M-fl. Color-coding allows cas)' and rapid identif ication of metals.
-
Spark Testing
Spark testing is a semi-quantitative iden-
tification method that identifies metal s
BALA NCE by the shape, length, and color of the
HOOK
spark produced when the metal is held
against a grinding wheel rotating at high
speed . The chemical composition of the
unknown steel influences the form of
FIN E W IRE
the spark stream produced . Spark stream
I I BEAKE R characteristics are compared to standard
vr
l I
[ 1WATER DISTI LLED
spark stream charts to iden tify the un-
%1 known metal. See Figure 38- 13.
BALANCE
PAN
o ized, and testing should be conducted in
Spa rk tes ting co nditions must be standard -
Gold Rhodium
Iridium Ruthenium
Osmium Tantalum
Very High Density 12 to 22
Palladium Tungsten
Platinum Uranium
(depleted)
Aluminum Magnesium
Alum inum alloys Magnesium
Low Density 1 to 5_9 Beryllium alloys
Beryllium alloys Titan ium
Titanium alloys
VISE HELD
SPECIMEN
VISE
HAND· HELD
SPECIMEN
STAT IONARY
GRINDER
~SPARK
STREAM
STATIONARY
~CARRIER
LINE
~ FORK
~ARROWHEAD
25VT040V
POWER
SOURCE
ELECTRIC
ARC LINES OF
VARYING
INTENSITY
AND COLOR
ol -- - - -- -
ENERGY LEVEL
ENERGY DISPERSIVE
LITHIUM
CRYSTAL
GAMMA RAYS
ORX.RAYS \ •
\\.\ -' s: ,
J' oL-- - - - -
"\."
I • \
.
\"\\
-, -, -, rIJ'').
\ \.\ .'
// /
WAVELENGTH
WAVELENGT H
DISPERSIVE
\:-.:-<-/1
I. Manufacturers supply three type s of paperwork to iden tify their product s: materials test
report, product an alysis, and ce rt ifica te of compliance .
2. A materi als non conformance report helps the end user documen t probl ems in rec e ived
materials so that problem areas can be identified, corrected, and prevented in the future .
3. Visual ide ntifica tion includes appearance, color, nam eplate, and mar kin gs to de termine
key features that identify the met al type.
4. Magn etic force is categori zed as stro ng attraction , weak attraction , or no attraction. The
category o f magnetic re sponse allows the unknown metal to be placed into a specific
identification grouping .
5. Semi -quantitative identificat ion method s use a ph ysical stimulu s to provid e a sig nal
that may be compared w ith a set of sta ndards . Semi-quantitative identification methods
include den sit y testing, spa rk testing, ch emical spot testing, thermoel ectric potential
so rting. and optical emiss io n spec trosco py.
6. Metal s are ca tegorize d as one of fo ur density gro upings, vcry high den sit y, high den -
sity, a verage densit y, a nd low den sit y, based on their figured densit y valu e.
7. Quantitati ve identification method s se pa rate and identify met al s by measuring the
amounts of c he m ica l ele ments present in a metal.
8. Filler met al s are identified by paper labels or identification markings stamped on one
end of the filler metal.
555
High-carbon steels
Heat treatable
(e.q. , 1060, 1080)
alloy steels
(e.q.. 4140, 4340)
More C
lor strength ,,"'
~o' iY~
Chrome-moly steels
(e.g., 12L14 , 1118) (e,g" 1040, 1045) (e.g., 1~ Cr-lh Mo)
~ ~
'\. ~
"1.,; 0,."a
More C
for slrength 0'." #'t'
<::-0 ~q,~
~Q.
'"'"
"'6~
Nickel steels Ni!Of low Low-carbon steels Ni , Cr, Mo Carburiz ing steels
(e.g., 3,5 Ni. 9 Nil temp . loughness (e.g.,1018, 1030) IOf carburizing (e.q., 8620)
Figure .11)- 1. Carbon steels are grouped by their carbon content i l110 low -carbon. medium-carbon, high-ca rboll, and free-machining steels.
EBXTX-B2 or
1Cr-YzMo, ERBOX-B2 0r EB01X-B2 or FBXX-EXXX-B2 or
EBXTX-B2l or
1%Cr-Y2Mo ER70X-B2l E701X-B2l FBXX-EXXX-B2H
EBXTX-B2H
E9XT X-B3 or
ER90X-B3 or E901X-B3 or
21f4Cr-1Mo E9XTX-B3l or F9XX·E XXX-B3
ERBOX-B3 l EB01 X-B3l
E9XTX·B3H
3Cr· 1Mo .. .. .. ..
ES02-1Xli or
ERS02 11 0r ES02T-1 or 2 or F9XX-EXXX-B6 or
SCr-'hMo EB01X-B6 or
ERBOX-B6 E6XTS-B6 F9XX·E XXX·B 6H
EB01X-B6l
E7Cr-1Xli or
7Cr-'hMo §§ E801X·B7 or §§ §§
EB01X-B7l
ESOS-1Xli or ESOST-1 or 2 or
ERSOS" or
9Cr-1 Mo EB01X·BB or EX1S-BB or F9XX-EXXX-BB
ERBOX-BB
EB01X·BBl E6XTS-BBl
9Cr-1Mo
and ER90X-B9 E901X-B9 F9XX-EXXX-B9
V+N b+N
• by weldmg process
t per ANSI/AWS AS.28, Specification for Low -Alloy Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Arc Welding (unless ind icated)
I per AN SI/AW S AS.5, Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Covered Arc Welding Electrodes (unless ind icated)
§ per ANSI/AWS A5.29 , Speci fication for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding (use w ith CO 2 or Ar-CO l mixture)
I per ANSI/AWS A5. 23, Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding
- no match . consider high er alloy than base metal
•• no match , use between 2 V~Cr- 1 Mo and 5Cr·'h Mo
tt per AN SI/AWS AS.9. Specification for Bare S tainless Stee l Welding Electrodes and Rods
U per ANSIIAWS A5.4 , Speci fICation for Covered Corrosion- Resistan t Chromium and Chromium-Nickel S teel Welding Electrodes
§§ no match. use between 5Cr-1Mo and 9Cr-'hMo
Nickel Steels. To weld nickel stee ls V the joi nt and clean the surfaces
where the tensile strength of the weld carefu lly and thoroughly.
must be equal to that of the base metal, • Use the lowest possible current to
low-alloy nick el filler metals in the preve nt the for mati on of a brittl e Use the lowes t pos -
sible (' 111'''('111 when
E80XX series are genera lly used . Ex- zo ne next to the weld. welding austen itic
amp les are E80 16-C I, E80 18-C2, and • Use a s ta in less stee l 18 - 8 ty pe manganese steel.
E80 18-C3. On thick metal , preheat to e lec tro de .
a dull red is genera lly advi sable.
Other types o f till er meta ls used for
Austenitic Manganese Steels. Au ste- we ldin g au stenit ic man ganese stee l
ni ti c ma ngan ese stee ls require care arc mo ly bde n um- copper-ma nga ne se
when welding as they experience loss and ni ckel -man g an e se . Ho weve r,
of ductility when reheated. A low weld- more skill is needed to produce good
ing curre nt and ra pid we ldi ng speed welds with these ti ller metals. Do not
must be used, wit hout extensive pre- we ld in a locali zed area fo r a n ex -
heat. Care must be taken to prevent an tended time unless the tem perature of
exeessive amount of base metal from the metal is below 750°F (399°C). Use
mixing into the weld . A slight preh eat temperature-indicating crayons to de-
is advisable to reduce underbead crack- termi ne temperature by marking the
ing . Postheat ing is recommended for ba se me tal 3jg" to \1,," fro m the we ld.
stress relief. Use the followi ng guide- T he welder should be able to place a
lines to ensure quality welds when weld- hand within 6" to 8" of the weld at any
ing austenitic manganese stee l: time . If necessar y, place we t rags on
Weldability of Carbon & Alloy Steels ~ 565
areas adjacent to the weld to control weld cools , and cracks may develop
heat. The high thermal expansion of during contraction. To reduce crack-
austenitic manganese steel may cause ing, peen each weld pass when it is
re sidual stresses to develop as the completed.
I . Carbon steels include low-carbon steels, medium-carbon steels, and high-carbon steels . The
weldability of carbon steels decreases as the carbon content increases.
2 . The principal benefits of alloy steels over carbon steels are higher strength and greater ca-
pacity for strengthening in thick sections (hardenability).
3 . The deoxidation practice determines the amount of deoxidation performed and the basic
steel type produced.
4. Steels that are susceptible to cracking must be preheated to reduce the rate of cooling and
decrease the possibility of martensite formation.
5. Hydrogen cracking is often located below the surface and may not be detected by common
nondestructive examination techniques.
6. Low-hydrogen filler metals should be used when welding medium-carbon steels.
7. Low-hydrogen filler metals with iron powder coatings usually minimize cracking in welding
high -carbon steel.
8. Free-machining steels are not usually welded unless special precautions are taken.
9. Temperature must be maintained between the minimum and maximum interpass tempera-
tures for each succeding welding pass.
10. The recommended preheat temperature for low-alloy steels is about 50°F (28 °C) above the
temperature at which martensite begins to form on cooling.
I I . Before welding any alloy steel, check with the manufacturer for the proper filler metal.
12. Use the lowest possible current when welding austenitic manganese steel.
567
• -, I
« " '
,
Group L, Group D,
toughness and strength wear resistanc e
<
,,
Group P, Group S, Group W, Group 0,
low hardness, shock resistance water hardening oil hardening
fo r molds
Figure 40- 1. Tool steel g roup.I' cons ist of water hardening, cold work , shock resistin g, hot work, tngh -speed, mold, (ind special purpose.
TOOL STEELS
ToolSteel properties and Cnaracterisfios common Use
GrollP" ~n <
Group L High toughne ss and good strength Arbors, cams, and chucks
/
Hot work tool steels, Gro up H, have to final shape and have failed by wea r,
a medi um ca rbon COnlent-,35 % car- chipping, o r c rac king . Tool s o r di es
bon to .45% carbon-with chromi um , may also be welded to alter the tool or
tungsten, molybdenum. and vana dium die to accommodate desi gn change s.
added for total alloying between 6% Due to their high ca rbon and alloy con-
and 25 %, The alloy ing eleme nts co n- tent, they are ex treme ly prone to hy-
tribut e 10 good hard en ability, tou gh - dro gen cracking in the HAZ if rapidly
ness. and resistan ce to softening (re d cooled. If high heat input and slow cool-
hardness) on co nti nuo us ex pos ure up ing are used to counteract cracking, the
to IOOO°F (538°C). Red hardness is the weld may be too soft. Welding proce-
capacity to resist softe ning in the red dur es must be ca refully controlled .
heat temperature range. Hot work tool
steels are used for hot die work. Preheat and Postheating Require-
High -speed tool stee ls, Gro ups T ments. Tool steels arc always preheated
and M, have high carbo n co ntent and for weldin g. The requ ired prehe at tem -
relative ly lar ge amounts of ex pe nsive perature depend s on the spec ific alloy.
alloying elements, particularly tungsten heat-treated co nd it io n, a nd sec t io n
(Group T ) and molybdenum (Gro up thickness. When preheating a hardened
M). They are resistant to softening up tool steel, the pre heat temper atu re
to 1000°F (540°C) but have relatively should not exce ed the tempering tem -
low tou ghn ess. High -speed too l stee ls perature of the tool steel. or it will soften.
are used for high-speed cutting opera- The preh eat temperature s ho u ld be
tions because the alloy carbides in their maintained between weld passes. After
met allurgi cal struc t ure allow th e se we lding, th e workpiece sho uld be
stee ls to maintain their cutting edge at cooled to about 150°F (65°C) and im-
high temperatures. mediately po st heat ed at the recom-
Mold steels and special purpose tool mended temp erature. See Figur e 40-3.
stee ls, Groups L and P, and Gro up F,
Welding Processe s, The weldin g pro-
are minor tool steel groups whose prop-
cess for tool stee ls mu st be ca refu lly
erties are tail ored to specific applica-
se lecte d to produ ce a qu ality we ld ,
tio ns . Mold s tee ls ha ve a lo w 10
Weldin g processes that ca n be used for
me di um carbon co ntenl and co ntain
tool steels include SMAW, FCAW, and
chromium an d nickel as the principal
GMAW. SMAW is the most versatile OFW should not be
alloying elements for a total alloy con- used for 10 0 1 .\'/ 1'1.>1.'1
for rep air welding small are as. La rge
tent of 1.5% to 5%. Mold steels exhibit because it is tooslow
areas ma y be more ec o no mica lly and introduces ex-
low hardnes s a nd lo w re sist ance to
weld ed with FCAW o r GMAW. OFW cessive heat into the
work hard enin g in the annealed (soft- base metal. leading ( 0
sho uld not be used for tool stee ls be-
ened) co nditio n, whi ch facilitates the distortion. so/t elling
cause it is too slow and introduces ex-
formation of mold impressions for cold of hardened mctul;
cessive heat into the base metal, leading embrittlcment of (1"-
hobbing operation s. Sp ecial purpose
to distortion , softe ning of hardened nealed mesal, or
too l stee ls co nta in sma ll amounts of cracking.
metal, embrittlement of annealed metal,
chro mium, van adium, and nickel and
or cracking .
are used in appli cations requiring good
strength. toughness, scratch resistance, Filler Metals. Filler metals used for tool
and ga lli ng resistance . steels must be carefully selected to en-
sure a qua lity we ld, Filler meta ls for
General Welding Considerations weldi ng tool stee ls fa ll into three cat-
ego ries: match ing, low-a lloy steel, and
for Tool Steels
soft. Filler metals that produce deposits
In most cases, the weldin g of tool steels matching the basic tool steel type should
encompasses the repai r of tools or dies be used because the y produ ce a sur-
that have been hardened and machined face that matches the wear resistan ce
Weldahility (if Tool Steels & Cast Irons €l' 569
of the tool steel. However, filler metals steel may be used as they exhibit mod-
are not available to match all tool steel erate hardne ss. Toughness may be im-
composi tions. Although an exact match proved by peening. Soft filler metals such
may not always be available, using as stainless steels, nickel, nickel-copper
manufacturer trade name products and alloys, and copper-nickel alloys may be
their recommended procedures usually used to build up worn parts, followed
produces a qual ity weld . by a hard wear-resi stant deposit that
When matching filler metal is not matches the base tool steel composition.
available, tiller metals that produce de- Using a soft buildup material minimizes
posit compositions similar to low-alloy cracking .
01 Oil-hardening
300-400 57-62 300-400 350--500 56--<>1
(149-204) (149-204) (177- 260)
.
Figure 40-4. The buildup area is
grooved when repair welding tool
-' . ' steels to allow sufficient metal to
he deposited.
PREPARED
SURFACE
PREPAR ED
SURFACE
. -' .
" ~A 6 ras ion · R es i stant
Ni-Hard
L
Iron
~~_ _-J Parabaloy
Ni, Cr, Mo
to increase
hardness
White
Iron
Silicon Co l1lpacted
Duriron
Iron Fast coo l to
Graphite
prec ipitate Iron
hard
carb ides
Ftgu re 40-5. Cast irons are grou ped according 10 their metallurgical structure into Rrtly irons , white irons, malleable irons, ductile irons,
compacted graphite iron s, wul alloy iron s,
tI
All cas ting skin lind General Welding Considerations sible, the castin g is heated uniformly
.~ fo reign ma iler must
.= be removed fro m the
for Cast Irons using an ox yace ty lene torch at 700°F
join t surface a nd
Cast irons are difficult to weld and heat (371°C) for 30 min, or less than 30 min
adjacen t a reas of
input a nd joint prep arati on must be at IOOO°F (538°C). Graphite on the sur-
caM i rons before
welding. carefully controlled. Weld ing or braze face of gray iron ca n be oxi dize d by
welding ca n be used to repair broken searing the surface with an oxidizing
castings, correct machinin g errors , fill flame or by heating the casting with a
defects, or weld cas t iron to steel. strongly decarburi zing flame, followed
The primary consideration for join- by wire brushing to remove debris.
ing cast irons is to accommodate their To prepare cas t iron for we ld ing,
poor weld ability, the principal cause grind a narrow strip along each edge of
of which is their high carbon con tent. the joint to remove the surface film or
A high carbon content can lead to the casti ng skin. V the edges of the weld
form ation of very hard martensite in area. On metal less than 3/16" thick, no
the HAZ, which, coupled with low duc- V is nece ssary. On me tal 3116" to 3/8 "
tility and the presence of residual stress, thick, a single-V joint is required with a
increases the susceptibility of cast iron groove ang le of appro ximate ly 60 °.
to cracking . Metal % " thick or more requires a
574 ~ Welding Skills
double -V joint with a V,6" to %2" root casting is allowed to cool slowly from
face. The groove angle should be 60°. the welding temperature. Slo w cool-
See Figure 40-6. ing may be achi eved by covering the
casting with an insulatin g blanket, ver-
miculite, or sand. If slow cooling is not
- • .• I •
NO V REQUIRED
possible, posth eating is required.
When it is impos sibl e to preheat
the workpiece, the weld temperature
can be controlled by depositing short
weld beads 2" to 3" long. After a bead
is depo sited , allow it to cool until it
A CAUTION
LESS THAN 3/16 " THICK Never pos theat cast iro n
SINGLE·V
can be tou ched with the ha nd. Co n- a bove a dull red co lor or
BUTT JOINT secutive beads should not be started a bove a tem pe ra ture of
12000F (649 °C) .
until the previous bead has cooled suf-
ficiently. As the weld bead cools, peen
it by striking it lightly with a hammer.
Peening helps to tighten the weld and
3/16 " TO %" THICK
reli eve stress on the cast iron. Peen -
ing can be done only on the machin-
able weld deposi t and heat affected
zon e, not on the ent ire ca sting . Se e
Figure 40 -7.
~
Figure 40 ·8. Filler m eta ls for
welding or brare welding cast iron
• • • • are selected based Oil the require-
ments of the weld and the lj)elding
Cla&&lJiootlonwelfl.ing (or Braz~
process,
Descrlptlon Filler .Metal Form
- . . ... . . Weldmg) Process
mCltEl ALLOY J'llL'iRb!STAJ.~L_ ~ _ ' ~ _____ ~_'~h , h
~
For a crack near the edge of the part, Figure 40-9. When welding cracks
;11 ca st iron, holes li n ' d ril led to
grind open the crack to allow for ad- • - . I •
prevent cracks from ex tending
equat e filler me tal access . Weld back during welding
from the drilled hole to the start of the
crack (the edge of the part). If the crack
is longe r than I" or 2", use skip weld-
ing, otherwise use continuous welding.
See Figure 40 -9.
Studding Broken Castings. When a
casting is I Y2" thick or more and is
subjected to heavy stresses, stee l studs DRILL HOLE AT BOTH
are used to stren gthen the joint. Stu d- ENDS OF CRACK
ding is not advisable on castings less
than I V2" th ic k because it le nds to
weaken rather than strengthen the join t. WELDING
SEQUENCE
To apply studs, V the crack and drill
and tap YI" or 3;8" holes in the casting at
right angles to the sides of the V. Space
the holes so the center-to-center distance
is equal to three [0 six times the diameter
of the stud. Sc rew the studs into the DRILL HOLE AT ONE
tapped holes. The th readed end of the END OF CRACK
studs sho uld be abo ut '/8" to % " in
3x TO 6x
DIA QF
STUD
Stainless steels owe their corrosion resistance to the presence of chromium. Other amounts of alloy ing
elements are added for additional prop erties.
Stainless steels contain fr om 12% to 30 % chromium plus other alloying elements, such as up to 25%
nickel and up to 6.5% molybdenum. Stainless steels consist offive groups named for their metallurgical
structure: austenitic, martensitic, ferritic, duplex, and precipitation hardening. The weldability o] stain-
less steels depends on their metallurgical structure.
Welding of stainless steels is also influenced by physical properties and the need f or cleanin g and j oint
preparation. Specifi c welding cond itions for stainless steels are dictated by the specific alloy f amil y and
will influence factors such as heat input during welding, preheat, and postheatin g.
lil
not be hardened by quenching and are Stainless steels are
Stainless steels contain from 12% to 30% used for thei r heat
chromium (Cr) plus other alloying ele-
only strengthened and hardened by
cold working.
~ resistance, corro -
sion resista nce, and
ments, such as up to 25 % nick el (Ni) Austenitic stainless steels have vary- 1() w -t e mp e ratu re
and up to 6.5 % mol ybdenum (Mo) . ing amounts of Cr and Ni. Th e basic
toughness .
These create a variety of metallurgical austenitic stainless steel compo sition is
structures , making stainless steels the 18% Cr and 8% Ni although amounts
most versatil e family of metal s. They can ran ge from 16% to 26% C r and
are used for their heat resistanc e, cor- 3.5% to 37% Ni. The austenitic struc-
rosion resistance , and low-temperature ture is achieved by the addi tion of
toughness. The weldability of stainless nickel. Other elements that contribute
steels dep end s on their metallurgical Wrou g ht sta inless
to the au stenitic structure are manga- sleds are usually iden-
structure. nese and nitrogen. Carbon contributes tified hy a three-digit
Wrought stainless stee ls con si st of to the austeniti c structure , but it is not A /S f designa ti on,
'five groups named for their metallurgi- use d in large amount s because it re- such as 410 or 3/6.
cal structure: austenitic, martensitic, fer- duces corrosion resistance.
ritic , dupl ex, and precip itation Compared with marten sitic stainless
hardening. Wrought stainless steels are steels, austenitic stainless steels are rela-
usually identi fied by a three-digit AISI ti vel y weak. Solution annealing heat
designation, such as 410 or 3 16. treatm ent is used primarily to improve
Austeni tic stainless stee ls are the corrosion resi stance. Stress-relief heat
largest group and have the wide st us- treatment, conducted at low tempera-
age of all stainless steels. They exhibit tures, usually causes distortion and loss
exc ellent corrosion resi stance , weld - of corrosion resi stance. Mol ybd enum
ability, high-temperature stre ngth, and is added to austenitic stainless steels to
581
improve corrosron resistance. Sta ndard to develop high strength and wear resis-
grades of austenitic stainless steels are the tance. Martensitic stainless steels contain
200 and 300 series. The basic austenitic no alloying elements other than chro-
stainless steel is type 302. See Figure 41-1. mium and have the lowest corrosion re-
Martensitic stainless steels contain up sistance of the stainless steels. The basic
to 18% chromium and up to 1.5% car- martensitic stainless steel is type 410. See
bon. They are air hardened and tempered Figure 41-2 .
3028
Si added to
inc rease
scali ng
resistance
t
314
Si increased
for highest
heat
resistance - 310.3108
Mo re C r & Ni for
even better heat
resistance
-
309.3098
Cr&Ni
increased for
heat
resistance
I+-
302
general
purpose
1B· 8
.L
--+
202
N & Mn partly
replace Ni
304lN
N added to
increase
streng th
- - 304l
C red uced for
as -we lde d
corrosion
resistance
304N
N added to
incr ease
stren gth
304H
.
I+-
3Q4
Lowe r C for
better corrosion
resistance in
welded structures
--+
303
S added for
mach inabi lity
305
--+
3038e
Sa adde d for
better
machinab ility
384
Higher C Ni inc reased Mor e Ni to
for creep to lower wo rk --+ lower work
stren gth ha rde ning ha rdening
348
Ta & Co restricted
for nuclear
applications
- 347
Nb & Taadded
to prevent
carbide
precipitation
:-
321
Ti adde d
to prevent
carbide
precipitation
l
32 1H
Higher C 301 201
for cr eep C r& Ni N& Mn
stre ngt h lowered to !-t partly
increase work rep lace
hardeni ng Ni
316H
Higher C Nitronlc ®
for creep se ries
strength Mn & N for
wear, stre ngth,
& corrosion
<,
-
resistan ce
-
316LN 316l 316N 316
C reduced, C reduced for N ad ded to Moadded 10
318F
~
N added to as -we lded increase increase
increase corrosion strength corrosion --+ S & P added
resistance to improve
streng1h resistance
machinability
254SMO 317l
•
317
Mo raised for C redu ced for More Mo & Cr
~ ~
pitting better welding added for
resistance characteristics better co rrosion
resistan ce
Fig ure 41- 1. A ustenitic stainless steels are nonma gnetic and are strengthened and harden ed h)' cold work.
~ ! ! ! ~
414 422 403 420 416 44DC
Ni added for Mo, V. Wadded Close composition Increased C to P & S increased C increased tor
better corrosion for strength & control for turbines improve to improve highest hardness.
resi stan ce toughness to and highly mechanical machinability Cr increased for
1200'F stressed properties co rrosion
parts resistan ce
! ! ! !
431 420F 4165e 440B
Cr increased P & S increased Se added for Cdecreased
Ni added for better 10 improve bener slightly 10
corrosion machinability machinability improve
resistance. Good toughness
mechanical
properties
!
440A
C decreased
slightly to
further
imp rove
toughness
Figure 41~2. Mart f'l/si/k stainless steels may be quenched (// /(J tempered to improve their stren gth, and they hav e the lo west cor rosion resis tance
of alf stainless ,I'f(,I'/.I',
Fenitic stainless steels contain more have higher stre ngth and ch loride
chromium than mart en sitic stainless stress-cracking resistance than austen -
steels, which improve s their corro sion itic stainless steels. They also have bet-
resistanc e. Ferriti c stainless steels can- ter fabricability and toughness than
not be hardened by quenching and tem- ferriti c stainless stee ls. Heat treatment
pering. They are used chiefly for their and fabricat ion practices for duplex
corro sion and scaling resistance. Fer- stainless steels must be carefully con-
ritic stainless steels are divided into trolled or significant loss of toughne ss
regul ar ferr itics and low-in terstitial and/or corrosion resistance may occur.
feni tics. The basic ferritic stainless steel The addition of between . 15% N and
is type 430. See Figure 41- 3. .25% N helps ensure a balance between
Duplex stainless steels are compo s- austenite and ferrite in duplex stainless
ite materials whose metallurgical struc- steels, especially during welding .
ture consists of approximately equal The basic duplex stainless steel is
quantit ies of austenite and ferrite. The type 329. However, alloying additions,
properties of duplex stainless steels are particularly nitrogen, have been care-
achieved by maintaining a balance of fully controlled to yield a second gen-
the austenite and ferrite. Properly bal- eration of duplex stainless steel s with
anced dupl ex stainless steels possess better control of austenite to fenite bal-
certain desirable qualities that austen- ance during welding operations. These
itic and ferritic stainless steels do not. second-generation alloys include types
For example , duplex stainless stee ls 2205 and 2307 . See Figure 41-4.
Weldabilily or Stainles s Steels ~ 583
430
Ge neral purpose
17 Cr alloy
~ ! ! L
442 429 409 430F 434
Cr incr eased Slightly Lowest Cr , P&S Me added
to imp rove less Cr primari ly adde d for for improv ed
scaling used for improve d co rrosio n
resistance automotive ma chinab ility resistance in
exhaust systems auto tri m
! ! ! !
446 405 430F Se 436
Highest Cr Lower Cr Sa added for Nj, Nb, &
for best plus AI for better Ta added
scaling good machined for corrosion
resistance weldability surfaces & heat resistance
Figure ·U -J. Ferritic stainless steels a re reknivetv low strength altovs that ('(1111/(1 1 he hardened or strengthened by heal treatment,
PH13-BMo
Custom 455
Custom 450
Various
refIneme nts
to improve
properti es
17-4PH T 17-7PH T
Balance d suuct
10 improv e
cross-section
toog hness
PH15 -7Mo
15-5PH AM-35 0
AM·35 5
• solution anneal and quench • solutIon anneal and quench • solution anneal and quench
• fabricate • condition • fabricate
• precipitatiOn harden • fabrica te • precipitation harden
• precipitation harden
More c-
Femlic
Duplex DurimellOQ HC
CD -4MCu Ferralium 225
3OC,' '"
Balanced Ni..(;r Add Ni lor
austeortic
""'Co strccta re
Martensitic
CA- 1S
.. HX
66N,17C
HE
/28C rl ONi
More er More Ni
Batarcec
cornpcsrtr
Fert itic HW HF
CB-30 '" I60NI12Cr\ /2QCrl ONi
302.
~
Md Ni,Cu HK
CF-3 CF-8M CN-7M AIloy 20
HT
304L 31.
316 135Ni17Cr\ 26Cr2QNil
Lower C ."" ~
MoreNi More Ni
330
HP HL
CF-3M 316L CG-8M 3 17
",N..en '","",en
r More Ni, Cr
CORROSION·RESISTANT HEAT-RESISTANT
(austenitic unless indicated) (austenitic unless indicated)
Figu re 4 1-6. Cast stainless stee ls exhib it the me tallurgical struc ture of their wrought cou nte rparts and are divided into co rros ion-resista nt IIml
heat -resistant types.
The thermal cond uctivity of ferritic welding . The use of chill plates, such
and martensitic stainless steels is approx- as copper plates, helps conduct heat
imately 50% that of carbon steel, and that away from the weld area.
of au ste nitic stainless stee ls is about Jigs and fixtures sho uld be used
33%. Consequently, heat is cond ucted whenever possib le, especially for aus-
away more slowly. As a result, stainless tenitic stai nless steel s, When stainless
When welding stain- steels take longer to cool. This can be a steels are held in a jig or fixture during
less steels, usln g particular problem when welding thin- cool ing, warp ing and dist orti on are
chill plates made of
copper helps COIl - gauge steels since there is greater dan- practically el iminated. If a j ig or fix-
duct heat awayfront ger of burning through the metal. ture cannot be used , spec ial welding
the weld area . re- Unfavorable effects of heat can be procedures are necessary to counter-
ducin g the unfavor-
able effects of heat reduced substant ially by using chi ll act expansion forces. A common prac-
011 the alloy. plates. A chill plate is a metal plate tice is to use intermittent weld ing or
used to prevent overhea ting during back-step weld ing.
586 @o Welding Skills
Cleaning and Joint Preparation, Clean- When stainless steel eq uipme nt is
ing and joint preparation are critical to welded . the chro mium ox ide film ad-
ensuring a quality weld. Surface contami- jace nt to the weld th ickens from the
nants affec t stainless stee l weld s 10 a locali zed heat ing effect and changes
greate r degree than carbon and alloy color due 10 diffraction of light. T he
steel welds. The surface of the weld arca color change is known as heat tint. The
must also be co mpletely cleaned of all presen ce of he at tint often prompt s
hydroc arbon -con ta ining co nta mina nts qu est ion s a bo ut q ua lity fro m rece iv-
such as oi ls, or chloride -containing ers of stainless steel equ ipment.
cl ea ning fluids. Co nta mination fro m Althou gh he at tint may cause a
Heal lim may cause
grease and oil mu st be pre vented so s light overall chromium dep leti on in a sliKhl overall chro-
that c orr os io n re si st a nc e is not re - th e surface film, it do es not usuall y mi utn deplet ion ill
duced th rou gh ca rbo n pickup during co mp rom ise the abil ity of the surface tlu: surfacefihn. but
welding. In addition to bru shin g with film to pro vide corros ion resistance, it does I/O! usually
compro mise the ahil-
a clean stainless steel wire brush, other unless the stainless steel provi des bor- ity ofthe surface film
acceptable methods of surface prepa- derline co rrosion resistance in the ex- 10 provide corrosion
resistance.
ration include blasting with clean sand pected service environment. In highl y
or grit, a nd ma chinin g or grind ing co rro s ive se rvice e nv iro nme nts , it
with chloride- free cutt ing fluid . might be necessary 10 use a more cor-
The area 10 be cleaned must include ro sio n-re si s ta nt s ta in le ss stee l or
the weld groove and adj acent faces for nickel alloy. See Fig ure 41 -7.
at least ~" on each side of the groove.
Cleaning a wider area is recommended
for plate thicker than 'lis". The surfaces
of part s to be resistance weld ed, spot
welded, or seam welded must also be
cleaned . Th e degr ee of c lea ning de-
pends on the welding process. For ex-
ample , s pec ia l ca re is req uired for
cleaning surfaces for gas shielded weld-
ing because of the absence of flux, which
acts as a cleaning age nt. Ca rbon co n-
tamination can adversely affect the met-
allurgical structure. corrosion resistance,
or both. Clean stainless steel wire brushes
must be used to prevent carbon and iron
Figure ·" -7. Heat tint is formed O il sta inless sled
pickup, Thorough post-weld wire brush- during welding b ill does II ot usually compromise lilt'
ing is used to remove welding slag after cor rosion resistance (if 'h e stainless steel .
welding.
Removal of Heal Tint (Heal Discol-
oration), Stainless steels obtain their cor-
ros ion resistance fro m a surface film It may be difficult to remove heal
composed largely of chromium and oxy- tint, es pec ially from ins ide corners.
gen (chromium oxide). The film forms Grind ing may be used , but is ofte n
spontaneously in air or water on alloys im pra ctica l or e xpe ns ive . Co mme r-
that contain more than 10% chromium. cia l stainless stee l chem ical cl eaners
The quality of the film must be preserved are available that typicall y cons ist of
during fabrication. The physical appear- a past e th at is pa inted on th e we ld
ance of the chromi um ox ide film does ' seam and allowed to soak for 10 min
not necessarily indicate the overall cor- to 15 min, after which it is removed
rosion resistance of the alloy. wi th a stainless steel wire bru sh.
lil
In IIl'hillll'eldillg of
sho uld be pointed toward the thi ck er tibility to corro sion and leads to loss of
stainless steel. amid
~- unv whipping action
ofthe filler metal. 111
wo rk piece . corro si on resi st ance by making le ss
4
Welding butt joints in uphill position chromium avai lable to contribute to the
stead. lise a motion
ill the form ofa V.
ca n be accom plished wi th a reduced protecti ve corro sion -res istant surface
current compared to that used in flat film . The tem perature at which sensiti-
position for a given filler metal diam- za tio n occurs dep ends on the type of
eter. Oscill ating and whipping motion s allo y weld ed. Sec Figure 4 1- 10.
are not re commended but in st ead a Martensitic Stainless Steels. Marten-
motion in the form of a V may be used sitic stainless stee ls are welda ble ex-
for the first pass. The point of the V is cept for typ e 416 Se , which conta ins
the root of the joint. Hesitating momen - sele nium to mak e it free-machining.
taril y at the V en sures adequate pen- The hardness of the HAZ and the cor-
etration and allows slag to move to the responding susceptibility to hydrogen
200 . 0
5 10 15 20
TIME (SEC) APPEARANCE OF WELD IN
CORROSIVE ENVIRON MENT
Aluminum alloys can be wrought or cast, and contain various elements added to produce alloys with specific
properties. Aluminum alloys are generally easy to weld. Magnesium is the lightest commercial metal and is
alloyed with many chemical elements. This results in high strength-to-weight ratio metals that are easy to
weld. Titanium alloys are grouped according 10 their metallurgical structure and are difficult to weld bemuse
ofthe need for high purity.
597
~1T1n'_~_"'~1T1n'_7'''
L
L 300 Series Stainless Steels ~
1 304L, 316L
It
I
-..,
Copper- 1
Nickels i
70-3O-Cu-Ni
90-10-Cu-Ni
More Fe for economy
r = r n" " r n = " " , High nickel:
Incoloy1" 825
Hastelloy!' G-3O
Carpenter 2OC8-3
Low nickel:
AI-6XN
904L
Sanicro 28
'--_ _--._ _- ' (Cn-7M) 25-6Mo
Cu for general
Monel K·500 Hastellof!!' C·22
' -_ _--._ _- - ' Inconcrff 625 (CW-6MC)
Mo for resistance
r 0""""0
corrosion resistance to reducing agents
Corrosion
Crlor heat & resistant
Fe for s ectal ro erties corrosion resistance 50-50 Ni-Cr
Ni-Fe (low expansion, magnetic) Nickel 200 (CZ-l00) Chromel
Nickel 201 Heat/creep
Invar, or
Nilo 36 resistant
Mo lor resistance
Maraging to reducing acids
steels
Hastello~X Incone~617
Hastelloy€l8·2
(N12M-1N12M·2)
'----,---'-------'
RA333
, Inconer® 600
Inconer®718
Inooner®X-750
1 Decreasing
Inoolo~800
Incolo~ 800HT
A-286
'----,--- - - '
F fgure 42-1. Nicke l is inco rporated as (J majo r or min or constituent ill approximat ely .1000 alloys .
commercially pure nickel, wh ich has lower heat input is substituted. Preheat
relatively high thermal conduc tiv ity. is not required for nickel alloys ; how-
However, since the coefficients of ther- ever, the joi nt area is heated to about
mal expansion of nickel alloys are simi- 60°F (16°C) to eliminate moisture con-
lar to those of carbon steels and densation that could lead to porosity.
low-alloy steels, the welding of nickel The intcrpass temperature should be low
alloys does not present significant dis- to minim ize tota l heat input. Cooling
tortion problems. Nickel-iron alloys are methods that reduce the interpass tem-
an exception because they have very perature should not introduce contami-
low coefficients of thermal expans ion. nants that cause weld metal cracking.
Heat Requirements. Since nickel al- Posthcating is not required to restore
loy s are sen sitive to hig h heat input, mechan ical properties, except for pre-
low heat input shou ld be used when cipitation hardening alloys. Alloys that
welding nickel alloys. High heat input sensitize when welded may require
can lead to hot cracking, loss of corro- postheating consisting of solution an-
sion resistance, or both . If hot crack- nealing and quenching to restore cor-
ing is anticipate d, such as might occur rosion resistance.
in a high ly restrained joint, the weld- Welding Processes. Almost all arc weld-
ing technique is mod ified to decrease ing processes can be used for welding
heat input, or a welding process with nickel alloys; however, SMAW, GTAW,
I]
cesses used. Not all arc welding pro- best used on thin gauges. No preheat is Remove the oxide
.~ film/rom the surface
cesses are applicable to every alloy necessary to weld Monel" or Inconel", .= to he welded and use
because of metallurgical characteristics The procedure for welding Monel" or heavily coated filler
andlor availability of suitable filler met- Inconel" is as follows: metal specially de-
signed jor Monel"
als. OFW should only be used when arc 1. Remove the thin, dark-colored ox- and lnconct".
welding equipment is not available. The ide film from around the area to be
welding of nickel alloys is similar to the welded. The oxide can be removed
welding of austenitic stainless steels ex- by grinding, sandblasting, rubbing
cept that cleanliness requirements are with emery cloth, or pickling.
more stringent and groove openings are 2. Use a heavily coated filler metal spe-
increased to allow for the lower penetra- cially designed for welding Monel")
tion of nickel alloys. and Inconel'". Use DCEP current.
3. Hold the filler metal at a travel
Filler Metals. Filler metals for welding
angle of about 20° from the verti-
nickel alloys should have a chemical
cal and ahead of the weld pool
composition that is similar to the base
when welding in flat position, as it
metal. Covered filler metals for SMAW
is easier to control the molten flux
normally contain additions of deoxidiz-
and to estimate slag trappings. To
ing elements such as titanium, manga-
make welds in other positions, hold
nese, and columbium to prevent weld
the filler metal at approximately a
metal cracking.
right angle to the workpiece .
Precipitation hardenable filler metal
4. Withdraw the filler metal slowly
will respond to the precipitation hard-
from the crater to permit a blan-
ening treatment used for the base metal.
ket of flame to cover the crater,
However, the response is usually less
protecting it from oxidation while
pronounced and the weld joint is gen-
the metal solidifies.
erally lower in strength than the base
5. Use a minimum of weaving to pre-
metal after the precipitation hardening
vent depositing wide weld beads.
treatment.
Fluxes are available for SAW for
many nickel alloys. The flux composi- WELDABILITY OFCOPPER ALLOYS
tion must be suited to both the filler metal
Copper can be combined with many
and the base metal. An improper flux can
elements to produce various alloys .
cause slag adherence, inclusions, poor
Copper alloys can be strengthened by
weld bead contour, and undesirable
cold working or precipitation harden-
changes in weld metal composition.
ing and generally possess good ther-
mal and electrical conductivity, which
Welding Monel® and Inconel® affect their weldability.
Monel" and Inconel'" are trademarks for Copper alloys are wrought or cast Commercially pure
coppers are wrought
two groups of nickel alloys. When used and consist of commercially pure cop- or cast and are usn!
without qualification, they refer to al- pers, modified coppers, beryllium cop- primarily for their
loy 400 (Monel" alloy 400) or alloy 600 pers, brasses, tin bronzes, aluminum high electrical con-
(Inconel " alloy 600). Monel" and ductivity.
bronzes, copper-nickels, and nickel-
Inconel" can be satisfactorily welded silvers. See Figure 42-2. Many copper
using SMAW. Welding of Monel" and alloys have leaded equivalents, which
Inconel" is performed almost as easily contain a small amount of lead to im-
as welding low-carbon steel. Although prove their machinability.
Monel" and Inconel'" can be welded in Commercially pure coppers are
any position, better results are obtained wrought or cast. Wrought commercially
if welded in flat position. In general , pure coppers contain at least 99 .9%
SMAW should not be used on sheet less copper. They are used primarily for their
WeldahililY of Nonferrous Metals @o 599
hi gh e lec tric al co nd uc tivity. Cas t Brasses are wrought alloys of cop-
commercially pure coppers have lower per and zinc. with 5% to 50% zinc con-
electrical and thermal conductivity than tent. Some brasses also co ntain other
equivalent wrought alloys because the e lements. Brasses are the most pop u-
elements that must be added to ensure lar and least ex pensive of the copper
a sound cas ting, such as silicon, de- alloys. T hey display a wide range of
crea se co nductivity. Commerc ia ll y mechanical properties, arc easy to work,
pure coppers are soft, weak , and very have a pleasing color, and exhibit good
ductile. They include oxygen-free cop- corrosion resistance. Brasses consist or
pers, deoxidi zed co ppers, and tough alpha and beta brasses, tin brasses, and
pitch coppers. leaded brasses.
Beryllium cop pers are wrought and Cast ing brasses contain spec ific al-
cas t copper alloys that co ntain sma ll lo ying e le me nts to impro ve the ir
amounts of beryllium . Beryllium cop- castability and strength beyond that of
pers are prec ipitation hardened to ex- regul ar wrought brasses. They consist
trem e ly high lev el s of te nsi le a nd of combinations of tin, lead, iron, man-
fati gue strength, comparable to low- ganese, aluminum, and nickel. Casting
alloy stee ls. Small amounts of cobalt bra sses ca n be poured int o co mplex
or nickel may be added to refin e the shapes with low porosity and good me-
grain size. chanica l properti es.
Everdur
Tombasi l
70Cuf3QNi
8OCull0Ni
Ni jar
corros,on
resistance
#'!:...,~
-AO~ '3-';;:J'~ Be""
1-"~-"", '" sire ..,.,
l eaded brass
Manganese bronze
Figure 42·2. MallY copper alloy ... ha ve lead ed equivalents ttun contain a ,u I/all amollnt of lead 10 ;1Il1,nWl' their lIl/u'hillahility.
Aluminum bron ze s a re wrought Copper (uhill':; has high thermal conductivity and is ('0111111011/.1' joined bv sweat soldering.
Silicon Bronzes,
Silico n Bronze ECuSi ERCuSi-A
Brasses
Phospho r Bronzes,
Phosphor Bro nze ECuSn -A ERCuSn -A
Brasse s
Phosphor Bronzes,
Phospho r Bronze ECuSn- C ERCuSn-A
Brasses
Manganese-Nickel-
- ECuM nNiAI ERCuMnNiAI
Aluminum Bronzes
Nickel-Silvers - - RBCuZN-D
• AN SIJAWS A5 _6. 5peafication tor Covered Copper and Coppe r Alloy Arc Welding Electrodes
t AN S IJAW S A5. l , Specification forCcpper and Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes. AN SVAWS AS.S, Specification
for Filler Mefals lor Brazing and Braze Welding
tI
bro nz e (EC uA I-A) . The j oint desi gn sc ur e vis io n and make welding hard
.E= p hosp hor-bron ze
used for deoxidized coppers mu st in- to perform. Furthermore, the form ation • ~ filler me tals when
clude a rel atively large root opening of oxides produces a dirty surface that weld ing tin bronze
and groove angle . Tight joints shou ld and make sma ll de-
ruin s the wetting properties of the mol -
posits of heads at (l
be avoided to prevent buckling, poor ten metal. To arc weld brasses, us e time.
penetration, sla g inclusions, undercut- heavily coated phosphor-bronze filler
tin g, and porosity. Copper backing metal s and make s m a ll d eposits o f
strips arc often ad visable. metal. Preheat should be eliminated
Tou gh pitch co ppers contain a uni- and a lower welding current used.
form di stribution o f cop pe r ox ide, Zinc va po rs ca n be minimi zed by
which is insufficient to affect ductility,
decreasin g or eliminating preheat, or
but can c au se problems when w eld-
by u sin g lower weldin g current s.
in g. When heated a b o ve 1680°F High-zinc brasses have lower thermal
(916°C) for prolonged periods, the cop- conductivity and require less preheat
per oxide tends to migrate to the grain than low-zinc brasses.
boundaries, leading to a reduction in
strength and ductility. Additionally, the Tin Bronzes. Since the thermal con-
copper absorbs ca rbon monoxide and ductivity of tin bronze is similar to that
hydrogen , w hic h react wi th the cop- of stee l, it ca n be easil y welded. Wh en
per oxid e a nd rel ea se c arbon dioxide using SMAW, a heavily coated phosphor-
and water vapor. Carbon dioxide and bronze fill er metal sho u ld be u sed,
water vapor are not soluble in copper with DCEP current. The metal mu st
and exert pressure between the grains, be abso lutely clean to en sure a sound
producin g internal cracking and weld .
e mbritt le me nt. Tin bronzes are very susce ptib le to
Tough pitch c o ppe rs are not re c- hot cracking. To prevent hot cracking,
o m me nde d fo r gas weldin g becau se tin bronzes should be preheated to be-
gas welding c a us es e m b ritt le rn e n t: tw een 30 0 ° F (149 °C ) and 400° F
brazing o r so lde ri ng sho u ld be used . (204°C). Hi gh welding c urr e nts a nd
However, some weld s can be made with high travel speed s are used a nd each
SMAW in s itua t io ns w he re ten sile weld pass is peened.
. -. .
8XX ,X
8XXX Other AI
Allo ys
3XXX
eg -3003
Mg ror
moderate
strength
6XXX
..-606'
PH 3XX.X
eg-356.0
AI-Si with Cu A3560
Strengthening Mechanism: and/ or Mg
P H prOClptla l1Ofl hardefling
SH solution hardening
CW cold WOrking
Figure .t2·.t. A lum illllm 11110.....1' C(l/1.\1~ 1 of various f am ilies (series ) of wrougiu or nut alloys, each (1 ~1'11 icll is identifi ed hy (l ,W'q Ui ' II l"(' (!{ numbers.
5005, 5050 - ER4043e ER40 43 e ER5356' ER5356' ER4043e ER4043 e,' ER53569 ER5356'
5052,5652 - ER4043 e
ER4043 e
" ER5356' ER5356' ER4043 e ER53561,i ER5356' ER535B '
Figure 42·5...
.. . Fig ure ·U·S . Filla III £'W!S for Ireldi" x aluminum alloys are setectrd for 'he (w e of base metal to be welde d.
IAlz19111CI-IT161
'-v-' '-v-'
SECOND PART / "- FOURTH PART
, ~ e
Arst Part seeencsart ~
Ttiird
*' '" Part
· w ,,"," ",,,,,,,
: '
, Fourth Part
F-As-fabr icated
O-Annealed
A-Aluminum H10 and H11 -Sfiqhtly strain hardened
E-Rare Earth Elem ents H23, H24, and H26-Strain
H-Thorium hardened and partially annealed
K-Zircon ium Letters of alphabet
Whole numbers T4-80lulion heat-treated
M-Manganese except I and 0
T5-Precipitation hardened only
Q-Si lver 16-Solution heat-treated and
S-Silicon precipitation hardened
T-Tin IS-Solution heat -treated, cold
Z-Zinc worked , and precipitation hardened
Figure 42-6 . The designations [or m ag nes ium alloys consist of a [our-part num be ring system.
'=::Jl.iii~ TITANI U M
ness changes when welded . Ti-6AI-4V
has the best weldability of the alpha-
beta alloys and can be welded in either
the annealed condition or the partially
Figure 42·9. The metal co oling Fum welding rem - precipitation hardened condition. Pre-
perature must also he pro tected by a trailing shield.
cipitation hardening may be completed
Brazing. Brazing may be performed on during postweld stress-relief heat treat-
titanium alloys. Brazing has very little ment. Alpha-beta titanium alloys may
effect on the properties of alpha alloys. suffer significant mechanical property
The mechanical properties of alpha-beta loss during welding. Alpha-beta tita-
alloys can be severely reduced by braz- nium alloys may be welded with com-
ing. The brazing temperature must be mercially pure titanium filler metals to
below 1650°F (899 °C) to prevent re- increase joint ductility.
duction in mechanical properties. Beta Beta Titanium Alloys. Beta titanium
alloys are unaffected when used in the alloys are weldable in either the an-
annealed condition . nealed or the heat -treated condition .
Weld joints have good ductility but
Specific Welding Considerations relatively low strengths as welded .
Beta titanium alloys are welded with
for Titanium Alloys
matching filler metals. They are not
Most titanium alloys do not require heat usually heat-treated after welding , be-
treatment after welding to restore me- cause even though filler metals match
chanical properties. Specific welding the base metals in chemical composi-
considerations depend on th e alloy tion , their response to heat treatment
group. is different.
Distortion Contr
Distortion is the undesirable dimensional change of a f abrication. Distortion occurs because of 11 01 ' -
uniform expansion and contraction of weld metal and adja cent base metal f rom the welding process.
Distortion makes it difficult to maintain proper fit -up as welding progresses. Expensive remedial work
may be required to correct a job after completion. Distortion [rom welding also contributes to residual
stresses. Distortion is controlled by the welding procedure, and by restraints and heat shaping used to
accommodat e shrinkage. Fabrication codes and standards ha ve requirements fo r maximum allow-
able distortion .
613
occur within the sec ond pass and to-
ward its upper surface . Succes sive
passes are larger and wider and there
is a greater mass of weld metal shrink- DISTORTED
WORKPIECE
ing. For groove weld s in carbon steel
with a 60° groove angle, the transverse
shrinkag e rate is typi cally 1/1 6" to 1/ 8"
LONGITUDINAL
per weld pass.
DISTORTED
Fleure 43-1. Distortion is caused
by"wel d SlJrillktIKt'. which ca n he
I rwl.n'n .r!' (T) or longitudinal (L).
~
.- ". . - " _ " .. WORKPIECE
WORKPI ECE
TRANSVERSE
J.
WELD NEUTRAL
CENTER AXIS
OF GRAVITY
- '" --
CENTER
OF GRAVITY
-~~OUBLE WELD
FILLET PULLING EFFECT
OF WELD
RESULTING
DISTORTION
each weld pass) is eliminated.
When usin g manual welding pro-
cesses, GMAW produces less distortion
than GTAW, and PAW produce s less
distortion than GMAW. In addition, with
PAW, thicker metals can be welded than
L /.
/ " EXCESS WELD
METAL
C-CLAMPS
----
. -. . Ftgu r e 43- 10. Tile four basi c
heal shaping pauerns arc th e
line-. spot-. V-, and block -heating
me /hods .
Heat Shaping
Heat shaping is the application of lo- Heat shaping is the
calized heating to cau se movement of FLAT POSITION application ojlocul-
ired heal ing to cause
a distorted part and restore its dimen-
DIR ECTION OF movement of a dis -
sions. Heat shaping is applied usin g MOVEM ENT OF torted part and re -
PART
an ox yacet ylene flame . Heat shaping store its dimensions.
requi re s temperature monitoring and
measurem ent of th e mo vem ent LINE -HEATING
achieved . In some cases, movement PATTERN
may be assisted with mech an ical de -
vices. For complete correction of dis- HORIZONTAL POSITION
tortion , mechani cal restraints may be
Distortion Control :@: 619
The spot-heating pattern concentrate s weaving back and forth to create a rect-
heat in one area in a circular motion and angular area. Th e V- and block -heating
is applied with little. if any. forward mo- patterns can be used on structural steel
tion. The V-heating pattern starts at one shapes such as channel beams , l-beams,
point and moves in a linear fashion along and angles. See Figure 43-1 2. The pat-
a marked axis, weav ing back and forth. tern s are alternately appli ed to achieve
becoming progressively wider. The block- straightening. Two torches may be applied
heating pattern moves in a linear fashion, oppo site one another in specific cases.
Ftgurc ·B - I2 . Hea t shaping of
structural steel sections uses com-
binations (if v- (/",1 block-hea ting
patterns 10 CleMen ' straightening,
NOTE: ARROWS SHOW DIRECTION
OF MOVEMENT OF PART
L K.HEATING
V·HEATING
PATIERN PATIERN
CHANNEL BEA MS
it. CAUTION
When a materia l is being
heat shaped. its stren gth is
redu ced . If the materi al is
under load . the e ffects of
red uced streng th on the
mate rial's ability to support
100Id.\ must he determined :
other wise , ca tas trophic
failure ma y occ ur.
I-BEAMS
~-
PATCH
I (APPRDXIMATELY)
JDINT
PREPARATIDN
AS REQUIRED
U WELD
B RE A K --"-'-;-@iiZil~ ;;;;;;_ _
FINISH
TACK WELDS
DISHING
ROUND
THIRD WELD
DIRECTlDN
PATCH
PATCH
SECD ND WELD
NOTE WHEN USING DIRECTIDN
SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING, OVAL
ENSURE THE WELD CAN
BE CD MPLETED ARD UND
CD RNERS WITHDUT STOPPING
THIRD WELD
FINISH DIRECTID N
/
~==dl~
-::J J-.-,-- PATCH
·~ r l
TACKWELDS~----"qt )T
FIFTH WELD
DIRECTIDN ----
~~~':;;~~;;~~~±I;:::!)
.
START SECDNDWELD
FIRST WELD DIRECTID N DIRECTIDN
RECTANGLE
WELD SEOUENCE:
A.B. C
I . Distortion in wclding is caus ed by shrinkage in the wcld metal and the base metal that occurs
during cooling and by creating restraint thai exceeds the yie ld streng th of the material.
2. Distorti on of welded struct ures is either transve rse (at 90· to the weld ax is) or longitud inal
(along the length of the weld axis) .
3 . Modifyin g thc welding procedure. usin g spec ia l welding techniques. usin g mechanical re-
straints. or heat shaping can help contro l distortion .
4 . Proper fit-up is ess ential on thi n metal s. Closely spaced lack weld s must be used to co ntrol
distortion.
5 . Th e g rea tes t amount of meta l ex pans ion occurs whe n the first we ld bead is laid. Metal ex -
pands less with each successive weld bead because of the locking effect of previous back-step
weld s.
6 . Mechanical restraints cause a buildup of interna l stresses in the weld 10 the point that the yield
stress of the weld is exceeded.
7 . Th e four basic heating pattern s used when heat shaping metal s arc the line -, spot-, V-. and
block-heatin g patt ern s.
8. Heat shaping is the application of localiz ed heat to a structure to cause beneficial movement of
a pari to counteract distorti on.
9. To co mpletely correct distort ion . mechani cal restra ints may be used with heat sha ping.
10 . We lders must protect against residual stresses as their presence ge nerally goes unreco g nized
until failure occurs .
Welding ymb I
Welding Technology
When fa bricating metal products, a welder may lise a print that details product specifications. The print
specifies where welds are to be located, the Ope ofjoints and correct weld sizes. Inform ation is indicated by
a set of svmbols that have been standardized by the American Welding Society (AWS).
WELD TY PE INDICATED
ABOVE AND/OR BELOW
REFEREN CE LINE
625
Figure 44-2. Types of welds are fil -
let. plug, spot or projection, seam,
and groove . Groove welds can he
. . ..
subdivided by the particular shape
of the hUH joint.
FILLET PLUG OR
o
SPOT OR SEAM
SLOT PROJECTION
II
SQUARE
V
V-GROOVE BEVEL
v Y
U-GROOVE
~
J-GROOVE
\ 1
FLARE-V
II
FLARE-BEVEL
GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE
ARROW LOCATION
Symbol Weld
BOTH SIDES
Figure 44-4. For a .W"W " weld symbol. the arrow is rim fo the centerline of the weld seam , witts the appro pria te
,{YII/hol above or below tlie reference line. If side is not important. the s).m bol is placed (/.\"/1';(/" rite reference line.
-
have the same dimension. Where a note
Figure ....-7. A jo ;1II 1//01 requires
mo re ,!Jl/1/ Olle 1.\1)(' of weld i.f repre-
sentrd by a combined weld .\ )m bo l. . - .. appears on a drawing that governs the size
of a fillet weld, no dimensions are usually
shown on the symbol. See Figure 44-8.
DOUB LE BEVEL GROOV E The length of the weld is shown to the
FILLET WELD
right of the weld symbol by numerical
values represent ing the actual required
len gth . Wh en a fillet we ld wi th un -
equal legs is required, the size of both
legs is placed to the left of the weld
Symbol Weld symbol with a note for cla rific atio n.
Groove Welds
There are severa l typ es of groove
welds that may requ ire partial or com-
plete penetration. and a particu lar bevel
depth. See Figure 44 -10. Their effective
throa t sizes (in fractions, decimals, or
millimeters) are as follows:
• For single-groove and symmetrical
doubl e-groove we lds that ex te nd
com pletely throu gh the weld parts
Wl'!d .\'!Jl)"ijimtion is comm unicate d to the welder hy the welding symbo ls used on being joined, no size is included on
the prints. the welding symbol.
628 ~ Welding Skills
Figure 44-8. The 11'1-: .~ ;::e ( lI'idtil)
. -" .
of tl /{' fil let weld is expressed (I.{ tI
fraction. decimal . or metric unit to
the l el l of 'he weld symbol. The
LEG SIZE lel/glh is indicat ed hy Ow actual
11I11/1(' 1'; ('(/1 value 10 the ri!{h t (~r the
WELD LENGTH
n
8V'.0-
weld svmhol.
/~
/ [
10 '
A
USED FOR LEG SIZE CLARIFICATION
-~ %. ~-
Symbol Weld Symbol Weld
PITCH (10) ~
6-10
\
l PITCH (CENTER-TO-
CENTER SPACING)
LENGTH
(OF INTERMITIENT WELD)
Symbol Weld
WELD SECTION
LENGTH
38"
r
WELD PENETRATES
TO REQUIRED DEPTH
Symbol Weld
PARTIAL PENETRATION
Symbol Weld
COMPLETE PENETRATION
WELD PENETRATES
TO REQUIRED DEPTH
Symbol Weld
DEPTH OF BEVEL
/ F"""T1::T-
reference tine .
1I661
Symbol
Symbol Weld
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE
WeldiflR Symbols ~ 63 1
Figure .... ~ 13 . I'lu X wetd tocauons
a re shown ill l'a ryi"x positions
around the welt! .~ymhoJ.
. - .,
DEPTH OF
FILLING
PITCH
(
~~-r'-
, --1' " - 3"
rt---+---~
STRENGTH
Seam Welds
Sea m welds are dime nsio ned either by
(IN LB PER
SPOT WELD) 1 PITC7
, /
size or by strength. Locat ion and des- 0(6)
igna tio n of sizes are similar to those STRENGTH DESIGNATION
used for fillet welds. Size is designated
as the widt h of the we ld in fractions, Ftgure 44-14. Spot ~1"('Jd des igtuuions incl ude size,
decim als, or millim eters, and is shown strength. spacing. and number of .I'II0{ welds.
/ 1"e"'O"'-LENGTH
Figure 44-17. Ttie field weld sym -
STRENGTH hot is placed at a right angle to the
(IN LB PER LINEAR INCH) REFERENCE reference line at the junction with
LINE the arrow. The jield weld sy mhol
STRENGTH DESIGNATION always [aces the reference tail.
Figure 44-15. Seam weld des ignat ions inclu de size. REFERENCE
strength, length cf weld scam . and {,itch of weld. TAIL
FIELD SYMBOL
FLAG
Th e strength of th e weld , when REFERENCE
used , is located to the left of the weld TAIL
symbol, and is expressed as the mini -
mum acceptab le s he ar stre ngth in
pounds per linear inch. REFERENCE
LINE
. . .. .
WELD ALL-AROUND SYMBOL
Symbol Weld
Figure 44-16. ;\ small ci rcle app ears where the llrro w ("oll llcel s the ref e rence line to denote weld -all -aroun d.
SURFACING CONTOURS
- . - - . . _. ... - -- --- -- ----- ~------- - ----- -- - - ------
SYMBOL
LEITER MECHANICAL METHOD
Flat Convex Concave
H Hammering
/ It.. / I1H
/ Vr.;
G Grinding
/ I1G / I1G / L1G
M Machining
/ ~ / I?i. / 'k.
R Rolling / I1R / 11. / ~
U Unspecified
/ It., / l1u / i1u
If.
I
I
Symbol
L j
/ FLAT CONTOUR OBTAINED
~ BY GRINDING WELD
Weld
Figure 44-19 . A filii. concave, or convex symbol added 10 tilt' welding symbol indicates how the surf ace should be contoured.
Symbol Weld
BACK WELD
GROOVE
WELD
Symbol Weld
BACKING WELD
/1t-
Symbol Weld r
SQUARE BUTT JOINT
Vs" ROOT
REINFORCEMENT
v,
Symbol Weld
FILLET JOINT
. .,... ..
Joi~UR.' -U-22. A XWfill"ill~ wdcl .~Jm -
htll,ll·j,h th(' requ irC'clclilllC'tl s;OII .
placed 10 the h11. illt!imf('x that .wr-
[lIC t' S are to he built 1//1 hy wekling.
Symbol Weld
JOINT BUILDUP
AREA TO BE
SURFACED 'I. 'At THIC KNESS
Symbol Weld
PART SURFACING
1. A welding symbol is a graphical representation of the specifications for producing a welded
joint.
2 . Instructions regarding the type of weld are indicated either above or below the reference line.
3. The arrow side is the surface that is in the direct line of vision of the welder. The other
side is the opposite surface of the joint.
4. When more than one type of weld is reqnired, a symbol is shown for each weld.
5. Welds to be made in the field (not in a shop or at the place of initial construction) are shown by
a darkened triangular !lag at the juncture of the reference line and arrow.
6. Nondestructive examination (NOE) symbols are symbols that specify examination methods
and requirements to verify weld quality.
v
5. The se symbols represent what weld specifications?
/
I
VT \
\ I
V, 6 /
~
10. Using thc appropriate table in thc appendix, identify thc parts of the mastcr welding
symbol shown.
11
Quality requirements specified in materials and fabrication standards and codes are accepted by manufac-
turers, suppliers, and users as the basis for ordering and fabricating materials. The steps involved in speci-
fying, procuring, andfabricating materials are addressed by materials andfabrication standards and codes.
Quality requirements for welding are based on the possible risks and consequences offailure ofthe equipment
or component. Quality requirements for welding are established by industry groups and ensure the neces-
sary quality at a reasonable cost.
639
Figure 45-1. Materials standards
are clll.\'.I'ijied ns .I'pl'cijkatiOlI.I', rec-
ommended practices. and code s.
MATERIALS STANDARDS
I I
Specificat io ns Recommended Codes
Practices
• Indicate technical • Mandatory standards
and commercial • Provide instructions used by a [urisdic-
requirements for for pertorming a tional body
a product technical function
I I
Producers End Users General Interest Groups
• Require standards • Require standards • Require standards
to produce or sell to conduct to pursue technical
products occupation or commercial devel-
opments or to protect
the public
I
Sta ndard
mark ed up
with propo sed
chang es
T
Abstain
Disapprove Propo sed
No acti on
changes Approve taken
ballo ted
Non-persuasive
Disapproval is
persuasive or
Discussed
with
Disapproval I
~ Withdrawn
non-persu asi v e review
p ersuasive
Disapproval
Committee Maintained Revis ed
votes on stand ard
chang es issu ed
•/ / DASH
Fiaure 45-5. The A~TM 11I1l'fI/I/Jimwl standards designation is based (1/1 (I leite r-number com bination.
AWS standards also cover welding the case of covered electrodes, the type
consumables. Filler metals are one cat- of coating. Size and packaging informa-
egory of welding co nsumables. Must tion is also pro vided. AWS publication
commercial filler metals are identified by FMC: Filler Metal Compari son Charts,
an AWS designation . Whenever possible, lists commercial name s for AWS fi ller
welding consumabl es should be referred metal designations. See Figure 45 ~ 7 ~
to by AWS designation s rather than com- The AWS identification of welding
mercial names. filler metals co ns ists of letters and
Welding consumable requirements numbers. The letters include R for rod ,
are standardized by AWS in a series of E for electrode, RB for rod or wire , and
spec ifications based on the material ER for electrode rod or wire. Rod is
family. For example, AWS A5~ I de- welding wire that is cut and straight-
scribes standard carbon steel covered ened. Rod may be flux -coated or bare .
arc weldin g e le ctro des . Embedded Electrodes may be flux cored (tubular),
weldin g consumables are identified by con sisting of a metal sheath packed
letter-number designations within each with fluxes and alloyin g cl em ent s.
specification. Flux es, when used separate ly from
AWS specifications indicat e ch erni- filler metals, are also c lassified. Sinc e
cal compositions of materials and me- the welding con sumable identifications
ch anical properties of the deposited embedded within AWS spec ifications
weld metal using standardized welding are unique, they are often referred to
procedures in a specified joint detail to without their spec ificatio n number ,
produce weld specime ns for testing. such as E70l8 or ER3 0 8 ~
When required, specifi cations may also
indicate other properties such as tough-
ness or an acceptable amount of poros~ ASME International (ASME)
ity, Mo st specifications include usability
parameters such as the weld position for ASME International publishes codes and
which the filler metal is designed, weld- standards for the design, manufacture,
ing current that should be used , and in and installation of mechanical devices.
Materials & Fabrication Stand ards & Codes :€} 645
A5.1, CARBON STEEL Covered Arc Welding Electrodes
See ANSI/AWS A5.1, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
E6010
SOURCE PRODUCT
AIR UQUIDE CANADA INC. LA 6010
Aireo Filler Metals
American Filler Metals Company AFM 60 10
American Welding Alloys AWA6010
Arcweld Products, Ltd. EASYARC 10, EASYARC 10+
Askaynak Kaynak Teknigi Sanayi Ticaret A.S. AS S-6010
Bohler Thyssen Welding USA, Inc. Thyssen Cel 70, Bohler Fox Cel
CARBO-WELD Schweissmaterial1en GmbH CARBO RC 3
Champion Welding Products CHAMPION E6010
D&H Sechemn Electrodes Limited CELLUTHERME
Electromanufacturas S,A. West Area XL-6l0, ZIP 10-T, West Hode 600/10
ESABAB Pipeweld 6010
ESAB WELDING & CUTTING PRODU CTS SUREWELD 10-P, SUREWELD AP-l00
EXSA SA - Division Soldaduras OERUKON Cellocord P, PT
EXSA S.A. . Division Fontargen FON E 51 A. FON E 51 AT
HILARIU S HAARLEM HOLLAND BV HILCO Pipeweld 6010
Hobart Welding Products PIPEMASTER 60
HYUNDAI WELDING PRODUCTS, INC. S-6010 D
Indura S.A. Industria y Comercio INDURA 6010
Ind Iding Cor WELD N-
Figure 45·7. AWS puhticution FMC: Filler Metal Comparison Charts, lists commercial names for AWS filler metal designations.
ASME International Boiler and Pres- ASM E Pressure Piping Code mate-
sure Vessel Code materi als utilize se- rials carry ASTM and AWS specifica-
lected ASTM and AWS specifications for ti on s for b ase met al s and we ldi ng
base metals and welding consumables, con surnable s, re spe cti vel y. Spec ific
but with minor changes to those specifi- ASME press ure piping codes indicate
cations where they are too broad for which ASTM and AWS specifications
boiler and pressure vessel applications. are approved.
ASME International Boiler and Pressure The ASME International Boiler and
Vessel Code -appro ved material s and Pres sure Vessel Code con sists of l l
welding consumables are assigned the Sections. Each Section covers aspects
prefix letter S to indicate approval. Only of design. fabrication and inspection.
ASM E Co de- approve d materials and care and operation. materials specifi -
welding consumables may be used for cation s, non de str ucti ve te stin g. and
fabrication or repair of equipment built we ld ing and brazing qualificat io ns .
to the ASME International Boiler and Som e Section s co ns ist of sub-pa rts
Pressure Vessel Code. known as Divisions.
Heat Code C Si Mn P S Cr A1 Cu Ni Mo V Co CE
4H7 0.180 0220 0,660 0,009 001 ® 1lO 0.034 02 40 0,120 0020 0.003 0.004 O,OCKJ O,OCKJ 0.000
Mechanical Properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Notes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1. Certification - Verify box description matches order exactly. Product must be labeled
with manufacturer, heat (or lot) number, address
* if applicable
400 A KNIFE
SW ITC H
' .. ..... .
..,.
" "'. '
-..
~ •
.. ..".
": I"
I. What types of groups must interact in order to create an effective industry standard?
2. What is the difference between a specification and a recommended practice ?
3. What is the difference between a standard and a code?
4. What organization is the largest source of materials standards?
5. Explain each of the components for an ASTM material designated as A193-97 grade B7 (i.e., A,
193, 97, and grade B7).
6. Why is it necessary to indicate not only the ASTM standard number for a material but also the
embedded grade, type, or class?
7. What are the AWS prefixes for rod, electrode, rod or wire, and electrode rod or wire?
8. How is an ASM E material identified compared with an equivalent ASTM material?
9. How is an ASME filler metal identified compared with an equivalent AWS material?
10. What is the difference between a certifica tion and a mill test report?
II . Does a certificate of compliance provide numerical information on analysis or properties of a material?
12. What type of information is contained in a manufacturing data report for a pressure vessel?
/
pp ndix
66 1
. . '.. ... ... . ...
-
. .
. r ni i a : F' ,<l f " " ' " 0/ 0/
/
MASTER CHART OF WELDING AND JOINING PROCESSES
SOLDERING IS)
dip soldering
furnace soldering
induction soldering
infrared soldering
iron soldering
DS
FS
IS
IRS
INS
-. WELDING
AND
coextrusion welding
cold welding
diffusion welding
hot isostatic pressure welding
explosion welding
forge welding
friction welding
direct drive friction welding
CEW
CW
DFW
HIPW
EXW
FOW
FRW
FRW-DD
resistance soldering RS friction stir welding FSW
torch soldering TS JOINING inertia friction welding FRW-I
ultrasonic soldering USS hot pressure welding HPW
PROCESSES
V
pressure gas soldering WS roll welding ROW
~-'-''"
USW
ALLIED
PROCESSES
THERMAL
CUTTING (TC)
OXYGEN CUTTING IOC) HIGH ENERGY BEAM CUTTING ARC CUTTING lAC)
flux cutting OC-F electron beam cutting EBC carbon arc cutting CAC
metal powder cutting OC-P laser beam cutting LBC air carbon arc cutting CAC-A
oxyfuel gas cutting OFC air LBC-A gas metal arc cutting GMAC
oxacetylene cutting OFC-A evaporative lBC-EV gas tungsten arc cutting GTAC
oxyhydrogen cutting OFC-H inert gas lBC-IG plasma arc cutting PAC
oxynatural gas cutting OFC-N oxygen lBC-O shielded metal arc cutting SMAC
oxypropane cutting OFC-P
oxygen arc cutting OAC
oxygen gouging OG
oxygen lance cutting OlC
/
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY
Welding Symbol Chart
_.. _..
-
Basic Welding Symbols and Tl*r location Significance
.......-
'--'on
.....
..... ...... ...... .....
_
F11Jol
-no """"Ing
"""" / /
/ a / / e -, /
~
LJ @ <>
v <>0
t\
O1tIer Side
/ LJ / 0 / Uoed
Not
:e / "- <>
Not
Uoed
"- ED
~ ~
Not Not Not Not Not Not
Both Sides
Uoed Uoed Uoed Uoed Uoed usee
NoAm:NtSide
Of OtherSide
S9"""'"
Not
"""
No<
Uoed
0
-. """
No<
/
:@: Not
usee
No<
Uoed
No<
"""
.....- ......
'--'on
v ..... G..,...
U J .....v ""..- .............
Sc-'''''
-, 7, / ~ / ~ / ~/
""""-
//
:;c
II A
a- see -, II
/ ~
\/ Y
<, -----LA /
'c
"- Ie -, //
~ )(
Both Sides \ K X -, --f-A -. IE -, //
//
-,
~
NoArrrNi Side
or Other Side
Significance
Not
Uoed
" Nol
Uoed Uoed
Not
Uoed
Not Nol
Uoed
)(
Not
Uoed
Not
usee
--~
01 Cou ntersink for Plug Welds
---Y'
r / ~.)
Root Opening; Depth
Contour Symbol
~
of R iling for Plug
~ G""",. We<. S ;,e
and Slot Welds
...·Ing_ I_ 1 ConI"",
(f.~~'
Depth 01Bevel;
F1uo1t Com. " Conco..
~p - Size or Strength
- ~
'0< ce"",nW- Center SpaCIng)
v:
l
01WeldS
\ \ SpecifiCalJOn.
~ ~=eId
Process, or Other
B• • lc JoInls
IdentlUcatlon of Arraw Side and Other Sid. Joint
Aete~
) (
ft~ 5ffi~ } - --h.r A~""A".
iii
""'nd
"""" d
Welding
S,""",
.... Jot..
"""" _\
of Joint
Como< Jotnl
Tail (May
Be Omined-.l
When
:.1
~N)
§ i~k:.
Betereoce
?:~
\ ~row Side Reference li ne Arrow
"
of Joint
/ t __ _ ~_~ is Not Used )
Number 01Spot. Seam,
Stud , Plu g, Slot ,
Con nect ing
Reference
/\'1 ,
/ J-')Ki- -(j? I,
/1 , Weld -
o r ProJection We lds
Eleme nts in This Area
Line to Arrow
Side Men be r
of Jo int or
V- a-
S,_
V t1 I, Remain As Shown When Tail ArrCNiSide
L a- _ . .:. d
WoIOng_ L _ and Arrow a re Rev ersed
~ Wel d Symbols Sha ll Be Contained. _
of Joint
d_ SyrrtIoI 01..Ic:ln: Wit hin Ihe l ength ot me Rel e rence line
--
T-JoInt .... JoInt ..... Jot nl Proceu Abbrevl8t:1oM
a- _
=\ ~_ d _
~
~
be included in the tU 01 ee welding
Y,' ~_ ;!:,:"'"~.ion
II syTTD:ll, reference is made to
~
d
,, / Americ8n Welding Society
, 1,o
V.
J om'
L Othet Side JOOt- 550 NW LeJeune Road
of Joint Arrowof Welding SyrrboI Miami, FIooda 3312S
Ap pendix ~ 665
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY
Welding Symbol Chart
Typical Weld ing Symbols
Do uble- Fill et Welding Symbol Chain Interm itt ent Fillet Welding Symbol Staggered jnterrmtt ent Fill et Weld ing Symbo l
--~ / lenglh
Pitch (ds&anCe
between c:entet&) ~ r """(- between oent8tI)
~-:~
~inaomonl>
~ 1/16 4
/"6 a-e \.-lenglh ~
'12 t\..3'6
-./'12 V '"' ''-.....
0rrisIi0n of IengIh indiaUes that
wekt extenDs between ebt'upe e:t'l8nges
In ctr-:tion or . . <iI...... i8d
sae
-~Ieg) ~
sae
_~ ..I ~ ....... ~-
r
Plug Welding Symbol Back Welding Symbol Backi ng Weld in g Symbol
=-.. . ~
Size (tlarreler
~""'''-I~. 1 Iiil
~
=""":.1
01 ~
/ -------_ . =>------T-v OR - - - - - - - - - -
v----T-<=--
-- - - ---- ------ ---- OR
=
""'-
314
~::t:'tea.d:. :'::S>:
2nd operation
/,,, C> , II opfntion
l\: \ V
Deplh , . operation
(0IT'iui0n rllling is ~)
l\:
Spot Weld ing Symbol Stud Weld ing Sym bol Seam Welding Symbo l
. ,...........
~ PItch
=~~
Size or IengIh
L-... .....
seuere-arceve Welding Symbol seue re-v-a reeve Welding Symbol Doub le-Welding -Groove Welding Symbol
Weld sil8 \
_-l~
size ' - - - Root opening
~ ::ng
weld si;z:e J
12 (112) 1
~ Groove angle
Weld alze- - . /
Am:1N points toward
I'IV
1,·,1411". , /
membetto be prepared
Symbol with Back go ug in g Flare·V-Groove Weldi ng Symbol Flare-Bevel -Groove Weldi ng Symbol
Deplt> "
/
-~ (114) : ; C
<, r>:
~=- \..- Weld size
111'11C
Multiple Ref erence Lin es Complete Penetra tion Edg e Welding Sy mbol
....-~-~- / ~
""'-
~ Of joint pt8plIIralion
""- I;f'
l\: /
Flu sh o r Upset Welding Symbol s
~~
Melt ·Thru Symbol
_-.-/
.,.
Joint wi th Back in g
~7
Joint with Space r
· 11 should be understoodthat theseCharts are intended only as shopaids. The only complete andofficial presentation of the standard weldIng symbols Is In/A2.4.
We lding current set too high Redu ce we lding current (use proper cur rent for electrode size and
welding posi tion)
Arc length too long Redu ce arc length
Redu ce welding current (use prope r current for electrod e size and we lding
We lding current set too high
position )
Wet , dirty, or damaged elect rode Prop erly maintain and sto re electro des
POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF
OXYGEN-DEFICIENT ATMOSPHERES'
- - - - - - -
OxY!l!>n,""iltentt Effi>cts and SyJ1lpiomP
19.5 Minimum pe rmi ssible oxygen level
Decreased ab ility to work stre nuo us ly. May impa ir
15-1 9.5 co nd ition and induce earl y sympto ms in pe rson s wit h
coronary, pulmon ary, or circulat or y pr obl em s
* values are approximate and vary with state of health and physical act ivities
t % by volume .
t at atmospher ic pressure
Appendix @o 667
WELD DEFECT EVALUATION GUIDE...
-- -- -- -- - - -- --- - - -- - -
PreSSYT8 Vesaola Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping
rrJ::''oct01
_.- _.-
(per ASUE , Seetion VIII) (per ANS I Piping Code)
l~.
e-
.-.... P8nettabQn
l OO%X-~·
_
10!l"4X-Ray"
None AlkMed
N
o
~
• Mil""""'" IengIIl of 1 ',0;" ., 6 " _kl
-- -- --
• None ~ lor longI!uOnaI _ Ids
• MIl......" or ...... or2O"IOio of _ Itw:kness.
locolnpIete P8oeIta\lOn
duol kllllgrHc:lw hHlP
: ;::-~~~::.
I..adI 01 f usKJn
a t fI)(Jl pMilI
l..adIolF_at
~IloceOft>e-.
--
-- --
-- --
-- --
--
--
beads. 'cold lap "
Stud not fedu(:e _ ttw:l<ness '" jess than Shall not 'educe _10 ~ kllellS man $hall not AIduce _ 1hIcI<_ '" _ than
$hall not reduce weld 1I1id" '''ss 10 less
1M........ Concev«y lhllV'l8l' maleRal. ConSour of COfIC8Yify _ . be ItWlnef matenaI ConIour orCOfIC8Yify $/VIn be
""""~ ma l",,,,1 ~...., ......
"'""'" "'""'"
.-....
• Maxilnum depth of 'hz'"Of 25 ' 01_
• Ma..numd8plll01 I'aP'ot2!>'Iroolwallllocl<-
Undera.Il at roal pas lhicl<ness. whi<:heYe<is smallef
Y"," 0110"41',",' "ch_is less .....·or lO'l\.1'. whic_'is_ • None allowed lor longi tudinal bull joInlS
rwt$t. w~rl$$ITl.r
• None allowed lor Iongf\\dnal bun jojnI$
~".
• Ma x"""", total ""'91" of T' on6 - _ !eng !" • Ma x...... m tofallengltl of T' in 12T' of weld • Mu,mum tOlai lengtn 01 4Tl on6 - _kl
gro alor than 2Y,- a-
• Maxomum '!ITI or ,,,' , wn icn ever is les s , 'M aximum 'l,TI or '!fI' , who:;hever is le ss .
, Ma ., mu m ind,v,dua l s ize s ha ll be smaller
gre atest d imension ot ind ivid ua l pore groa tes t d ,men slOnof ioo lVldua l pore
Puros lty
01 Y,tt or v,,' (or 'htt o r'I.- ~ t - separat ion)
Any s ize o r amo unt Is accepta ble ' Maximum 10tal area 3 X a rea 01 ma x,mu m ' Max imu m tOlal area 3 X a rea 01 max imum
• Tna lan g lh o f an dc cApta Ne cluster
s ingle a llowable po re lor any sq ua re inch s ing le allowall ie pore lor any s qua re ,ne h ot
s ha ll not e xce ed l he les s er ol t " or ar of weld w••
ExcI ssWlkl
A<ttmorc e men1
Met .rial
Thi ck ne "
¥.o- Io less ' ha n 1"
1"'0 less 'han 2"
2" 10 less than 3'"
..."
Maxi mu m
Hei g ht
'
'
Mat. rla l
Thl c knes .
~" to less than , -
I ' to leu tMn 2"
2" 10 loss than 3"
..
Mu lmum
S lag Ll n gth
w
'
'
Thi nn e ' Mat 'l
Th ick ness. (TI )
less lhan or eq ua l '0 'I.-
9' ''''181' ",an '1, - to 1',"
g' eatenhan W' to 1 ~
Maxim um
Height
'I .."
.... -
w
Th in ne r Ma t'l
Th lckne l . (TI l
less 'han or eq.ual to 'I,"
g 'I" '.' tMn 'I," to Y,"
9'eol'" lM n v,- to W
Max imum
He ighl
....,.'"-
'
3" to 1es5 1han 4- ,~' 3" to lOSStha n 4- ,~' greal... than 1- gr"I'" lha n 1-
...,.
"81"''''''
. .
H H
Clrcum.
"""
Cl.-cum . " 8I<fri. .. InSIde diameters of COI'I'\pOIJeflt al ends 10
"-
Thi d<_ Thick _
'"""*'
.'.' ..""
Max imum Maximum .....I..... m Maxi mum Insode Oramelerl of ~ at _ t o be
leSS than equal 10 W ,-, ,-' less IMIl Ot equal 10 "t. V.-' ,-, bo jooned rnJSt be a ligned engonee""Q jQlned """" be a~ _ enQ,neemg design
greahlO' 1I>an..... to V," ,-' ", design and wetdongprocedurtl N the extemaJ
.' ""
greater cnanW' 10 """ and wetdong procedure II tile external SUffaces
IIOJrtaces 01 tile two ~ are not
gr....le. !han V," to II;" w ' greateI' II>an V,- to ' I; " '
~. tile weld shal be 1ap<Ir1ld_
of tile two ~ are not &19*1. 1M weld
~leIthalllWto2" gre<tIer..... 1~ - 102" S/Illi DOl.aptIred befween the lWOsurlaces
--
~l8I ..... rtessorat YIol'o<'\Io" \Iolt 0<"'" lJeale< llIaIl 2" tessor at I'ooItOt'\lo" IWI Of~· ~ -~
0-.
,OO\Iox......
Nocoa_"""",",~""""""Ps.~
n<9>SOt ...........
_x-Mo¥,_5poI x.....,_qoooIrIy_~_..,
.......
N o _ ~ ~overIaps~f'od9<I$
-§-
t.ongII1x:tonaI bull weldssama as lOO"lio )(-R;ty,
~_ .. _
',._-
'T .
f • • __
I _UHT-20b'
__
_
'JOO"I~"
··JOO"I~ll.c._O
11 nan sity of rdd iogm ph ic ,mag e of inl ern al concavoty is Sha ll nol redu ce we ld t ~i c ~ n e s s to tess than
Internal Co~cav ,ty less t~ an ba se mela l. any tength is allowa ble . If more thin ne, malerial. C o~lour 01 concavity shatt be Not Covered
de nse. then see bu rn -through abo\le smoo th
• Maximum length 's 2" arxl width ,/,, " Maleri"l Max imu m Malarial Maxim u m
• Max imu m to1allength 2" in 12" of wekl. Par~lIe l slag lines Thi ck ne ss Slag Len g t h Th i ck ne ss Sla g L ength
are conside red separate il width of eil hef exce eds 'k' . le ss I han or equa l to h " 'I,' less Ihan or equa l to 'I," y,"
Slag Inclusion s
¥," to 2'1,' 'Al t wio 2Y," 'hI f
elongaled, excepl as noled
fso late d Slag InclusIOns
, Maxi mu m widl h 'h" an d 'h " len gth in 12" of weld
• No more l han 4 isolated incl usions of Yo' ma ximu m
greater l han 2'1," ,,' greate r I han 2'1. Y,"
width Ma x,mu m fength of It in ratt le "i)th Max imu m total le ngth o f t Tin 12t T lel'lgth
100% X-Roy_Random x·R"I'_aod 5po ' X· Rayare quality_ de , ohon. ,s ed the ASME pre. ,,"re ",,, • • I . rid ANSI """"• • 00 .... ""'" "•• rI whM "'" . r NDE """",,"' ''' ...."'"~Mn .''' o,eO
t t . weldttlick"" ..
, T . ,h""""m01er",lrtl d<nollS
J w . wold wOjrtl
, ",., UKT-20IOf spec ial hoaH reatori 'o"'ie st ools
, jOioltca'ogof)'A
•• ""nl <a'""","", B, C, anriD
Appendix ~ 669
NONDESTRUCTIVE NDE EXAMINATION SYMBOL
EXAMINATION
SPECIFICATION OR ~~E'NLOE
Letter
L
OTHERREFERENCES
Method Desianation
EXAMINE -
Acou stic emission AET
NUMBEROf
(N) All-AROUND
~
h
, e ~~ \ L
{i:;;--f+
i~}\'~"--
LENGTltJ.J..
Leak LT
Magnetic pa rt icle MT T ; ·':";'
«w r O BE
TAIL - EXAMIN ED
Neutron rad iographic NR T
BASIC ARROW
Pen etrant' PT EXAMINATION BASIC EXAMINAT ION
SYMBOL - SYMBOL
3.00 69 .1 138 207 276 346 415 5.25 21.4 42.8 64 .1 85.6 107
3.05 66.8 134 200 267 334 401 5.30 20 .9 41.8 62.8 83.6 105
3.10 64.6 129 194 258 324 388 5.35 20 .5 41.0 61.5 82.0 103
3.15 62.5 125 188 250 313 375 SAO 20 .1 40.2 60.3 80 .4 101
3.20 60 .5 121 182 242 303 363 5.45 19 .7 39 .4 59.1 78 .8 98.5
3.25 58.6 117 176 234 293 352 5.50 19.3 38 .6 57.9 77.2 96.5
3.30 56 .8 114 170 227 284 341 5.55 18.9 37 .8 56.8 75 .6 95 .0
3.35 55 .1 110 165 220 276 331 5.60 16.6 37.2 55 .7 74 .4 92 .5
3.40 53 .4 107 160 214 267 321 5.65 18.2 36.4 54 .6 72 .8 90.8
3 .45 5 1.6 104 156 207 259 311 5.70 17.8 35 .6 53 .5 7 1.2 89 .2
3.50 50.3 101 151 20 1 252 302 5.75 17.5 35.0 52.5 70.0 87.5
3.55 48 .9 97.8 147 196 244 293 5 .80 17.2 34.4 51.5 68 .8 85.5
3.60 47. 5 95 .0 142 190 238 285 5 .65 16.8 33 .6 50 .5 67 .2 84 .2
3 .65 46.1 92.2 138 184 23 1 277 5 .90 16.5 33 .0 49 .6 66.0 82.5
3.70 44 .9 89.8 135 180 22 5 269 5.95 16.2 32,4 48.7 64 .8 81.2
3.75 43.6 87.2 131 174 218 262 6.0 0 15.9 31.8 47 .7 63.6 79 .5
3.80 42.4 84 .8 127 170 212 255 6.05 15.6 31.2 46 .8 62.4 78 .0
3.85 41.3 82 .6 124 165 207 248 6.10 15.3 30.6 46.0 61.2 76.7
3.90 40.2 80.4 121 161 201 24 1 6.1 5 15.1 30 .2 45.2 60.4 75 .3
3.95 39 .1 78 .2 117 156 196 235 6.20 14.8 29 .6 44.3 59.2 73.8
• diameter of balle l Omm Ti"ill,' Of.I'I'n Te.,'I;n /: Muehine C"mp,mv. {n,..
LOW-ALLOY, HIGH-STRENGTH
ELECTRODES
..
Welding
Typ!!JSlIffill Api?liI!llJj~~ .
Carbon and molybdenum
E-701 8-Al Mega M 1,00 0,000 = 10'
steels
Kilo Th ousand k 1,000 = 10'
E-801 6-B2 C hromium-molybdenum
Hecto Hundred h 100 = 10'
E-801 8-B2L steels
Deka Ten d 10 = 10'
E-8016-Cl
E-801 8-Cl Unit 1 = 10°
Nickel steels Oed Tenth d 0. 1 = 10-1
E-801 8-C2
E-8018- C3 Centi Hundredth c 0.01 = l et'
E-901 6-B3 Chromium- molybdenum Milli Thousandth m 0.00 1 = 1 0~
E-9018·B3 L steels Micro Millionth 0.00000 1 = l et'
~
Manganese-m olybdenum Other smaller multiples
E-l 0016-D2 steels
Appendix ~ 671
WELDING SYMBOL
l
FOR PLUG AN D SLOT WELDS " ' \ O F CO UNTER S INK FO R PLUG WELDS
GROOVE WELD SIZ E WELD LENGTH
TA IL OMITIED WHEN
REFERENCE NOT USED
{I iii
f-
Q.UJ
~
0 - }
- REFERE NCE LINE TO
ARROW SIDE ME MBER
OF JOIN T OR ARR OW
~ ~g SIDE OF JO INT
~UJ
Groove butt welds, all posit ions « %") 10 9 5 8 (b) 6 (b) 7 6 (b ) (b)
Appearance, undercutting 6 6 8 9 10 9 10 7 10 10 9
So undness 6 6 3 5 9 7 8 10 9 9 9
Ducti lity 6 7 4 5 10 6 5 10 10 10 10
Welder appeal 7 6 8 9 10 10 10 6 8 9 9
Appendix ~ 673
...ROCKWELL HARDNESS CONVERSION TABLE
.. - . -
-- --- _._- - ~
... _. - . - - .- -- - -- _._- - -
Tensile
Rockwell Superficial Rockwell Vickers · Knoop Brinell Brinell
... .. - ..
Strength
B A E 15T 30T 45T Hardness Hardness
1000 lbs
Hardness
100 kg! 60 kg! 100 kg! 15 kg! 30 kg! 45 kg! Hardness 500 g! 3000 g! 500 kg!
squ are inch
Y,6" ball diamond Ye" ball Yta" ball Y~,ball V,S" baH ilnd over 10mm ball 10mm ball
45 32.9 84.0 75.3 46.3 17.7 - 102 - - 79
44 32.4 83.5 74 .9 45.7 16.7 - 101 - - 78
43 32.0 82.5 74.6 45.0 15.7 - 100 - - 77.
42 31.6 82.0 74.3 44.3 14.7 - 99 - - 76
41 31.2 81.5 74.0 43.7 13.6 - 98 - - 75
40 30.7 81.0 73.6 43.0 12.6 - 97 - - 75
39 30.3 80.0 73.3 42.3 11.6 - 96 - - 74
38 29.9 79.5 73.0 41.6 10.6 - 95 - - 73
37 29.5 79.0 72.7 41 .0 9.6 - 94 - - 72
36 29 .1 78.5 72.3 40 .3 8.6 - 93 - - 72
35 28.7 78.0 72.0 39.6 7.6 - 92 - - 71
34 28.2 77.0 71.7 39.0 6.6 - 91 - - 70
33 27.8 76.5 71.4 38.3 5.6 - 90 - - 69
32 27.4 76.0 71.0 37.6 4.6 - 89 - - 69
31 27.0 75.5 70.7 37.0 3.6 - 88 - - 68
30 26.6 75.0 70.4 36.3 2.6 - 87 - - 67
Identification
Date _ Revis ion _
Co mpany name
Sup po rting PQR no .I s) _ Type - Man ual Semiautomatic
Welding p ro cess(es) _ Mechanized ( Auto matic
Backing: ves ( ) No (
Back ing material (t ype)
Mate ri al numbe r Grou p To material number Group _
Mate rial spec. type and grade To mater ial spec . type and grade - - - - - - - -
Base metal thickness range : Groove Fill et _
Deposited we ld metal th ickness range _
Fille r me tal F no . _ A no . _
Spec. no . (AWS) Flux tradename _
Elect ro de-flux (Class) _ Type _
Con sum able insert: Yes ( No ( Class if ications _
Shape _
Position (s) o f joint _ Size
Welding progression : Up ( Dow n ( Ferrite numbe r (when reqd .) _
PREHEAT: GAS:
Preheat temp., min _ Shield ing gas(es) _
Interpass temp., max _ Perc ent composi tion _
(continuous or spec ial heating, whe re Flow rate _
applicable, shou ld be recorded) Root shielding gas _
POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT: Tr aili ng gas composition _
Temperature rang e T rai ling ga s f low rat e _
Time range _
T ungsten electrode , type and size _
Mode of meta l transfer for GMAW: Short-circuiting Globu lar ( Spray
Electrode wire feed speed range : _
Stringer bead ( Weave bead ( Peen ing: Yes No
Oscilletlon _
Standoff distance
Multiple or single ele ctrode (
Oth er
Note: Those items that are not app lica ble should be ma rked N.A .
Ma x lo ad l y pe failure and
Spec imen n o . Width . in. T h ic kn e ss. in . Area , io .2 Ib UTS , psi locat ion
T ype : Size :
Test tem perature : _
Speci me n location : WM = we ld meta l; 8M = base metal ; HAZ =heal -affecte d zone
Te st results:
Welding Spec imen Energy abso rbed Duct ile fr a ct u re Late ral ex pans ion
position location (ft.-Ib) area (percent) (mi ls )
IF APPLICABLE RESULTS
Hardness tests : ( ) Values Acceptable ( I Unac ceptab le (
Vis ual (sp ec ial w eldments 2.4.2) Acceptable ( ) Unacceptable (
Torque ( ) psi Acceptable ( ) Unacceptable (
Proof test ( ) Method Acce pta ble ( ) Unacce ptab le (
Chemical ana lysis ( ) Acce ptab le ( ) Una ccepta ble (
Nondestructive exam ( ) Process Acceptab le ( ) Unacceptab le (
Ot he r Acceptable ( ) Unacceptable (
Mechanical testing by (Company) Lab No . _
We cert ify t hat the state me nts in thi s Rec ord are co rrect and tha t the test we lds wer e pr ep ared . we lde d. and tested in
accordance with the req ui remen ts of th e Ame ric an Welding Soc iety Standa rd fo r Welding Procedu re and Perter-
mance Qualification (AWS 82 ·83)
Yes No )
AC DC )
Yes No )
Yes ( ) No ( )
POSITION T EST ED WELDMENT THICKNESS (T)
QUALIFIED FOA:
PROCESSES
GROOVE: THICKNESS
Pi pe lG ( 2G I 5G ( 6G I 6GA I (T) Min _ _ Max . Dia
Plale ,G{ 2G I 3G I 4G I I T) Min _ _ Max . _
Re bar ic ( 2G I 3G I 4G I Bar size Min Max. _ _
FILLET:
Pipe IF I ) 2F I 4F I 5F { IT ) Min _ _ Max . _
Plal e IF ( ) 2F I 3F I 4F I I T) Min _ _ Max . _
Reba r IF ( ) 2F ( 3F ( 4F { Bar size Min Max. _ _
Weld cladding ( ) Po sitio n (s) T M in Max . Clad Min _
Consumable insert ( ) Back ing type (
Uphill I ) Downhill I )
Single side ( ) Double side ( ) No bac ki ng ( )
Short circuiting I ) I ) Spray I ) Pulsed Spray I
Reinforc ing bar - bult ( ) or Sp liced bu tt ( )
The above na med pe rson is qualified for th e wel di ng pr ocess(es) use d i n thi s test with in the lim its o f essent ial
variab les i ncl ud ing mate ria ls and fi lter meta l variab les of the AW S Sta ndard for Welding Pro cedure and Perf ormance
Qua li fica tio n (AWS 82. 1).
Appendix ~ 679
ASTM SPECIFICATIONS FOR CHROME-MOLY STEEL PRODUCTS
Type Forgings T\l~!?es Pipe Casti ngs Plale
A335-P2
1hCr· 1hMo A182- F2 A2 13-T2 A369·FP2 A356-G R5 A387 -Gr2
A426·CP2
A182 -F12 A335-P12
1 Cr·lh Mo A336- F12 A213--T12 A369·FP12 - A387-Gr2
A426·CP 12
A199-T 21 A335-P21
3 Cr-l Mo A182-F 21
A336-F 21/F21A
A200-T21 A369-FP21
A426·CP 21
- A387·Gr2 1
A2 13-T2 1
A 199·T5 A335-P5
5 Cr-lh Me A 182-F5IFsa A200-T 5 A369 -FP5 A217·C5 A387-Gr5
A336- F5IF5A A213-T5 A426-CP5
A335·P5b
5 Cr- lh MaSi - A2 13-T5b A426· CP5b - -
B- 40 g CrG,
200 rnl water
;OBit!:
ra
A .2 34 G .2 61 L ,290 a v .377
B .238 H .266 M .295 R W .366
C ,242 I ,272 N .302 S X .397
0 .246 J .277 0 .316 T Y .404
E ,250 K ,281 P ,323 U Z .4 13
F .257
*in in.
Appendix ~ 683
PIPE FITIINGS AND VALVES
FlANGED SCREWE{ BELL & FW<GED $CR EWEl: eeu e FW<GED SCREW< BEU&
SP1GOT SPlOOf SPIGOT
~
BUSHING --D- REDUCING FLANGE -D- AUTOMATIC
BY-PASS VALVE
1i
-J ---3 -P 0
1i
CAP BUll PLUG AUTOMATIC
REDUCING VALVE
REDUCING CROSS
~++ PIPE PLUG --K] ((: STRAIGHT CHECK
VALVE -If'--.JI- --f'-J- ~
STRAIGHT-SIZE
CROSS
+++ CONCENTRIC
REDUCER {>I- -{>t- ~
COCK ~u~ ~ u ~ 'jUE-
C ROSSOVER +"+ ~ ECCENTRIC
REDUCER q -bt ~
-tt4 -&-
t ! t
DIAPHRA GM VALVE
45° ELBOW SLEEVE +-+ -1--+ 'j---E-
90° ELBOW
r rr STRAIGHT-SIZE
TEE tIt r-I-t +4 FLOAT VAlVE
.(;'1.,..
-ICXJI-
- f ~~ ~
---ckJ-
ELBOW-
TURN ED DOWN o-r G--1 G-+ TEE - OUTLET UP f-0-f t-0-t -10E- GATE VALVE -H><Jt- -{X}-- ~
~T
DOUBLE-BRANCH
ELBOW REDUCING TEE
kY tAt +.If
~ -*-
MOTOR-OPERATED
GLOBE VALVE
J? F ~T
LONG-RADIU S SINGLE-SWEEP
ELBOW TEE
~ ¥
ANGLE
REDUCING ELBOW
CC SIDE OUTLET TEE -
OUTLET DOWN ~ r€H ~ HOSE VAlVE
:tt r r
SIDE OUTLET GATE
~ ~ ~
ELBOW - SIDE OUTLET TEE- HOSE VALVE -IlX)J --{X)J
OUTL ET DOWN OUTLET UP
SIDE OUTLET
ELBOW-
OUTLET UP ~~ <r UNION ---J+- -+-
GLOBE
HOSE VALVE -\l)(]J --{X)J
ST REET ELBOW
-c. ANGLE
CHECK VALVE
rf r LOC KSHIELD
VALVE -ikH- -tG-
CONNECTING
PIPE JOINT -1f- -t- -+-
ANGLE GATE
VALVE-
ELEVATION
ANGLE GATE
~ r- OUICK -OPENING
VALVE ~~
EXPANSI ON JOINT -IClI- --£3-- --'.E::f- VALVE - PLAN 00- (3:}--
LATERAL
ORIFICE FLANGE
PY
--4:f-
:r ANGLE GLOBE
VAlVE -
ELEVATION
ANGLE GLOBE
VALVE - PlAN
r- r-
(3:}- 0:J----
SAFETY VALVE
GOVERNOR-
OPERATED
AUTOMA TIC VALVE
-#Jt- -t:\2r -*
1,
... ~ .. -
.~
~
~ 1O. 00 DRILL
NOTE ~ NOTE ' \
rti l7.0 0 CBORE
ffi
· ~ DR I L L
@r
¢ 3 5 7 DRIL + 7,50 DEE P
. ~ ~ REAM
" . 1.2 5 DEEP
/ CBORE
~D I A
/ REAM DIA ~D R I LL D I A
~ THROUGH/
REAM ED , CBORE
DEPTH
,: ,: HOLE
,
,
, I
) c o~--
i 1" - DEPTH L-H+-' ,~ D R I L L DIA
BLIND
HOLE -
DRILLED AND
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1 .228 0 17 .17 30 33 .1130 49 .0730 65 .0350 81 .0 130
2 .2210 18 .1695 34 .1110 50 .0700 66 .0330 82 .0125
3 .2 130 19 .16 60 35 .1100 51 .0670 67 .0320 83 .0120
4 .2090 20 .1610 36 .1065 52 .0635 68 .0310 84 .0 115
5 .205 5 21 .1590 37 .1040 53 .0595 69 .0292 85 .0 110
6 .204 0 22 .1570 38 .10 15 54 .0550 70 .0280 86 .Q105
7 .20 10 23 .1540 39 .0995 55 .0520 71 .0260 87 .Q100
8 .1990 24 .1520 40 .0980 56 .0465 72 .0250 88 .0095
9 .1960 25 .14 95 41 .0960 57 .0430 73 .0240 89 .0091
10 .1935 26 .14 70 42 .0935 58 .0420 74 .0225 90 .0087
11 .19 10 27 .144 0 43 .0890 59 .0410 75 .02 10 91 .0083
12 .1890 28 .14 05 44 .0860 60 .0400 76 .020 0 92 .0079
13 .1850 29 .1360 45 .0820 61 .0390 77 .Q180 93 .0075
14 .1820 30 .1285 46 .0810 62 .0380 78 .0 160 94 .0071
15 .180 0 31 .1200 47 .0785 63 .0370 79 .0145 95 .0067
16 .177 0 32 .1160 48 .0760 64 .0360 80 .0 135 96 .0063
"in in.
1 (.0730) 64 No . 53 72 No . 53
2 (.0860) 56 No . 50 64 No . 50
3 (.0990) 48 No. 47 56 No. 45
4 (.1120) 40 No. 43 48 No. 42
5 (. 1250) 40 No. 38 44 No . 37
6 (. 1380) 32 No. 36 40 No . 33
8 (.1640) 32 No. 29 36 No . 29
10 (.1900) 24 No. 25 32 No. 21
12 (.2 160) 24 NO. 16 28 No. 14 32 No.13
V. (.25 00) 20 No . 7 28 No . 3 32 %2
5/,. (.3125) 18 F 24 I 32 %2
% (.3750) 16 5/ 16 24 Q 32 1% 2
687
A-scan presentation: A method of data presentation us- hake-out: A temperature-control process used on a cast-
ing a horizontal base line that indicates distance or ing to remove ~ydrogen and other contaminants that
time, and a vertical deflection from the base line that could cause cracking during welding.
indicates relative amplitude of the returning signal.
balloting: A formal method of documenting and voting
autogenous weld : A fusion weld made without filler upon the reviewers' suggestions.
metal.
bar: Round-, square-, or rectangular -shaped structural
au to- refr igeration: Coolin g that occurs when gas ex- steel. See structural steel.
pands, as in the sudden release of gas from a pipe or
piece of equipment. base metal: The metal or alloy that is to be welded.
a xis: Strai ght line around which a geometric figur e is base metal material specification: The chemical com-
gener ated. position or industry specification of the base metal.
base metal thickness range: A procedure qualification
variable that indicates the range of base metal thick-
nesses covered in the procedure qualification record.
base metal weldability classification: An alphanumeric
system that groups base metals with similar welding
characteristics.
bead: Narrow layer or layer s of met al depo sited on
the base metal as an electrode melts. See base metal
backlire: A quick recession of the flame into the welding
and elec trode.
tip, typically followed by extinction of the flame.
backgouging: The removal of weld metal and base metal beam: I-shaped structural steel. See structural steel.
from the weld root side of a welded joint to facilitate bending strength : A combination of tensile and com-
complete fusion and complete joint penetration when pressive forces, and is a property that measures resis-
welding on that side is completed. tance to hending or deflection in the direction that the
backhand welding: A welding technique in which the load is applied.
torch is directed opposite to the progress of welding. bending stress: See flex ural stress.
backing symbol: Supplementary symbol indicated hy a bend test : A destructive test used to determine the ductil-
rectangle on the opposite side of the groove weld sym- ity of a weld by bending a welded specimen around a
bol on the reference line. See supplementary symbol. standardized mandrel.
backing weld: A weld made at the back of a single groove bevel: Sloped edge of an object running from surface
weld which is deposit ed before any welding on the to surface.
opposite side is done.
binocular microscope: A light micro scope that pro-
backlighting: A lighting method that uses a diffused light vides a low-magnification, three-dimensional VIew
source to eliminate or soften shadow detail.
of the surface .
back (transverse) pitch: Distance from the center of one
biprism: Two uniaxial double-refracting crystals.
row of rivets to the center of the adjacent row of riv-
ets. See rivet. bird nesting: The tangling of welding wire in the drive
roll as a result of misalignment between the drive roll
back-step welding: A welding process in which weld
and the liner.
passe s are mad e in the dir ection opposite to the
progress of welding. blend grinding: A mechanical repair method in which a
thinned, pitted, or cracked region of a part is smoothed
back-to-hack positioning: A mechanical restraint method
to create a gentle transition with the unaffected surface.
that places identi cal weldments back-to-ba ek and
clamps them together. blind hole : Drilled hole that does not pass through.
back weld : A weld made in the weld root opposite the blind rivet: Rivet with a hollow shank that joins two parts
face of the weld. with access from one side. See rivet and shank.
broken-out section: Partia l section view which appears casting alloy: Allo y poured into a sand or permanent metal
to have been broken nut of the object. See section view. mold. See alloy.
buildup lighting: A lightin g method that combines (add- cavitation: Surface damage ca used by collapsing vapor
ing or de leting) light so urces to achi eve the desired buhbles in a flowing liquid.
lighting effect. certificate of analysis (COA ): See m ill tes t report.
burst: A complex branchin g of the carrier line. certifieate of compliance (COC): A sta tement by a manu-
buttering: A surfacing weld variation that app lies sur- facturer. w ithout supporti ng documentation. that the
supp lied meta l meets specifications.
facing metal on one or more joint surfaces to provide
compatible base metal for subsequent completion of certification: A notarized statement provided by a sup-
the weld . plier verifying that a product mee ts the spec ification
under which it is sold.
butt joint: A weld joint in which two workp ieces are set
approx imately level to eac h other and are pos itioned cbamfer: Sloped edge of an objec t running from surface
edge-to-edge . See II'<,/d joint. to side . See edge.
coefficient of thermal expansion: The change in unit constant pitch: Standard screw thread serie s with a set
dimension , such as length , cau sed by a 10 rise in number of threads per inch regardless of diameter. See
temperature. standard series.
cold crack: A crac k that develops aft er so lidification constant potential: Generation of a stable voltage
is complet e. regardless of the current output produced by the weld-
ing machine.
cold mechanical repair: A mechanical repair method that
consis ts of spanning a cra ck in a failed part with struc - consumable insert: Spacer that provid es proper opening
tural repair component s anchored into sound base metal of a weld joint and becomes part of the filler metal
on both sides of the crack . during welding. See weld joint.
corrosion: Combin ing metals with elements in the envi- current: The amount of electron flow through an electri-
ronmen t tha t lead s to de terioration of the metal. ca l c ircuit. See cond uctor.
cnrrosion aUowance: An additional thickness of metal above cutting plane line: Lin e that shows where an obj ect is
the design thickn ess that allows for metal loss fr om cor- imagined to be cut in order to view intern al features.
rosion or wear without reducing the design thickness.
cyaniding: Process of hard enin g low-carbon stee l by hea t-
cou n te r bored bole: Enla rge d and recessed hol e with ing it in sodium cyanide or potass ium cyanide.
square sho ulders.
cyanoacrylate adhesive: A one-part ad hesive that cures
counterdrilled hole: Hole with a cone-shap ed opening instantl y by reacting to trace surface moistu re to bond
be low the outer surface. mated parts.
coun te r sin k : Tool that produces a co untersunk hole. See cyclical lead: A load that varies with time and rate, but with-
countersunk hole. out the sudden change that occurs with an impact load.
Glossary ~ 691
depth of fusion : Di stance from the fu sion fac e to the double-J-groove weld: Groove weld having joint mem-
weld interface. See fu sion f ace and weld interface. bers grooved in a J shape on both sides with the weld
made from both sides . See groo ve weld.
derating: A low er ing o f the c urrent output level of an
AC we ld ing machin e when being used for GTAW. double-square-groove weld: Groove we ld having square-
edged joint member s with the weld mad e tram both
design th ickn ess: Th e thickness of metal required to sup-
sides. See groove weld.
port the load on a part .
double-If-groove weld: Groo ve weld having joint mem-
destructive testiug: Any type of testing that damages the
bers grooved in a U shape on hoth sides with the weld
test part (spec ime n) .
made from both sides. See groove weld.
developer: A mat erial that is applied to the test sur-
double- V-groove weld : Groove weld havin g j oint mem-
fac e to accel erate bl eedout and e nh a nc e the co n-
trast of indi cations. ber s angled on both sides with the weld mad e from
both sides . See groove weld .
developing time: The elapsed time between the applica-
tion of the developer and the examination of the part. downhill welding: Welding with a downward progres-
sion. See vertical welding.
diffraction: A modification of light in which the ray s
app ear to be deflected to produce fring es of parallel drag: Lag between the top of the cUI and the bottom as
light and dark colore d band s. cutting proceeds.
diffused light: A lighting source that uses a semi-opaque drag angle: The angle where the electrode is pointing in
scree n (such as ground gla ss) to diffu se the light source, the direction opposite of welding.
redu ce glare, and soften harsh detail s. drill: Round hole in a material produced by a twist drill.
dilution: A change in the co mposition of welding filler dry magnetization metbod: An MT examination tech-
metal in the weld deposit ca used by melted base metal. niqu e in which the ma gnetic particles are in a dry pow-
direct current (D C): An electrica l current that flow s in der form.
on e dir ection only. See current. ductility: A measure of the ability of a met al to yield
direct current electrode negative (DCENj: Flow of c ur- pla stically under load , rather than fracture.
rent fro m electrode (- ) to work (+). See electrode. dunnage: A series of stee l I-beam s parallel to one another.
direct current electrode positive (DC EP) : Flow of cur- dnty cycle: The percentage of time during a spec ified
rent from work (-) to electrode (+ ). See electrode. test period that a weldin g machine can be operat ed at
dissimilar metal welding: The joining of two metal s of its rated load without overheating.
different co mpos ition usin g a compatib le tiller metal dwell time: The total time penetrant is in contact with
to ens ure the weld meets required properties. the co m pone nt su rfac e, including ap plic atio n and
d istortion: Th e und esir abl e dimensional change of a drain tim es.
fabrication. dynamic electricity: E lectricity in motion in an electric
distribution piping: Carbon-stee l, standard-s ize pipe of current. See current.
small diameter that conveys products from intermedi-
ate facilities to cons ume rs.
double-bevel-g roove weld: Groove weld having joint
members beveled on both sides with the weld made
from both sides. See gm ove we/d.
double-flare-bevel-groove weld: Groove we ld having
two radiused joint member s with the weld mad e from ear muffs: A device worn over the ears to reduce the
both sides. See groove weld. level of noise rea ching the eardrum.
double-flare-V-groove weld: Groove weld having radiused earplugs: A devic e inserted into the ear canal to reduce
joint members with the weld made from both sides. See the level of noise reachin g the eardrum.
groove weld.
eddy current: An electrical curre nt caused to flow in a
double-groove weld: A groove weld that is mad e from conductor by the time or space var iation, or both, of
both sides. See groove weld. an appli ed magn etic field.
Glossary ~ 693
fa lse indi ca tion: An NDE indication interpreted to be fillet weld leg: Distance from the joint root to the weld
caused by a discontinuity at a location where no dis- toe. See joint root.
continuity actually exists.
fillet weld leg size: Dimension from the root of a weld to
fast-fill electrode: An iron powder electrode that has a the toes of a weld after welding. See fillet weld leg.
soft arc and fast deposit rate. See electrode.
fillet weld shear test: A shear test in which a tensile load is
fast-freeze electrode : An electrode that produces a placed on a fillet weld specimen so that the load shears
snappy, deep-penetrating arc and fast-freezing deposit. the fillet weld in a longitudinal or a transverse direction.
See electrode.
fill-freeze electrode: An electrode that has a moderately
fatigue: Failure of a material operating under alternating forceful arc and deposit rate. The rate is between those
(cyclic) stresses at a value below the tensile strength of the fast-freeze and fast-fill electrodes. See electrode.
of the material.
fill lighting: A lighting method that uses a small region
fa tigue strength: Property of a metal to resist variou s of a brighter light to increase detail on a dark area of
kinds of rapidl y alternat ing stresses. See stress. a subject.
fay ing surface: Part of the joint member which is in full fitting: Standard conn ection used to join two or more
contact prior to welding. See cap illary action. pieces of pipe.
ferromagnetic material: A material that can be magne - fit-up : The positioning of pipe with other pipe or fittings
tized or strongly attracted by a magnetic field. before welding.
ferrous metal: Any metal with iron as a major alloy- flxed automation system : A system that uses machines
ing element. designed for a single production function.
field rivet: Rivet placed in the field. See rivet. fixture : A device used to maintain the correct posi-
tional relationship betw een workpieces as required
tield weld symbol : Supplementary symbol indicated
by print specifications.
by a triangular flag rising from the intersection of
the arrow and reference line , whi ch spec ifie s the flame spraying: A thermal spraying process that uses an
welding operation is to be completed in the field at oxyfuel gas flame as a source of heat for melting the
the location of final installation. See supplementary coating material.
sy mb ol.
flanged joint: A joint in which one of the joint members
file testing: A qualitative identification method in which has a flanged edge at the weld joint.
a file is used to indicate the hardn ess of steel com -
flash arrestor: A safety device that prevents an explo-
pared with that of the file.
sion or a backfire in the torch or torch head from reach-
filler mefal: Metal depo sited in a welded, brazed , or sol- ing the regulator and the acetylen e cylinder.
dered joint during the welding process.
flashback: A recession of the flame into or back of the
filler metal approval : The process of testing samp les mixing chamber in a flame torch or flame spray torch.
of as-rece ived filler metal to certify conformance to
flashlight: A lighting source that provides a pulse of very
a specification.
intense light.
filler metal quantity: The depo sited weld metal thick - flash welding (FW): A resistance welding process that
ness range for groove or fillet welds.
produces a weld at the faying surfaces of a joint by the
filler metal specification: Identifi cation of filler meta l intense heat of an arc that occurs when the workpieces
by AWS number or other specification designation. are contacted and by the application of pressure after
heating has been substantially completed.
filler metal usability classification: An alphanum-
er ic method of grouping fill er metal s with similar flaw (indication): A discontinuity that can be detected
characteristics. through NDE techniques .
fillet weld: A weld type of approximately triangular cross flexible automation system: A system that uses pro-
section joining two surfaces at approximately right grammable movements of the torch and sometimes
angles. See weld type . the workpiece .
fillet weld break test: A break test in which the speci- flexural (bending) stress: Stress caused by equal forces
men is tested with the weld root in tension. acting perpendicular to the horizontal axis of an object.
flux : A material that hinders or prevents the formation of gas metal arc welding (GMAW): An arc we lding pro -
oxides and other undesirable substances in molten metal. cess that uses an arc betw een a continuous wire elec-
trode and the weld pool.
flux cored arc welding (FCAW): An arc welding pro -
gas-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G): An
cess that uses a tubular electrode with flux in its core,
FCAW variation in which the shield ing is obtained
forced cooling: Rapid cooling of a solidified weld joint from both the CO 2 gas flowing from the noz zle and
between passe s using wat er. from the flux core of the electrode.
forehand welding: A welding technique in which the gas tungsten arc spot welding: An arc welding process
torch is directed toward the progress of welding. that produces locali zed fusion similar to resistance spot
welding hut doe s not require accessibility to both sides
forged: Metal formed by a mechanical or hydraulic press
of the joint.
with or without heal.
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW): An arc welding pro -
forge welding (FOW): A welding process that produces
cess in which a shielding gas protects the arc between
a weld by heating the metal s to welding temperature
a nonconsumable (does not become part of the weld)
and applying forceful blows to cause deformation at
tungsten electrode and the weld area. See electrode.
the faying surfaces.
globular transfer: The transfer of molt en metal in large
fork : A simple branching of the carrier line .
droplets from the welding wir e to the workpi ece across
foundry mark: An identification marking embossed on an arc.
the exterior of castings.
gouging: A cutting process that removes metal by melt-
fracture test: Metal identification test that breaks the ing or burning off a portion of the base metal to form a
metal sample to check for du ctility and grain size. bevel or groove.
See ductility. gouging (high-stress ahrasion): A severe form of abra-
frequency : The number of cycles per second in an AC sive wear in which the force between an abrasive body
sine wave . and the wearing surface is large enough to macroscopi -
cally gouge, groove, or deeply scratch the surface.
fretting: Surface damage between two materials, usu -
ally metal , caused by oscillatory movement between grain: Individual crystal in a metal that has multiple cry s-
the surfaces . tals . See crystal.
friction welding (FRW): A welding process that joins grain structure: Pattern of the grains in a metal. See
two metal parts that rotate or are in relative motion grain.
with respect to one another when they are brought into graphitization: The formation of iron carbide that re-
contact and pressure is appli ed between them. sults in loss of ductility.
full skip: One complete reflection of the ultrasonic beam. grinding: The mechanical removal of metal from the sur-
fusion: Meltin g together of filler metal and base metal. face using hard , brittle grains of an abrasive material.
See filler metal and base metal. grip: Effective holding length of a rivet. See rivet.
fusion face : Surface of the base metal that is melted dur- groove face: Surface of the joint memher included in the
ing welding. See fusion. groove of the weld.
fusion welding: Welding that uses fusion of the base metal groove weld: A weld type mad e in the groove between
to make a weld. the two workpieces to be joined. See weld typ e.
Glossary €1 695
grounding device (ground): Co nnection betwe en weld -
ing cable and we ld parts in the weldin g circuit.
guided bend test: A bend test in which a rectangular piece
of we lde d met al is bent aro und a U-shaped die and image quality indicator (IQI): A device or combination
forced into a U shape. of devices who se demonstrated image determines ra-
diographic qualit y and sensitivity.
impact damage: Removal of material from and dama ge
to a surface caused by repetiti ve collisions or impact
between two surfaces.
im pact load: Load that is applied suddenly or intermit -
tently. Sec load.
impact strength: Ability of a metal to re sist load s that
hardfacing: Application of filler metals which pro vide a are applied suddenly and often at high velocity.
coating to protect the base metal from wear cau sed by
impact, abrasion , erosion, or from oth er wear. See filler impact testing: S pec ia l te sting performed on small,
metal and base metal. notched specimens, to simulat e a stress co nce ntra-
tion effe ct.
hardness: Th e resistance of a material to deformation,
indent ation, or scratc hing. inclusion: Entrapped foreign solid material in depo sited
weld metal, such as slag or flux , tung sten , or oxide.
heat-affected znne (HAZ) : A narrow band of base metal
adj acent to the weld joint who se properties and/or incomplete fusion: A lack of union (fusion) between ad-
metallur gical structure are altered by the heat of weld- jacent weld passes or base metal.
ing. See base meta l and mecha nical prop erty. incomplete penetration : A condition in a groove weld
heating rate: Th e rate of temp erature change of a weld in whic h weld metal does not extend through the
joint ove r time from room tempe rature to the weld- joint thickness.
ing temperature. inert gas : A ga s tha t do cs not readily co mbine with
heat inpnt: The amount of heat applied to the filler metal other clements.
and the base metal surface at the required rate to form inspector: A per son who is qualified , or qualified and
a weld pool , plus the additional heat required to com- certified, to appl y the results of NDE flaw character-
pensate for heat that is conducted away from the weld. ization to determine whether the flaw s meet the ac-
heat shaping: The application of localized heating to cause ceptance criteria of the applicable fabricati on code
movem ent of a distorted part and restore its dim ensions. or standard.
hertz (Hz): The international unit of frequency equal to intergranular penetration: Penetra tion of molten metal
I cycle per second. along the grain boundaries of the base metal that leads
to embrittlement of the base metal.
high-carbnn steel: Steel with a carbon range of 0.45 % to
0.75 %. intermediate weld pass : A sing le pro gre ssion of weld-
ing subsequent to the roo t pass and before the cover
hot crack: A crac k formed at temperatures near the
pa ss.
completion of solidification.
intermittent welding: A stress -red uction technique in
hot melt adhesive: Thermoplastic material that is appli ed
which the continuity of the weld is broken by recur-
in a molten state and cures to a solid state when cooled.
ring spaces between weld s.
hydrogen-assisted cracking: Loss of toughn ess in steels
intermittent welds: Short sections of fillet welds applied
resultin g from hydro gen atom s created at the surface
at specified intervals on the weld part. See fille t weld.
of the metal by corros ion that diffu se into the HAZ
and the base metal. interpass temperature: Weld area temperature between
passes of a multiple-pass weld . See weld pass.
hydrostatic te sting (hydrotesting) : Pro of testing of
clo sed container s suc h as vessels, tanks, and piping interpass temperature control: Maintaining the tempera-
systems by filling them with water and applying a pre- ture range within the weld between weld passes until
determined test pressure. weldin g is complete.
Glossary ~ 697
magnetic leakage field: The magnetic field that leaves mechanical restraint: A device used to restrict move-
or enters the surface of a part at a discontinuity or ment and counteract shrinkage stresses that occur dur-
change in section configuration of a magnetic cir- ing welding.
cuit.
medium-carbon steel: Steel with a carbon range of .30%
magnetic particle: A finely divided ferromagnetic ma- to .45%.
terial that is capable of being individually magnetized
melting point: The temperature at which a metal passes
and attracted to distortion in a magnetic field.
from a solid state to a liquid (molten) state.
magnetic particle examination (MT): An NOE method
melt-through: A discontinuity that occurs in butt welds
that uses a strong magnetizing current and a finely di-
when the arc melts through the bottom of the weld.
vided powder to detect defects.
metallograph: A metallurgical microscope equipped
magnetic response testing: A qualitative identification
to photograph microstructures and produce photo-
method in which a magnet is laid on the sutface of an
micrographs.
unknown metal to test for a magnetic force.
metallurgical bond: The joining of two components by
magnetism: The ability of a metal to be attracted by a
atomic fusion.
magnet , or to develop residual magnetism when placed
in a magnetic or electrical field. metallurgical structure: The arrangement of atoms in
repeating patterns within a metal.
main lighting: A primary lighting method that uses a
light source at a vertical angle of 40 0 to 600 to the metallurgy: The study of the influence of crystal and grain
subject. structure of metals on the mechanical, physical, and
chemical properties of metals.
malleability: Ability of a metal to be deformed by com-
pressive forces without developing defects such as meter: A device used to measure and indicate the flow of
those encountered in rolling, pressing, or forging. a gas, liquid, or current through a system.
manufacturing data report (MDR): A legal document metric equivalent standard: A version of a standard in
signed by the representatives of the manufacturer and which all the units are indicated in metric (SI) values.
the manufacturer's authorized inspection agency.
microanalysis: Chemical analysis of extremely small re-
margin: Distance from the edge of a plate to the centerline gions of the specimen surface using tools such as en-
of the nearest row of rivets. See rivet. ergy-dispersive X-ray analysis or electron probe
microanalysis.
material safety data sheet (MSDS): Printed material that
includes data about every hazardous component com- microhardness test: A microhardness test is a type of
prising I % or more of a material 's content and used indentation hardness test that uses light loads of less
hy a manufacturer, importer, or distributor to relay than 200g.
chemical hazard information to the employee.
microstructure: The appearance of the metallurgical
materials nonconformance report: A form created by structure of metals when they are specially prepared
the receiver of the metal to audit manufacturer paper- to reveal their features.
work regarding supplied metals.
mill test report (MTR): Certification issued by the pri-
materials test report (MTR): A certified statement is- mary manufacturer (mill) verifying the chemical analy -
sued by the primary manufacturer indicating the sis and mechanical test properties of stock obtained
chemical analysis and mechanical properties of the from a starting ingot or billet of metal. See certificate
metal. oj analysis (eGA).
mechanical hond: The joining of two components by mock-up: A simulation of the repair area on which the welder
locking, compression, or surface tension. performs work in the expected position of the repair.
mechanical property: A property of metal that describes modulus of elasticity: A measure of the stiffness of an
the behavior of metals under applied loads. object under tension or compression.
mechanical repair: A repair weld process that consists multiple-impulse welding: A form of resistance weld-
of methods that do not create a metallurgical bond be- ing in which welds are made with repeated electri-
tween the restored parts or at the restored surface. cal impulses.
neutral name: A name that has neither oxidizing nor overheating: Microstructural damage or change caused
carburizing characteristics. by cutting operations.
nil duetility transition (NDT) temperature test: A overlapping: Extending the weld metal beyond the weld
toughness test that measures the temperature at which toes or the weld foot.
the fracture behavior of a metal changes from ductile oxidation: The combination of a metal with oxygen in
to brittle in the presence of a stress raiser. the air to form metal oxide.
noise reduction rating number (NRR): A number that oxidizing flame: A flame in which there is an excess
indicates the noise level reduction in decibels (dB). of oxygen.
Nomarski illumination: An illumination process that il- oxyacetylene welding (OAW): An oxyfuel welding pro-
luminates the specimen using polarized light that is cess that uses acetylene as the fuel gas.
separated into two beams by a biprism.
oxytuel cutting (OFC): A group of cutting processes that
nondestructive examination (NDE): The development use high heat temperatures generated by burning a fuel
and application of technical methods to examine ma- gas in oxygen to accelerate the chemical reaction be-
terials or components in ways that do not impair their tween oxygen and the base metal to sever and remove
future usefulness and serviceability. the metal.
nonessential variable: A qualification variable that oxyfuel welding (OFW): A group of welding processes
may be changed in a WPS without requalification that use heat from the combustion of a mixture of oxy -
of the WPS. gen and a fuel for welding.
nonrelevant indication: An NDE indication caused by a
discontinuity that, after evaluation, does not need to
be rejected.
notch effect: A stress-concentrating condition caused by
an abrupt change in section thickness or in continuity
of the structure.
Glossary ~ 699
pipe j ig: A device tha t hold s sect ions o f pipe or fittings prebending: A mech anical restra int method that relies
hefore tack we lding . on locating workpieces out of pos ition before welding
so that we lding shrinkage stresses pull the workpieces
pitting (spalling): The formi ng of local ized cavities in
back into position.
metal resulting from corrosion, repetitive slid ing or
rolling surface stresses. or poor electroplating. preheat : The heating of the jo int area to a predetermined
temperature in order to slow the coo ling rate .
plane-strain fracture toughness test: A tough ness test
that measures the resista nce of metals to brittle frac- prequalified PQR: A we lding proce dure specification that
ture propagation in the presence of stress raisers such complies with the stipulated co nditions of a part icular
as weld defects. fabrication standard or co de and is acce ptable for use
und er tha t cod e without requiring addit ional qualifi-
plasma arc cutting (PAC): A cuttin g process uuu uses a cation testing .
constricted arc to remove molt en metal with a high -
veloc ity j et of ioni zed gas. primary weld: A weld that is an integral part of a struc-
ture and that d irect ly tra nsfers the load . See load.
plasma arc welding (I'AW): An arc we ld ing process that
uses a co nstricted arc betwee n a nonconsum able tung- procedure qualification re cord (P Q R): Documentation
sten electrode and the weld poo l (tra nsferred arc). or of the we lding variables used to produce an accept-
between the e lectrode and const ricti ng no zzl e able test weld and the results of tests co nducted on the
we ld to qualify a WPS .
(non-transferred arc ).
prod: A set of hand -held electrodes used to transmit the
plasma sprayin g: A thermal spraying process in which
magnetizing current from the source to the material
a plasma torch is used as a heat source for melt ing
being inspected.
a nd p rop ell in g the s ur fac ing mat eri al to th e
workpiece. prod method: A wet or dr y continuous method in which
portabl e prod-t ype e lectrica l co ntac ts are pressed
plastic strain: Strai n that rem ains permanent after the
against the areas to be examined to magnetize them .
stress is removed.
product analysis: A ch emical report that a parti cul ar
plug weld: A we ld made in a circ ular hol e in one
metal, such as tubin g or piping, is made fro m a par-
workpiece, fusing that workpiece to another.
ticular heat of metal.
pneumatic testing: A proof test in which air is pressur- projection weld: A resistance we ld type prod uced by the
ized inside a closed vesse l to revea l leaks. heat obtained fro m the resistance to the flow of weld-
pularity: The po sitive (+) or negative (-) state of an ing curre nt. See weld type , fusion, and base metal.
object. projection welding (I'W): A we lding process that pro-
polarized illumination: An illum ination process that re- duces a weld using heat obtained from resistance of
veals microstructural features in meta ls that are opti- the wor kpiece to the we lding current.
ca lly anisotropic. proof testing: The application of speci fic loads to welded
polarizer: A device into which norm al light passes and structures, without failure or perma nent deformat ion,
from which polarized light emerges . to assess their mech anical integrity.
polysullide adhesive: A one- or two-part adhesive or seal- proportional limit: The maximum stress at which stress
ant that cures by evaporation or catalyst. is directly proportional to strain. See stress.
polyurethane : A o ne- or two-part adh es ive w ith ex - pulsed spray transfer: A spray transfer mode in which
curre nt is cycled from low to high . at which point spray
ce lle nt flexib ilit y that cures by eva po ratio n. cata-
transfer occ urs .
lyst . or heat.
pulse-echo mode: A UT inspec tion method in which the
positioner: A mec hanical device that suppo rts and moves
prese nce and position of a reflector are indicated by
wor kpieces for maximum loading, welding, and un-
the echo am plitude and time .
loading efficiency.
pure metal: Metal that consists of one chemica l element.
postheating: The reheat ing of the we ld area to a high
temperature, holding for a predetermined time at tem- push angle: A travel angle where the electrode is angled
perature, and coo ling at a specifie d rate. to point in the direc tion of we lding.
qualitative ideutifieatiou: Metal identification by a quali- resistance: The opposition of the mat erial in a co nductor
fied person to confirm the identit y of an unknown metal. to the passage of electric current, ca using the electri-
cal energy to be transform ed into heat.
resistance welding (RW): A group of weld ing processes
in which fusion occurs from the heat obtained by resis-
tance to the flow of current through the metals joined.
restraint: A clamp or fixture used to redu ce distortion by
preventing movement o f the we ld during coo ling, but
radiograph : A permanent, visible image on a recording which does not necessarily reduce residual stress.
medium pr oduce d by pen etrating radiati on pa ssin g
through a material bein g tested . retentivity: The ability of a material to retain a portion
of the applied magnetic field after the magn et izin g
radiographic examination: The use of X ray s or nuclear
force has been removed.
radiation (gamma rays) to detect various types of in-
terna l and external discontinuities in material. right angle: Angle that cont ains 900.
reaming: Enlarging and improving the surface quality of rimmed steel: Steel with little or no deo xidi zer addit ion.
a hole.
ripple: The shape within thc deposited bead caused by
rec ommend ed practice: A type of standard that pro vides the movement of the welding heat source. See bead.
instru ctions for performing on e or more repetitive tech-
rivet: Cy lindrical metal pin with a preformed head.
nical function s.
rivet pitch: Distance from the ce nter of one rivet to the
re ctifier: An elec tric al device contained within a trans-
center of the next rivet in the same row. See rivet.
former welding machine that changes AC current into
DC current. rohot: A programmed path device used to positi on the
torch and at times the workpi ece .
re d hardness: The capacity to resist softening in the red
heat temp erature range. Rockwell hardness test: An indentation hardness test that
uses two loads, supplied sequentially, to form an inden-
reducing flame: See carburiring fl ame .
tation on a metal test specime n to determine hardness.
red uction : Loss or remo val of oxygen during the weld-
ing process. roll welding: A weldin g procedure that applies heat and
pressure to interlo ck the faying surfaces of the we ld.
reference hlock: A test piece of the same material, shape ,
and significant dim ension s as a particular object un- root head: A weld bead that extends into or includes part
der ex am ination, and whi ch ma y contain natural or or all of the joint root.
artificial discontinuities or defect s. root cause failure a nalysis: A failure analysis process that
refl ected light: A lightin g source that houn ces light off a determin es how to prevent a failure from recurring by
white card, wall, or ceiling. understanding how the actions of humans or systems
may have led to the technical cause of the failure.
rei nforcement: Amount of weld metal that is piled up
above the surface of the pieces bein g joined . root edge: Weld face that comes to a point and has no
width. See weld face .
r eleva nt indication: An NDE indication caused by a dis-
continuity that requires evaluation. r oot face : T he portion of the groove faee with in the
joint roo t.
rerating: Revi sion of the allowable de sign parameters of
a mechanical component from the original design aris- root opening: The distance between joint members at the
ing from formal study of its current condition. root of the weld before welding.
r esid ual magnetization method : An .MT examination root pass: The initial weld pass that pro vides co mplete
technique in which magneti c particles are appli ed af- penetration throu gh the thickness of the j oin t mem-
ter the mag netizing force has been disconn ected. ber. See weld pass and penetration.
Giossarv €l' 70 1
root reinforcement: Reinforcement on the side opposite shank: Cylindrical body of a rivet. See rivet.
the one on which welding took place. See filler metal.
sheared plate: Plate that is rolled between horizontal and
root surface: Surface of the weld on the opposite side of vertica l rollers and trimmed on all edges.
the joint on which welding was done .
shearing: The parting of material when one blade forces
rough polishing: A polishing process that is performed the material past an opposing blade.
on a series of rotating wheels covered with a low-nap
shear strength: Ability of a metal to withstand two equal
cloth (cloth containing a small amount of fiher).
forces acting in opposite directions.
run-off tah: A piece of metal of the same co mposition
shea r stress (shear): Stress caused by two equal and par-
and thickness as the base metal that is tacked to the
allel forces acting upon ao object from opposite direc-
weld to allow the weld to he completed on it.
tions. See stress.
sheet: Structural steel 'Yt6" or less used to cover large ex-
panses of a structure. See structural steel.
shielded meta l are weld ing (Sl\IAW): An arc welding
process in which the arc is shielded by the decompo-
sition of the electrode coating.
screw thread series: Groups of diameter-pitch combinations. shop ri vet: Rivet placed in the shop. See rivet.
sea lant: A product used to seal, fill voids, and water- short circuiting transfer: A metal transfer mode in which
proof parts. molten metal from consumable welding wire is de-
posited during repeated short circuits. See electrode.
scam weld: A continuous weld between overlapping
workpicces in which coalescence produces a continu- shrinkage stress: Stress that occurs in weld tiller metal
as it cools, contract s, and solidities.
ous seam or series of overlapping spot-welds. See weld
type . fusion. and spot weld. silicone: A one- or two-part adhesive or sealant that cures
by evaporation or·ca talyst.
search un it (probe): An elcctroacoustic device for trans-
mitting or receiving ultrasonic energy. or both. single-bevel-groove weld : Groove weld having one joint
member beveled, with the weld made from that side.
secondary weld : A weld used to hold jo int member s and
See gm o ve weld.
subassemblies toget her.
single-fla re-bevel-groove weld : Groove weld having one
section view: Interior view of an object through which a
straight aod one radiused joint member. with the weld
cutting plane has been passed. See CUlling plan e line.
made from one side. See g IVo \'e weld.
segregation: Any concentration of alloying chemic al el-
single-flare-V-groove weld : Groove weld having radiused
ements in a specific region of a metal. See base metal.
joint members, with the weld made from one side. See
select ive plating: A form of electroplating used for touch- groove weld.
up repairs on worn or dama ged parts.
single-groove weld : A groove weld made from one side
self-shielded n ux cored arc welding (FCAW-S): An only. See groove weld.
FCAW variation in which shielding gas is provided
slng le-J sgroove weld : Groove weld having joint mem-
exclusively by the flux within the electrode core.
hers grooved in a J shape on one side. with the weld
semikilled steel: Steel in which deoxidizers only partially made from the grooved side. See g m o l'e weld.
kill the oxygen-carbon reaction .
single-square-groove weld : Groove weld having square-
semi-quantitative identification: Metal identification by edged joint members, with the weld made from one
applying a physical stimulus to an unknown metal to pro- side. See gmol'(' weld.
duce a signal that is interpreted against a set of standards.
single-Ll-groo ve weld: Groove weld having joint mem-
sensitization: Precipitation of chromium carbides in stain- bers grooved in a U shape on one side, with the weld
less steels from exposure to high temperatures. as in made from the grooved side. See groove we/d.
welding, typically in the HAZ.
single-V-groove weld : Groove weld having both joint
servomotor: An AC or DC motor with encoder feedback members angled on the same side, with the weld made
to indicate how far the motor has rotated . from the grooved side. See gr()(J\'e weld.
Glossary @o 703
stencil marking: A n ide ntific ation marking that consists surfacing weld: A weld applied to a surface. as op posed
o f continuuus or repeated ink markin gs o n the metal. to a joint. to obtain desired properties or dimensions.
stickou t : The amou nt of unmelt ed electrode exte nding surfacing weld repair: The app lication of a layer. or lay-
beyond the end of the gas noz zle when using GMAW ers. of weld metal to restore corroded, worn, or cavi-
and FCAW as the welding process. tated co mpo nent s to extend their useful life.
sto poff: A material used to outline areas that are not to swea t soldering: A process whereby two surfaces are sol-
be brazed . dered togeth er witho ut allow ing the solde r to be seen.
straight bead: A type of weld bead made without an y
appreciable weavi ng motion .
straight beam: A vibrating pul se wave traveling perpen-
dicular to the surface.
strain: The acco mpanying change in dim en sion s when a
load induces stress in a material. See stress .
tack weld : A weld used to hold wor kpieces in proper
strength: The ability of a metal to resist deform ation from alignment until the final we lds are made.
mechanic al force s exerted on it.
tail: Part of a we lding symbo l included when a speci fic
stress: The internal resistance of a materia l to an exter- welding process. speci fication. or procedure mu st be
nally app lied load . See strain. indicated. See weldin g symbol.
stress relieving: Process of heatin g a metal to a suitable teach pendant: The input meth od that the robot program-
temperature. hold ing it at that tem perature to reduce mer uses to move the robot and create robot programs.
res id ua l stresses. and coo ling it slow ly to minimi ze
tee: T-shaped struc tura l steel made of I beam s cut to speci-
the development of new residu al stresses . See stress.
fications by mill or suppliers. See stru ctu ral steel.
strongback: A mechanical restraint device that is attached
tensile strength: A measure of the maximum stress that
to one side of a weld joint to hold work piece s in align-
a material can resist under tensile stress. Sec loud.
ment durin g welding.
tensile test: A destructi ve test that mea sure s the effects
structural steel: Steel used in the erection of a structure.
o f a tensile force on a material.
structural weld repair: Restoration of a load-bearin g struc-
tensile test macbine: A testing machine co mposed of two
ture by we lding to meet performance requirements.
major components that are the mea ns of applying the
stud weld: A we ld type made by jo ining threaded studs load to the spec imen and the mea ns of meas uring the
with other parts using heat and pressur e. See weld type. applied load .
submerged arc welding (SAW): An arc we lding proce ss tension (tensile stress): Stress ca used by two equal forces
that uses an arc bet ween a bare metal electrode and acting on the same axia l line to pull an objec t apart.
the weld pool.
tension shear test: A shear test in which a prepared speci-
subresonant vibration: Vibration frequency less than the men is pulled to failure in a tensile testin g machin e.
resonant frequency of the weld.
theoretical throat: Distanc e from the face of a fillet weld
subsurface deformation: Microstructural damage or to the root before welding. See fillet weld. weld [ ace,
change produced by cutting and that occ urs below the and weld root.
surface of the specimen.
thermal conductivity: The rate which metal transmits heat.
supplementary essential variable: A qualification vari-
thermal equilibrium: A steady-state co nd ition in which
able, for metal s where impact testing is required. that
time is available for the diffusion o f atom s.
requires a new wel ding proc ed ure specification .
thermal expansion: A measure of the change in di-
supplementary sym bo l: Symbol used on welding sym-
mension of a me mb er caused by heating or cooling .
bols to further define the ope ration to be completed.
See metal.
surface feature: A part of a surface where change occu rs.
thermal properties: On e of the physic al proper ties of
surfacing: The application of a layer or layers of materi al metal. Includes melting point, thermal co nductivity.
to a surface to ob tain desired properti es or dimen sions. and thermal expansion and contraction .
Glossary ~ 705
vacuum box testing: The application of a partial vacuum wallpapering: A weld repair method that uses thin, usu-
to one side of a structure and examining for the pres- ally Y16". sheets of corros ion-resistant material that are
ence of leaks. welded to a corroded surface.
variable load: Load that varies with time and rate, but water-base adhesive: A one-pan adhesive that cures by
without the sudden change that occurs with an impact water evaporation,
load. See impact load. weave bead : A type of we ld bead made with tran s-
verse oscillation .
variable voltage control: A control that spans a range of
voltages and is used to set the open-circuit voltage on weaving: A welding technique in whi ch the e nergy
a welding machine. source is moved transversel y as it progresses along
the weld joint.
vertical weld : A we ld with the axis o f the weld ap-
proximately vertical. Se e downhill welding and "p- weld-all-around symbol: Supplementary symbol indicated
hil/ welding . by a cirele at the intersection of the arrow and reference
line, which specifies that the weld extends completely
very-high carbon steel: Steel with a carbon rang e of around the joint. See supplementary symbol.
0.75% to 1.7%.
weld bead: Weld that results fro m a we ld pas s. See
vibratory stress relief: The appli cat ion of subreso nant weld pass.
vibration during welding to control distortion, or after weld contonr: Cross-sectional shape of the completed
cooling to provide stress relief. weld face. See weld face.
Vickers hardness test: An indentation hardness test that weld cracks: Linear discontinuities that occur in the base
uses an indent er with a 136 0 square- base diamond metal, weld interface, or the weld metal . See base metal
cone , and that may be used to test hardness in the base and weld interface.
metal, weld metal, and HAZ.
weld defects: Undesirable characteristics of a weld which
viscosity: The resistance of a substance to Ilow in a fluid may cause the weld to be rejected.
or semi-fluid state. weld discontinuity: An interrupti on in the typical struc-
visual examination (VT): Applicatio n of the naked eye, ture of a weld.
assisted as necessary by low-power magnification and welder certification: A written statement that the we lder
measuring devices, to monitor welding quality. has produced welds meeting a prescribed standard of
welding performance,
visual identification: Metal identifi cation that consists
of checking the appeara nce of the base metal or filler welder performance qnalification: A test that demon-
metal for key features that identify the metal type . strates a welder's ability to produce welds that meet
required standards.
volt (V): Uni t of measure for electricity that expresses
the electrical pressure differential between two points welder registration: The act of approving a copy of
in a conductor. See conductor. the welder's certification document by an appropri-
ate authority.
voltage: The amount of electrical pressure in a circuit.
weld face: The exposed surface of the weld, bounded by
voltage drop: The voltage decrease across a component the weld toes on the side on which welding was done.
due to resistance to the now of current. See current See weld toe.
and resistance. weld finish: Method used to achieve the surface finish.
volt-amp curve: A curve that shows how the voltage var- See base metal.
ies in its relationship to current between the open cir- weld gauge: A device for measuring the size and shape
cuit (where there is static elec trical pote ntial but no of welds.
current is Ilowing) and short circuit (where the elec-
welding: The coalesce nce or jo ining together of metals,
trode touches the workpiece).
with or without a filler metal, using heat, pressure, or
voltmeter: An instrument used to measure voltage. heat and pressure.
Glossary ~ 707
708 0 Welding Skills
Index
AISC Set' Ame rica n Insti tute o f Stee l Ame rica n Society for Te stin g and
Cons truc tion Ma terials See AST M Intern ational
ulignmcut. 44 Am eri can Wate rwork s Ass oc iat io n. 6 53
alignm ent mark er . 312 welding stee l water pip e. 655
alloy carbide. 572 A merica n Welding Societ y. 5, 106. :130.
A See ampere alloy iro n. 572, 57 3- 574 S CI' also cast iro n 644-64 5
A B Sf'f' adhes ive bonding alloy metals. 115 con sumable insert classification. 323
abrasion -re sistant iro n. 574 alloy steel . 20X. 55 5-566 . 55 6 e lec tro de c lassi fica tion. 106. lOb- lOX.
abrasive cleaning. ,,0 1 hard ness les t. 395 242. 2-13
abrasive d oth. 259 welding consideratio ns. 55S -566 ti ller metal classification. 253. 274. 48X
A BS SCi' America n Bur eau o f Shipping alpha bra ss. 600 mechanica l weld testi ng. 405
AC See altern ating current alternating current, 90. 124. 168. 1tJ..l. +l1 Sef' robotic and automatic co mponents. 370
accide nt. 10 lll.'W} welding machine: alternating nun-Ill robotic welding sa fety. 372
accident report form. 10 electrode. 107. 109 S truc tural Welding: Code. -10-1. 407.
ACIlX Sec altern ating current/direct current fo r GTAW. 163. 16+-1 65 500. 504
ace tyle ne. 49. 262. lJW a lte rnati ng currc nvdircct curren t. W weldi ng procedure and pe rfo r mance
acetylene cy linder. -19. 6 1 alum inum . 47 . 70. 74---75. 115. 163. 167 . q ualifi cation. 495
acetylene hose. 56 Set' al.m hose 16 K. 172. 175. 179. 189 . 19 2. 206. 207 . weld sym bols . (127
acetylene torch . 69 230.2.'1-233.254. 256. 277.303 . .H 9. ammeter. 90
AC H F Set' AC high -frequency 34 1. 345. 348 . 352. 362. 5 19. 600 . (107 ammonia. 252
current; AC hi gh-frequency weldi ng c utting . 2XX ammonium hydro xide-perox ide. 4 5\)
AC high -fre quency cur rent. I XO. 191 GTAW.1 9 1 amp See am pere
AC high-frequen cy we ldi ng , 161. 1M . 166 jo int de sign. 74 amperage. 9 ()
acid. 2S I so lde r. 259 a mpe re. 1)0
acid dippi ng. 3 13 structu ra l fabr ication . 65 5 amplifier. 443
ac id etching tec hnique. 652 weld ing. X3. 189 anae robic ad hesive . 36 1 See a l.w adhesive
aco ustic e m ission testi ng. 44 6 welding wire. 2m ang le beam. ·UO
acrylic. 36 1. 375 See a/so adhesive a lumin um alloy. 2-19. 29 1. 477 Ann ua l Book of AS T M St andard s. M 3
actual throat. 30. 3 / appearance. 60-1 SCf' al.\o AST M lmcmational
ada pti ve co ntrols. 369-371 cleaning req uirem ents. h05 anode. 3-1\). 5-19
adhesi ve. 30 2-306. 360 See al.m ad hesive families. (j().J an odi zing. ] 0 1
bonding: ad hesive applica tio n tiller metal. 60 5 AN S I Inte rnatio nal. 14 . 647
type s. 36(1- 361 heat req uirem e nts. 00 5 pipe- c lass ification..\ 19
ad hes ive bondi ng. 301 . 30 1-303 . 359. welding co ns ide rations. 603 -606 ro bot weld ing safe ty. 371
359-36 1 See al.w mechanical repair weldi ng processes. 605 weld ing procedu re and performance
ad hesive applica tion ..\ 0 2-306 aluminum bron ze. 599. 60 I 4uali lil:at ion. 4 95
surface preparat ion. 30 I alu minu m bron ze surfac ing weld . JOX Set' a ntimon y. 259
adhes ive wear. 266. 267 Set' also wear type atso surfac ing weld repa ir anvi l effect. -tOX
AE See acoustic emi ssion testin g aluminum ox ide. 277 A PI S('/, Americ an Petroleum Institute
Aerospace Material Sp ecifi cutious. 644 Am erican Bureau or Shipping. 657 appearance. 53H
aeros pace vehicles. 657 American Institute of Steel Cons truction. -10 apprenticesh ip pro gram . 5
AI See authorize d inspector Amer ican National Sta nda rds Institute .)'('e arc. 117- 120
air car bon arc cutti ng. 290--293 AN S I Intern ational length . 117. 123- 124. 124. 14 7
air pressure. 290 Am erican Pet ro leum Institute . 330. 6-l-7 res tarti ng. 131
electrode ho lder. 29 1 ca..; ing and tub ing. &.l-7 sta rting . IX). 2 16
elec trod es. 29 1 d rill pipe. 6-17 s trik ing , 121
weld ing mach ine . 290 line pipe . 647 arc hIm..'. 127- 12X. /2N. 520
air carbon arc go uging . ] 12. 4X7 pipeline requirements. 505 arc spray ing. 278 Set' a/.WI thermal sprayi ng
ai rcraft. 6 57 American Society of Mechanical Engi - equi pment. 278
air c ut lime . ] &.l- neers St'f' AS ME Intern atio nal arc strike. -IR3
a ir-gas mi xture. 254 Ame rican Society o f No ndestruc tive arc vo ltage . 9 1. 92 SCt' a/so voltage
ai r pressu re Testing. 413 arc weld ing. .\ . 22
plastic weldin g. 377 Recommended Standar d SNT-TC IA. 4 13 strength t..:=-.I. 3X9
709
argon. 163. 169. 174-1 75. 191 . 194. 197. backfire. 50. 66 brass. 12.47. 192.249. 259. 341, 345.600
205. 207-2 11. 243. 252. 273 backgougi ng, 3 12. 487 weldi ng cons iderations. 603
argon-Cff. . 208-2 11. 245 bac kha nd welding. 77. 83 brasses. 599
argon -hcliurn -Cfr., 208 backing bar. 179. 191 . 215. 312. 359 braze See filler metal
argon -hydrogen . 2&8 backi ng blocks. 2 15 brazed joint tension shear test, 389 See
argon-oxygen. 208 back ing rings. 32 1. 323 also tens ion shear test
arrow side , 626 backin g strips. 2 15 braze welding . 3R. 249-264. 256. 257
artifact, 441 backing weld. 634. 635 cas t iron , 257-258. 574. 576
A-scan presentat ion , 43 1 backli ghtin g. 462. 4(j3 disadvant ages. 258
ASME International. 330, 640. 645-6-t7 hack-step welding. 3 12. 586. 593. 617. 6/8 filler metal. 258
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. 4Ol. back-to-beck positioning. 619 flux. 258
407.444. 488. 496. 646. 652 back weld. -l0. 634 procedure. 257
welder requirement s. 504 symbol. 634. 635 shear test. 3139
pipe classification , 3 19 bainite. 558 vertical positi on. 257
Pressure Piping Code, 646, 654 hake-out. 3 14 brazin g, 249-264. 485 . 5 16 See al.W! dip-
residual stress measurement, 4 11 hall peen hamm er See peenin g brazin g; furnace heating; indu ction
ASNT See America n Soc iety of Nonde- barges. 657 braz ing; resista nce brazing
struc tive Testing bar heater. 380 ca st iron. 576
ASTM International . 639. 643-644 base metal . 29• ..t85. 487-488. 5 16 joint desig n. 250-25 I
Brinel l hardness testing. 395 failure location . 389 mnc roetch test. 507
drop weight lest to determine nil hardness test. 395 manual process. 254-255
ductil ity tran sition temperature. 40 2 identifi cation. 3 11-3 12 produ ction pro cess. 255-256
fract ure toughness tes t. 40 9 material specification. 487 surface prep aration. 25 1
guided bend test. 391 thickness range. 488 titanium alloys. 6 11
hardness conversion tables. 398 ultraso nic examination . 432 welder qualification. 507
macroscopic exami nation. 461 weldability clas sification. 487 bra zing flux. 494
microhardncss testing. 398 base metal shri nkage. 6 15 bra zing position . 494
pipe classifica tion. 3 19 beam-in-air process. 349 See also electron brazing procedu re qua lification testing. 500
plane-strain fracture toughne ss testing, 401 beam welding brazing qualifi cation variable s. 493-494
Rockwell hardness tes t. 397 bending strength. 528 brazing tempe rature range, 493
standards desig natio n. 64 3. 644 bending stress See tlex ural stress breakaway plat es. 370
tensile testing. 386 bend speci me n. 407- 408. 410 brea k lest. 402-405 Set' also destructive
Thermoe lectric Potential Sorti ng. 550 bend test, 390-394. 505 See also testing
ultrasonic e xamination. 432 destructive testing brightfield illum inatio n. 458
Vicke rs hardness test, 398 berylliu m. 12. 192.348.599 Brincll ball. 396
ato mic hydrogen. 558 heryllium co pper. 600 Brin cll hardn ess numb er, 396
austenite. 583 welding conside rations. 603 Brinell hardn ess test, 395-396. 396 . 408
austenitic manganese steel. 557 beta brass. 600 brinelling, 266 . 268 See "/JO wear type
we ldi ng co nsiderat ion s. 565 -566 beveled edges. 136 bronze. 12. 47. 192. 259. 277. 303
austeniti c stainless steel. 208 . 312 . ..t69. bevel-groove weld . 38 bronze bearin g surfacing weld repair. 308
473.5 19.581. 582 beveling. 286. 293 See also surfacing weld repair
weld ing con sidera tio ns. 592 -593 pipe. 322 hugs Set>ex ternal welding
auth orized inspector. 647 be veling machin e. 322 bu ildup
autoge nous weld. 2 binoc ular micr oscop e. 46 1 depositing in nat position. 226
au tomatic po lish ing. 454 bipr ism. 459 buildup lightin g, 462. 463
machine . 454 bird nest ing. 203 burs t. 548
automatic welding. 332-33..t blast cleaning. 251. 313 buttering. 312. 314. 516-51 7. 51 7
automobiles. 656 blend grindi ng. 305-306. 306 See also cast iron. 576
auto-refrigeration . 401 mechanical repair butt joint. 32. 33-34, .i8. 4 1. 72- 73. 74,
AW See arc welding block-heatin g, 620 135 , 135- 137. 143, 151. 157. 17N. 179.
AWS See American Welding Society hloom . 456 181. 214 . 231. 250.494 See also
AWWA See America n Waterwor ks blowhole s See surface porosity double-V but t joint: multiple-p ass bun
Association blowpipe See torch ; welding torch joint singfe- puss burt joi nt; single- V
axis plane. 366 . 36 7 blowtorch. 261 butt joint ; square butt joint
bo iler defect s. 72
standards and code s. 65 1 fit-up. 6 16
be rates. 25 1 n at position . 186--1 87. 226. 590
boric ac id. 25 1 groove angle. 6 16
bor on. 278 plastic. 376
Bou rdon tube . 385 roo t open ing. 6 16
B Set' brazin g branch weld. 621. 623 uphill position . 590
Index ~ 711
plastic. 376 testing, 390 dro p weight test. 402
corner weld, 38 demagnetization. 427 dry magnetization method . 427
co rros ion allo wance, 306 density. 545 ductile iron, 303. 572 See also cast iron; iron
corrosio n resistance . 53 2- 535 de nsity testing. 544-545 , 545 ductile-to-b rittle transition temperature See
corrosion -re sistant iron . 574 deoxidi ze d copper. 192 See a/so copper nil ductility transition temperature test
co uplan t, 430 dcoxidizers. 205 ductility. 205. 385. 522
cover pass. /33. 134 See also weld pass deoxi dizing age nts. 243 testing. 390
pipe welding. 326 depo sition rate . 109. 113. 204 . 6 17 dunn age. 653
crack. 467-473. 4(JR See also cold depth of field. 46 1 dup lex stainless steel , 58 3, 584
crack: crater crack: hot crack: root crack deratin g, 164 weld ing co nside rations . 593
crash detection mo unts. 370 design thickness. 306 Duriron" . 574 See also corros ion-resistant
crater. 30. 125. / 26 destructive testing, 383-4 11 See also testing iro n
co ntrolling. 126 pipe weld . 334. 334-33 5 duty cycle. 98
crater crack. 222. 223. 469. 469-470 types. 383-405 dwe ll time. 420
creep, 524 detector. 44 3 dynamometer. 385 Se e also load cell
crosschec king. 308 deterg ent cleani ng, 419
crow n. 326 de veloper. 41 8, 421
CRT display. 430. 432 de velo ping time. 422
crysta l. 430 diffraction . 55 1
crystal structure. 51t. 5 /2 diffused light. 461. 462
CSA See Canad ian Standards Association dilution. 268. 270. 5 15
C urie tem perature. 542 dip-brazin g. 255. 256 E-7018 elec trode welding techn ique. 154
c uring. 303 direct curre nt. 90 , 94 . 181 See also ear muff. 17, 18 See also car protection
chemical reac tion, 303 weldin g machin e: direct c urre nt earp lug. 17, 18 Sec also ear protection
solvent evaporation. 303 arc blow. J 27 ea r protection . 17-1 8
current . 89. 89- 9 1. 90. 117. 124 , 344 fo r GTAW. 163. 164. 166- 168 earthmoving equipment weldi ng. 659
adju stment. 119 direct current electrode negative. 90. 93. EBW See electron beam weld ing
selec tion. 124 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~1~ 1~1~ ECuA I-A2 See filler metal: for brazing
cutting. 22. 283- 297. 449 . 449-45 1 198. 273 cast iron
cast iron. 287 direct current electrode positive . 90. 107. EC uSn-A See filler metal : for brazing cast
machine. 283 109. 124. 166. /67. 192. 194. 197. 235 iron
manual, 283 direct curre nt rectifier. 354 ECuSn·C See tiller metal: for brazing cast
round stoc k. 287 disassem bly. 313 iron
safe ty precautions. 293 discontinuity, 443 edd y current, 442
tool s. 450 test. 392 edd y current testing See electromagnetic
cutt ing machine. 283 SeC' also plasma arc display, 44 3 ex amination
CUlling machin e dissi milar metal welding, 5 15 edge join t. 32. 36. 3R. 4/. / 78. 179. 214
cutting tip, 284 distortion, 529. 530. SW, 57 1. 6 13. 613---{)23 plastic. 376
cutting torch. 283. 284-285. 285 St't' also aluminum alloys . 605 edge preparat ion. 44 . 486
plasma arc CUlling torch distort ion control. 307. 3 12. 6 15-62 1 edge weld. 38
ace tylene pressure. 285 di stribution pip ing. 654 effec tive throat . 30. 3 1
oxygen pre ssure . 285 dithizonc test. 313 EGW See e lectrogas welding
CW Sec cold welding DOD See United States Depa rtmen t of ela stic limit, 387
cya noacrylate adhesive. 36 1 See also Defen se electrical characteristics. 485 . 49 1
adhesive double bevel "l-joint. 34 electrical circ uit. 89
cyclical load. 525 double fillet lap joi nt. 35 e lectrical conductivity. 520
cyl inde r. 50-5 1 double fillet weld. 6 14. 6 /5 e lectrical hazards. U
double-groove weld . 37 electrical resistivity. 520
symbol. 62 8 electrical resistivity testin g. 550--55 1
• double-groove weld specimen, 405, 409 ele ctrica l strip heater. 380
double-J T-joint. 34 , 35 e lectric coil. 442
doubl e-U butt joint. 33. 34 elcctrie shock. 23
double-V butt jo int, 33. 77. 179 electric soldering gu n. 26 1
dark field illumination. 458 edge preparation. 136 e lectric soldering iron. 26 1. 262
DBIT See ductile -to-brittle tran sition double-V joint, 575 electric soldering penc il. 261
temperature double-wall RT. 438. 439. 440 electrode. 29. 105-115. 118. 119 See also
IX: See direct c urrent dow nhill weldi ng. 85. 153. 183, 215 tung sten e lectrode
DCEN See direc t current electrode negative depositing heads in vertical position. 155 bare . 106
DCEP Set' direct current electrod e positive pipe weldin g, 326. 328 base metal prop el1ies:-i-OH
defect. 4 13 travel angle. 153 carbon-gra phite . 29 1
dela mination drag ang le. 2 15. 216 classification. 106
Index § 713
filler metal qua ntity, 489 go uging. 29 1. 292 tool steel. 569
filler metal specification. 488 flat welding, 40, 4/ , 109. 133- 146,2 15 FM C: Filla Metal Comparison Charts.
filler metal usability classification. 488 butt joint. 79. 143, 186- 187.226.590 645, 646
fillet, 384 corner joint, 80 FN Sa ferri te numher
fillet weld. 37, 38, 134, 214,2/5,471 , 524 depositin g beads. 185, 225 focu sing coil. 349
disto rtion . 6 14. 6/5 a luminum. 189 forced -ai r nu x feeding method . 357 See
radio graphic examinati on. 44 1 mild steel. 246 also flu x
shear test. 389 with filler meta l. 186 forced cooli ng. 5 14
stainless steel. 590 depositing bui ldup. 226 forehand welding. 77
surfac ing test. 390 flange butt joint. 80 forge welding. 36 1
symbo l. 626 , 628, 62 9 joints. 134- 137 foundry mark . 54 1 Set' also mark ings
weld er requ irement s. 504 . 507 aluminum . 189 four -stage belt sandin g. 453
Filler weld break tes t. 404-405, 405 lap joint. 8 1. 227 four-stage wheel gr indin g. 453
fillet weld jo int. 307 multiple-pass filet lap joint. 141 FOW See forge weldin g
fi llet weld shear test. 389 See also shear test multiple-pass fillet "l-joint . 142 fracture toughness spec imen. 409
fill et weld specime n. 409-4 10 multiple-pass lap joi nt. 247 fractu re toughness test. 409
fillet weld test. 5()..l. outside comer joint. 143 free -machining stee l. 555. 556 See also
fill-free ze elec trode See electrode : fill-freeze ro und stoc k. 144 carbon steel
fill lightin g. 462. 463 single-pass fillet Ttjoim. 141 welding cons iderations. 562
fill pass St'f' inte rmedi ate weld pass single-pass lap joint. 140 frequency. 90
final poli shing. 45 3-455 single- V butt joint. 84 frequency converter. 358
fine grinding, 45 1-453. 453. 459 "I'..joint. 8 1 fretting, 266. 267 SCt' also wear type
firebr ick. 287 flaw. 4 13 friction weld
fired clay. 2 15 fl exib le automation system. 364-37 1 lest. 40 2
lire extinguisher flex ible automation welding. 363 See al.w frictio n welding. 35 1. 352. 38 1
cla sses. 26 automatio n in produ ction weld ing FRW See friction weld ing
fire hazard s. 25 flexura l stress. 528 fuel gas req uirements. 492
fire pre vcntion. 25 Flowmeter. / 75. 20 1. 241. 245. 280 ful l-open comer joint. 35. 36
fi sh eyes. 205 Iluidity. 60 1 full -section specimen. 405
fittings Sf'f' pipe fittings fluorescence, 352. 4 19 full skip. 432
fit-up, 4 1-44, 44, 109, 322,6 16 Fluo rescent screen. 434 full-wa ve rectifie r. 97
fixed automation sys tem. 363 . 363- 364 Fluorides. 240 . 25 I fume e xtraction system. 240. 24 / See also
fixed automation weldi ng. 363 See also ffuoroborates. 25 1 ve ntilation syste m
au tomat ion in prod uction weldi ng flush co rner joint. 35 furn ace. 26 1
fi xed automation weldin g system Set' fixed flush patc h. 62 1. 622 fuma ce heating, 255
automati on sys tem nux, 70, 73, 75, 25 1- 252, 259- 260 See fusion Set' incompl ete fusio n
fixture. 44 also rosin test. 39 1. 404
flame . 65 app lica tion . 253 fusion face
chara cteri stics. 66 corrosive, 259 ultrasoni c examination. 433
co ntrol. 66 gra nular, 356 fusion weld
test ing. 67 liquid. 252 test. 402
fl am e c utting See thermal c utting molten. 256 fus ion we lding. 30
flame spraying. 277. 277-278 See a/so noncorrosive. 259 FW See flash welding
thermal spray ing paste. 252
flanged join t. 36. 73 powder. 252 . 253
flare-bevel- groove weld. 38 removal. 256
flare- groove we ld residue. 256
symbol . 63 / zinc-ch loride. 259
flurc-v -groov c weld. 3~ n ux cored arc weldin g. 4. 239. 307 See galling. 266. 267, 268 See also wear type
flash arrestor. 50 also gas-shielded !lux cored arc galvanized metal. 339
regu lator-mounted . 50 welding: self-shielded flux cored arc galvanized shee t steel. 259
torc h-mo unted. 50 weld ing galvanized steel. 12.473
flashba ck. 50. 66 adva ntages. 240 gamma rays. 433. 434 . 435
flash bun weld applicat ions. 245 gas flow meter. 244
test. 40 2 cast iron . 576. 578 gas flow rute , 244
flashin g. 38 1 depo siting beads. 246 gas lens. 170
flashlight. 461. 462 equipment. 240 gas metal arc weld ing. 4. 74, 197- 211,
flush weldin g. 34 1-342. 342 See also mechan ized process . 240 213- 230, 231-237, 239, 307, 308, 315,
resistance welding multiple-pass lap joint. 247 345- 346, 369, 504, 5 16, 562
fl at brazing. 494 mu ltiple-pass T-joinl. 248 aluminum a lloy. 605
Ilat cutt ing semiautomatic process. 2..m applications. 231- 237
7 14 ~ Weldin g Skills
automa tic. 346 horizonta l weldi ng proced ure. 183 sy mbo l. 628- 630. 630
bun joint. 226 joint prepara tion. 177- 179 symbols. 626
cast iron. 576. 578 lap joint. 181- 182 we lder req uirements. 504. 507
curre nt select ion. 197-1 98. 198 horizont a l posit ion. 187 GTA See gas tungsten arc spot weld ing
depo siting beads in fhu position. 225 magnesium alloy. 608 GTAW See gas tungsten arc w eldi ng
de positing buildu p in n at posi tion. 226 manu al proc ess. 177 GTAW-P See pulsed GTAW weld ing
discont inui ties. 222 mech ani zed process. 177 guided ben d test, 334. 390. 39 1. 5().l See
di stortion. 617 nickel alloy. 598 also bend test; des tructive testing
eq uipme nt. 200- 209. 201 ove rhead welding procedu re. / 83. 183- specime n. 392
joint. 230 1R4
joint preparation. 214 pipe we ldi ng. 332
lap joi nt. 227 proc edures. 177. 177-1 90
magne sium alloy. 608 robotic process. 370 . 37J
mec han ized . 346 semia utomatic process. 177
meta l tran sfe r modes. 218-222 stainless stee l. 588. 592
mul tiple -pass T-joint. 228 titani um alloy. 6 10 hal f-open comer j oint. 35
nic kel a lloy. 598 T·joint. 181-1 82 hal f slee ve. 308
pipe wel ding. 332 hori zon tal posit io n. 188 ha lf-wa ve rec tifie r. 96
posit ion ing wo rk. 2 15- 2 16 vertica l position . 188 hand feed welding. 378. 379
proc edures. 213 vertical welding procedure hand gri nde r. 10 /
setup. 2 16 do wnh ill. 183 hardfuci ng, 265
we ldi ng a joint. 217 uphill . / 83 ha rdne ss. 52 1. 522. 560
robotic pulsed. 369 weld o verlay. 272 co nversion tables. 398
semiautom atic , 197.200. 213.345--346. gauge lengt h. 385 reduct io n. 250
34~ ge nerato r. 97. 443 scale. 398
sta inless stee l, 588 . 592 co nstant-current. dua l-con trol, 97 spec ime n. 408-409, 4 10
starting the arc. 2 16 glob ular transfer Sa metal tra nsfe r modes: test. 395. 395-405 See also destructive
titanium alloy. 6 10 globular transfer testin g
T-joi nt. 229 glove s. 16-27. / 7. /02 HAZ Sa heat -affected zon e
tool steel. 569 G MAW Sa gas metal arc welding hazard ous substance . IH-22
weaving motions. 235 G MAW productio n spray. 37 1 cleaning method. I S-20
weld back ing. 215 gog gles. /5. 57 hcadcap. 102. ' 59
welding wire SeC' elec trode: co ntinuo us gou ging. 266. 283, 29 1- 292 See also heat-affected zo ne. 106. 249. 5 16
wire wear type failure locatio n. 389
welding machines. 198- 200 nat position . 29 1. 292 heat ed surface wel ding See heated -tool
we ld overlay. 272 hori zon ta l position . 292 we lding
gas nozzle. 170 vertica l positio n. 292 heated -too l we lding. 380-38 1
gas-oxygen mixtu re. 254 G raham method . 346-347. 348 See also proced ure. 38 1
gas pressure stud welding heating rate. 5 13
plastic we lding. 377 g rain. 5 1 J heal inp ut. 49 1--492. 5 12- 5 14. 5 /3
ga..-shielded nux cored arc welding. 239. 240 grain growth. 250. 59 1-592 calc ulation. 5 13
gas to rch. 262 See also torch grain struc ture. 5 11- 5 12. 512 heat-resistant iron . 574
gas tungsten arc spot we lding. 342-345 graphite fl akes. 572 heat sha ping. 6 19. 6 19-621
See also produ ctio n wel ding graphitiza tio n. 556 heat tint. 587
eq uipme nt. 343-344 gravity feed method, 357 See also nux heavy stee l. 76-78
procedure. 344-345 gray iron. 303. 572 See also cas t helium . 163. 174-175. 194 . 197. 205.
gas tungsten arc weldi ng. 3-4. 74. 163- iro n; iro n 20 7- 211
J7~. 177- 190. 191- 194. 307. 315.5 16. repai r weld ing, 574 helmet. l--l. 15. 102
562 See also pul sed GTAW we lding grinde r. 136. 3 14 herm eti c sea ling. 359
aluminum alloy. 605 grinding. 25 1. 273. 3 13. 3 16. 449. 4R6. hertz. 90
aluminum joi nt, 189 487 See also fine grinding: rough high-carbon stee l See carbon stee l
applicat ions. 191-1 94 gri nding high-speed too l steel See tool steel: high-speed
automatic proce ss. 177 grinding whee ls. 178 high-speed weldi ng, 379 . 3RO
butt joi nt. 181 grit blasting, 279 high-strength/low-allo y stee l See steel:
n at pos itio n. 186- 187 groov e angle, 42. 3 12 high -stren gt h/l o w-all oy
current selec tion. 164-1 68 pipe we lding. 32 1 high-stre ss abra sion See go uging
depositing bead s o n mild steel in nat plastic we lding. 376 hig h-sulfur stee l See steel: high-sulfur
position . 185 sy mbol. 63 / high-veloci ty oxyfuc l flam e sprayi ng.
with fille r metal. 186 groove weld. 37, 215. 47 1. 613-6 14 277- 278 See arm thermal sprayi ng
disto rtio n, 6 17 ductility test, 390 hole-drill ing method . 4 11 See aha residual
eq uipme nt. 163- 176. 170 speci me n. 405-409. 406 stress mea surem en t
Index ~ 7 15
hori zont al braz ing. 494 impact resistan ce. 205 joi nt See butt j oint: co me r joint: lap
horizonta l cutting impact testing. 52 1 joint: o utside comer joint: "l-joint
gou ging. 292 incl usi o n. 475-477 alu minum . 230
hor izon tal weld ing. 40. 41. 85. 109. 147. test. 39 1 clearance. 250. 251. 260. 494
147- 14X incomplete fusion . 428 , 443. 477. 477-479. effic iency, 385
buu joint 86 4 78 fla t position. 134- 137
depositing straight beads. 149 testi ng, 390 alumi num. 189
fillet we lds. 590 inco mplete pe netration. 477-479. 478. 4 79 integrity. 263
GTAW proc edure. 183 lncon el'", 345. 599 plastic welding. 376
lap joint . 187 incorrect shapc . 47 9-482 pre paration. 41-44.214.4 15
lap we lds. 590 indications See flaw pipe. 32 1- 324
multiple-pas s butt joint. 151 non relevan t. 422 joint design. 109, 4S5. 486-487
multiple-pass T-joint. 150, 228 . 248 relevant, 422 joint member thickness . 559
procedure. 148 induction brazing. 255 jo int pe net ratio n, 30
single- pass kK)P joint. 149 induc tion we lding. 38 1 joint mot, 30. 3 I
T-jo int. 87. 188 Ind ustrial Fas teners Institute. 540
hose. 56--57 inert gas. 174. 205
care. 57 inerti a welding See friction welding
hOI alkaline washing. 30 1 infrared rays. 13. 102
hot chemical solution method . 20 See also inju ry, 10
hazardous substance lnncrshield ", 239 See also sel f-sh ielded
hot crac k. 468. 529 See also crack flux cored arc weldin g
in-service inspect ion and repair codes See kerf. 283. 287. 288
hot gas weld ing. 377- 380 See also plastic
we ld ing weld repair : repair code s key ho le. 324. 325
hot melt adh esive. 36 1 Sa also ad hesive inside coil. 442 killed steel. 557
kineti c energy. 35 1
hot mounting. 451 in spection coil. 443
inspe ctor. 4 13 knurling tool. 279
hot plate. 3S0
krypton. 20S
hot wi re welding. 184 interg ranular penetration. 472
hot wo rk See too l steel : hot work iruermediarc weld pass. 133. 133-134.
hot work too l steel Set' tool steel: hot work 327 See also weld pass
HRB Sel' Rock well B pipe weld ing. 325
usc Set' Rockwel l C inter mi ttent fillet weld. 308
HSLA steel See steel: high-strength/low-alloy intermittent weld
HVOf See high-veloc ity ox yfuel flam e symbol. 628. 629
spra ying intermittent welding. 3 12. 530. 586. 593. 618
lamellar tearing, 47 1-472. 472
hyd raul ic load. 385 too l steel repair welding. 571
lamin ar discont inuity. 429
hyd roc arbon. 375 International Organization for Sta ndardiza -
lap joint. 32. 35. 38. 4 / . 73.74. 134. 140.
hydroch loric ac id. 25 1. 459 See ah a tion . 648
14 1. 149. 156.1 78. 179. 181- 182. 214.
muriatic acid intcrpass clean ing. 492
250. 260. 494 See also multi ple -puss
hydro gen . 57. 58. 75. 197. 205 intcrpuss tempe rature control. 4SS. 491. 513
lap joi nt; single-pass lap joint
hig h-purity. 252 interstitial e lement. 610
nat position. 227
hydro ge n-assisted cracki ng. 532 inverter. 97
horizontal position. 187
hydrogen c rack. 470. 558 See also crac k inverter weldin g machine. 168 See also
overhead position. 162
tool stee l. 569 welding machine
plastic. 376
hydrostatic testing, 3 16. 444-446. ·U5 iodin e and pota ssium iodid e so lution. 460
lap weld
hydrotesting See hyd rostatic testing ionized gas . 287
stainless stee l. 590
Hz See hertz IQI See image qual ity indica tor
laser bea m theory. 352-3 53
iridium - 192. 436
laser beam we lding. 352- 353
iron. 47. 283. 362. 555. 597. 600
laser location sys tem• .369
iron ca rbide. 572
laser scam tracker. 369 Scr also scam tracker
iron ox ide. 105. 107
latent hcnt. 288
iron powder. 105. 107
lathe. 178. 279
ISO See International Organ izat ion for
LBW See laser beam welding
Standardization
icing. 245 lead. 12.99.259.341 . 599.600
isotope camera. 436
illumination. 458. 458 -459 leaded brass. 600
image distortion. 434 . 435 lead identification marker. 438
image enlargement. 434 leather apron. 17. 102. 159
image q uality indicator. 436. 43 7
image sharpn ess. 434
impact damage. 266. 268 See also wear type
impact load. 525 J-groo vc weld. 38
leather jacket. 17. 159
leather sleeves. 102. 159
lens See helmet
lighting. 461 -462. 46 2
,
I
,I
I
I
I
I
I
716 @ Welding Skills i
I
lime sto ne. 106 mag netic fi eld. 424 met al inse rt. 38 I
Linc oln Electric Manu facturing Compa ny. magnetic flux . 424 metallograph. 45 7
239 magnetic leakage field , 4 24 metallograph y. 449-462
line -heating. 619 magnet ic particle. 424 me tallurgical bond. 265
line piping. 654 magnet ic particle examination. 303. 316 , metallu rg ical microscope. 456. 45 7
line rs. 323 423. 423 -429. 465 metallu rgical structure, 5 11-5 14
line-up cla mp. 322 ind ication s. 428--429 metallurgy. 5 11-536
liqu efaction colu m n, 47 proced ure, 4 26-427 metal stitching Sec cold mechanical repair
liquefied pe trole um gas Ser propane Magnetic Response Testing. 542. 542-543 meta l substitution. 538
liquid-air method. 47 magnetism , 520 meta l tran sfer mod es. 2 18-222
liquid impingement. 266. 2fl(}-2 fl7 See main lightin g. 46 2. 463 glob ular tran sfer. 220, 23 1
CI/SO wear type ma lleabil ity. 524 pu lsed spra y transfer, 220- 222
liq uid met al e mbr iulcmcnt. 472-474. 473 ma llea ble cas t iron. 70 we ld ing machines, 222
liquid penetrant examination. 303. 3 I3. malleab le iron, 249, 572. 573 See also cas t short circuiting transfer, 218. 23 1. 233, 235
3 16,335, 4 17--423,419.465 Sef' also iro n spray transfer. 2 1&-220, 219. 23 1. 233,
non destructi ve examinat io n mandrel. 392 235
liq uidu s temperature . 250 manganese. 205. 206. 555. 567. 581. 600. fm met hy lacety lene -propadiene stabi lized gas.
1001d, 524 ma nifold system. 50 57. 58. 262 . 284
load -bearing ca pac ity, 385 manual cutti ng See c utting: man ual met ric equivalent standa rd, 643
hid ce ll, 385 manu al we lding See welding: ma nual metric system. 647
load -extension curve. 386. 3X7 manufactu rer paperwork, 537-538 microanalysis. 454
lock. 303 Manu facturing Data Report , 65 1 microhard ness test, 398
locomotives. 656 MA PP See rnethylacc tylcne-propudiene microh ard ne ss tester. 398
lon gitudi nal crac k. 468 stabi lized ga s microscope. 459 See also metallurg ical
longitudi nal guided be nd test, 410 M APP-o xygc n, 254 microsco pe
lo ngitu d inal magn etization. 426 mark ings. 540 microscopic examinat io n, 449-459
lon gitud inal shear streng th specimen. 409 martensite , 558, 572 micro stru ctu re. 534
lon git udi nal shrinkage , 6 13, 614 mart ensiti c See stainless stee l: martcnsitic M IG welding Sf'f' gas metal arc welding
longitudinal wave, 43 1 mart ensi tic stainless stee l, 58 1-5 82. 583 mild steel. 173. IR5. IR6- 187. 187. IXX.
lon g itud inal weld specimen. 40 7 til ler meta l. 59 r 20X. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 246. 247
low-carbon stee l See carbon steel welding co nside ratio ns, 590--59 1 mill. 649
lo w heat input welding, 53 1 material handling eq uipment, 659 milling machin e, 178
low -h yd rog en . 107 Materi al Safe ty Data Sheet. 2/. 2 1-22 mill test report . 649, 650
lo w -hyd ro ge n potassiu m. 107 ma teria ls nonconformance report, 538. 539 mirror, 4 14
lo w-h yd rogen sodi u m, 107 materials standards . 639 -643. 640 mo ck -up. 3 15
low- stress abrasio n See erosion use or. 64 8-650 mock -up test. 500
LPG See pro pane variatio n. 648 mod ulus of ela sticit y, 527
Luders bands. 387 materials standards organizations. 6-t3-6-t8 mo ld too l steel See tool steel: mo ld
materials test report, 53 7 mo lten salt bath. 256
mating surfaces See Iaying surfaces molybdenum. 277. 279. 345. 348. 567.
maximum load . 385 569.572.573.58 1.597
~1DR See Manu factu ring Data Report Monet" . 345, 599
mech anical hond o 279 mou nting, 45 1-453 See also co ld
mechanical cleani ng method . 20. 597 . 605 mounting: hot mounting
See also abrasive c1e..ming: gri ndi ng: mounting res in. 45 1
mach ine cutting See cutting hazardou s substance MSDS See Material Safety Data Shee t
mach ine 100 1 welding, 659 mechanical force , 524, 526 MT See magn etic particle: examin ation
machining, 25 1, 313. 4S6 mechanical load , 385 MTR See materials test report; mill lest report
mac roct ch an ts. 4 59 mechanica l prope rty, 520 multiple-im pu lse we ld ing, 34 1 Set' also
mucroctching. 459-46 1. 46 1 mechanical repa ir. 30 1-306 See also repa ir re sista nce wel d ing
macr octch test. 507 we ld ing multiple-pa ss butt j o int, 151
macroscopic exa mina tio n. 459-462 mech anical restraint , 6 18-6 19 mu ltiple-pass fillet lap joi nt. 141
magnesium. 115. 163. 167. 172, 179. mec ha nized welding See we lding : multi ple -pas.... fillet T-joint. 142
192-194.207 mechanized multiple-par...s lap joint
magn esium alloy. 249 medium-carbon steel See carbon steel llat position, 247
filler metal. 609 mela mine. 375 ove rhead position, 16 2
hea t requ irements, 608 melting point , 5 18 mul tiple -pass sing le- V buu joint. 161
surface preparatio n. 608 melt -through. 482, 483 multiple-pass T-joint. 150
we lding co nsiderations. 607--609 melt-through weld horizon tal position, 228. 248
welding processes, 608 sy mbol. 634 , 635 overhead position. 162
magnesium -alumin um silicate. lOb metal identification, 537-554 multipl e-pass wel d. 3 1, 133. 133-134.
Index ~ 717
.J76 See also weld pass nitrides. 205 GTAW procedure. / 83. 183-1 84
multiple-spot spotwelder See spotwe lder nitrogen. 48. 197. 205. 252. 377. 58 1 mult iple-pass lap joint. 162
muriatic ac id. 259-260 nitroge n-hyd roge n gas . 288 multiple-pass single- V butt joint. 16 1
nodu lar iron See ductile iron mu ltiple-pass T-joi nt. 162
noise reduction rating number. 17 T-joi nt. 229
Nom arski illumination . 459 trave l angle. 160
nomi nal pipe size. 3 19 work an gle. 160
nonconsumable tungsten elec trode. 163 ove rhea ting. 45 1
nondestructive examination. 309. 413 . ove rlap. 147. 481
413-446. 4 N . 465. 499 ove rlapping. 127
na meplate. 5-t0. 652
pipe weld. 335 o xida tion. 280. 520
Nat ional Board Inspection Cod e. 652 symbol . 636 oxide. 251
National Board of Boiler and Pressure non essential variable. 496 oxid e incl usion . 477
Vessel Inspector s. 64 7
nonferrous metal. 163. 167. 254 See also oxidizing flame. 65
Nationa l Elect rical Manufactu rers
aluminum alloy: copper alloy: magne- oxidizing gas . 288
Assoc iatio n. 98
sium alloy: nickel alloy: titanium alloy oxyacetylene. 254
National Fire Protection Assoc iation. 26
cutt ing. 287 oxyacetylene welding. 2. 22,47,85, 308, 314
natu ral gas. 262. 284
we ldabi lity.597- 6 12 a luminum. 74-75
NB See National Board of Boiler and cast iron , 73- 74
nc nrelevnnt indication. 4 13
Pressure Vessel Inspector s
notch effect. 466 hea vy stee l. 76- 78
NB IC See Na tional Board Inspection Code nozz le. 200-20 1. 20 1 pipe welding. 332
NDE See nondestructive examination
GTA spot weldin g. 3.J.J we ld overlay. 27 1
NDT See nil ductility transition tempe rature
NPS See nominal pipe size oxyfuel c utting gasses . 284
test
nuclear plant oxyfuel gas c utting. 283-287. 284 , 3 12
needle valve. 53. 262. 284 stan dards and code s. 653 beveling. 286
Nelson method. 346. 3.J7 See also stud
nuclear radiation. 433 ca st iron. 287. 296
welding nugget. 40 piercing holes. 285- 286. 286
NEMA See National Elec trical Manufuc- null point method . 550 round stoc k. 287
turers Assoc iation
numerica l control system . 349 stee l. 294
neon . 205 oxy fuc l gouging. 4X7
neu tral na me. 65
oxyfucl weldin g. 2. 307. 485. 5 16
NFPA See Nat iona l Fire Protection
cast iron . 576
Association
cast iron filler metal. 577
Ni-Hard", 574 See also abra sio n-resistant dis tortion. 617
iron nickel alloy. 598
Ni-Resisr" , 574 See also corrosion-resistant
stainless steel. 588
iro n OAW See oxy acetylene weld ing
tool steel. 569
nick -break speci me n. 409 . 4 10 Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-
oxyfuel welding qua lification variables. 492
nick -break test. 402 -4().t. 505 tration. 9
oxygen . 48. 197. 204-205
nickel. 115. 192. 207. 29 J. 345, 352. 569. O r C SCt' oxyfuel gas c utting
deficiency. 3 15
573. 574, 5H J. eoo off-li ne programming software. 367. 368 oxygen cylinder, 48 , 6 1
nickel alloy. 3 12 OFW Set' oxyfuc l weldin g oxygen hose. 56 Sa also hose
clean ing. 4 19 ohm. 89 oxy hydroge n. 254
distort ion , 597 oi l-purging cylinder. 47
families, 598 open-circuit voltage. 9 1. 92 See also voltage
filler metal. 599 ope n root joint. 507
heat req uireme nts. 598 o perator con tro ls. ) 64. 368
join t cleanl iness. 597 optica l e mission spectro me ter. 55 1
nick el-ch romi um . 597 optical em ission spectroscopy. 55 1. 55 1-552
repa ir we lding. 3 13 optical viewi ng syste m. 349. 350
weldin g co ns idera tions. 597-599 oscill osco pe. 429 PAC See plasma arc c utting
welding processes. 598-599 OS HA See Occupational Safety and pack ing nut. 53
nickel-chromium Sec' nickel alloy Health Adm inistration pain ting. 129
nickel-iron other side . 626 paint rem oval, 4 19
tiller meta l, 576 out -of-positio n weld ing. 245 paperwork . 537 See also manuf acturer
nickel -silver . 601 o utside comer joint, 143 paperwork : supplier pap er wor k
nickel steel. 70. 555 overhead c ranes. 659 partia l-thickness spec imen. 407
weld ing consideratio ns. 565 overhead welding. 40• .JI. 85. 85--86. 86. PAW See plasma arc welding
nil d ucti lity transition tem perature test. lOY. 159-1 60 pearli te. 572
401-402 See (11m toughness test ing
nitric acid. 251. ..t59
butt joint, 88
depositing beads. 161
peeling, 30 1
peel test. 389. 390 See also shear test I
718 ~ Welding Ski lls
I
peenin g, 308, 314, 492 , 53 1, 57 \ to rch . 355 tool stee l, 569
cast iron, 575 weld overlay, 272, 273 prequalifi ed PQR , 499
pcnctrameter See ima ge qual ity indicator pla sma spraying, 276, 276- 277 See also press ure
penetrant , 4 18, 42 1 the rmal spraying cy linder, 54
pen etration. 72, 126, 133, 222, 223-224, pla stic , 375-382 wo rkin g. 54
224, 449 See als o incomplete penetra- ty pes, 375 pres sur e pipi ng, 654
tion ; intergran ular penetration plastic strain , 387 pressure-sen sitive tape , 302
lest, 39 1. 404 pla stic welding, 375-3 82 pressur e test, 3 16
penn y See ima ge quality indi cator joints. 376 pressur e vess el
personal prote ctive equ ipment . 12, 13, 102, pro cedure, 377 standa rds and codes, 65 1-654
/59, 4 10 tec h niq ues, 375-377 pressur e weld
phenolic plastic, 375 plat e fillet weld specimen, 410 test, 402
phe nolic resin . 302 plating solu tion . 304 primary weld, 520
pho sphating, 30 1 PLC See programmable logic contro ller prob e See searc h unit
pho spho rus, 600 plug weld, 38, 39 probe-typ e dete ctor co il, 444
photo graphi c film, 434 sym bo l, 626, 630. 632 procedure qualifi cation record, 385, 390.
photoma cro graphy. 461 pneumatic testing , 446 485 ,498-50 1
physical failure analysis, 299 polarity, 90. 9/ prod , 425
piercin g holes, 285-286 polarized illu mination , 459 prod method, 427 See also magneti c
pin end. 385, 386 polarizer , 459 particl e examination
pipe polishing, 449 See also automatic polishing; produ ct ana lysis, 537 , 649
cla ssifi cation, 3 19-320 chemical polishing; electrolytic polishing; production welding. 337-362
diam eter, 320 final polishing; rough polishing c ircles, 363
wall thickness. 320 pol yacrylate esters, 302 linear sea ms, 363
pipe clamps . 330 polyam ide, 375 radial sca ms, 363
pipe fittings. 321 See also butt-welded pol yest er, 375 programmab le logic controller. 364
fittin gs; socket fittings poly ethylene . 375 projection weld . 38. 39
pipe j ig, 324 polyfluoride, 375 sy mbo l, 626
pipe system polypropylene, 375 proj ection welding. 340 , 340--34 1 See also
standards and cod es, 654 --655 pol ystyrene , 375 resistance wel d ing
pipe welder, 6 polys ulfid e adhe sive , 361 See also proo f testing. 444
cert ification, 326, 330-33 1, 507 adhesive propane, 262, 284
pipe weld ing, 3 19-335 polyurethane, 36 1 See also adhesive prop ane gas torch. 262
connec tio ns, 320-32 1 pol yvin yl chloride, 375 prop ort ional lim it. 386
ele ctrode selec tion, 326 poros ity, 194,222,223,404, 4 74,474- proposed repl y, 642
joint alignm ent , 322 475 protect ive clothing, 57, 15 9 See also
j oi nt design, 322 test, 391 personal protective eq uipme nt
j o int preparation, 321, 32 1-324 position welding , 330 pro tector cap, 48
methods, 33 1-333 positioner, 44, 159 PT See liquid pen etrant e xamin atio n
sta nda rds, 330-33 1 postflow timer . 174 pulsed GTAW welding, 184
tec hniques, 326-330 posthcating, 73, 307, 308, 314, 485, 491, pulsed spray tran sfer See met al transfer
test position s, 330--33 1, 33 / 531, 558, 560 mod es: pulsed spray tra nsfe r
we ld pa ss, 324-326 cast iron, 575 pul se- echo mode , 43 1--432
pit s, 453 nick el alloy, 598 purpose, 642
pittin g, 266, 268, 308 See also wear type powder spra y material, 277 push ang le, 2 15, 2 /6
plane -strain fracture tou ghn e ss test, 40 I po wer source , 370 automatic we ld ing, 37 1
pla sma , 276, 288 eng ine -driven, 97, 97-98 PVC See polyvin yl chloride
plasma arc cutting, 287-290 static, 95-97 PW Sa proj ection weldi ng
manua l proces s, 288 pow er wire bru sh ing, 3 13
mechani cal process, 289-290 PQR See procedure qualification record
plasm a arc c utting machine, 290 See also pre bending, 619
cutting machine precip itat ion harden ing stai nless steel, 584,
plas ma arc cutting torch, 288 See also 585
cutting torch we lding co nside ratio ns, 593-5 94
pow er supply, 289 prehea ting, 73, 75, 307, 308, 485, 49 1, 5 13,
pla sma arc welding, 4, 272, 307, 353, 560, 57 I, 6\6
353 -355 al uminum alloy s, 605 QPL See q ualifi ed produ ct s list
distortion, 6 17 calculating temperature, 559 qual ified produ cts list, 649
equ ipme nt, 354, 354-355 cast iron , 575 qu ali tative ide ntifica tion, 542-544
robotic process, 370 nickel alloy, 598 quantitativ e identification methods, 552- 554
Ind ex ~ 719
respirator. / 2 Se e also ventilatio n ,
respirato ry equipme nt. 240 See a/so
re spirato r
restr aint. 53 1
retentivity. ..f27
radia tion . 14 S St'!' solde ring
reverse polarity See direc t current electrode
rad iograph . ..f3..f SAE Scr Soc iety of A utomotive Engineers
positive
eva luatio n proc ed ure. 441 safety. 9. 100- 102. 3 15- 3 16
rheo stat. 199
radiographic examination. 335, 433-442. 465. arc welding. 22- 25. 23
RIA See Robotic Industries Assoc iat ion
504 See also nondestructive examination cutting. 22. 293
rimmed steel. 557
pro cedure req uirem en ts. 435--438 cylinder. 50----51
ripple. 30
rad iog raphic fil m. 434. 438 equipmen t operati on , II
robot. 364
processing defects. 442 hazard s. 11
robot controller. 365
radiography. 3 16 oxy acetylene weldi ng. 22
Rob otic Indu strie s Associ ation. 37 1
rad ioisot ope. 436 safety glasses. 15 . 102
robot ic we lding machines. 5
rado n. 205 salt bath. 251
robo t inte rface . 369
railroad cars . 656 sand blas ting. 273. 30 1
robot manipulator . 366
rapid coo ling. 5 14 sanding, 251. 30 1
robot wor k area. 37 1
re;lsscmbl y. 316 SAW See subme rged arc welding
operating space. 37 1
recomme nde d pract ice. 639 sca le. 589
restricted space . 37 1
rec tangular spec ime n. 385. 405 See also sco pe. 642
safeg uarded space. 37 1
specime n sealant. 360
Rock we ll B. 397
rect ifier. 95 scamcr. 364
full-wa ve. 97
Rock well C. 397
scam soldering. 262 . 263
half-wave. 96
Rockwel l hardness sca le. 397
sea m tracker. 369
Roc kwell hard ness test. 396--397, 397. 40 8
rectifying column. 47 Se 3l 11 weld. 38. 39
Rock we ll testing machine. 396
red hard ness. 56 9 symbol. 626. 632-633. 633
reducing flame See carburizing flame rod spray material. 277 SC3 11l welding. 339-340. 3-10 Sec also
Index ~ 721
steam method. 20 Srr also hazardous su rface porosi ty. 474 See a/so porosity arc weld strength, 389
substance surface tensio n. 252 base metal. 432
stee l. 47. 115. 249. 259. 303. 339 See a/so surfacing. 137. 145.265.265-281. 516 integrity. 4 16
carbon stee l: heavy steel: mild met hods. 268 -28 1 bead rollover. 416
steel: nicke l steel: stain less stee l wel ding . 268 -274 blowh ole. 415
cutting. 294 wea r types. 2 66-2M~ cavi ty. 449
high -alloy. 277 surfacing powde r. 272 crack , 4 14, 4 15, 417 , 423, 434, 44 1,
high-strengt h/lo w-all oy. 209 surfaci ng weld, 39. 137. 485 44 2,449
high-sulf ur. 106. 113. 114 chemical composition. 495 crater crack. 428, 441
low-alloy, 10K, 194, 20R, 245, 249, 556 ductility test, 390 crater deficiency, 4 14
welding conside rations. 562- 563 sy mbol, 636 delamination , 390
weldin g wire. 203 surfacing weld qualifi cation variables, dimensional accura cy. 416. 4 17
steel deoxidation. 557 494-495 di sco ntinuity, 41 7
steel studs. 579 surfaci ng weld repair. 307-308 See also ductility. 385. 390
steel woo l. 259 weld repair elonga tion. 388
stencil mark ing. 54 1 automatic process. 307 fa ilure loca tion. 385
stickout. 173. 1!i0. 204 swe at solde ring. 263 filler metal strength. 389
stick welding .~'(' shielded metal arc welding sy nchron ized motion . 369 fille t weld. 44 1
stitching pin. 303 fusion. 390. 405. 423. 428, .w I. M2. 449
stopo ff. 252 fusion face. 433
storage tank gas pocket 402. 434
standards and codes . 65 1 grain size. 402
sto . . .e pipe welding See position welding hard ness. 395
straight bead. 492 incl usio n. 449
straight beam , 430 joint efficiency. 385
straightedge. 4 14 T-joinl, 32, 34, 34-35, .IN, 4 / , 73, 135, 141, joint misalignmen t. 4 17
straight polarity See direct current elect rode 142, 150. 157, / 7N, 179, 18 1-1 82,2 14, join! penetratio n, 4 17. 429, 44 1
negative 250. 471 Sa also double bevel 'l-joint: lamin ar discontinuity, 429
strain. 524. 525 double-J "l-joim: multiple-pass "l-joint; lamination. 423
strain ga uge roselle. 411 single bevel f -joint : singlc-J 'I-joint; load-bearin g capacity. 385
strain-harde ning proper ty. 385 single-pass T-joint; square T-joint maximu m load, 385
strain rate. 399 horizontal position . 188 ove rlap. 402. 414. 4 17, 423
strength. 520 ove rhead position . 162. 229 penetration. 402. 4 14. 434 . 449
stress. 524. 525 . 6 13 plastic. 376 piled-up beads. 416
stress relief heat treatment. 593 speci me n. 40 5 pipe, 442
stress-strain curve Sec load-extension curve vertical position, 188 pipe welds, 334-335
stretcher strains. 387 tack weld, 40, 72, 133, 3 14, 404, 616 plastic deforma tion capability. 390
striker See sparklightcr pipe welding. 324 porosity. 402. 405. 4 15. 4 17. 429. ~I,
stringer head . 3 14 See also weld bead tack welder. 503 442 , 449
strongback. 61 X qua lifi catio n. 40-1 red uction. 388
structural aluminum. 655 tad welding. 380. 490 reinforce ment. 4 17. .w I
struc tural steel fabrication. 655 tantalum. 348 root pass, 4 15, 432 . 433
structural weld repa ir. 306-307 . 307 See teach pendan t. 366. 367 root penetration. 4 17
also weld repair tensile force. 383 shear strength. 389
studding. 579 tensile strength, 249, 385, 525 shrinkage cavity, 4 14
stud weld, 39 measurement, 3XX shrinkage void. 429
stud welding. 346-347 tensile stress, 525, 613 slag depo sit. 415
submerged arc welding. 4. 273, 356-357 tensile test. 334. 383-389. 505 See also slag incl usion. 402. 429 . 434. 441 . 442
equipment. 357 destructive testing spot weld stre ngth, 389
semia utomatic. 356 specimen. 384. 386 S(,(, a/so specimen strai n-hardening pro perty. 385
stainless stee l. 588 tensile test machine. 383. 385 See a/so surface discontinuity. 390. 423. 44 1
welding machin e. 356 universal testing machine tensile force. 383
weld overlay. 273 tensio n, 525 tensile strength. 385
subresonant vibration. 53 1 tensio n shear speci men . 409 toe crac k. 428
subsurface deformation. 45 1 tension shear test. 389 See also shear test to ughne ss. 399
subsurface poro sity. 474 See also porosity tension spec imen . 405--407 transverse crack . 428
sulfur, 41 9, 54 1, 621 testing, 383-4 11, 413-446, 449, 449-462, tun gsten incl usions. .w 1
sulfuric acid. 25 1 465-483.485-501, 503- 509 See also undercut. 4 14. 417 . 44 1
supplementary esse ntia l variable. 496 destru ctive testing: nond estructive underfill. 4 17
surface co ntour examination weld body. 433
weld sym bol . 634 appearance. 416 wormhol es. 44 1
Index 0 725
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Welding Skills, 3rd Edition, 11011' ill j idl colo:- has been comp letely revised to cover att aspeas (if the IG 111 11 11111/11 111111111111111
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Repair Welding
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Material s and Fabricat ion Standards and Codes
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